MEASUREMENT

AND
INSTRUMENTATIO
N

Dr. Pervez Hameed

Associate Professor
Department of Electrical Engineering
Mehran University of Engineering and
Technology Jamshoro

1
 Instrumentation Significance

• Properties of investigated object

(electrical and non-electrical ones)
are determined by application of
various sensors;
• This convert the measured values
into electrical signals,
Examples:
a. thermocouples for temperature
measurements,
b. Hall sensors for magnetic field and
c. current measurements, strain
d. gauge sensors for stress
measurements).

The typical Bosch sensors used for automotive application (from

Bosch – Automotive Sensors 2002) (permission of Robert Bosch
GmbH)
 Functional Elements of an Instrument
3

 Any instrument or measuring system can be

represented by a block diagram, that indicates
necessary elements and its functions.
 The entire operation (necessary elements and its
functions) of a measuring system can be understood
from the following block diagram.
Functional Elements of an Instrument
 Functional Elements of an Instrument
5

 Just take an example of analogue meter used to

measure current (Ammeter), all necessary elements
are shown in block diagram.
 Functional Elements of an Instrument
6

The various elements can be grouped as,

1.Primary Sensing Element

2.Data Conditioning Element

3.Data Transmission Element

4.Data Presentation Element

 Functional Elements of an Instrument
7

1. Primary Sensing Element

The first contact with the quantity to be measured and is
carried by the primary sensing element. In ammeter,
current carrying coil or in most cases transducer that
converts physical quantity into corresponding electrical
signals.
 Functional Elements of an Instrument
8

2. Data Conditioning Element

This has further been classified as a) Variable Conversion
Element b) Variable Manipulation Element
 Functional Elements of an Instrument
9

a) Variable Conversion Element

The output of primary sensing element may not be suitable
for actual measurement system, such a signal is
transformed. Such as, in case of digital measurement
system.
a) Variable Manipulation Element
The level of the output may not be enough to drive the next
signal, thus manipulation involves the change in
numerical value, preserving the original nature of the
signal.
 Functional Elements of an Instrument
10

3. Data Transmission Element

The element of the system are physically separated, it is
necessary to transmit data from one stage to another. The
signal conditioning and data transmission together referred
to as Intermediate stage of an Instrument.
 Functional Elements of an Instrument
11

4. Data Presentation Element

The transmitted data may finally be used for monitoring,
controlling or analyzing purpose. The information must
appear in proper form for the purpose it is intended.
Basic components in a measurement system

Basic components in a measurement system are shown below:

Amplification and Conditioning

It is also important to mention that a power supply is an important

element for the entire system.
INSTRUMENTATION
CHARACTERISTICS

 Shows the performance of instruments to be used.

 Divided into two categories: static and dynamic
characteristics.
 Static characteristics refer to the comparison
between steady output and ideal output when the input
is constant.
 Dynamic characteristics refer to the comparison
between instrument output and ideal output when the
input changes.
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

1. ACCURACY

 Accuracy is the ability of an

instrument to show the exact reading.
 It is a measure of how close the
output reading of the instrument is to
the correct value.
 Always related to the extent of the
wrong reading/non accuracy.
 Normally shown in percentage of error
which of the full scale reading
percentage.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Example :
A pressure gauge with a range between 0-1 bar
with an accuracy of ± 5% fs (full-scale) has a
maximum error of:
5 x 1 bar = ± 0.05 bar
100
Notes: It is essential to choose an equipment
which has a suitable operating range.
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

2. PRECISION

 Precision is a term that describes an instrument’s

degree of freedom from random errors.
 If many readings are taken of the same quantity by a
high precision instrument, then the spread of readings
will be very small.
 An equipment which is precise is not necessarily
accurate.
 Defined as the capability of an instrument to show the
same reading when used each time (reproducibility of
the instrument).
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

Example : XXX
XXX
X : result
Centre circle : true value

Low accuracy, high precision

XXX
XXXX
XXX
X X

High accuracy, high precision x x

Low accuracy, low precision

Accuracy vs Precision

High Precision, but low

accuracy.

