Session 2 Sensors - Transducer

Session 2:
Sensors & Transducers

Suhas Deshmukh
Professor,
Mechanical Engineering Department,
SAE Kondhawa (Bk), Pune
Outline
• Sensor and Transducers
• Definition and performance terminology

• Static and dynamic characteristics
• Sensing physical quantities

• Displacement, position and proximity
Mechatronics
Concept Map
Basic Elements of Typical Mechatronics System
Mechanical Amplifying
Sensors
System Electronics
Actuators Mechatronics Data Acquisition

System
Amplifying Data Acquisition Control System

Electronics System Micro-controller or
Computer
System
• A system can be defined as an arrangement of parts within some
boundary which work together to provide some form of output
from a specified input or inputs.
• Boundary divides and interact with environment by means of

signals crossing boundary
Measurement
Physical Measurement
phenomenon Output
Measurement output:
interaction between a sensor and the environment surrounding the sensor
compound response of multiple inputs
Measurement errors:
System errors: imperfect design of the measurement setup and the approximation, can be
corrected by calibration
Random errors: variations due to uncontrolled variables. Can be reduced by averaging.

Measurement System
Instrumentation System (Basic Elements of measurement system)
Variable Signal Digital Display

to sense Processor Indicator Record
Transmit
Indicates true value of

variable
Sensor
For Electrical
variable to Signal
measure
11/27/2023 Dr. Suhas Deshmukh 7

Measurement System
Instrumentation System
• The term transducer is often used in relation to measurement systems. Transducers are defined as
an element that converts a change in some physical variable into a related change in some other
physical variable. It is generally used for an element that converts a change in some physical
variable into an electrical signal change.
• Thus sensors can be transducers. However, a measurement system may use transducers, in
addition to the sensor, in other parts of the system to convert signals in one form to another
form.

Measurement System
Pressure Measurement System

Input : Pressure
Output : Displacement, Electrical Signal etc.
Speed Measurement System

Input : Rotational Motion
Output : Mechanical Counter, Electrical Signal etc.
Flow Rate Measurement System

Input : Fluid flow motion
Output : Mechanical motion, Electrical Signal etc.

Elements of Measurement System
Converts into signal
which can be displayed
to used for further
processing
Contact with process for which

variable is to be measured Data
Representation
Measurement System Resistance Thermometer
Typical Example of measurement system
With a resistance thermometer, element A takes the temperature signal

and transforms it into resistance signal, element B transforms the
resistance signal into a current signal, element C transforms the current
signal into a display of a movement of a pointer across a scale.

Static Characteristics of Measurement Systems
Measurement System
Performance Terms or Characteristics
• Accuracy and error

• Accuracy is the indicator of how close the value given by a
measurement system can be expected to be to the true value.
• The error of a measurement is the difference between the result of

the measurement and the true value of the quantity being measured
• Thus if the measured value is 10.1 when the true value is 10.0, the
error is +0.1. If the measured value is 9.9 when the true value is 10.0,
the error is-0.1.

Characterization of Sensors and Transducers
(Range and Resolution)
• Range
– The range (or span) of a sensor is the difference between the minimum (or
most negative) and maximum inputs that will give a valid output. Range is
typically specified by the manufacturer of the sensor.
• Resolution
– The resolution of a sensor is the smallest increment of input that can be
reliably detected. Resolution is also frequently known as the least count of
the sensor. Resolution of digital sensors is easily determined.
Principles of Measurements and Characterization of Measurement

November 27, 2023 14
Systems
Accuracy vs. Resolution
True value
measurement
Accuracy vs. Precision
Precision without Accuracy without Precision and

accuracy precision accuracy
Measurement System
Performance Terms or Characteristics
Hysteresis error
The term hysteresis error is used for the
difference in outputs given from the same
value of quantity being measured according to
whether that value has been reached by a
continuously increasing change or a
continuously decreasing change.
Thus, you might obtain a different value from a

thermometer used to measure the same
temperature of a liquid if it is reached by the
liquid warming up to the measured
temperature or it is reached by the liquid
cooling down to the measured temperature.

Nonlinearities
• Linear systems have the property of superposition.
• If the response of the system to input A is output A, and the response to input B
is output B, then the response to input C = input A + input B) will be output C ( =
output A + output B).
• Many real systems will exhibit linear or nearly linear behavior over some range of
operation.
• Unfortunately, most real systems have nonlinearities that cause them to operate
outside of this linear region, and many common assumptions about system
behavior, such as superposition, no longer apply.
• Several nonlinearities commonly found in mechatronic systems include static and
coulomb friction, eccentricity, backlash (or hysteresis), saturation, and deadband.

