ENGINEERING MEASUREMENTS

ASSIGNMENT - 1

Yawar Sibtain Rizvi

Bachelors of Technology (Honors)

Mechanical

Fall 2013

University of South Asia

Heritage International Colleges
 PART-1
(SUBJECTIVE)

Answer the questions.

1A. Define the line standard and wavelength standers.

LINE STANDARD
According to line standard the yard and meter is defined as the distance between inscribed line
on a bar of metal under certain condition of temperature and support.

For example, in line standard, meter is the distance between the centre portions of two lines
engraved on the polished surface of a bar made of platinum (90%) iridium (10%) alloy having a
unique cress section. This bar is kept at 0C and under normal atmospheric pressure.

WAVELENGTH STANDARD
The primary wavelength standard can be a laser standard which has its frequency compared
with Cs time and frequency standard.

For example, in wavelength standard, the meter is defined as the wavelength of a krypton-86
lamp as the length equal to 1,650,736.73 wavelengths in vacuum corresponding to the
transition between two energy levels of the atom krypton-86.
Or the length of path of travelled by light in vacuum in (1/ 299792458) second is equal to one
meter. The light used is iodine stabilized helium-neon laser.

1B. Distinguish between tolerance and allowance.

TOLERANCE
Tolerance is defined as the difference between maximum and minimum limits of size for a hole
or shaft. It is also the difference between the upper and lower deviations.
Tolerances should be specified in the case where a dimension is critical to the proper
functioning or interchangeability of a component.
A tolerance can also be supplied to a dimension which can have an unusually large variation in
size.

ALLOWANCE
Allowance is the term given to the minimum clearance (called positive allowance) or maximum
interference (called negative allowance) which exists between mating parts. It may also be
describe as the clearance or interference which gives the tightest possible fit between mating
parts.
1C. Define the following terms…accuracy, precision, calibration and hysteresis.

ACCURACY
The accuracy of an instrument indicates the deviation of the reading from a known input. In
other words, accuracy is the closeness with which the readings of an instrument approaches
the true values of the quantity measured. It is the maximum amount by which the result differs
from the true value.

Accuracy = Maximum error = Vr (max) - Va

PRECISION
The precision of an instrument indicates its ability to reproduce a certain reading with a given
accuracy. In other words, it is the degree of agreement between repeated results.
Precision data have small dispersion (spread or scatter) but may be far from the true value. A
measurement can be accurate but not precise, precise but not accurate, neither, or both. A
measurement system is called valid if it is both accurate and precise.

CALIBRATION
It is the setting or correcting of a measuring device or a base level usually by adjusting it to
match or conform to a dependably known value or act of checking or adjusting (by comparing
with standard) the accuracy of a measuring instrument.
It is the procedure employed for making adjustments or checking a scale for the readings of a
system conforming to the accepted or pre defined standard i.e. to say that the system has to
prove its ability to measure reliably. Every measuring system must be provable. The procedure
adopted to prove the ability of a measuring system to measure reliably is called calibration.

HYSTERESIS
An instrument is said to exhibit hysteresis when there is a difference in readings depending on
whether the value of the measured quantity is approached from higher value or from a lower
value.
Hysteresis arises because of mechanical friction, magnetic effects, elastic deformation or
thermal effects.

2A. Explain working of CRO.

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)

CRO is the most versatile readout device and display device for mechanical measurements. It is
used for measurement and analysis of waveforms and other phenomenon in electrical &
electronic circuits. CRO is a voltage sensitive instrument with an electron beam striking the
fluorescent screen. The extremely low inertia beam of electrons enables it to be used for
following the rapidly varying voltages.
Electron beam generated by the electron gun first deflected by the deflection plates, and then
directed onto the fluorescent coating of the CRO screen, which produces a visible light spot on
the face plane of the oscilloscope screen.
The heart of the CRO is the Cathode ray tube (CRT), whose important parts and there functions
are;

ELECTRON GUN ASSEMBLY

The electron gun assembly produces a sharply focused beam of electrons which in turn are
accelerated to high velocity.
This beam of electrons strikes the fluorescent screen with sufficient energy to cause a luminous
spot on the screen.

