UNIT 1

1. (a) Explain the processes of absorption, spontaneous and stimulated emission of light and derive the expression for
Einstein’s coefficients. (8M)

ANS: i. Absorption: Let us now assume that the atom is initially lying in level 1 (Adj. Fig.). If this is the ground level, the atom will
remain in this level unless some external stimulus (photons) is applied to it. We shall assume that, a photon of frequency ν is
incident on the material. In this case there is a finite probability that the atom will be raised to level 2. The energy difference E2–
E1 required by the atom to undergo the transition is obtained from the energy of the incident photon. This is the absorption
process.
ii. Spontaneous emission: Let us now assume that the atom is initially in level 2. Since E2 > E1, the atom will tend to decay to
level 1. The corresponding energy difference, E2–E1, must therefore be released by the atom. When this energy is delivered in
the form of an electromagnetic wave called photon, the process will be called spontaneous (or radiative) emission.

iii. Stimulated emission: Let us now suppose that the atom is found initially in level 2 and that a photon of frequency νo is
incident on the material (Adjacent Fig.). Since this photon has the same frequency as the atomic frequency, there is a finite
probability that this photon will force the atom to undergo the transition 2→1. In this case the energy difference E2–E1 is
delivered in the form of a photon that adds to the incident one. This is the phenomenon of stimulated emission.

Expression for Einstein’s coefficients

Let us consider N1 and N2 be the populations in the energy levels of energies E1 and E2 respectively in a system of atoms at a
thermal equilibrium of temperature T.
Upward transition: Absorption is the process by which a photon is absorbed by the atom, causing an electron to jump from a
lower energy level E1 to a higher one E2. The process is described by the Einstein coefficient B 12, The absorption rate is directly
proportional to N1 and ρ(ν)

Rate of absorption=B12N1 ρ(ν)---------(1)

Downward transition: Spontaneous emission is the process by which an electron "spontaneously" (i.e. without any outside
influence) decays from E2 to E1. The process is described by the Einstein coefficient A21. Spontaneous emission rate is directly
proportional to N2 only. Therefore,

Rate of spontaneous emission=A21N2 ------------- (2)

Stimulated emission is the process by which an atomic electron in the excited E2 is interacting with a photon of certain
frequency may drop to a lower energy level E 1, transferring its energy to that photon. The process is described by the Einstein
coefficient B21.
Rate of stimulated emission=B21N2ρ(ν)-------(3)

Absorption = spontaneous emission + Stimulated emission ------ (4)

i.e. B12N1ρ(ν) = A21N2 + B12N2ρ(ν) ------- (5)

B12N1ρ(ν) - B12N2ρ(ν) = A21N2

[B12N1 – B21N2]ρ(ν) = A21N2

(b) Explain in what situation the value of ratio of Coefficient of Spontaneous emission(A) to the Coefficient of Stimulated
emission (B) may be small enough for laser action. (4M)
Ans:

2. (a) Describe the construction of ruby laser and its working with the help of energy level diagram.

Ans: RUBY LASER: The first working laser was built in 1960 by T.H. Maiman using a Ruby crystal and so called the Ruby Laser.
This is also called solid state laser or three level laser. Ruby belongs to the family of gems consisting of Al2O3 with various types
of impurities. For example in Ruby laser used the pink ruby contains 0.05% Cr atoms (Al2O3+0.05%Cr2O3). The schematic
diagram of the Ruby laser is as follows:
Construction: The Ruby laser consists of a ruby rod whose length is few centimeter and diameter is 0.5 cm. This is made up of
with chromium (Cr3+) doped Al2O3 material. Both the ends of the ruby rod are silvered such that one end is fully reflecting and
the other end is partially reflecting. The ruby rod is surrounded by helical xenon flash lamp tube which provides the optical
pumping to raise Cr+3 ions to upper energy level. The light from the xenon flash tube was focused by the cylindrical cavity onto
the ruby rod, thereby exciting the chromium atoms which were responsible for the laser action.

Working: The ruby laser is a three-Level system (Adjacent Fig.) since only three energy levels are involved in the process of
stimulated emission. The depopulation of the ground state for population inversion is achieved by exciting the atoms of the ruby
crystal with intense light from a xenon flash lamp. Thus the atoms are excited from the ground state (level 1) to an upper state
(level 3) by means of absorption. From the energy level 3, the atoms are transferred to energy level 2 without emitting radiation
(nonradiative transfer). The energy level 2 is called met stable level since the atoms stay at this level for a longer interval of time.
Finally, the atoms return to the ground state from the meta stable level through the process of stimulated emission giving rise to
an intense laser light at 6943Ao . The laser beam comes out in the form of a pulse of very short duration (about a millisecond).

(b) Determine the ratio of population of the two states in a ruby laser that produces light of wavelength 6943 A0 at 270C.(4m)

Ans:

3. (a) Explain the construction and working of Helium-Neon laser with a neat energy level diagram. (8M)
Ans: HELIUM-NEON (He-Ne) LASER: The He-Ne laser active medium consists of two gases which do not interact form a
molecule. Therefore He-ne laser is one type of atomic gas laser and also called as Four level laser.

Construction: He - Ne gas laser consists of a gas discharge tube of length 30cm and diameter of 1.5cm. The tube is made up of
quartz and is filled with a mixture of Neon under a pressure of 0.1mm of Hg. The Helium under the pressure of 1mm of Hg, the
ratio of He-Ne mixture of about 10:1, hence the no. of helium atoms are greater than neon atoms. The mixtures is enclosed
between a set of parallel mirrors forming a resonating cavity, one of the mirrors is completely reflecting and the other partially
reflecting in order to amplify the output laser beam.
Working: In the He-Ne laser the light produced by atomic transitions within the Neon atom. The Helium does not directly
produce laser light but it acts as a buffer gas, this purpose of which is to assist/help the atoms of the other gas to produce lasing
action.
The active energy levels of He and Neon atoms are show in adjacent figure. In helium there are three active energy levels named
as F1, F2 and F3 where as in Neon, there are six active energy levels named as E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, and E6. In Helium, the
metastable states are F2 and F3, where as in Neon, E4 and E6. When a discharge is passed through the gaseous mixture
electrons are accelerated in the tube these accelerated electrons collide with the helium atoms and excite them to higher
energy levels (F2 and F3) since the levels are metastable energy levels.

The stimulated emission takes place between E6 → E3 gives a laser light of wave length 6328Ao

the stimulated emission between E6 →E5 gives a laser light wavelength of 3.39μm.
stimulated emission between E4→E3 gives a laser light wavelength of 1.15μm.

(b) In an He-Ne laser system, the two energy levels of Ne involved in lasing action have energy values of 20.66 eV and 18.70
eV. Population inversion occurs between these two levels. What will be the wavelength of a laser beam produced? What will
be the population of metastable energy level with respect to the upper excited level at room temperature (300 K) (4M)

Ans:
4. (a) What is the principle of optical fibre? Explain different types of optical fibres with suitable diagrams. (6M)

Ans: Optical Fiber: A very thin, long, flexible, transparent, cylindrical dielectric medium which guide the light signal propagated
through it.
Principle: The transmission of light in optical fiber is based on the principle of Total Internal
FIBER TYPES

Depending upon the refractive index profile of the core,optical fibers are classified into two types. They are:

i. Step Index (SI) Fiber

ii. Graded Index (GI) fiber
i. Step Index (SI) Fiber: In step index fibers, the refractive index of the core is uniform throughout the medium and
undergoes an abrupt (Step) change at the interface of core and cladding.
The light in the fiber propagates by bouncing back and forth from core-cladding interface. The step index fibers
propagate both single and multimode signals within the fiber core. The light rays propagating through it are in the form
 of meridinal rays which will cross the fiber core axis during every reflection at the core – cladding boundary and are
propagating in a zig – zag manner.
ii. Graded Index (GI) Fiber: In graded index fibers, the refractive index of the core varies gradually as a function of radial
distance from the fiber center. The refractive index of the core decreases as we move away from the centre. The
refractive index of the core is made to vary in the form of parabolic manner such that the maximum refractive index is
present at the centre of the core.1 The variation of refractive index profile with radial distance r for the SI fiber is shown
in the adjacent figure.