Systems
Sensitivity
• Sensitivity
Sensor sensitivity is defined as the change in
output per change in input. The sensitivity of
digital sensors is closely related to the resolution.
The sensitivity of an analog sensor is the slope of
the output versus input line. A sensor exhibiting
truly linear behavior has a constant sensitivity
over the entire input range. Other sensors exhibit
nonlinear behavior where the sensitivity either
increases or decreases as the input is changed, as
shown in Figure

Systems
Characterization of Sensors and Transducers Repeatability
• Repeatability (or reproducibility) refers O/P
to a sensor’s ability to give identical
outputs for the same input. Precision
Un
(or random) errors cause a lack of Loading
repeatability. Fortunately, precision
errors can be accounted for by I/P
averaging several measurements or
other operations such as low-pass
Loading
filtering. Electrical noise and hysteresis
(described later) both contribute to a
loss of repeatability.
Hysteresis

Systems
Backlash
• If two otherwise perfect gears are not mounted

on a center-to-center distance that exactly
matches the sum of the pitch radii, there will be a
small clearance, or backlash, between the teeth.
• When the input gear reverses direction, a small

rotation is required before this clearance is
removed and the output gear begins to move.
• Backlash exhibits effects similar to those for

eccentricity, i.e., a loss of repeatability,
particularly when approaching a measured point
from different directions.

Systems
Saturation, DeadBand
• Saturation :- All real actuators have

some maximum output capability,
regardless of the input.
• Deadband :- The deadband is typically

a region of input close to zero at which
the output remains zero. Once the
input travels outside the deadband,
then the output varies with input, as
shown in Fig. 18.10.

Systems
System Response: -System Stability
• In the unstable case, a small motion of the ball away from the equilibrium position will
cause the ball to move “far” away, as it rolls down the hill.
• In the stable case, a small movement of the ball away from the equilibrium position
will eventually result in the ball returning, perhaps after a few oscillations.
• the absence of friction causes the ball to oscillate continuously about the equilibrium
position once a small movement has occurred. This special case is often known as
marginal stability, since the system never quite returns to the equilibrium position.

Systems
Output transient response of a mechatronic system

System Response : First order system
• Solution of first order differential

equation,
• Where y is the limiting or final

(steady-state) value, y0 is the
initial value of the independent
variable at t = 0.

Systems
System Response : Second order system
• Differential equation of second order
system,
f(t)
• Where y(t) is the dependent variable

(velocity, acceleration, temperature,
voltage, etc.), t is the independent
variable (time), is the damping ratio (a
dimensionless quantity), ωn is the Inertia Force + Spring Force +
natural frequency (typical units of Damping Force = Actuating Force
rad/s), and f(t) is the forcing function
(or input). z

Systems
System Response : Second order system
• For case of under-damped system 0 < ζ 1

Systems
Frequency Response
• The response of any dynamic system to a sinusoidal input is
called the frequency response.

Systems
Example
Classification of Transducers
• Based on conversion
– Primary > o/p is directly measured
– Secondary > o/p is converted into voltage ….
• Based on excitation
– Active > Do not need external energy
(Thermocouple, piezoelectric, solar cells, tachogenerator )
– Passive > needs external source
(Strain Gauge, R.T.D, L.V.D.T, Photoconductive, etc. )
• Based on form of output

– Analog > gives continuous measurement
– Digital > in the form of steps of voltages
November 27, 2023 Principles of Measurements and Characterization of Measurement Systems 35