ELECTRON GUN
An electron gun emits electrons and makes them into a beam. It consists of a heater, cathode,
grid, focusing and accelerating anodes. Electrons are emitted from an indirectly heated
cathode.
These pass through a small hole in the control grid. The grid controls the electrons emitted from
the cathode and hence the intensity of the beam. The electrons are then accelerated by
accelerating anodes.

DEFLECTION PLATES
These are two pairs of electrostatic plates. A voltage applied to a pair of vertical plates moves
the electron beam vertically up or down. And if the voltage is applied to the pair of horizontal
plates, the electron beam moves horizontally from one end to other end of the screen. The CRT
is evacuated so that the emitted electrons can move freely from one end of the tube to the
other.
• Usually in CRO’s, the horizontal voltage is internally developed where as the vertical voltage is
the voltage under investigation (input).
• This voltage moves the luminous spot up & down in accordance with the instantaneous value
of voltage. In other words, it traces the ‘waveform’ of the input voltage w.r.t. time.

• CRO’s can also be used to visualize various quantities such as current, strain, acceleration,
pressure if they can be converted into voltages.
2B. Discuss the construction of optical pyrometer.

THE PYROMETER
This chapter describes the pyrometer's construction and its function. The most widely-used
types are also shown. The differences between models are hardly noticeable from the
outside, but are evident when examining the internal construction.

CONSTRUCTION AND FUNCTION

The basic parts of a pyrometer are the lens, aperture, filter detector, and the signal processing
unit (see illustration).
The infrared radiation coming in from the object to be measured is gathered by the lens. The
aperture blocks unwanted rays at the edges. The filter permits only the desired spectral range
to enter. The rays then pass through to the detector which transforms the infrared radiation
into electric signals. These signals are then linearised in the signal processing unit and changed
into a standard output signal which can then be read in the display, and be used for process
control.
2C. What are the disadvantages of mechanical transducer?
2D. Differentiate between precision and accuracy.

S.No. Accuracy Precision

It is the closeness with the true
It is a measure of reproducibility of the
1 value of the quantity being
measurements
measured
The accuracy of measurement The term precise means clearly or sharply
2
means conformity to truth defined

3 Accuracy can be improved Precision cannot be improved

Precision depends upon many factors and

Accuracy depends upon simple
4 requires many sophisticated techniques of
techniques of analysis
analysis
Accuracy is necessary but not Precision is necessary but not a sufficient
5
sufficient condition for precision condition for accuracy
 PART-2
(OBJECTIVE)
Chose The Right Option.
Sr.
No CHOSE THE CORRECT OPTION (√ )
QUESTIONS
.
  (A) (B) (C) (D)
Instrument is a device for magnitude The physics of a Either of the
1 (a) and (b)
determining of quantity variable above
Peak value peak-to-peak
2 A digital voltmeter measures RMS value Average value
value
3 Decibel is a unit of power impedance frequency power ratio

Transformers used in conjunction Measuring

transformers transformer power instrument
4 with measuring instruments for
meters transformers transformers
measuring purposes are called
amplifier
an un-tuned a wide band a high gain
5 An oscillator is a having
feedback
amplifier amplifier amplifier
Which of the following electrical
mercury arc
6 equipment cannot convert ac into converter transformer
rectifier
dc diode
The electric device which blocks an
7 capacitance inductor a watt-meter
DC but allows AC is called oscilloscope
The size of air cored transducers
8 as compare to iron core bigger smaller same  
counterpart are
From the point of view of safety,
resistance is
9 the resistance of earthling low high medium
ineffective
electrode should be
Which of the following meters has moving moving coil rectifier type thermocouple
10
the best accuracy iron meter meter meter meter
Registers
measure ac Measures
current indicate very
11 A hot-wire ammeter can as well as electrical
changes very low voltages
dc energy
fast
The rate at which charge carriers
12 flow is measured in Coulombs Amperes Watt-hour Watts

13 A watt-hour meter measures A. Voltage B. Current C. Energy D. Power

 SR.NO. STATEMENTS (T/F)

1 Helical tubes are used in pressure gauges.  T

2 A C.R.O. is used to indicate supply waveform  T

3 Vernier caliper is used to take linear measurements.  T

4 The least count of screw gauge is 0.01 cm.  F

5 Resistivity of a wire depends on material, length cross section area.  T

Find the statement whether it is true or not.