(b) Distinguish between light propagation in step index optical fiber and graded index optical fiber.
Ans:
Step index optical febre Graded index optical fibre.

The refractive index of core, cladding and air vanies in a Step-by-step
manner
The refractive index different at the core-cladding interface in larger.
It is used to transmit single. and multimode signals
The refractive index of core cladding and air varies with radical
distances.
The refractive index difference at the core-cladding interface is
smaller.
It is mainly used for multimode Signals.

Intermodal dispersion is larger
For remodel transmission the bandwidth is lower due to low
numerical aperture..
Light says are propagated as meridional says since during.
Propagation the light ray cross the axis of the case.
Light rays are propagated into the core оn а zig-zag manner.
Inter medial dispersion is less due to variation in the refractive
indices with radical distance.
for multimode transmission the bandwidth is higher due to high
numerical aperture.
Light rays are propagated as skew says since during propagation the
light say never passes through the axis of the core.
Light ray are propagated into the core either spherical as helical.

It is used for long-distances transmission applications. It is used for short distances transmission application.

5. (a) Define and deduce the expression for acceptance angle and numerical aperture of an optical fiber. (8M)

Ans: ACCEPTANCE ANGLE: The maximum angle of incidence to launch the beam at its one end to enable the entire light to pass
through the core is called acceptance angle.
When we launch the light beam in to the fiber at its one end the entire light may not pass through the core and propagate. Only
the rays which make the angle of incidence greater than critical angle undergo total internal reflection and propagate through
the core and all other rays are lost. Let us consider a ray enters the core of refractive index n1 from air medium of refractive
index no with an angle of incidence αi at the interface of air and core and incident at the interface of core and cladding with an
angle of incidence θ as shown in below figure.
Numerical Aperture: The numerical aperture (NA) of an optical fiber is defined as sin of acceptance angle and is dimensionless
number that characterizes the range (ability) of angles over which the system can accept light.

Numerical aperture =NA = Sin αmax =√ ( n1 2 - n2 2 )/no…………….(7)

Let ∆ = (n1 2 - n2 2 )/2n1 2…………… (8)

Hence ∆ = (n1+ n2) (n1-n2)/2n1 2 = 2n1 (n1-n2)/ 2n1 2

∆ = (n1-n2)/ n1 (fractional difference in refractive indices)……………(9)

From equation (8) n1 2 - n2 2 = ∆ 2n1 2

Taking under root on both sides

Hence =√ (n1 2 - n2 2 ) = √2 ∆ n1

Substituting this in equation (7)

we get NA ≈ √2 ∆ n1/no ………(10)

For air no= 1, then the above equation can changed as
NA ≈ √2 ∆ n1

(b) Calculate the acceptance angle and the numerical aperture of a given optical fiber, if the refractive indices of core and
cladding are 1.562 and 1.558 respectively. (4M)
Ans:
6. (a) Why is fiber optic technology faster than copper? (4M)
Ans: Fiber optic connection can transfer more data at higher throughput over longer distances than copper wire. There are
many advantages of fiber optic cables compared to copper ones. The biggest benefit of using fiber optic cables is that they are
capable of sending signals significantly faster than copper ones can. For example, a local area network using modern copper
lines can carry 3000 telephone calls at once, while a similar system using fiber optics can carry over 31.000.
Traditional copper wires transmit electrical currents, while fiber-optic technology sends pulses of light generated by a light-
emitting diode or laser along optical fibers, in both cases you are detecting changes in energy, and that is how you encode data.
Fiber optic cables are able to transmit data faster than copper cables because they use light instead of electrical pulses to carry
data from one point to another. This light is able to travel a lot further and a lot faster than copper cables in a much shorter
amount of time. Light can also keep signals strong as they travel from point A to point B, which isn’t always the case with the
electrical pulses sent through copper cables. By the time copper cables bring electrical pulses to their final destination, they
have often weakened quite a bit. This is why copper cables are no longer considered the right option for those creating internet
connections.

(b) Discuss about the optical fiber communication system with a neat block diagram. (4M)
Ans: COMMUNICATION: Optical fibers are used as wave guides in the communication system. 101 A typical block diagram of
optical fiber communication system (OFCS) is shown in the following figure. It mainly consists of the following parts:

a) Encoder, b) Transmitter, c) Waveguide, d) Receiver and d) Decoder.

a) Encoder:The audio signal (i.e., the words spoken by us) is converted into electrical signal which is an analog signal. Encoder is
an electronic circuit that converts this analog signal into binary or digital signals.
b) Transmitter: The digital signal from the encoder is fed to the transmitter which consists of two parts- Drive circuit and Light
source. Drive circuit receives the digital signal from encoder and feeds it to the light source. Light source is usually LED or a
Diode LASER. If digital ‘0’ is received then light source will be turned OFF. If digital ‘1’ is received then the light source will be
turned ON. Thus light source converts electrical signals into optical signals.

c) Waveguide: Now the Optical signals generated by the transmitter are fed to an optical fiber which acts as waveguide. The
signal traverses over longer distances through these waveguides.
d) Receiver: On the other side of the waveguide, he optical signal is received by the receiver which consists of Photo detector,
amplifier and a signal restorer. The Photo detector receives the optical signal and generates the equivalent electrical signals.
These electrical signals are amplified by the amplifier. The signal restorer keeps all the electrical signals in a sequential form and
supplies to decoder.

e) Decoder: It is an electronic system that converts the digital signal to analog signal.
(c) A signal of 100 mW is injected into a fiber. The out coming signal from the other end is 40mW. What is the loss in dB?
(4M)

Ans:

UNIT 2
7. (a) What are de-Broglie matter waves and arrive at the expression of de-Broglie wavelength in different forms. (6M)

Ans: DE-BROGLIE’S MATTER WAVES: The dual nature of light possessing both wave and particle properties was
explained by combining Plank’s expression for the energy of a photon E = h ν with Einstein’s mass energy relation E
= m c2 (where c is velocity of light , h is Plank’s constant , m is mass of particle )
h ν = m c2
Introducing ν = c / λ, we get h c / λ = m c2
==> λ = h / mc = h / p
Where
p is momentum of particle
λ is deBroglie wavelength associated with a photon
deBroglie proposed the concept of matter waves , according to which a material particle of mass ‘m’ moving with
velocity ‘v’ should be associated with deBroglie wavelength ‘λ’ given by
λ=h/mv=h/p
we know that the kinetic energy of particle i.e. E =1/2mv2--------- (5)
(b) A proton is moving with a speed of 2.5x 10-10 m/sec. Find the wavelength of matter wave associated with it. (mass of
proton m = 1. 6 7x10−27 kg) (3M)
Ans:
(c) If an electron beam is accelerated by 54 V, Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of an electron. (3M)
Ans:

8. (a) Describe Davisson and Germer experiment for confirmation of de-Broglie hypothesis (8M)
Ans: DAVISSON AND GERMER’S EXPERIMENT:

C. J. Davisson and L. H. Germer were studying scattering of electrons by a metal target and measuring the intensity of electrons
scattered in different directions.

