Q. What is a sensor?

Explain its function

ANS
For any processing unit, process can be a material, energy, and information conversion method as
illustrated in figure-1. The process should be closely monitored to ensure the desired outcome. Humans
monitor the process with sense organs like vision, hearing, smell, touch, and taste. Sometimes we use
information from multiple senses to make decisions. Sensors must replace sense organs to achieve
automatic monitoring. Some sensors can detect signals that human sense organs cannot detect.

Figure-1: Unit process as a conversion process

Sensor is described as ‘a device that detects a change in a physical (or chemical) stimulus (such as heat,
light, sound, pressure, magnetism, or a particular motion) and converts it into a signal that can be
measured or recorded'. In other words, energy is converted from one form to another as part of the
sensing process.

Generally, sensor is an active or passive device that serves as the heart of a measuring system. The block
diagrams in Figure 2 and Figure 3 illustrate the role of sensors in a measuring system.

Figure-2: Sensor used as a separate measuring device.

As illustrated in Figure 1, when the sensor is utilized as a separate (independent) measuring device, the
intended output is mostly in the form of a digital readout.

Figure-3: Sensor as a measuring device to enhance the performance of certain system.

If the sensor is utilized to enhance the performance of a certain system, as shown in Figure-2, then it is
part of a bigger system. In this situation, the sensor output is sent to a signal conditioner, which
transforms the signal in a form suitable to be interfaced with the feedback control system. This feedback
control system then adjusts one or more subsystems (in the system) that are under investigation in
order to create an "optimal" measurand.

Q. Explain the principle of sensor.

ANS
Principle of sensor
Sensors are devices that first detect an input signal and then convert it to an output signal or energy for
further use. We generally classify signal outputs into six types:
1. Mechanical.
2. Thermal (I.E, Kinetic Energy of Atoms and Molecules).
3. Electrical.
4. Magnetic.
5. Radiant (Including Electromagnetic Radio Waves, Micro Waves, Etc.).
6. Chemical.

The principle on which the sensor works depends on the form of energy signal it receives and the form
into which it should be converted. Based on the six types of input/output signals, the working principles
of sensors are illustrated in a matrix form in table-1

Tables-1: Copy table1.1 from pgno-2, author patranabis

Usually there are ten basic forms of energy that sensors encounters at its input as listed in table-2. In
practice, these ten energy types are reduced to six signal types. The six signal types permit to derive
“measurand” for the manufacturing process. Measurand is a physical quantity, or property or condition
to be measured.

Tables-2: Different energies converted by sensors

Measurands for a specific processing unit are associated with sensor signal types Table-3, defines the
sensor and its relevant measurand. Process or system sensing strategies are developed by mapping
these measurand/sensing pairs onto a manufacturing process.

Table-3: Copy from pictures

Q. Explain the classification of sensors.

ANS
It is extremely difficult to categorize sensors using a single criterion. For this reason a variety of
classification criteria may be used. Some of these are:

Classification based on Power

The preliminary classification of sensors is based on the power. In this Sensors are classified as Active or
Passive. Active sensors require an external excitation or power signal to operate. Passive sensors, on the
other hand, do not require external power and produce output directly.

Classification based on Contact and Non-Contact Sensors

A sensor that requires physical contact with the stimulus is known as Contact sensor. For instance, strain
gauges temperature sensors.
A sensor that requires no physical contact is known as a "non-contact" sensor. For example, optical
sensors, magnetic sensors, and infrared thermometers.

Classification based on Reaction to stimulus

A sensor that reacts to a stimulus on an absolute scale is known as Absolute sensor. For example,
thermistors (thermistor always reads the absolute temperature), strain gauges.
A sensor that reacts to a stimulus relative to a fixed or variable reference is known as Relative sensor.
For example, thermocouple measures the temperature difference and pressure is often measured
relative to atmospheric pressure.

Other classifications include

Classification based on broad area of detection: Electric sensors, Magnetic, Electromagnetic, Acoustic,
Chemical, Optical, Heat, Temperature, Mechanical, Radiation, Biological etc.

