Unit-II

Lasers and Optical fibers

What is a LASER?
 LASER is the acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation.

 Laser is a light source of high intensity, monochromatic, coherent

and a parallel beam of light.
Interaction between radiation and
matter
 When radiation interacts with the matter, there will be a change in the
quantum system of the matter.

 The energy level of the atoms or molecules present in the matter will
change.

 When radiation of frequency, [ν = (E2 – E1)/h] interacts with the system,

there is a transition in the system.

 This is known as absorption.

 From E2 state when it comes back to E1 , it is known as emission.

 There are three possible ways of interaction of photon with matter.

 Induced Absorption

 Spontaneous Emission

 Stimulated Emission
Induced absorption
 When an atom absorbs the incident photon of energy hν = (E2 – E1),
it excites to a higher energy level (E2) from lower level or ground
state (E1)

 atom + photon (h ν)=atom*

 atom* represents an atom in excited state.
Spontaneous Emission
 It is the emission of photon, when an atom which is in an excited
(E2) state makes a transition to a lower energy state (E1) without
the aid of any external aid.

 atom* =atom + photon (h ν )

 The emitted photons have random nature (Incoherent).

Stimulated Emission
 The emission of a photon by an atom under the influence of stimulating
photon of right energy h ν = (E2 – E1) due to which the atom makes a
transition from a higher energy state (E2) to a lower energy state (E1).

 atom* + photon (h ν) = atom+2 photons (h ν)

 The two photons (Stimulating photon and stimulated photon) emerging out
are in the same direction, phase, energy and frequency.

 Hence they are ‘Coherent Photons’.

Expression for energy density at thermal
equilibrium in terms of Einstein’s coefficients.

 U(ν ) is energy density

 U(ν)- Number of photons incident/unit volume of a system

 Consider a system of two energy levels E1& E2 containing N1& N2 number

of atoms respectively.

 N1 and N2 are called as number densities of E1 and E2 respectively.

 Under thermal equilibrium total energy of the system remains constant.

 Number of transitions from E1 to E2 = Total number of transitions from E2

to E1
 Transition from E1 to E2 can occur through Induced absorption

 Transition from E2 to E1 can occur either through spontaneous emission

or stimulated emission

 Rate of absorption / emission : The number of such transitions per sec.

per unit volume
 Case -1: Induced absorption

 Rate of induced absorption ∝ N1

 Rate of induced absorption ∝ U(ν)

 Rate of induced absorption = B12 N1U(ν) ------- (1)

 B12 - Einstein’s coefficient of induced absorption.

 Case -2: Spontaneous emission

 Rate of spontaneous emission ∝ N2

 Rate of spontaneous emission = A21 N2 ------- (2)

 Where, A21 - Einstein’s coefficient of spontaneous emission.

 Case -3: stimulated emission

 Rate of stimulated emission ∝ N2

 Rate of stimulated emission ∝ U(ν)

 Rate of stimulated emission = =B21N2U(ν) ------- (3)

 B21 - Einstein’s coefficient of stimulated emission.

 Under thermal equilibrium condition

 Number of transitions from E1 to E2 = Total number of transitions from E2 to E1

 B12N1U(ν) = A21N2 + B21N2U(ν)

  

  ------------- (5)
  
From Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics, number of atoms (N) in a given
energy level is given by

 = = ----------- (6)

 Substituting equation (6) in (5), we get

 --------------- (7)
  From Planck’s law of Radiation

 ---------- (8)

 Comparing with Planck’s law of radiation

 Comparing equations (7) & (8), we find

 and

 i.e. B12= B21

 which means the number of stimulated emission is generally equal to

number of induced absorption.
Characteristics / Properties of Laser
 Monochromatic :
Laser is a highly monochromatic beam of light as all the photons emitted are
from a single similar transition.

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 Directionality

 Since the laser cavity mirrors reflects only those photons which are incident
in a direction normal to their own planes, photons moving to other direction
will fail to return to lasing media and thereby get suppressed.
 Coherent

 If the phase difference between the two waves is same

then they are said to be coherent

 Coherent is the most important property which

distinguish the laser light from other types of light.
 Highly intense

 The intensity of laser is so much high that, the light

from 1 mW He-Ne laser is 100 times more intense than
the light starting from the surface of the sun.

 Focussability

 Laser can be focused using lens.

 The diameter of the focused spot will be close to the
wavelength of the focused light.
 Ex: He:Ne laser can be focused to nearly 6823Å spot.
Incandescent vs. Laser Light

1. Many wavelengths 1. Monochromatic

2. Multidirectional 2. Directional
3. Incoherent 3. Coherent

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Conditions for laser operation
 Population inversion
 The condition where the number of atoms in the higher energy level
exceeds number of atoms in lower level is called ‘Population Inversion’.