Sensors
Definition: a device for sensing a physical variable of a physical system or an
environment
Classification of Sensors
• Mechanical quantities: displacement, Strain, rotation velocity, acceleration,
pressure, force/torque, twisting, weight, flow
• Thermal quantities: temperature, heat.
• Electromagnetic/optical quantities: voltage, current, frequency phase;
visual/images, light; magnetism.
• Chemical quantities: moisture, pH value
Specifications of Sensor
• Accuracy: error between the result of a measurement and the
true value being measured.
• Resolution: the smallest increment of measure that a device
can make.
• Sensitivity: the ratio between the change in the output signal
to a small change in input physical signal. Slope of the input-
output fit line.
• Repeatability/Precision: the ability of the sensor to output the
same value for the same input over a number of trials
Specifications of Sensor
• Dynamic Range: the ratio of maximum recordable input amplitude to minimum input
amplitude, i.e. D.R. = 20 log (Max. Input Ampl./Min. Input Ampl.) dB
• Linearity: the deviation of the output from a best-fit straight line for a given range of the
sensor
• Transfer Function (Frequency Response): The relationship between physical input signal
and electrical output signal, which may constitute a complete description of the sensor
characteristics.
• Bandwidth: the frequency range between the lower and upper cutoff frequencies,
within which the sensor transfer function is constant gain or linear.
• Noise: random fluctuation in the value of input that causes random fluctuation in the
output value
Attributes of Sensors
• Operating Principle: Embedded technologies that make sensors function, such as
electro-optics, electromagnetic, piezoelectricity, active and passive ultraviolet.
• Dimension of Variables: The number of dimensions of physical variables.
• Size: The physical volume of sensors.
• Data Format: The measuring feature of data in time; continuous or
discrete/analog or digital.
• Intelligence: Capabilities of on-board data processing and decision-making.
• Active versus Passive Sensors: Capability of generating vs. just receiving signals.
• Physical Contact: The way sensors observe the disturbance in environment.
• Environmental durability: will the sensor robust enough for its operation
conditions
Characteristics of Measurement Systems
• Accuracy Precision
• Linearity and Nonlinearity
• Hysteresis
• Sensitivity
• Repeatability
• System Response
• Frequency Response

Example 1
Outline
• Basic Principles of Measurement
• Mechanical Sensors
• Displacement & Position Sensors:
• Potentiometric Sensor
• Capacitive Sensor
• Inductive Sensor
• Linear Variable Differential Transformers
• Variable Reluctance Sensor
• Motion Sensors:
• Translational and
• Rotary Optical Encoders
• Tachometers with output signal as electrical quantity

Basic Principles of Measurements
Potentiometer
•
Track
Slider Contact
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Potentiometer

Potentiometer Example 1
A pot is supplied with 10 V and is set at 82° [similar to Figure]. The range of this single-turn pot is
350°. Calculate the output voltage.

Potentiometer
Example 1 contd…

A 10-kΩ pot is used as a position sensor (Figure). Assume that the wiper is in the middle of its range.
Find the loading error when
a. The interface circuit presents an infinite resistance.
b. The interface circuit presents a resistance of 100 kΩ.

Potentiometer Example 2 contd…

The maximum loading error occurs when the pot is 2⁄3 of full range. If you were to rework
this problem for a pot voltage of 2.5 V, you would find the error is only 0.045 V.
Therefore, the effect of loading errors is not linear.

Linearity Error in Potentiometer
In many applications, the total rotary movement to be measured is less than a full
revolution.
Consider the arm in Figure that moves through

an angle of only 90°. Using as much of the
pot’s range as possible in order to get a lower
average error rate is advantageous, so we
might use a 3 : 1 gear ratio that causes the pot
to turn through 270°. (In Figure, the small pot
gear must make three revolutions for each
revolution of the motor gear.)
The controller will be programmed to understand that 3° of the pot corresponds to only 1° of
the actual arm.



A single-turn pot (350°) has a linearity error of 0.1% and is connected to a 5Vdc source.
Calculate the maximum angle error that could be expected from this system.

The resistive element of a wire-wound pot is made from 10 in. of 100 Ω/in.
resistance wire and is wound as a coil of 200 loops. The range of the pot is
350°. What is the resolution of this pot ?

If this pot were to be used as a position sensor, it would be useful to know

what the resolution is in degrees. The smallest measurable change corresponds to one
loop of the resistance coil, and this pot divides 350° into 200 parts; therefore, the
resolution in degrees would be 350°/200 loops = 1.75°.

Capacitive Elements
• The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by:
relative permittivity of permittivity of free

the dielectric between space
the plate
area of overlap
between the two
plates
plate separation

Capacitive Elements
• The capacitance will change if the plate separation d
changes,
• the area A of overlap of the plates changes, or
• a slab of dielectric is moved into or out of the plates,

so varying the effective value of Єr.
• All these methods can be used to give linear

displacement sensors.

