Class 1 - Sensor and Transducer

SENSORS AND
TRANSDUCERS
NILADRI HALDER
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
UNIVERSITY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
THE UNIVERSITY OF BURDWAN
SENSORS VS TRANSDUCERS
The sensor is a device that measures the physical quantity (i.e. Heat, light,
sound, etc.) into an easily readable signal (voltage, current etc.). It gives
accurate readings after calibration.
• Examples – The mercury used in the thermometer converts the
measurand temperature into an expansion and contraction of the liquid
which is easily measured with the help of a calibrated glass tube. The
thermocouple also converts the temperature to an output voltage which
is measured by the thermometer.
The transducer is a device that changes the physical attributes of the non-
electrical signal into an electrical signal which is easily measurable. The
process of energy conversion in the transducer is known as the transduction.
The transduction is completed into two steps. First by sensing the signal and
then strengthening it for further processing.
The transducer has three major components; they are the input device, signal
conditioning or processing device and an output device.
The input devices receive the measurand quantity and transfer the
proportional analogue signal to the conditioning device. The conditioning
device modified, filtered, or attenuates the signal which is easily acceptable
by the output devices.
Controlled Output
Block Diagram of a Transducer

SEMICONDUCTOR SENSOR
• Small size and low cost

• Uses fabrication processes if integrated circuits

• Integration with micro electronic circuit possible (called integrated micro sensors)
Intraocular pressure (IOP) sensor consists of a
disposable contact lens with a MEMS strain-gage
pressure sensor element, an embedded loop antenna
(golden rings), and an ASIC microprocessor (2mmx2mm
chip). The MEMS sensor includes a circular active outer
ring and passive strain gages to measure corneal
curvature changes in response to IOP. The loop antenna in
the lens receives power from the external monitoring
system and sends information back to the system.
MEMS inertial sensors MEMS accelerometers are used in

defibrillators and pacemakers. Some patients exhibit unusually fast
or chaotic heart beats and thus are at a high risk of cardiac arrest or
a heart attack. An implantable defibrillator restores a normal heart
rhythm by providing electrical shocks to the heart during abnormal
conditions. Some peoples’ hearts beat too slowly, and this may be
related to the natural aging process or a genetic condition. A
pacemaker maintains a proper heart beat by transmitting electrical
impulses to the heart. Conventional pacemakers were fixed rate.
Modern pacemakers employ MEMS accelerometers and are capable
of adjusting heart rate in accordance with the patient’s physical
activity.
MEMS hearing-aid transducer A hearing-aid is

an electro acoustic device used to receive, amplify
and radiate sound into the ear. The goal of a
hearing aid is to compensate for the hearing loss
and thus make audio communication more
intelligible for the user.
Micromachined needles micromachining

enables fabrication of needles smaller than
300 µm, which is the limit of conventional
machining methods. Typically, the length of
the mems-based micro needles is less than 1
mm. Micro needles have been used for drug
delivery, bio-signal recording electrodes,
blood extraction, fluid sampling, cancer
therapy, and micro dialysis.
BMI forms a direct communication pathway between the brain and an external device.
Neural communication through

 Electrical signal
 Chemical signal
CLASSIFICATION
Application Based Classification:
CLASSIFICATION
Property Based Classification:
CLASSIFICATION
Property Based Classification:
EMERGING SENSOR TECHNOLOGIES
SENSOR CHARACTERISTICS
Sensors like measurement systems have two general characteristics, namely 1. Static and 2. Dynamic
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS:
(A) Accuracy specified by inaccuracy or usually error:
xm  xt Where, t = true value

a%   100 m = measured value
xt x = measurand
(B) Precision: describes how far a measured