There is a systematic error.

Accuracy vs Precision (Cont)

High accuracy means that the mean is close to the true value, while high
precision means that the standard deviation σ is small.
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

3. TOLERANCE

 Closely related to accuracy of an

equipment where the accuracy of an
equipment is sometimes referred to
in the form of tolerance limit.
 Defined as the maximum error
expected in an instrument.
 Explains the maximum deviation of an
output component at a certain value.
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

4. RANGE OF SPAN
 Defined as the range of
reading between minimum value
and maximum value for the
measurement of an instrument.
 Has a positive value e.g..:
The range of span of an
instrument which has a reading
range of –100°C to 100 °C is
200 °C.
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

5. BIAS
 Constant error which occurs during the
measurement of an instrument.
 This error is usually rectified through
calibration.
Example :
A weighing scale always gives a bias
reading. This equipment always gives a
reading of 1 kg even without any load
applied. Therefore, if A with a weight of
70 kg weighs himself, the given reading
would be 71 kg. This would indicate that
there is a constant bias of 1 kg to be
corrected.
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

6. LINEARITY
 Maximum deviation from linear relation
between input and output.
 The output of an instrument has to be
linearly proportionate to the measured
quantity.
 Normally shown in the form of full scale
percentage (% fs).
 The graph shows the output reading of
an instrument when a few input readings
are entered.
 Linearity = maximum deviation from the
reading of x and the straight line.
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

7. SENSIVITY
 Defined as the ratio of change in output
towards the change in input at a steady
state condition.
 Sensitivity (K) = Δθο
Δθi
Δθο : change in output; Δθi : change in
input
Example 1:
The resistance value of a Platinum
Resistance Thermometer changes when the
temperature increases. Therefore, the unit
of sensitivity for this equipment is Ohm/°C.
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

7. SENSIVITY
Example
The following resistance values of a
platinum resistance thermometer were
measured at a range of temperatures.
Determine the measurement
sensitivity of the instrument in
ohms/°C.
Solution
If these values are plotted on a graph, the straight-line relationship
between resistance change and temperature change is obvious.
For a change in temperature of 30°C, the change in resistance is 7
ohms. Hence the measurement sensitivity = 7/30 = 0.233 ohm/°C.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

8. DEAD SPACE / DEAD BAND

 Defined as the range of input reading when there is no change in
output (unresponsive system).
alternatively
 The range of different input values over which there is no change in
output value

Output
Reading

- +

Measured
Variables

Dead Space
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

9. RESOLUTION
 The smallest change in
input reading that can be
traced accurately.
 Given in the form ‘% of
full scale (% fs)’.
 Available in digital
instrumentation.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

10. THRESHOLD
 When the reading of an input is increased from zero, the input
reading will reach a certain value before change occurs in the
output.
 The minimum level of the input reading is ‘threshold’ of the
instrument.
 Manufacturers vary in the way that they specify threshold for
instruments. Some quote absolute values, whereas others quote
threshold as a percentage of full-scale readings.
 Example: a car speedometer typically has a threshold of about
15 km/h. This means that, if the vehicle starts from rest and
accelerates, no output reading is observed on the speedometer
until the speed reaches 15 km/h.
Mathematical Problems - Precision
Mathematical Problems -
Sensitivity
Mathematical Problems -
Resolution
Mathematical Problems
Example
Static Error

 The most important static characteristics of an

instrument is its accuracy, which is generally
expressed in terms of the error called static error.
 The algebraic difference between the indicated value
and the true value of the quantity to be measured is
called an error.
Static Error
Mathematical Problems - Static Error
Static Error
Sample Exam Questions

 What are the main elements in a measurement system and

what are their functions?
 Which elements are not needed in some measurement systems
and why are they not needed?
 What are the main factors governing the choice of a
measuring instrument for a given application?
 Q & A,
THANK YOU