Experimental Arrangement:
An electron gun, which comprises of a tungsten filament is heated by a low tension battery B1, produces electrons. These
electrons are accelerated to desired velocity by applying suitable potential from a high tension source B2. The accelerated
electrons are collimated into a fine beam by allowing them to pass through a system of pin holes provided in the cylinder. The
whole instrument is kept in an evacuated chamber.
The past moving beam of electrons is made to strike the Nickel target capable of rotating about an axis perpendicular to the
plane. The electrons are now scattered in all directions by the atomic planes of crystals. The intensity of the electron beam
scattered in a direction can be measured by the electron collector which can be rotated about the same axis as the target. The
collector is connected to a galvanometer whose deflection is proportional to the intensity of the electron beam entering the
collector.

The electron beam is accelerated by 54 V is made to strike the Nickel crystal and a sharp maximum is occurred at angle of 50 o
with the incident beam. The incident beam and the diffracted beam in this experiment make an angle of 65o with the family of
Bragg’s planes.

d = 0.091nm (for Ni crystals)

According to Bragg’s law for maxima in diffracted pattern,

2d sin θ = n λ

For n =1, λ = 2d sin θ

= 2 x0.91x 10-10x sin 65o = 0.165 nm

For a 54 V electron, the deBrogllie wavelength associated with the electron is given by
= 12.25 / √ V = (12.25 / √54) A o

= 0.166 nm.

This value is in agreement with the experimental value. This experiment provides a direct verification of deBroglie hypothesis of
wave nature of moving particles.
(b) Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of a neutron having kinetic energy of 12.8 MeV. Mass of electron m = 9.1x10-37 kg.
(4M)

Ans:

9. (a) State Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. Discuss its significance (6M)

Ans: HEISENBERG UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE:
According to classical mechanics, a moving particle at any instant has a fixed position in space and a definite momentum which
can be determined simultaneously with any desired accuracy. The classical point of view represents an approximation which is
adequate for the objects of appreciable size, but not for the particles of atomic dimensions.

Since a moving particle has to be regarded as a de-Broglie group, there is a limit to the accuracy with which we can measure
the particle properties. The particle may be found anywhere within the wave group, moving with the group velocity. If the
group is narrow, it is easy to locate its position but the uncertainty in calculating its velocity or momentum increases. On the
other hand, if the group is wide, its momentum can be estimated satisfactorily, but the uncertainty in finding the location of the
particle is great. Heisenberg stated that the simultaneous determination of exact position and momentum of a moving particle
is impossible.
 If Δ x is Error in the measurement of position of the particle along X-axis
Δ p is Error in the measurement of momentum
Then Δ x. Δ p = h ---------- (1) where h is Plank’s constant

The above relation represents the uncertainty involved in measurement of both the position and momentum of the particle.

To optimize the above error, lower limit is applied to the eqn. (1)
Then (Δ x). (Δ p) ≥ Ђ / 2 where ђ = h / 2 Π
A particle can be exactly located (Δ x → 0) only at the expense of an infinite momentum (Δ p → ∞).

There are uncertainty relations between position and momentum, energy and time, and angular momentum and angle.
If the time during which a system occupies a certain state is not greater than Δt, then the energy of the state cannot be known
within Δ E

, i e (Δ E ) ( Δ t ) ≥ ђ / 2 .

(b) Apply the Heisenberg's uncertainty principle it to prove the non-existence of electron in the nucleus. (6M)
Ans:

10. (a) Derive the Schrödinger time-independent wave equation of matter waves. What is physical significance of wave
function? (8M)
Ans: SCHRÖDINGER’S TIME INDEPENDENT WAVE EQUATION:

Schrödinger, in 1926, developed wave equation for the moving particles. One of its forms can be derived by simply
incorporating the deBroglie wavelength expression into the classical wave eqn.

If a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’ is associated with a group of waves.

Let ψ be the wave function of the particle. Also let us consider a simple form of progressing wave like the one represented by
the following equation,
Ψ = Ψ0 sin (ω t – k x) --------- (1)
Where Ψ = Ψ (x, t) and Ψ0 is the amplitude.

Differentiating Ψ partially w.r.to x,

∂ Ψ / ∂ x = Ψ0 cos (ω t – k x) (- k)

= -k Ψ0 cos (ω t – k x)
Once again differentiate w.r.to x

∂ 2 ψ / ∂ x2 = (- k) Ψ0 (- sin (ω t – k x)) (- k)

= - k 2 Ψ0 sin (ω t – k x)
∂ 2 ψ / ∂ x2 = - k 2 ψ (from eqn (1))

∂ 2 ψ / ∂ x2 + k 2 ψ = 0 ----------- (2)

∂ 2 ψ / ∂ x2 + (4 Π2 / λ2 ) ψ = 0 --------- (3) (since k = 2 Π / λ)

From eqn. (2) or eqn. (3) is the differential form of the classical wave eqn. now we incorporate deBroglie wavelength expression
λ = h / m v.
Thus we obtain

∂ 2 ψ / ∂ x2 + (4 Π2 / (h/mv) 2) ψ = 0
∂ 2 ψ / ∂ x2 + 4 Π2 m 2 v 2 ψ / h2 = 0 -------------- (4)

The total energy E of the particle is the sum of its kinetic energy K and potential energy V

i.e E = K + V -------------- (5)

And K = mv2 / 2 ---------- (6)
Therefore m 2 v 2 = 2 m (E – V) ------------ (7)
From (4) and (7)
=> ∂ 2 ψ / ∂ x2 + [8Π2 m (E-V) / h2 ] ψ = 0 ------------ (8)

In quantum mechanics, the value h / 2 Π occurs more frequently. Hence we denote,

ђ=h/2Π
Using this notation, we have
∂ 2 ψ / ∂ x2 [2 m (E – V) / ђ 2] ψ = 0 ------------ (9)

For simplicity, we considered only one – dimensional wave. Extending eqn. (9) for a three – dimensional, we have

∂ 2 ψ / ∂ x2 + ∂2 ψ / ∂ y2 + ∂2 ψ / ∂ z2 + [2 m (E – V) / ђ 2] ψ = 0 ------------ (10)

Where Ψ = Ψ (x, y, z).

Here, we have considered only stationary states of ψ after separating the time dependence of Ψ.

Using the Laplacian operator,

▼2 = ∂ 2 / ∂ x2 + ∂2 / ∂ y2 + ∂2 / ∂ z2 ------------- (11)

Eqn. (10) can be written as

▼2 Ψ + [2 m (E – V) / ђ 2 ] ψ = 0 --------------- (12)
This is the Schrödinger Time Independent Wave Equation.

PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF WAVE FUNCTION:

Max Born in 1926 gave a satisfactory interpretation of the wave function Ψ associated with a moving particle. He
postulated that the square of the magnitude of the wave function |Ψ|2 (or Ψ Ψ* it Ψ is complex), evaluated at a
particular point represents the probability of finding the particle at the point. |Ψ|2 is called the probability density
and Ψ is the probability amplitude. Thus the probability of the particle within an element volume dt is |Ψ|2 dτ.
Since the particle is certainly somewhere, the integral at |Ψ|2 dτ over all space must be unity i.e. . dτ = 1 A wave
function that obeys the above equations is said to be normalized. Energy acceptable wave function must be
normalizable besides being normalizable; an acceptable wave function should fulfill the following requirements
(limitations)
1. It must be finite everywhere.
2. It must be single valued.
3. It must be continuous and have a continuous first derivative everywhere.
(b) Calculate the energy required to excite the electron from its ground state to the fifth excited state if an electron trapped
inside a one-dimensional infinite potential well of width 1.5 A0 . Given that h = 6.62 × 10-34 J-sec, m = 9.1×10-31 Kg. (4M)
Ans:

11. (a) Obtain an expression for energy levels and wave functions of a particle enclosed in onedimensional potential box of
infinite well. (8M)

Ans:
(b) An electron is confined in a one-dimensional potential box of infinite well of width 2.5 x 10-10 m. Calculate the first three
quantum energy levels of an electron. (4M)
Ans:

12. (a) Explain the phenomena of quantum tunneling and discuss two applications of quantum tunneling. (6M)
Ans:
(b) An electron having total kinetic energy E of 4.50 eV approaches a rectangular energy barrier V=5.0 eV and L=950pm.
Classically, the electron cannot pass through the barrier because E<V . Calculate probability of tunnelling of this electron
through the barrier. (4M)
Ans:

UNIT 3
13. (a) Illustrate the salient features of classical free electron theory and summarize the merits and demerits. (6M)
Ans: Classical free electron theory: The first theory was developed by Drude & Lorentz in 1900. According to this theory, metal
contains free electrons which are responsible for the electrical conductivity and metals obey the laws of classical mechanics

Even though the classical free electron theory is the first theory developed to explain the electrical conduction of
metals, it has many practical applications. The advantages and disadvantages of the classical free electron theory
are as follows:
Merits:

1. It explains the electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity of metals.

2. It verifies ohm’s law.

3. It is used to explain the optical properties of metals.
4. Metal composed of atoms in which electrons revolve around the nucleus are many states available for occupation. If the
density of states is zero, no states can be occupied at that energy level.

5. The valence electrons are freely moving about the whole volume of the metals like the molecules of perfect gas in a
container
6. The free electrons moves in random directions and collide with either positive ions or other free electrons. Collision is
independent of charges and is elastic in nature

7. The movements of free electrons obey the laws of classical kinetic theory of gases 8. Potential field remains constant
throughout the lattice.
9. In metals, there are large numbers of free electrons moving freely within the metal i.e. the free electrons or valence electrons
are free to move in the metal like gaseous molecules, because nuclei occupy only 15% metal space and the remaining 85%
space is available for the electrons to move.

Demerits:

1. It fails to explain the electric specific heat and the specific heat capacity of metals.

2. It fails to explain superconducting properties of metals.

3. It fails to explain new phenomena like photoelectric effect, Compton effect, black – Body radiation, etc.
4. It fails to explain Electrical conductivity (perfectly) of semiconductors or insulators.

5. The classical free electron model predicts the incorrect temperature dependence of

6. It fails to give a correct mathematical expression for thermal conductivity.

7. Ferromagnetism couldn’t be explained by this theory.

8. Susceptibility has greater theoretical value than the experimental value.

(b) Illustrate the salient features of quantum free electron theory and summarize the merits and demerits. (6M)
Ans: Quantum Free Electron Theory: In 1928 Sommerfield developed the quantum free electron theory. According to
Sommerfield, the free electrons move with a constant potential. This theory obeys quantum laws.
Merits:

1. All the electrons are not present in the ground state at 0 K, but the distribution obeys Pauli’s exclusion principle. At 0 K, the
highest energy level filled is called Fermi- level.

2. The potential remains constant throughout the lattice.

3. Collision of electrons with positive ion cores or other free electrons is independent of charges and is elastic in nature. Energy
levels are discrete.

4. It was successful to explain not only conductivity, but also thermionic emission paramagnetism, specific heat.
Demerits:

1. It fails to explain classification of solids as conductors, semiconductors and insulators .

14. Derive the expression for density of states for conduction electron for unit volume of metal and obtain an expression f
Fermi Energy.(12)

Ans:
15. (a) Explain the differences between classical and quantum free electron theory (6M)
Ans:

(b) What is Fermi energy? Discuss variation of Fermi factor with energy and temperature. (6M)

Ans: Fermi energy: It is the energy of state at which the Probability of electron occupation is ½ at any temperature above 0K. It
separates filled energy states and unfilled energy states. The highest energy level that can be occupied by an electron at 0 K is
called Fermi energy level
Fermi level: It is a level at which the electron probability is ½ at any temp above 0K (or) always it is 1 or 0 at 0K. Therefore, the
probability function F(E) of an electron occupying an energy level E is given by,

Where EF known as Fermi energy and it is constant for a system,

K is the Boltzmann constant and T is the absolute temperature.

Case I : Probability of occupation at T= 0K,and E < EF Therefore F(E) =1,as per above ,clearly indicates that at T=0K, the energy
level below the Fermi energy level EF is fully occupied by electrons leaving the upper level vacant. Therefore, there is 100%
probability that the electrons to occupy energy level below Fermi level.

Case II: Probability of occupation at T= 0K, and E > EF. i.e., all levels below EF are completely filled and al levels above EF are
completely empty. As the temperature rises F (E).
Case III: Probability of occupation at T= 0K, and E = EF
16. (a) Discuss the formation of bands in solids using Kronig–Penny model. (6M)
(b) Classify the crystalline solids based on band theory of solids. (6M)
Ans: Based on the energy band diagram materials or solids are classified as follows:

Conductors: In this kind of materials, there is no forbidden gap between the valence band and conduction band. It is observed
that the valence band overlaps with the conduction band in metals as shown in figure. There are sufficient numbers of free
electrons, available for electrical conduction and due to the overlapping of the two bands there is an easy transition of electrons
from one band to another band takes place, and there no chance for the presence of holes. Resistivity of conductors is very
small and it is very few milli ohm meters.(Ω m ).

Examples: All metals (Na, Mg, Al, Cu, Ni Cu, Ag, Li, Ar etc)
Semiconductors: In semiconductors, there is a band gap exists between the valence band and conduction band and it is very less
and it is the order of -1 to 2 eV are known as semiconductors. It will conduct electricity partially at normal conditions. The
electrical resistivity values are 0.5 to 103 ohm meter. Due to thermal vibrations within the solid, some electrons gain enough
energy to overcome the band gap (or barrier) and behave as conduction electrons. Conductivity exists here due to electronics
and holes.

Examples: Silicon, Germanium, Ga As.

Insulators: In insulators, the width of forbidden energy gap between the valence band and conduction band is very large. Due to
large energy gap, electrons cannot jump from V.B to C.B.Energy gap is of the order of ~10 eV and higher than semiconductors.
Resistivity values of insulators are 107 to 1012 ohm-m. Electrons are tightly bound to the nucleus, no valence electrons are
available.
Examples: Wood, rubber, glass.