ENGINEERING MEASUREMENTS
 ASSIGNMENT - 1

Yawar Sibtain Rizvi

Bachelors of Technology (Honors)

Mechanical

Fall 2013

University of South Asia

Heritage International Colleges
PART-1
 (SUBJECTIVE)

Answer the questions.

1A. Discuss the construction of optical pyrometer.

THE PYROMETER
This chapter describes the pyrometer's construction and its function. The most widely-used
types are also shown. The differences between models are hardly noticeable from the outside,
but are evident when examining the internal construction.

CONSTRUCTION AND FUNCTION

The basic parts of a pyrometer are the lens, aperture, filter detector, and the signal processing
unit (see illustration).
The infrared radiation coming in from the object to be measured is gathered by the lens. The
aperture blocks unwanted rays at the edges. The filter permits only the desired spectral range
to enter. The rays then pass through to the detector which transforms the infrared radiation
into electric signals. These signals are then linearised in the signal processing unit and changed
into a standard output signal which can then be read in the display, and be used for process
control.

1B. Write a note on any two (Hydraulic dynamometer, Wheatstone bridge, gauge factor)
1C. Explain laws of thermocouples.
STATEMENT of LAWS
Many investigations of thermoelectric circuits have been made and have resulted in the
establishment of several basic precepts. These precepts, while stated in many different ways,
can be reduced to three fundamental laws.

LAW OF INTERMEDIATE TEMPERATURES

The law states that the sum of the EMF's generated by two thermocouples, one with its
junction at 32° F. and some reference temperature and the other with its junction at the same
reference temperature and the measured temperature is equivalent to that EMF produced by a
single thermocouple with its junction at 32° F.
What it means: cold junction compensation is easily controlled by instrumentation.

LAW OF HOMOGENEOUS METALS

A thermoelectric current cannot be sustained in a circuit of a single homogeneous material,
however varying in cross-section, by the application of heat alone.
What it means: use thermocouple extension wire and connectors.

LAW OF INTERMEDIATE METALS

Insertion of an intermediate metal into a thermocouple circuit will not affect the EMF voltage
output as long as the two junctions are at the same temperatures.
What it means: standard copper or brass
terminal blocks inside connection heads and
junction boxes will have no adverse effect on
accuracy.

2A. Explain the various types of errors that occur in measurement.

ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS
Error may be defined as the difference between the measured value and the true value.
No measurement can be made without errors at all times i.e. 100% accurate measurements
cannot be made at all times.

TYPES OF ERRORS:
There are three main types of errors. Systematic error, Random errors & illegitimate errors.

SYSTEMATIC ERRORS
Generally the will be constant / similar form /recur consistently every time measurement is
measured.
May result from improper condition or procedures employed. For Example:

(a) Calibration errors

(b) Certain types of consistently recurring human errors
(c) Errors of technique
(d) Uncorrected loading errors
(e) Limits of system resolution Systematic errors are repetitive & of fixed value. They have a
definite magnitude & direction

RANDOM OR ACCIDENTAL ERRORS

Random errors are distinguishable by their lack of consistency. An observer may not be
consistent in taking readings. Also the process involved may include certain poorly controlled
variables causing changing conditions. The variations in temperature, vibrations of external
medium, etc. cause errors in the instrument. Errors of this type are normally of limited duration
& are inherent to specific environment. Example are:
(a) Errors stemming from environmental variations
(b) Certain types of human errors
(c) Due to Variations in definition
(d) Due to Insufficient sensitivity of measuring system
 ILLEGITIMATE ERRORS
Illegitimate errors should not exist and may be eliminated by careful exercise & repetition of
measurement. Chaotic errors which may be due to extreme vibration, mechanical shock of the
equipment, pick up of extraneous noise make the testing meaningless unless all these
disturbances are eliminated. If a measuring instrument is not calibrated periodically it will lead
to errors in measurement. Example of Illegitimate errors are below.

(a) Blunders or Mistakes

(b) Computational errors
(c) Chaotic errors

2B. Differentiate between precision and accuracy.