Capacitive Elements
Push-pull displacement sensor.
Upper Plate
Central Plate
Downward Plate
• Push-pull displacement sensor. It consists of two capacitors, one between the
movable central plate and the upper plate and one between the central
movable plate and the lower plate.
• The displacement x moves the central plate between the two other plates. Thus
when the central plate moves upwards it decreases the plate separation of the
upper capacitor and increases the separation of the lower capacitor. Thus the
capacitance of the upper capacitor is increased and that of the lower capacitor
decreased.

Capacitive Elements
Push-pull displacement sensor
• When the two capacitors are incorporated in opposite arms of an alternating current bridge, the
output voltage from the bridge is proportional to the displacement.
• Such a sensor has good long-term stability and is typically used for monitoring displacements
from a few millimetres to hundreds of millimetres.
• Non-linearity and hysteresis errors are about ± 0.01% of full range.

Capacitive Pressure Sensors
• Capacitive pressure sensors use a
thin diaphragm, usually metal or
metal-coated quartz, as one plate
of a capacitor.
• The diaphragm is exposed to the

process pressure on one side and
to a reference pressure on the
other. Changes in pressure cause it
to deflect and change the
capacitance.

Capacitive Sensor

(LVDT)
Linear Variable Differential Transformers
The linear variable differential

transformer (LVDT) is a high-
resolution position sensor that
outputs an AC voltage with a
magnitude proportional to linear
position.
It has a relatively short range of about 2 in., but it has the advantage of no sliding
contacts.
The center winding, or primary, is connected to an AC reference voltage. The

outer two windings, called secondary's, are wired to be out of phase with each
other and are connected in series.

LVDT
(Working)
If the core is moved a little left of

center, then secondary 1 has the greater
voltage, producing a net output that is
in phase with secondary 1 [Figure (b)].
If the iron core is exactly in the center, the voltages induced on the secondary's by the
primary will be equal and opposite, giving a net output (Vnet) of 0 V [as shown in (c)].
Consider what happens when the core is moved a little to the right. Now there is more
coupling to secondary 2 so its voltage is higher, while secondary 1 is lower. Figure (d)
illustrates the waveforms of this situation. The algebraic sum of the two secondary's is in
phase with secondary 2, and the magnitude is proportional to the distance the core is off
center.

LVDT
• In fact, the only way we can tell from the output which direction the core moved is by the phase.
Summarizing, the output of the LVDT is an AC voltage with a magnitude and phase angle.
• The magnitude represents the distance that the core is off center, and the phase angle represents
the direction of the core (left or right.)

LVDT
(Interface Circuit)
An oscillator provides the AC reference voltage to the primary 50-10 KHz at 10 V or

less.
The output of the LVDT goes first to a phase-sensitive rectifier. This circuit compares
the phase of LVDT output with the reference voltage.
If they are in phase, the rectifier outputs only the positive part of the signal.
If they are out of phase, the rectifier outputs only the negative parts.
LVDT Interface Circuit
• Next, a low-pass filter smoothes out the rectified signal to produce DC. Finally, an amplifier
adjusts the gain to the desired level.
• The output of the LVDT interface circuit is a DC voltage whose magnitude and polarity are
proportional to the linear distance that the core is offset from the center.
• Some integrated circuits, such as the AD698 (Analog Devices), combine all the functions shown
within the box (of Figure) on a single chip.

Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT)
• Its construction is similar to that of

LVDT, except the core is designed in
such a way that when it rotates the
mutual inductance between the
primary and each of the secondary
coils changes linearly with the angular
displacement.
• Schematic diagram of a typical RVDT is

shown in Figure

Sensitivity of LVDT

Optical Rotary Encoders • An optical rotary encoder produces
angular position data directly in
digital form, eliminating any need for
the ADC converter.
• Figure shows a slotted disk attached

to a shaft. A light source and
photocell arrangement are mounted
so that the slots pass the light beam
as the disk rotates.
The angle of the shaft is deduced from the output of the photocell.
There are two types of optical rotary encoders:

the absolute encoder and
the incremental encoder.

Absolute Optical Encoders
• Absolute optical encoders use a glass disk
marked off with a pattern of concentric
tracks
• A separate light beam is sent through each
track to individual photo sensors.
• Each photo sensor contributes 1 bit to the
output digital word.
• The encoder in Figure outputs a 4-bit word
with the LSB coming from the outer track.
• The disk is divided into 16 sectors, so the
resolution in this case is 360°/16 = 22.5°.
For better resolution, more

tracks would be required.