17. (a) Derive an expression for the effective mass of an electron moving in energy bands of a solid. Show how it varies with
the wave vector. (6M)

Ans:
(b) Explain the following: 1) Bloch theorem and 2) E-K diagram. (6M)
Ans: PERIODIC POTENTIAL AND BLOCH THEOREM:

According to free electron model, a conduction electron in metal experiences constant potential. But in real crystal, there exists
a periodic arrangement of positively charged ions through which the electrons move. As a consequence, the potential
experienced by electrons is not constant but it varies with the periodicity of the lattice. In zone theory, as per Bloch, potential
energy of electrons considered as varying potential with respect to lattice ‘a’.

Fig: Variation of potential energy in a periodic lattice

BRILLOUIN ZONE OR E-K DIAGRAM:

The Brillouin zone are the boundaries that are marked by the values of wave vector k,in which electrons can have allowed
energy values. These represent the allowed values of k of the electrons in 1D, 2D, &3D.

It is the energy spectrum of an electron moving in presence of a periodic potential field and is divided into allowed energy
regions (allowed zones) or forbidden energy gaps (forbidden zones). Allowed energy values lie in the region k=-π/a to =+π/a.
This zone is called the first Brillouin zone. After a break in the energy values, called forbidden energy band, we have another
allowed zone spread from k=-π/a to -2π/a and +π/a to +2π/a. This zone is called the second Brillouin zone. Similarly, higher
Brillouin zones are formed.
18. Derive an expression for the carrier concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor. (6M)
Ans:
19. (a) Arrive at an expression for the Fermi level in a intrinsic semiconductor.
Ans: Fermi level in an Intrinsic Semiconductor
For an intrinsic semiconductor number of electrons (i.e) electron density will be the same as that of the number of holes (i.e)
hole density.

(i.e) the Fermi energy level lies in the midway between Ec and Ev as shown fig (since at 0K, T = 0). But in actual case mh* me*
and the Fermi energy level slightly increases with increase in temperature as shown in fig.

(b) Discuss the variation of the Fermi level with temperature and effective mass of charge carriers (6M)

Ans: VARIATION OF FERMI LEVEL WITH TEMPERATURE

The Fermi level in an intrinsic semiconductor may be considered as independent of temperature as staying in the
middle of the band gap. If me * ˃ mh * displaced downward to the top edge of the valence band. If me * ˂ mh * with
increase in temperature, the Fermi level gets displaced upward to the bottom edge of the conduction band.
20. What is an extrinsic semiconductor? Derive an expression for density of holes in p-type semiconductor.
Ans: Extrinsic semiconductors: A semiconductor in extremely impure form, with the addition of impurities is known as extrinsic
semiconductors.
Doping: The method of adding impurities to a pure semiconductor is known as doping and impurity added is called doping agent
or dopant.

When small quantities of selected impurities are added to an intrinsic semiconductor it becomes an extrinsic semiconductor.
Depending upon the type of impurity extrinsic semiconductors is of two types, namely

1. P – type semiconductor.

2. N – type semiconductor.

P-type Semiconductor

P – type semiconductor is obtained by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with trivalent (3 electrons in valance band) impurity
atoms like boron, gallium, indium etc., The three valance electrons of the impurity atom pairs with three valence electrons of
the semiconductor atom and one position of the impurity atom remains vacant, this is called hole as shown in fig. Thus a small
amount of trivalent impurity creates ‘majority of holes’, which are positive, and are called as ‘p-type semiconductor’ or
‘Acceptors.

N-Type Semiconductor

When a small amount of pentavalent impurity (group V element) is added to a pure semiconductor, it becomes a n –
semiconductor. Such impurities are known as donor impurities because they donate the free electrons to the semiconductor
crystal.

A pentavalent impurity (arsenic) having five valance electrons are added to a pure semiconducting material having four valance
electrons (silicon or germanium)
21. What is an extrinsic semiconductor? Derive an expression for density of electrons in n type semiconductor.
Ans: Extrinsic semiconductors: A semiconductor in extremely impure form, with the addition of impurities is known as extrinsic
semiconductors.

Doping: The method of adding impurities to a pure semiconductor is known as doping and impurity added is called doping agent
or dopant.
When small quantities of selected impurities are added to an intrinsic semiconductor it becomes an extrinsic semiconductor.
Depending upon the type of impurity extrinsic semiconductors is of two types, namely

1. P – type semiconductor.

2. N – type semiconductor.
P-type Semiconductor
P – type semiconductor is obtained by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with trivalent (3 electrons in valance band) impurity
atoms like boron, gallium, indium etc., The three valance electrons of the impurity atom pairs with three valence electrons of
the semiconductor atom and one position of the impurity atom remains vacant, this is called hole as shown in fig. Thus a small
amount of trivalent impurity creates ‘majority of holes’, which are positive, and are called as ‘p-type semiconductor’ or
‘Acceptors.

N-Type Semiconductor

When a small amount of pentavalent impurity (group V element) is added to a pure semiconductor, it becomes a n –
semiconductor. Such impurities are known as donor impurities because they donate the free electrons to the semiconductor
crystal.

A pentavalent impurity (arsenic) having five valance electrons are added to a pure semiconducting material having four valance
electrons (silicon or germanium)
22. (a) Derive the expression for the Fermi level in p-type semiconductors.
Ans:

(b) Explain the variation Fermi level with temperature and doping concentration.
Ans: VARIATION OF FERMI LEVEL WITH TEMPERATURE AND CONCENTRATION IN P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

At T=0K, the Fermi energy level lies at the middle of the VB and the acceptor level.
At very high temperatures, it lies at middle of the energy gap. It shows that at very high temperature, the p-type
material behave as an intrinsic material.
As the acceptor concentration is increased the increase in Fermi energy is minimized and hence the Fermi level is
moves down.

VARIATION OF FERMI LEVEL WITH TEMPERATURE AND CONCENTRATION

N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

At 0 K the Fermi level lies in between the conduction band and the donor level.
As the temperature increases from 0 K , the Fermi level falls.

At higher temperature, it falls below the donor level and hence, it approaches the centre of the forbidden gap. It shows that the
material behaving as an intrinsic semiconductor.

As the donor concentration is increased, the Fermi level will move up.

23. (a) Derive the expression for the Fermi energy level in n-type semiconductors.

(b) Explain the variation Fermi level with temperature and doping concentration.

Ans: VARIATION OF FERMI LEVEL WITH TEMPERATURE AND CONCENTRATION

N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

At 0 K the Fermi level lies in between the conduction band and the donor level.

As the temperature increases from 0 K , the Fermi level falls.

At higher temperature, it falls below the donor level and hence, it approaches the centre of the forbidden gap. It shows that the
material behaving as an intrinsic semiconductor.
As the donor concentration is increased, the Fermi level will move up.
24. (a) What is p-n junction? Explain the formation of a p-n junction,
Ans: Definition: A p-n junction is an interface or a boundary between two semiconductor material types, namely the p-type and
the n-type, inside a semiconductor.

The p-side or the positive side of the semiconductor has an excess of holes and the n-side or the negative side has an excess of
electrons. In a semiconductor, the p-n junction is created by the method of doping.

Formation of PN junction
As we know if we use different semiconductor materials to make a p-n junction, there will be a grain boundary that would
inhibit the movement of electrons from one side to the other by scattering the electrons and holes and thus we use the process
of doping. We will understand the process of doping with the help of this example. Let us consider a thin p-type silicon
semiconductor sheet. If we add a small amount of pentavalent impurity to this, a part of the p-type Si will get converted to n-
type silicon. This sheet will now contain both p-type region and n-type region and a junction between these two regions. The
processes that follow after the formation of a p-n junction are of two types – diffusion and drift. As we know, there is a
difference in the concentration of holes and electrons at the two sides of a junction, the holes from the p-side diffuse to the n-
side and the electrons from the n-side diffuse to the p-side. These give rise to a diffusion current across the junction.