S.No. Accuracy Precision

It is the closeness with the true
value of the quantity being
measured
The accuracy of measurement
means conformity to truth
Accuracy can be improved
Accuracy depends upon simple
techniques of analysis
Accuracy is necessary but not
sufficient condition for precision
It is a measure of reproducibility of the
measurements
The term precise means clearly or sharply
defined
Precision cannot be improved
Precision depends upon many factors and
requires many sophisticated techniques of
analysis
Precision is necessary but not a sufficient
condition for accuracy
2C. Write a note on thermocouple.

THERMOCOUPLE

A thermocouple is a junction between two different metals that produces a voltage related to a
temperature difference. Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor for
measurement and control and can also be used to convert heat into electric power. They are
inexpensive and interchangeable, are supplied fitted with standard connectors, and can
measure a wide range of temperatures. The main limitation is accuracy: system errors of less
than one degree Celsius (C) can be difficult to achieve.

Of all the primary measuring sensors, the thermocouple is perhaps the easiest to visualize. A
thermocouple consists essentially of a pair of dissimilar conductors welded or fused together at
one end to form the "hot" or measuring junction with the free ends available for connection to
the "cold" or reference junction.
A temperature difference between the measuring and reference junctions must exist for this
device to function as a thermocouple. When this occurs, small electromotive forces (emf's) are
generated. These emf's originate at the "hot" junction as well as whenever there is a
temperature gradient between parts of the same wire.

Any junction of dissimilar metals will produce an electric potential related to temperature.
Thermocouples for practical measurement of temperature are junctions of specific alloys which
have a predictable and repeatable relationship between temperature and voltage. Different
alloys are used for different temperature ranges. Properties such as resistance to corrosion may
also be important when choosing a type of thermocouple. Where the measurement point is far
from the measuring instrument, the intermediate connection can be made by extension wires
which are less costly than the materials used to make the sensor. Thermocouples are usually
standardized against a reference temperature of 0 degrees Celsius; practical instruments use
electronic methods of cold-junction compensation to adjust for varying temperature at the
instrument terminals. Electronic instruments can also compensate for the varying
characteristics of the thermocouple, and so improve the precision and accuracy of
measurements.

Thermocouples are widely used in science and industry; applications include temperature
measurement for kilns, gas turbine exhaust, diesel engines, and other industrial processes.
 PART-2
(OBJECTIVE)
Chose The Right Option.
Sr.
CHOSE THE CORRECT OPTION (√ )
No. QUESTIONS
  (A) (B) (C) (D)
magnitude The physics of Either of the
1 Instrument is a device for determining (a) and (b)
of quantity a variable above
Peak value peak-to-peak
2 A digital voltmeter measures RMS value Average value
value
3 Decibel is a unit of power impedance frequency power ratio
Measuring
Transformers used in conjunction with transformer
transformer power instrument
4 measuring instruments for measuring s
meters transformers transformers
purposes are called

amplifier
an un-tuned a wide band a high gain
5 An oscillator is a having
amplifier amplifier amplifier
feedback
Which of the following electrical mercury arc
6 diode converter transformer
equipment cannot convert ac into dc rectifier
The electric device which blocks DC but
7 capacitance inductor oscilloscope a watt-meter
allows AC is called
The size of air cored transducers as
8 bigger smaller same  
compare to iron core counterpart are
From the point of view of safety, the
resistance is
9 resistance of earthling electrode should low high medium
ineffective
be
Which of the following meters has moving moving coil rectifier thermocoupl
10
the best accuracy iron meter meter type meter e meter
Registers
measure ac indicate Measures
current
11 A hot-wire ammeter can as well as very low electrical
changes very
dc voltages energy
fast
The rate at which charge carriers
12 flow is measured in Coulombs Amperes Watt-hour Watts

The main problem with bar-graph are not cannot give can display
meters is that they…… very
13 are unstable precise only peak
sensitive readings values

14 A watt-hour meter measures Voltage Current Energy Power

Find the statement whether it is true or not.

1 Helical tubes are used in pressure gauges.  T

2 A C.R.O. is used to indicate supply waveform  T

3 Vernier caliper is used to take linear measurements.  T

4 the least count of screw gauge is 0.01 cm.  F

5 Resistivity of a wire depends on material, length cross section area.  T