 Meta stable state

 In the excited state, atoms stay only for 10-8s.
 Metastable states are intermediate states as shown in the below figure
where the lifetime of atoms is ≈ 10-3s.
 This property will help to achieve population inversion.
Requisites of a LASER system

 Pumping
 Active medium
 Optical/Resonant cavity
Pumping
 Supplying energy to the medium to excite atoms from lower
energy state to higher energy state is called pumping.

 Pumping can be done in different ways :

 Optical: flashlamps and high-energy light sources
 Electrical: application of a potential difference across the laser
medium
 Semiconductor: movement of electrons in “junctions,” between
“holes”
Active medium
 It is a system or substance which has suitable energy level system so
that population inversion and consequently light amplification is
possible.
Optical Cavity/ Laser cavity:
 It is the space between two mirrors or reflecting surfaces

 Here, the photons travel repeatedly to and fro until a strong laser
beam is obtained

 The length of optical cavity is chosen in such a way that L= mλ/2

 Where, λ is wavelength of the Laser and m is an integer.

Construction and working of
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) laser

 CO2 laser consists of a discharge tube having a diameter of 2.5cm

and a length of about 5m.
 The active medium is the CO2, N2 and He in the ratio of 1:2:3.
 The active centers are the carbon dioxide molecules because laser
will be achieved due to these molecules.
 Electric discharge method is used for pumping and achieving
population inversion.

 All the gas mixtures are enclosed between a set of mirrors which
forms the optical resonator system.

 One of mirrors is completely reflecting (100%) and the other is

partially (99%) reflecting.
Working:

 Energy level diagram

 When electric discharge is passed through the mixture of CO2, N2 and
He, electrons are accelerated down the tube.

 These accelerated electrons collide with the N2 molecules and excite

them to higher vibrational energy levels.

 N2+e1=N2*+e2

 The level F2 happens to be Metastable and thus the N2 molecules

excited to F2 spend a sufficient amount of time before getting de-
excited.
 Achievement of population inversion of CO2 molecules:

 When N2 molecules in level F2 collide with the CO2 in the ground state E1, an
energy exchange takes place and this result in the excitation of CO2 molecules
to level E5 and de-excitation of N2 to the ground level F1.

 N2* + CO2 = N2 + CO2*

 Thus population inversion is achieved between vibrational

levels E5 and E4 or E5 and E3.
 Achievement of laser:

 Transition from E5 to E4 with laser wavelength of

10.6 μm.

 Transition from E5 to E3 with laser wavelength of 9.6

μm.
 To stop the accumulation of CO2 molecules in E2 special additives like He and
water vapors are added into the gas mixture.

 CO2 molecules return to the ground state E1 through collisions with the He to
which it transfers the excitation energy.

 Other function of He is to conduct the heat away to the walls keeping CO 2

cold, this is because helium has high thermal conductivity.
Summary of CO2 LASER

 Type : molecular gas laser

 Active medium : a mixture of CO2, N2 and He
 Active centre : CO2
 Pumping Process : Discharge pumping & resonance energy transfer
 Optical Resonator : 2 mirrors one is 100% and other is partial mirror
 Power output : 100 kW
 Nature of output : Continuous wave form
 Wave length : 10.6 μm. and 9.6 μm.
Semiconductor (Gallium
Arsenide) laser
 A semiconductor (Ga-As) diode laser is a specially
fabricated p-n junction device that emits coherent light
when it is forward biased.
Construction
 The p material is obtained by doping Ga-As with Zinc
 The n type by doping with Tellurium.
 A p-n junction is formed with a highly doped semiconductor
material (Gallium arsenide).
 The junction forms the active region.
 T he front and back polished faces which are parallel to
each other and perpendicular to the plane of the junction
constitute the optical resonator.
 The other two opposite faces are rough end to prevent
lasing action in that direction.
Working:

 On n-side ,valence band as well as a portion of the conduction

band are occupied by electrons and Fermi level lies within the
conduction band.
 Similarly heavily doped p-side the conduction band is unoccupied
and holes exist in the valence band and the Fermi level lies within
the valence band.
 At thermal equilibrium Fermi level is uniform across the junction.
 When a forward bias is applied to the junction the energy levels shift
and new distribution is as shown in fig.

 Electrons and holes are injected in to the depletion region.

 At low forward current level electron-hole recombination causes

spontaneous emission of photons (LED) and non radiative transitions.

 the forward current plays the role of pumping agent in the

semiconductor laser.
 The stimulated electron hole recombination causes emission of
coherent radiation.

 As the recombination and hence the emission of light occurs only in

the junction, all the semiconductor lasers are edge emitters.
Applications of LASER
 1. As a source of light signals in fibre-optic communication

 2. As optical memory unit in computers

 3. In endoscopes to examine the internal organs of the human body and to

perform bloodless surgeries

 4. In LASER guided missiles and bombs in Defense

 5. For navigation in aircrafts

 6. In display, they are used in laser shows

 7. For welding and drilling of metals and alloys

 8. For the creation of holographic images.