Also, when an electron diffuses from the n-side to the p-side, an ionized donor is left behind on the n-side, which is immobile. As
the process goes on, a layer of positive charge is developed on the nside of the junction. Similarly, when a hole goes from the p-
side to the n-side, and ionized acceptor is left behind in the p-side, resulting in the formation of a layer of negative charges in the
p-side of the junction. This region of positive charge and negative charge on either side of the junction is termed as the
depletion region. Due to this positive space charge region on either side of the junction, an electric field direction from a positive
charge towards the negative charge is developed. Due to this electric field, an electron on the p-side of the junction moves to
the n-side of the junction. This motion is termed as the drift. Here, we see that the direction of drift current is opposite to that of
the diffusion current.

(b) Explain the I-V characteristics and applications of a p-n junction.

Ans: V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode

VI characteristics of PN junction diode is a curve between the voltage and current through the circuit. Voltage is taken along the
x-axis while the current is taken along the y-axis. The above graph is the VI characteristics curve of the PN junction diode. With
the help of the curve we can understand that there are three regions in which the diode works, and they are:

 Zero bias

 Forward bias

 Reverse bias

When the PN junction diode is under zero bias condition, there is no external voltage applied and this means that the potential
barrier at the junction does not allow the flow of current.
When the PN junction diode is under forward bias condition, the p-type is connected to the positive terminal while the n-type is
connected to the negative terminal of the external voltage. When the diode is arranged in this manner, there is a reduction in
the potential barrier. For silicone diodes, when the voltage is 0.7 V and for germanium diodes, when the voltage is 0.3 V, the
potential barriers decreases and there is a flow of current.

When the diode is in forward bias, the current increases slowly and the curve obtained is non-linear as the voltage applied to the
diode is overcoming the potential barrier. Once the potential barrier is overcome by the diode, the diode behaves normal and
the curve rises sharply as the external voltage increases and the curve so obtained is linear.
When the PN junction diode is under negative bias condition, the p-type is connected to the negative terminal while the n-type
is connected to the positive terminal of the external voltage. This results in an increase in the potential barrier. Reverse
saturation current flows in the beginning as minority carriers are present in the junction.
When the applied voltage is increased, the minority charges will have increased kinetic energy which affects the majority
charges. This is the stage when the diode breaks down. This may also destroy the diode.

Applications of PN Junction Diode

 p-n junction diode can be used as a photodiode as the diode is sensitive to the light when the configuration of the diode is
reverse-biased.

 It can be used as a solar cell.

 When the diode is forward-biased, it can be used in LED lighting applications.

 It is used as rectifiers in many electric circuits and as a voltage-controlled oscillator in varactors.

25. (a) What is LED? Explain the construction, working of LED. (8M)
Ans: LIGHT EMITTING DIODE
A light releasing diode is an electric component that emits light when the electric current flows through it. It is a light source
based on semiconductors. When current passes through the LED, the electrons recombine with holes emitting light in the
process. It is a specific type of diode having similar characteristics as the p-n junction diode. This means that an LED allows the
flow of current in its forward direction while it blocks the flow in the reverse direction. Light-emitting diodes are built using a
weak layer of heavily doped semiconductor material. Based on the semiconductor material used and the amount of doping, an
LED will emit a colored light at a particular spectral wavelength when forward biased.
LED Symbol

Below is the demonstration of the LED symbol. The symbol

is similar to that of the p-n junction diode. The difference
between these two symbols is that the two arrows indicate
that the diode is emitting the light.

Construction

1. The methods used to construct LED are to deposit three semiconductor layers on the substrate.
2. The three semiconductor layers deposited on the substrate are n-type semiconductor, p-type semiconductor and active
region.

3. Active region is present in between the n-type and p-type semiconductor layers.

4. When LED is forward biased, free electrons from n-type semiconductor and holes from ptype semiconductor are pushed
towards the active region.
5. When free electrons from n-side and holes from p-side recombine with the opposite charge carriers (free electrons with holes
or holes with free electrons) in active region, an invisible or visible light is emitted.
6. In LED, most of the charge carriers recombine at active region. Therefore, most of the light is emitted by the active region. The
active region is also called as depletion region.
The larger leg of LED represents the positive electrode or anode.
Working
1. A P-N junction can convert absorbed light energy into a proportional electric current. The same process is reversed here (i.e.
the P-N junction emits light when electrical energy is applied to it).
2. This phenomenon is generally called electroluminescence, which can be defined as the emission of light from a semi-
conductor under the influence of an electric field.
3. The charge carriers recombine in a forward-biased P-N junction as the electrons cross from the N-region and recombine with
the holes existing in the P-region. Free electrons are in the conduction band of energy levels, while holes are in the valence
energy band.
4. Thus the energy level of the holes will be lesser than the energy levels of the electrons. Some portion of the energy must be
dissipated in order to recombine the electrons and the holes. This energy is emitted in the form of heat and light.

5. The electrons dissipate energy in the form of heat for silicon and germanium diodes but in gallium arsenide phosphide
(GaAsP) and gallium phosphide (GaP) semiconductors, the electrons dissipate energy by emitting photons.

6. If the semiconductor is translucent, the junction becomes the source of light as it is emitted, thus becoming a light-emitting
diode, but when the junction is reverse biased no light will be produced by the LED and, on the contrary, the device may also be
damaged.
The wavelength of emitted photon can be calculated by,

E=hυ -----(1) [c=υλ; υ=c/λ]

By substituting the values of E=Eg; υ=c/λ in the above

equation becomes,

Eg=hc/λ; λ=hc/ Eg --------------(2)

By substituting the values of Planck’s constant h=6.623 x

10-34 J/S, velocity of the light c=3 x 108 m/s the equation
(2) can be modified as,

λ=12400/ Eg Å

Therefore, color of the emitted light depends on the type of

material (Eg-energy band gap of given material) used.

(b) Explain the I-V characteristics and applications of LED (4M)

Ans: V-I characteristics of LED

The characteristics curve of the LED shows that the forward

bias of 1 V is sufficient to increase the current
exponentially.

The output characteristics curve shows that radiant power

of LED is directly proportional the forward current in LED.

Applications of LEDs

 Electronic displays such as OLEDs, micro-LEDs, quantum dots etc.

 As an LED indicator.

 In remote controls, Lightings, Opto-isolators.

26. (a) What is photo diode? Explain construction and working of a photodiode. (8M)

Ans: Photodiode
Definition: A special type of PN junction device that generates current when exposed to light is known as Photodiode. It is also
known as photo detector or photo sensor. It operates in reverse biased mode and converts light energy into electrical energy.
Principle of Photodiode
It works on the principle of Photoelectric effect.
The operating principle of the photodiode is such that when
the junction of this two-terminal semiconductor device is
illuminated then the electric current starts flowing through
it. Only minority current flows through the device when the
certain reverse potential is applied to it.

