BEng (Hons) Electronic Engineering Cohort:

BEE21/FT 

Coursework for 2021 – 2022 / Semester 1

MODULE: Measurement & Instrumentation 

MODULE CODE: ASE1103c 

Name: Zaakir Ahmad Amide

StudentID: 2110_23062

Lecturer: Pravesh Bhungee

Question:1
Measuring instruments vary in terms of design, performing characteristics and quantity
being measured. However, the working principle can be related to a generalized
measuring system.

(a) Draw the block diagram for a generalized measuring system, indicating all
components.

Physical or Transducer Signal prcessing

Data
Electrical or Electric or signal
transmission
Measuring signal conditioning
element
Quantity convertor element

Display
Data
Controller presentation
element
Indicator

FIG: 1.1

(b)Using the answer in part a), explain the functions of each of the components using the
context of a digital weight balance.
Microcontroller 3

1 2 Weight
3 Calibration
Weight
Strain ADC
input on Microprocessor
Mass Calibration
Gauge converter
the scale

5 4

Power supply LCD Screen

 FIG:1.2
Digital weight balance
1) For the digital weight balance the transducer is a strain gauge. It is a device that
works by measuring the change in electrical resistance across a thin conductive foil.
2) The ADC converter is another device that converts the signal generated by the strain
gauge to digital form which can be understood by the microcontroller
3) The microcontroller consists of 2 parts in that case which are the weight calibration
and the mass calibration. Those use the information converted using the ADC to
process that information outputting a result.
4) The LCD screen is used to display the output which has been processed by the
microcontroller
5) The power supply supplies current to the requiring components
 c) Using a suitable example, explain the difference between static characteristics and
dynamic characteristics of a measuring instrument.
The performance requirements for the measurement of quantities that remain constant
are known as static characteristics. Alternatively, fluctuate just slowly. Dynamic features,
on the other hand, represent the connection between system input and output when the
measured amount is quickly changing.

o Dynamic characteristics
Characteristics that fluctuate quickly over time are known as dynamics. A dynamic
feedback system is one in which the input fluctuates instantaneously while the output
likewise varies from moment to moment.

An example for a dynamic characteristic is when you change a temperature probe for
cold water to hot water a sudden change in temperature is observed.

o Static characteristics

Instruments' static properties are features that do not vary over time. There are two types
of static characteristics: desirable and undesirable.

Some examples of static characteristics are:

 Accuracy
It refers to how near an instrument's readings are to the genuine value.
Accuracy is always measured relative to the genuine or actual value.

 Sensitivity
It refers to the instrument or device's response to the smallest change in
the measured value. Sensitivity is defined as the ratio of a change in an
instrument's output to a change in the value of the quantity to be
measured.

 Precision
It is the degree of similarity between the current reading and the prior
reading. When the difference between subsequent readings is minimal,
an instrument is considered to be precise.
d) Explain why direct measurements are less preferred in measuring instruments
compared to indirect measurements.

To measure a characteristic, direct measurement applies a standard directly to it.

Indirect measurement entails sizing up a different feature that is statistically reliant on
the one being studied. The remaining qualities offer an indirect estimation of the first
attribute.

Indirect techniques are generally more cost-effective than direct measurement solutions
and give appropriate measurement confidence for the application.

For example, you might use steel tape to physically measure the length and width of a
plot of land to compute its area. Alternatively, you may get a preliminary estimate by
counting your paces across the parcel and measuring the measurements in yards. The
number of paces necessary is related to the plot's size—the bigger the area, the more
steps are needed to cross it.

You're effectively exchanging measurement certainty for a faster, less expensive

estimate in this case. If you're only interested in knowing the area of the land so
you can buy the right quantity of fertilizer to apply over it, measuring it directly
isn't essential. In many of the measuring difficulties that engineers confront, the
same exchange is conceivable.
Question:2

a) What is the order of the measuring instrument? Justify your answer by

providing a generic equation that models the dynamic characteristic response
in Figure 2.1.

The measuring instrument is a second-order and the generic equation is :

d2 y dy
a 2 2 +a1 +a 0 y =b0 x
dt dt

b) ) Looking at the responses for the different damping ratios, list which
response is:
i.Undamped 
Output A
ii. Under damped 
Output B
iii. Critically damped 
Output C
iv. Over damped 
Output E

c) From your answer to b), explain which damping ratio is best for the measuring
instrument. Use your answer and a practical example of a second order
measuring instrument to justify why the other damping ratios are not suitable.

The best damping ratio for measuring instrument is under-damped since the
reading oscillates and gradually come to the true value.

An example is a spring balance, if critical damping is used the scale

oscillations will decrease but the final reading will overshoot and go beyond
the true value. If over damping is used the scale will creep slowly to the true
reading. But in real life over-damping will not be practical since it takes much
time to get the reading
 d) Measuring instruments are often subject to hysteresis, systematic errors,
random errors, and zero drift. Using a suitable example, explain the effect of
these terms and the solutions that can be utilized to mitigate these effects.
You are encouraged to use diagrams to support your answers.

Hysteresis :

Output Reading

Maximum output hysteresis Curve A – variable increasing

Measured variable

Curve B – variable decreasing Maximum input hysteresis

Dead space

FIG: 2.1

Dead space: it is a region in the graph where the output value does not change when a certain range of input is entered.

Hysteresis can be defined as the difference of magnitude in the measurand when it is increasing and
decreasing

For example, in gearboxes, the backlash in the gears can count as dead space. A solution to that is to
use different types of material such as other types of alloys or get tighter tolerances in the gears.

Random errors and systematic error:

Random errors also called unsystematic error are one that changes each time a reading is taken. The
error is not consistent in each reading taken. The readings are accurate but not precise it is shown in
figure 2.2 below

The solution to reducing the random error is to repeat the experiment and average the results to get
a more precise value in the experiment.

