1 Quantum confinement effect

1.1 Correlation between bohr radius and bandgap

In general the quantum confinement can be observed when the dimensions of a material are
of the same magnitude as the wavelengths of the electrons in the sample. When quantum
confinement occurs a change in the electronic structure of the material is observed and the
electronic and optical properties are different of those that characterize the bulk material.
When the dimensions are a lot greater than the electron’s wavelength in the sample the
electron can be considered as free and it is known from quantum mechanics that it will have a
continuous spectrum. The decreasing of the dimensions will cause the electron’s spectrum to
become discrete and also an increase the material’s band gap will be observed. A rough way
to justify the previous statement is the equation for the energy states of the three dimensional
particle in a box model:
h2p 2 �
�nx � �n y � �nz ��
2 2 2

E= �L �+ �L �+ �L ��……….(1)
�
2m � � � � � ��
�
� �
From equation (1) it can be seen that a decrease in dimensions corresponds to an increase in
the energy. Figure 1 shows the transition from the bulk material to a quantum dot. In the same
figure the blue shift in the optical properties due to the increase of the energy can be
observed.
Before moving forward we will try to describe the quantum confinement effect in a
semiconductor. In a semiconductor it is known that with the increase of temperature an
electron can acquire higher energy than the material’s band gap and jump from the valence to
the conduction band leaving a hole in the valence band. This electron-hole pair is called an
exciton and it can be simulated by a hydrogen atom. A way to test if we are in the quantum
confinement regime is to compare the radius of the material R with the exciton’s Bohr radius
αB∗. We define the weak and the strong confinement regime as follows:
R
When �1 , then we are in the weak confinement regime
a B*
R
When * = 1 , then we are in the strong confinement regime
aB
�m �
The exciton’s Bohr radius is: a B = e r � e* �
aB
*

�m �

Figure1: The decrease of

dimensions results in the increase
of the band gap. The energy
difference results also the blue
shift in optical properties.
Figure taken from
http://www.sigmaaldrich.com.
where a B ≈ 0.53Å is the Bohr radius, e r is the dielectric constant, me is the mass of the
electron and m∗ = (m∗e · m∗h)/(m∗e + m∗h) is the effective reduced mass of the electron-hole
system, where m∗e, m∗h are the effective masses of the electron and the hole respectively.
Finally the confinement energy for the exciton is given by the formula:
h2p 2 �1 1 �
Econ = 2 �
+ �
2a � me mh �

where α is the exciton’s radius and me and mh the masses of the electron and the hole
respectively.

The exciton Bohr radius provides a very useful length scale to describe the spatial extension
of excitons in semiconductors, and ranges from ~2 to ~50 nm depending on the
semiconductor . It is interesting to note that the exciton Bohr radius a B and the band gap of
the semiconductor are correlated, so that materials with wider band gaps possess smaller a B
(e.g., Eg and a B are, respectively, 0.26 eV and 46 nm for PbSe, 1.75 eV and 4.9 nm for
CdSe, and 3.7 eV and 1.5 nm for ZnS).

1.2 Electronic and ionic polarization

(i) Electronic polarization

Here when the external field is applied, the electron clouds of atom are displaced with respect
to the heavy nuclei within the dimensions of atom. This is called electronic polarization. It
does not depend upon temperature.
r r
pc = Na E
(ii) Ionic polarization
It occurs only in some ionic crystals. In the presence of external electric field the positive and
negative ions are displaced upto the point where ionic bonding force stop this displacement.
Hence dipoles gets induced. There also do not depend upon temperature.

1.3 Electroluminescence

Electroluminescence is the phenomenon where a material emits light when electricity is

passed through it. It is one of the greatest discoveries of the twentieth century and other forms
of luminescence, including incandescence, chemiluminescence, cathodoluminescence,
triboluminescence, and photoluminescence rival it. Electroluminescence generally involves a
material producing light without producing heat. It is different from black body light
emission, which only mechanical actions produce.

How Electroluminescence Works

Electroluminescence is produced when an electric current is passed through a semiconductor
with tiny holes. As excited electrons pass over these holes, they are emitted into the free air as
particles known as photons. The semiconductor is usually made of a film, whether organic or
inorganic, and some types of metal known as a dopant can dye it. This is the most basic
principle of all LEDs and most electronic lights in general. Specifically, there is a
phosphorous-based electroluminescent back light in virtually all electronic devices that
illuminates the LCD (Liquid Crystal Display).
Applications
Electroluminescence has many uses. It is used in automobile dashboards to illuminate a car’s
meters. Likewise, it is used in electronics to illuminate small LCD panels. Also, any billboard
that is illuminated at night is generally using electroluminescence. Electroluminescence
should not be confused with neon and fluorescent lamps.

Advantages
Electroluminescence has several advantages that has led its being used so widely in electronic
devices. Electroluminescence requires very little current in order to work. This is
advantageous in small electronic devices because they often run on batteries that are 1.5 Volts
or smaller. Electroluminescent devices can produce any color and are very simply designed.

Disadvantages
Though electroluminescence can be advantageous in most cases, it does have a few
disadvantages. For example, electroluminescent devices require very little current, but high
amounts of voltage – usually between 60 and 600 Volts. These voltages can be consistently
provided for electroluminescent devices that are connected to a power line at any time of day.
In battery operated, hand-held devices however, a converter circuit that is built into the device
must provide the voltage.