Construction
The photodiodes are available in a metallic package. The
diode is a p n junction, mounted in an insulated plastic
substrate. The PN junction of the device placed inside a
glass material. This is done to order to allow the light
energy to pass through it. As only the junction is exposed to
radiation, thus, the other portion of the glass material is
painted black or is metallised. The overall unit is of very
small dimension nearly about 2.5 mm. It is noteworthy that
the current flowing through the device is in micro-ampere
and is measured through an ammeter. Two leads, anode
and cathode of the diode come out from the bottom of the
metal case. A tab extending from the side of the bottom
portion of the metal case identifies the cathode lead

Working of Photodiode

In the photodiode, a very small reverse current flows

through the device that is termed as dark current. It is
called so because this current is totally the result of the
flow of minority carriers and is thus flows when the device
is not exposed to radiation.

The working principle of a photodiode is, when a photon of

ample energy strikes the diode, it makes a couple of an
electron-hole. This mechanism is also called as the inner
photoelectric effect. If the absorption arises in the
depletion region junction, then the carriers are removed
from the junction by the inbuilt electric field of the
depletion region. Therefore, holes in the region move
toward the anode, and electrons move toward the cathode,
and a photocurrent will be generated. The entire current
through the diode is the sum of the absence of light and the
photocurrent. So the absent current must be reduced to
maximize the sensitivity of the device
(b) Explain I-V characteristics and applications of a photo diode. (4M)

Ans:

V-I Characteristics of Photodiode

Here, the vertical line represents the reverse current
flowing through the device and the horizontal line
represents the reverse-biased potential.

The first curve represents the dark current that generates

due to minority carriers in the absence of light.
As we can see in the above figure that the entire curve
shows almost equal spacing in between them. This is so
because current proportionally increases with the luminous
flux.
Applications of Photodiode
1. Photodiodes majorly find its use in counters and switching circuits.
2. Photodiodes are extensively used in an optical communication system.

3. Logic circuits and encoders also make use of photodiode.

4. It is widely used in burglar alarm systems. In such alarm systems, until exposure to radiation is not interrupted, the current
flows. As the light energy fails to fall on the device, it sounds the alarm.
27. (a) What is the Hall effect? Derive the expression for Hall coefficient.

&
(b) Explain the Hall experiment with neat diagram

Ans: HALL EFFECT

Measurement of conductivity will not determine whether the conduction is due to electron or holes and therefore it will be very
difficult to distinguish between p – type and n- type semiconductors. Therefore Hall Effect is used to distinguish between the
two types of charge carriers and their carrier densities and is used to determine the mobility of charge carriers.

STATEMENT

When a conductor (metal or semiconductor) carrying current (I) is placed perpendicular to a magnetic field (B), a potential
difference (electric field) is developed inside the conductor in a direction perpendicular to both current and magnetic field. This
phenomenon is known as Hall Effect and the voltage thus generated is called Hall voltage

THEORY

Hall Effect in n- type semiconductor

Let us consider a n-type semiconductor material in the form of rectangular slab. In such a material current flows in X – direction
and magnetic field B applied in Z- direction. As a result, Hall voltage is developed along Y – direction as shown in figure.

Since the direction of current is from left to right the electrons moves from right to left in X-direction as shown in fig .

Now due to magnetic field applied the electron moves towards downward direction with velocity v and cause negative charge to
accumulate at face (1) of the material as shown in fig. therefore the potential difference is established between the face (2) and
face (1) of the specimen which gives rise to EH in the negative Y direction. This separation of charge carriers creates an electric
field EH in the upward direction (negative Y direction).

Theses charge carrier are moving in a magnetic field in the semiconductor, they experience Lorentz force

Where, Vd-drift velocity of the electrons

(θ = 900 , because force acting on charge perpendicularly)

q = e, the equation 1 becomes

FL= eVdB-------------------------------(2)
The force experienced by the charge due to electric field is given by,

FH=eEH-------------------------(3)

Where EH-Hall electric field

After some time both the forces become in equal in magnitude and act in opposite direction, the situation is said to be under
equilibrium.

At equilibrium Eqn. (2) = Eqn. (3)

FL= FH
 eVdB= eEH
EH=VdB------------ (4)
Vd= EH/B----------(5)

The current density is given by, J=neVD ------------------(6)

Substituting eqn.(5) in eqn.(6) becomes,

J=neEH/B
EH= BJ/ne----------(7)

The current density is given by, J=I/A-------------(8)

Substituting equation (8) in eqn. (7) becomes,

EH=BI/neA-----(9)
If VH be the hall voltage at equilibrium, the hall electric field EH=VH/d

The equation (9) can be written as, VH/d=BI/neA

If RH=1/ne, the above equation becomes,

VH/d= RHBI/A ---------------(10)

By substituting area of cross section A=Width (w) x Thickness (d) in the above equation
VH/d= RHBI/w x d

VH= RHBI/w

RH = VH w/B I--------------(11)

Eq. (11) gives the value of RH the by measuring I, B, w, and VH

From RH = 1/ne one can find the value of the concentration of the carriers.
By knowing the concentration of the carriers the mobility of the charge carriers is determined using the relation. σ=neμ

μ=RHσ

Where σ is the electrical conductivity of the materials.

The above RH equations are derived by assuming that the velocity of the electron is constant. But due to thermal agitation the
velocity of the electron is not a constant. It is randomly distributed. So, a correction factor 3 /8 is introduced in the Hall
coefficient. Therefore RH can be written as,

RH= -3π/8 (1/ne) for n-type

RH= 3π/8 (1/ne) for p-type

RH= -1.18/ne or 1.18/pe

For n-type material RH is negative and for p-type material RH is positive. voltage

(c) What are the applications of Hall effect.

Ans: APPLICATIONS OF HALL EFFECT:

 It is used to determine whether the material is p-type or n-type semiconductor. (ie ) if RH is negative then the material
n-type. If the RH is positive then the material p-type.
 It is used to find the carrier concentration
 It is used to find the mobility of charge carrier’s μe, μh.
 It is used to find the sign of the current carrying charges.
 It is used to design magnetic flux meters and multipliers on the basis of Hall voltage.
 It is used to find the power flow in an electromagnetic wave.
 It is used as a magnetic field sensor. Using the Hall Effect devices, the magnetic field ranging from 1 T to 1T is sensed.
28. (a) What is the difference between classical and quantum computing? (6M)
Ans:
(b) Explain about classical bits and quantum qubits. (6M)

Ans: Classical and quantum bits (Qubits)

Classical bits
A building block of classical computational devices is a two-state system or a classical bit: 0 or 1
Quantum bits (Qubits)

A qubit can be represented by a two-dimensional complex Hilbert space. The state of the qubit is represented by a vector in the
Hilbert space.

A quantum computer also represents information as a series of bits, called quantum bits, or qubits. Like a normal bit, a qubit
can be either 0 or 1, but unlike a normal bit, which can only be 0 or 1, a qubit can also be in a state where it is both at the same
time. When extended to systems of many qubits, this ability to be in all possible binary states at the same time gives rise to the
potential computational power of quantum computing. The fundamental building block of a quantum computer is Qubit as
shown in the diagram (Figure.1 & 2) and also the representation is given in the Table.

29. What is qubit operator and measurement of qubits in a quantum system.

Ans: QUBITS OPERATORS AND MEASUREMENT

A physical qubit is a two-level quantum mechanical system. As we will see in the chapter on building quantum computers, there
are many ways to construct a physical qubit. We can represent a qubit as a two-dimensional complex Hilbert space, C2 . The
state of the qubit at any given time can be represented by a vector in this complex Hilbert space.
Bra-Ket (Dirac) Notation

The Dirac Bra-Ket notation is a concise and convenient way to describe quantum states. We introduce and define the symbol |α
> to represent a quantum state. This is called a ket, or a ket vector. It is an abstract entity, and serves to describe the "state" of
the quantum system. We say that a physical system is in quantum state α, where α represents some physical quantity, such as
momentum, spin etc, when represented by the ket |α >.