Systematic errors also called systematic bias are one that is the same throughout the experiment.
The errors stay the same in the measurement taken. The measurement will be precise but not
accurate. An example is not taring a scale to zero, the error will be the same in every reading of the
scale. This is shown in figure 2.2 below

The solution is to calibrate the apparatus to eliminate the error or to record the error present and
subtract it for the value taken.
 FIG:2.2

Zero Drift

The influence of a change in ambient conditions on an instrument's zero reading is known as zero
drift or bias. This results in a constant inaccuracy across the instrument's whole measuring range as
shown below in figure 2.3

Output

Characteristics with Zero drift

Nominal characteristics

Zero drift

Input

FIG:2.3

An example of zero drift is a mechanical bathroom scale which can be affected by the moisture and
humidity present. The scale is provided with a gear knob to adjust the instrument to true zero
QUESTION 3:

a) A spring balance is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of 20°C and has the

following deflection/toad characteristic: 

Load (kg)  0  1  2  3

Deflection 0  20  40  60

(mm) 

It is then used in an environment at a temperature of 30°C and the following

deflection/load characteristic is measured. 

Load (kg)  0  1  2  3

Deflection 5  27  49  71

(mm) 

Using a suitable plot or otherwise, determine the zero drift and sensitivity drift per
°C change in ambient temperature.

Graph of deflection against load

Deflection

load
For 20oC , the gradient is a straight line with 0mm of deflection for no load and has a sensitivity of
20mm/kg

For 30oC , the gradient is a straight line with 5mm of deflection for no load and has a sensitivity of
22mm/kg

Zero drift per Degree Celsius is

∆ ( no deflecctiom ) 5−0
= =0.5 mm ¿ o C
∆Temperature 30−20

Sensitivity drift per Degree Celsius is

∆ sensitivity 22−20 −1 o
= =0.2(mm Kg )¿ C
∆ Temperature 30−20
A sinusoidal voltage trace displayed by an oscilloscope is shown in Figure 2(d) below.

If the ‘time/cm’ switch is on 500μs/cm and the ‘volts/cm’ switch is on 5V/cm, find, for

the waveform:

i. the frequency

Time period(T) = 2000μs=2x10-3s

1 1
Frequency = = =500 Hz
T 2× 10−3

ii. the peak-to-peak voltage

Peak−Peak=25 × 5=125 V

iii. the amplitude

Amplitude = 12.5 V

iv. the mean value

0+6+12+12+6+ 0
Mean value= =6
6
v. the r.m.s. value.

√
2 2 2 2 2 2
0 +6 +12 +12 + 6 +0 =7.745
R . M . S=
6
QUESTION 4: (25 MARKS) 

a) Figure 4.1 shows a Wheatstone Bridge. Determine the value of the unknown
resistance Rx and its accuracy of measurement, if at balance: 
R1 = 1000Ω ± 1.0 %
R2 = 100Ω ± 0.5 %
R3 = 432.5Ω ± 0.2 %

Ans :

Voltage DA = Voltage DC

I1R3 = I2Rx - (1)

Voltage AB = Voltage CB

I1R1 = I2R2 -(2)

I1R3 = I2Rx - (1)

I1R1 = I2R2 -(2)

(2)/(1)

R1 R2
=
R3 Rx

R x =R3
( ) R2
R1

R x =432.5 ( 1000
100
)
R x =43.25 Ω

Resultant uncertainty = 1.0 + 0.2 + 0.5 = 1.7 %

R x =43.25 ± 1.7 %

ANS: R x =43.25 ± 0.735

b) Figure 4.2 shows the current being measured by an ammeter. 

i. Assuming that the provided ammeter is of moving coil type, calculate the 
reading that would be observed.
2π
1
I mean= ∫ I dωt
2π 0

For 0< ω< π

5 ωt
I=
π

For π <ωt <2 π

I =5 sin ( ωt )

( )
π 2π
1
I mean=
2π
∫ 5 ωt
π
dωt+ ∫ 5 sin ( ωt ) dωt
0 π

([ ] )
2 π
1 5 ( ωt ) 2π
¿ +5 [−cos ( ωt ) ]π
2π 2π 0

( ) ( ) ( )
2
1 5π 1 5π 5 π
¿ −0−5−5 = −10 = −2 =−0.342 A
2π 2π 2π 2 2π 2

Reading is -0.342A
ii. Assuming that the provided ammeter is of moving iron type, calculate the 
reading that would be observed.

For 0< ω< π

5 ωt
I=
π

2 25(ωt )2
I = 2
π

For π <ωt <2 π

2 2
I =25 sin ( ωt )

( )
π 2π
1 25(ωt)2
I
2
rms =
2π
∫ π 2 dωt +∫ 25 sin2 ( ωt ) dωt
0 π

1
¿ ¿
2π

([ ] [ )
π
( ωt )3
]
2π
25 ωt sin 2 ωt
¿ 2
+ −
2π 3π 0 2 4 π

¿ (
25 π 2 π π
+ − =
2π 3 2
25 π π 25 1 1
+ =
2 2π 3 2 ) (
+ =10.416
2 3 2 ) ( )
√
I rms = ( I rms ) =3.23 A
2

Reading on the moving iron type ammeter is 3.23A

iii. Comment on which measurement reading is more convenient for

measuring physical quantities that follow a sinusoidal pattern.

The moving iron will be more convenient since it measure the r.m.s
reading of the current which is more suitable for measuring quantity that
follow a sinusoidal wave.
References :

https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/random-vs-systematic-error/

- Pritha Bhandari

Introduction to instrumentation Engineering – Sintayehu Challa