Polytehnic University of Bucharest

Electrical Engineering Department

Numerical Simulation of Embedded Systems

Homework 1 – Conceptual modeling of Embedded systems

Student: Raceala Emanuel

Date: 02.01.2024
Group: ISEIA 2
 1. Conceptual Modeling

Conceptual modeling represents the initial phase of the modeling process, involving the establishment
of both the geometrical and (multi)physical models. The development of the geometrical model
necessitates a thorough comprehension of the structure of the object under consideration.
Simultaneously, the physical model requires an understanding of the underlying operating principles. It's
important to note that during conceptual modeling, aspects of geometrical modeling and physical
modeling are intertwined, and they cannot be completely separated, as illustrated in the subsequent
discussion.

1.1 Physical Modeling

Physical modeling describes the main physical phenomena of a system/component of a system,

analyzing the functioning principle. The initial stage of physical modeling involves a thorough
comprehension of the operational principles governing the device or system in question. It entails
identifying and expressing the fundamental phenomena through the formulation of laws and principles,
alongside relevant physical quantities. This step may involve making simplified assumptions and
determining an appropriate field regime, considering factors such as time variations – whether it be
steady-state, static, slow, fast, harmonic (sinusoidal), or arbitrary.
Physical models and their corresponding procedures vary based on the phenomena involved,
termed as electromagnetic, mechanical, flow, thermal, or coupled. Coupling, frequently encountered in
embedded systems, requires a careful description. When phenomena are distributed in space, physical
laws are described by partial differential equations (PDEs) involving spatial coordinates and time.
Conversely, if phenomena are concentrated in specific devices, the laws are expressed through ordinary
differential equations (ODEs) with time as the sole variable. The distributed/lumped aspect is inherent in
electromagnetic, mechanical, flow, and thermal phenomena, forming the structure of the following
sections.

In various applications and embedded systems, physical phenomena are often coupled, such as
electromagnetics with mechanics or thermal dynamics. Describing this coupling is a critical and delicate
aspect of the overall modeling procedure.

1.2 Geometrical Modeling

Geometrical modeling involves simplifications related to the geometry of the analyzed device.
During this phase, the system is broken down into components, each approximated with basic geometric
shapes. The choice of a coordinate system, ranging from zero-dimensional (0D) to three-dimensional
(3D) with axial symmetry, depends on the possible symmetries of the physical quantities, making it
closely tied to the physical modeling step.
 2. Study case: Camshaft/Crankshaft Position - Hall effect sensor

2.1 Operating principle

The Hall Effect Sensor is a magnetic sensor that detects the strength and direction of a magnetic
field, producing an output proportional to the detected magnetic field's strength. Magnetic sensors,
including Hall Effect Sensors, are widely used in various applications for non-contact and wear-free
operation, low maintenance, robust design, and resistance to vibration, dust, and water.
Automotive systems heavily utilize magnetic sensors, particularly for position, distance, and
speed sensing. For instance, they play a crucial role in determining the crankshaft's angular position for
fuel-injection and ignition timing in gasoline-fueled engines. The sensor's output is vital for controlling
functions like air-bag deployment, anti-lock braking system (ABS) through wheel speed detection, and
other diagnostic applications.
In automotive engines, crankshaft angular position measurements are essential for fuel-injection
and ignition timing control. These measurements enable various diagnostic functions and advanced
signal processing applications. The chapter discusses sensors and systems for crankshaft position and
velocity measurements, covering instrumentation, signal-processing hardware, and algorithms for
applications such as ignition and injection timing, engine angular velocity measurement, estimation of
indicated torque, and detection of engine misfires.
The measurement of engine position and speed is critical in electronically controlled engines,
influencing ignition and injection timing. Additionally, estimates of engine torque are valuable for
advanced control applications, including adaptive fuelling and misfire diagnosis. Misfires, caused by
combustion failure in a cylinder, can be detected by analyzing the indicated torque estimate derived
from crankshaft measurements.