Absolute Optical Encoders • If the absolute optical encoder is
not properly aligned, it may
occasionally report completely
erroneous data.
• Figure illustrates this situation,
and it occurs when more than 1
bit changes at a time, say, from
sector 7 (0111) to 8 (1000).
The photo sensors are not exactly in a straight line. In this case, sensor B1 is
out of alignment (it’s ahead) and switches from a 1 to a 0 before the others.
This causes a momentary erroneous output of 5 (0101).

Grey Code
• One solution is to use the Grey
code on the disk instead of the
straight binary code.
• With the Grey code, only 1 bit
changes between any two
sectors.
• If the photocells are out of line,
the worst that could happen is
that the output would switch
early or late.
• Put another way, the error can
never be more than the value of
1 LSB when using the Grey code.

• For more resolution example, eight tracks (providing 256 states) yield 360°/256 = 1.4°/state, and
ten tracks (providing 1024 states) yield 360°/1024 = 0.35°/state.
• An advantage of
• is that the output is in straightforward digital form and, like a pot, always gives the absolute position.
This is in contrast to the incremental encoder that, as will be shown, provides only a relative position.
• A disadvantage of the absolute encoder
• is that it is relatively expensive because it requires that many photocells be mounted and aligned very
precisely.

Incremental Optical Encoders
• The incremental optical
encoder has only one track
of equally spaced slots.
• Position is determined by
counting the number of slots
that pass by a photo sensor,
where each slot represents a
known angle.
This system requires an initial reference point, which may come from a
second sensor on an inner track or simply from a mechanical stop or limit
switch.

In many applications, the shaft being monitored will be cycling back-and-
forth, stopping at various angles. To keep track of the position, the controller
must know which direction the disk is turning as well as the number of slots
passed
A single photo sensor cannot

convey which direction the
disk is rotating
the two sensors,V1 and V2, are located slightly apart from each other on the
same track

• V1 is initially off and V2 is on.
• Now imagine that the disk starts

to rotate CCW. The first thing
that happens is that V1 comes
completely on (while V2
remains on).
• After more rotation,V2 goes off,

and slightly later V1 goes off
again. Figure (b) shows the
waveform for V1 and V2.
As disk is rotated in the CW direction [starting again from the position shown in
Figure(a)]. This time V1 goes off immediately, and V2 stays on for half a slot and
then goes off. Later V1 comes on, followed by V2 coming on. Figure (c) shows the
waveforms generated by V1 and V2.

• Compare the two sets of
waveforms notice that in the CCW
case V2 leads V1 by 90°,whereas
for the CW case V1 is leading V2
by 90°.
• This difference in phase

determines which direction the
disk is turning.
Block diagram of
an incremental V1
Count-down CLR
encoder system.

Decoder for Incremental Encoder
Single D-type flip-flop and two AND gates
• In the CCW case, every time V2
goes low,V1 is high; in the CW
case, when V2 goes low,V1 is
low.
• This fact is used to separate CCW

and CW rotation. V2 is
connected to the negative-going
clock of the flip-flop, and V1 is
connected to the D input. Every
time V2 goes low,V1 is latched
andappears at the output.

Interfacing the Incremental Encoder to a Computer
• Problem when attempting to pass data to a computer from a standard ripple-type

digital counter. If the computer requests position data while the counter is
changing, it may very well get meaningless data
• One approach to the problem might be to disable or “freeze” the counter (i.e. put
a latch (a temporary holding register) between the counter and the computer)
during the time when the computer is receiving data.

PICK-UP COIL (VARIABLE RELUCTANCE) SENSOR
• A magnet in the sensor creates a

magnetic field
• As a ferrous object moves by the sensor,
the resulting change in the magnetic flux
induces an emf in the pickup coil
Variable Reluctance Sensor

Construction

TOYOTA COURSE 852: ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS 93

• Used measure speed and/or

position of a moving metallic
object
• Sense the change of magnetic

reluctance (analogous to
electrical resistance) near the
sensing element
• Require conditioning circuitry to

yield a useful signal (e.g. LM1815
from National Semi.)
• Used measure speed and/or

position of a moving metallic
object
• Sense the change of magnetic

reluctance (analogous to
electrical resistance) near the
sensing element
• Require conditioning circuitry to

yield a useful signal (e.g. LM1815
from National Semi.)
• Shaft velocity sensor for ABS/traction control

• Crank and cam shaft position sensors

Proximity Sensor
Limit Switches
• A proximity sensor simply tells the controller whether a moving part is at a
certain place.
• A limit switch is an example of a proximity sensor.
• A limit switch is a mechanical push-button switch that is mounted in such a way that
it is actuated when a mechanical part or lever arm gets to the end of its intended
travel.
• In an automatic garage-door opener, all the controller needs to know is if the

door is all the way open or all the way closed. Limit switches can detect these
two conditions.
• Drawbacks:
• (1) Being a mechanical device, they eventually wear out, and
• (2) they require a certain amount of physical force to actuate.