quantity is reproducible as also how close it
is to the true value.
Repeatability = precision
=difference in output for a
specific input
(C) Resolution: is defined as the smallest incremental change in the input that would produce a
detectable change in the output. For a detectable output  y , if the minimum change in input is x
, then the maximum resolution is,
100x min
Rmax %   Where, MR = percentage of measured range
MR = xmax  xmin
n
 x i
Average Resolution, Rav %   100 1
n.MR
(C) Minimum Detectable Signal: If the input doesn’t contain any noise, the minimum signal
level that produces a detectable output from the sensor is determined by its noise performance or
noise characteristics. An equivalent noise source is connected to the input side to the ideal
noiseless sensor to yield an output which is the actual output level of the sensor. MDS is taken as
the RMS equivalent of the input noise. When the signal exceeds this value, it is called a detectable
signal.
(D) Threshold: At the zero value condition of the measurand, the smallest input change that produces
a detectable output is called the threshold.
(E) Drift: Changes in sensor performance within hours, days or years. Aging depends on storage
conditions, isolating materials.
y
(F) Sensitivity: It is the ratio of the incremental output to the incremental input, that is S =
x
(G) Nonlinearity: It means the deviation from

the linearity means the deviation from the
expected output of the sensor. Deviation can
occur in two different ways. First, deviation
from the best fit straight line obtained by
regression analysis and secondly, deviation
from a straight line joining the end points of
the scale.
(H) Hysteresis: It is the difference in the output y of the sensor for a given input x when x reaches
this value in upscale and downscale directions.
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS:
Relate to its performance when the measurand is a function of time.
Dynamic response of the measuring system may be considered to consists of two components:
one due to its own characteristics parameters and other due to the nature of the input function.
The dynamic characteristics for a first order or second order measuring system are:
(a) Dynamic Error

(b) Fidelity
(c) Bandwidth
(d) Speed of Response
(a) Dynamic Error: Algebraic difference between the indicated / recorded value of measurand
and its true value at any instant, when the measurand is a function of time.
It has two components, viz. transient error and steady state error
Under Steady State condition when the measuring system is subjected to a step-input function,
static sensitivity = ratio of the amplitude of the output signal to that of the measurand
For ramp signal and sinusoidal signal,

dynamic sensitivity = ratio of the peak amplitude of the output signal to that of the
input signal
(b) Fidelity: Ability to follow instant by instant the variation of the measurand with time.
True or excellent fidelity of a system would imply that the waveform of the output and
input signals coincide with each other at all instant under the steady state condition.
The RMS reading, moving iron type indication meters are required to have the same
sensitivity for DC signals as well as the AC signals for frequencies over a small range
around 50 Hz.
Waveform recorder, CRO are required excellent fidelity with no amplitude or phase
distortion for signals of frequencies over a wide range
(c) Bandwidth: Range of frequencies for which its dynamic sensitivity if satisfactory.
For measuring system, the dynamic sensitivity is required to be within  2% of its

static sensitivity.
(d) Speed of Response: Ability to response to sudden change of amplitude of input signal.
Time constant associated with the behavior of a first order system and is defined as the
time taken by the system to reach 63.2% of its final output signal amplitude.
A system having smaller time constant will have higher speed of response.
INFORMATION PROCESSING SYSTEM
Input Signal Sensor Processor Actuator
Quantity being Convert non Performs set of Converts the

measured by a electrical quantity logical & electrical
sensor into electrical mathematical signal into Output Signal
signal operation non electrical
quantity
ACTUATOR SYSTEM
ACTUATOR
AMPLIFIER
IN E E M OUT

E M ME
I B
A* I
Exception: Piezoelectric Material

Class 1 - Sensor and Transducer

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SENSORS AND

Block Diagram of a Transducer

• Small size and low cost

• Uses fabrication processes if integrated circuits

MEMS inertial sensors MEMS accelerometers are used in

MEMS hearing-aid transducer A hearing-aid is

Micromachined needles micromachining

Neural communication through

(A) Accuracy specified by inaccuracy or usually error:

xm  xt Where, t = true value

(B) Precision: describes how far a measured

(G) Nonlinearity: It means the deviation from

(a) Dynamic Error

For ramp signal and sinusoidal signal,

For measuring system, the dynamic sensitivity is required to be within  2% of its

Input Signal Sensor Processor Actuator

Quantity being Convert non Performs set of Converts the

Exception: Piezoelectric Material

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