Figure 1. Camshaft Position Hall Effect sensor

 2.2 Physical phenomena

The phenomenon is driven by the interaction between mobile electric carriers and an external
magnetic field, particularly in metals where electrons serve as these carriers. As an electron traverses a
magnetic field, it experiences a perpendicular force given by
F = qvB (1)
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where q is the electronic charge (1.6 x 10 C), v is the electron speed, and B is the magnetic field. The
force's direction and magnitude depend on the spatial relationship between the magnetic field and
electron movement. The magnetic field deflects the motion of electric charges, as illustrated by
electrons moving through a flat conductive strip in a magnetic field (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Hall effect sensor – Magnetic field deflects movement of electric charges

In this scenario, the strip has contacts on its left and right sides connected to a voltmeter, with
additional contacts at its upper and lower ends linked to an electric current source. The magnetic field
induces a deflecting force, causing electrons to shift towards the right side of the strip, creating a
transverse Hall potential difference VH. The sign and magnitude of VH depend on the magnetic field and
electric current directions. At a fixed temperature, VH is given by
VH = hiBsinα (2)
where α is the angle between the magnetic field vector and the Hall plate, and h is the sensitivity
coefficient influenced by plate material, geometry, and temperature.
Linear Hall effect sensors are typically housed in a four-terminal package, with control terminals
for applying current and differential output terminals for voltage observation. The sensor's equivalent
circuit includes cross-connected resistors and two voltage sources in series with the output terminals
(Figure 3). The sensor's specifications include resistances (Ri and Ro), offset voltage with no applied
magnetic field, sensitivity, and temperature coefficient of sensitivity.
 Figure 3. Equivalent circuit of a Hall sensor

Hall effect sensors are often made from silicon and fall into basic or integrated categories. Silicon
sensors may integrate an electronic circuit into the same wafer due to the small Hall effect voltage. The
integrated circuit may include a threshold device, making the sensor a two-state device with output
"zero" below a magnetic field threshold and "one" when the field surpasses the threshold.
All Hall effect sensors, due to silicon's piezoresistivity, are susceptible to mechanical stress
effects, emphasizing the need to minimize stress on leads or housing. Additionally, temperature
variations affect the sensor as temperature influences the element's resistance. Using a current source
for the control terminals, instead of a voltage source, is preferable to mitigate temperature-related
changes in resistance and control current.
Typical characteristics of a linear Hall Effect sensor:

Figure 4. Equivalent circuit of a Camshaft position sensor for an Internal Combustion Engine.
 In the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 4, voltage is analogous to torque, current is analogous
to angular speed, and circuit impedance elements are analogous to parameters of the mechanical
system:
Inductance L →moment of inertia J
Capacitance-1 C-1 →effective torsional spring rate
Resistance R → friction
2.3 Geometrical modeling

In figure 5, there is the geometrical model of a camshaft position sensor. The sensor housing (1)
keeps all the elements together, also assuring the mechanical fastening on the engine cylinder
head, usually using a screw. Output wires and the connector (2) will transmit the sensor signal to
the ECU. Integrated electronics, as depicted in detail in the previous chapter, will amplify and
filter the signal in order to bring it to a operable form by the ECU. The permanent magnet (4) is
placed behind the Hall Effect Device (5). (6) is the trigger wheel, and (G) is the air gap between
the sensor and the trigger wheel.

Figure 5. Camshaft position Hall Effect sensor

3. Conclusions

In conclusion, this study delved into the conceptual modeling of embedded systems with a focus
on the Camshaft/Crankshaft Position Hall Effect sensor. The conceptual modeling process involves both
physical and geometrical modeling, where the understanding of operational principles and system
structure is crucial.
The physical modeling section explored the Hall Effect phenomenon, emphasizing the interaction
between mobile electric carriers and an external magnetic field. The sensor's equivalent circuit and
characteristics were discussed, highlighting the impact of factors such as temperature and mechanical
stress on sensor performance. The interconnected nature of physical phenomena, especially in
embedded systems, was underscored, requiring careful description and consideration during the
modeling process.
 Geometrical modeling was illustrated through the example of a Camshaft position sensor. The
housing, mechanical fastening, output wires, connector, and the placement of components such as the
permanent magnet and trigger wheel were detailed. The importance of simplifications related to the
geometry of the analyzed device and the choice of a coordinate system were emphasized in the
geometrical modeling phase.
In the context of the Camshaft/Crankshaft Position Hall Effect sensor, the study case highlighted
its operating principle, significance in automotive systems, and its role in crucial functions like fuel
injection and ignition timing control. The physical and geometrical modeling of the sensor provided a
comprehensive understanding of its structure, characteristics, and application.
Overall, the study contributes to the broader understanding of conceptual modeling in
embedded systems, with a specific focus on a key automotive sensor. The integration of physical and
geometrical modeling is essential for developing accurate and effective models, laying the foundation for
further analysis and simulation in the field of Numerical Simulation of Embedded Systems.