Proximity Sensor
Optical Proximity Sensors
• Use a light source and a photo sensor that are mounted in such a way that the
object to be detected cuts the light path

Proximity Sensor
Optical Proximity Sensors (Photodetector)
• Four types of photo detectors
• photo resistors, photodiodes,
material cadmium sulfide (CdS), its Light to fall directly on the PN junction which
resistance decreases when the light increases the reverse-leakage current
level increases

Proximity Sensor
Optical Proximity Sensors (Photodetector)
• Four types of photo detectors
• photo transistors, and photovoltaic cells.
creates electrical power from light he more

light, the higher the voltage.
(A solar cell is a photovoltaic cell.)
has no base lead. Light effectively

creates a base current by generating electron-hole
pairs in the CB junction the more light, the more
the transistor turns on.

Proximity Sensor
Hall-Effect Proximity Sensors
• In 1879 E. H. Hall
• Special property of copper, and later

of semiconductors: They produce a
voltage in the presence of a magnetic
field. This is especially true for
germanium and indium.
• Hall effect, as it is called, was

originally used for wattmeters and
gaussmeters; now it is used
extensively for proximity sensors

• First, an external voltage source is used to
establish a current (I) in the semiconductor
crystal. The output voltage (VH) is sensed
across the sides of the crystal, perpendicular
to the current direction.
• When a magnetic field is brought near, the

negative charges are deflected to one side
producing a voltage.

Proximity Sensor
Hall-Effect Proximity Sensors (Interface Circuit)
• To get a switching action, the output must

go through a threshold detector
• This circuit uses two comparator amps to

establish the high and low switching
voltages. When VH goes above 0.5 V, the top
amp sets the R-S flip-flop. When VH goes
below 0.25 V, the bottom amp resets the
flip-flop.
• For this circuit to work, we need to make

sure that the magnet comes near enough to
the sensor to make VH go above 0.5 V and
far enough away for VH to drop below 0.25
V.

Applications

Thank You

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Session 2:

Sensors & Transducers

• Definition and performance terminology

• Sensing physical quantities

Actuators Mechatronics Data Acquisition

Amplifying Data Acquisition Control System

• Boundary divides and interact with environment by means of

compound response of multiple inputs

Random errors: variations due to uncontrolled variables. Can be reduced by averaging.

Variable Signal Digital Display

Indicates true value of

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Pressure Measurement System

Speed Measurement System

Flow Rate Measurement System

11/27/2023 Dr. Suhas Deshmukh 9

Contact with process for which

Typical Example of measurement system

With a resistance thermometer, element A takes the temperature signal

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• Accuracy and error

• The error of a measurement is the difference between the result of

11/27/2023 Dr. Suhas Deshmukh 13

Principles of Measurements and Characterization of Measurement

Precision without Accuracy without Precision and

Thus, you might obtain a different value from a

11/27/2023 Dr. Suhas Deshmukh 17

Principles of Measurements and Characterization of Measurement

Principles of Measurements and Characterization of Measurement

Principles of Measurements and Characterization of Measurement

• If two otherwise perfect gears are not mounted

• When the input gear reverses direction, a small

• Backlash exhibits effects similar to those for

Principles of Measurements and Characterization of Measurement

• Saturation :- All real actuators have

• Deadband :- The deadband is typically

Principles of Measurements and Characterization of Measurement

Principles of Measurements and Characterization of Measurement

11/27/2023 Dr. Suhas Deshmukh 24

• Solution of first order differential

• Where y is the limiting or final

Principles of Measurements and Characterization of Measurement

• Where y(t) is the dependent variable

Principles of Measurements and Characterization of Measurement

Principles of Measurements and Characterization of Measurement

Principles of Measurements and Characterization of Measurement

• Based on form of output

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Consider the arm in Figure that moves through

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