The rule is to turn inner products into bra-ket pairs as follows.

<u,v> <u|v>

<u|v> <u| |v>

Here |v > is called a ket and <u| is called a bra.

Dirac allowed the the bra's and ket's to line up back to back, i.e.

〈α|β〉≡ ( |α>,|β >)

The symbol 〈α|β〉 represents a complex number that is equal to the value of the inner product of the ket |α> with |β >. We
note, according to the above definition, that,

〈α|β〉≡ 〈β >|α〉*

30. Explain the quantum qubits (Qubits) using Bloch sphere representation.

Ans: BLOCH SPHERE REPRESENTATION OF QUBITS

There are several ways to represent the state of a qubit:
1.We can write out the state in Dirac notation. For example, if we have a qubit that is prepared in state |0˃ and then apply the X
operator, we will then find the qubit in state |1˃ (assuming no outside noise)
X |0˃→|1˃
2. We can use the Bloch sphere to represent the state of a single qubit. Any state in a quantum computation can be represented
as a vector that begins at the origin and terminates on the surface of the unit Bloch sphere. By applying unitary operators to the
state vectors, we can move the state around the sphere. We take as convention that the two antipodes of the sphere are |0˃ on
the top of the sphere and |1˃ on the bottom.
3. As we can see in Figure one of the advantages of visualization with the Bloch sphere is that we can represent superposition
states such as

we see at the X axis. We can also differentiate between states that contain different phases as is shown in the states along the X
and Y axes. Let us return to computational universality which we treated above. Now that we have introduced the Bloch sphere,
another way to think about a set of gates that satisfies universal computation is one which enables us to reach any point on the
Bloch sphere

31. (a) Define classical and quantum gates. (4M)

Ans: CLASSICAL LOGIC GATES

In classical computing we have a set of commonly used gates: AND, NOT, OR, NAND, XOR, FANOUT, etc. We can use
combinations of these gates to perform any computation in classical computing. A classical computer that can run
these gates is Turing-complete or universal. In fact, we can prove that the NAND gate alone is sufficient to construct
all other classical operators.
Neither AND, OR, XOR, NAND or FANOUT can be used in quantum computing. The AND, OR, XOR and NAND gates
are not reversible.
QUANTUM GATES
A quantum gate or quantum logic gate is a rudimentary quantum circuit operating on a small number of qubits. They
are the analogues for quantum computers to classical logic gates for conventional digital computers. Quantum logic
gates are reversible, unlike many classical logic gates. Some universal classical logic gates, such as the Toffoli gate,
provide reversibility and can be directly mapped onto quantum logic gates. Quantum logic gates are represented by
unitary matrices.
(b) Explain single and multiple quantum logic gates. (8M)

Ans:
32. Write applications of quantum computing and explain indetail the application of quantum computing in artificial
intelligence and machine learning

Ans: APPLICATIONS OF QUANTUM COMPUTING

1. Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning:
Artificial intelligence and machine learning are some of the prominent areas right now, as the emerging
technologies have penetrated almost every aspect of humans’ lives. Some of the widespread applications we
see every day are in voice, image and handwriting recognition. However, as the number of applications
increased, it becomes a challenging task for traditional computers, to match up the accuracy and speed. And,
that’s where quantum computing can help in processing through complex problems in very less time, which
would have taken traditional computers thousands of years.
 2. Computational Chemistry:
One of the most promising quantum computing applications will be in the field of computational chemistry.
It is believed that the number of quantum states, even in a tiniest of a molecule, is extremely vast, and
therefore difficult for conventional computing memory to process.
3. Drug Design & Development:
These advancements in computing could enhance efficiency dramatically, by allowing companies to carry
out more drug discoveries to uncover new medical treatments for the better pharmaceutical industry.
4. Cyber security & Cryptography:
The online security space currently has been quite vulnerable due to the increasing number of cyberattacks
occurring across the globe cyber security has continued to be an essential concern around the world. With
our increasing dependency on digitization, we are becoming even more vulnerable to these threats.
Quantum computing with the help of machine learning can help in developing various techniques to combat
these cyber security threats. Additionally, quantum computing can help in creating encryption methods, also
known as, quantum cryptography.
5.Financial Modeling:
For a finance industry to find the right mix for fruitful investments based on expected returns, the risk
associated, and other factors are important to survive in the market. To achieve that, the techniques of
‘Monte Carlo’ simulations are continually being run on conventional computers, which, in turn, consume an
enormous amount of computer time.
6.Weather Forecasting:
Currently, the process of analyzing weather conditions by traditional computers can sometimes take longer
than the weather itself does to change. But a quantum computer’s ability to crunch vast amounts of data, in
a short period, could indeed lead to enhancing weather system modeling allowing scientists to predict the
changing weather patterns in no time and with excellent accuracy.

Quantum computing in Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning

Artificial Intelligence is difficult to define. Probably because intelligence, by itself, is difficult to define. AI is
often defined as the study of any device that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its
chance of successfully achieving its goals. In day to day situations, the term AI applies when a machine
perform tasks that normally require human intelligence, such as learning, reasoning, problem solving,
decision-making, planning, visual perception, knowledge representation, natural language processing,
competing at the highest level in strategic game systems or driving cars.

The AI field draws upon computer science, mathematics, psychology, linguistics and many others.
Approaches to AI include statistical methods, computational intelligence, or traditional symbolic AI. To reach
its goals, many tools are used in AI, including search and mathematical optimization, artificial neural
networks, and methods based on statistics, probability and economics.

Along its history, AI has seen many ups and downs. As of 2018, AI techniques have experienced a resurgence
following concurrent advances in computer power, large amounts of data, and theoretical understanding.
Nowadays, AI techniques have become an essential part of the industry.

Machine learning (ML) was first defined by Arthur Samuel in 1959. It is a subset of artificial intelligence that
uses statistical techniques to give computers the ability to learn (i.e., progressively improve performance on
a specific task) with data, without being explicitly programmed. Machine learning algorithms operate by
constructing a model with parameters that can be learned from a large amount of example inputs, called a
training set.

Machine learning is typically classified into three broad categories (leading to different typical applications):

Supervised learning: the computer is presented with example inputs and their desired outputs, given by a
“teacher”, and the goal is to learn a general rule that maps inputs to outputs. As special cases, the input
signal can be only partially available, or restricted to special feedback:
Unsupervised learning: no labels are given to the learning algorithm, leaving it on its own to find structure in
its input. Unsupervised learning can be a goal in itself (discovering hidden patterns in data) or a means
towards an end (feature learning);

Reinforcement learning: inspired by behaviorist psychology, reinforcement learning is concerned with how
software agents ought to take actions in an environment so as to maximize some notion of cumulative
reward.
Deep learning (DL) is a subset of machine learning. It utilizes a hierarchical level of artificial neural networks
to carry out the process of machine learning. While traditional programs build analysis with data in a linear
way, the hierarchical function of deep learning systems enables machines to process data with a nonlinear
approach.
DL is a specific approach used for building and training neural networks. An algorithm is considered to be
deep if the input data is passed through a series of nonlinear transformations before it becomes output.