Classification based on Principle: Photoelectric, Magnetoelectric, Thermoelectric, Photoconductive,

Photo-magnetic, Thermo-magnetic, Thermo-optic, Electro-chemical, Magnetoresistive, Photo-elastic etc.

Classification based on Specification: Accuracy, sensitivity, Stability, response time, hysteresis,

Frequency response, input, resolution, linearity, hardness, cost, size, weight, conduction materials,
temperature etc.

Classification as per Application: Agriculture, Automotive, Civil engineering and construction, Domestic
appliances, Commerce, Finance Environment, Meteorology, security, Energy, Information and
Telecommunication, Health and medicine, Marine, Military and Space, Recreation and toys, Scientific
measurement, Manufacturing and Transportation.
Q. Explain the static characteristics of sensors.
ANS
The most important step in designing an electronic sensor system is the proper selection of the sensor.
The knowledge of the performance characteristics of the sensor is essential for the proper choice of the
sensor.

The performance characteristics can be broadly classified into two categories namely Static
characteristics and Dynamic characteristics.

Static Characteristics
It is a set of performance criteria that gives a meaningful description of the quality of measurement,
while measured quantities are either constant or varies slowly. The important characteristics of a sensor
are as

Accuracy
The closeness of the measured value with respect to the true value is called as accuracy. In other words,
it is the difference between measured value and true value. True value is calculated by taking the mean
of an infinite number of measurements. Accuracy estimates the error in measurement. For a sensor
Accuracy should be as high as possible. It is expressed in terms of percentage of reading or percentage
of full scale. Mathematically, it is expressed as

Accuracy is often expressed in percentage of full scale (fso) output and is given by

Clearly,

Precision
Precision also termed as repeatability refers to the degree of reproducibility of a measurement. It
means, if exactly the same value were measured a number of times, an ideal sensor would output
exactly the same value every time. In practice, however, sensors produce a range of values that are
dispersed in some way relative to the true value.
In other words, it describes how far a measured quantity is reproducible and how close it is to the
true value for the same input. For a sensor precision should be Very high. Error between consecutive
measurements should approach zero.

Resolution
Resolution is defined as the smallest detectable incremental change of input parameter that can be
detected in the output signal. In other words, when the input to the sensor increases slowly and the
output remain constant until the increment exceeds a definite value. This value is expressed as a
percentage of the measured range, abbreviated as MR. The difference between the maximum and
minimum inputs is defined as MR, that is, For a detectable output , if the minimum
change in x is then the maximum resolution is given as

Sensitivity
The ratio of change in output to change in the quantity being monitored is known as sensitivity.
Sensitivity is also termed as incremental sensitivity or linear sensitivity. For better performance the
sensitivity of sensor should be high.

As illustrated in figure (a), the sensitivity varies depending on the input value, but when the calibration
curve is a straight line, the sensitivity remains constant over the whole range and is expressed as the
slope of the calibration curve as illustrated in figure (b).

Threshold
Threshold is defined as the smallest amount of input required for a detectable change in the output
signal from zero. In other words, if the sensor's input is progressively increased from zero, the input
must reach a specific minimum value before the change in output may be recognized. This input's
minimum value is known as threshold.

Non-Linearity
The sensor's Non-linearity expresses the degree to which the actual measured curve of a sensor deviates
from the ideal curve. Usually, it is expressed as percentage of deviation from the linear value.  It
establishes a relationship between the measurand and the output signal. When the sensitivity is
constant for all values from the lower scale to the upper scale of the measuring device, the calibration
curve is said to be linear. Figure (c) depicts the calibration curve's linear characteristics. A consequence
of non-linearity is distortion.
Hysteresis
Hysteresis is the difference between two measurements taken at the same point for same input; the
first is taken during a series of increasing input values while the second is taken during a series of
decreasing input values. In other words, when the input to a sensor which is initially at rest is increased
from zero to full scale and then decreased back to zero, there may be two output values for same input.
The difference in these output values is known as Hysteresis. Figure (d) illustrates a typical hysteresis
curve with output as y and input as x.

Figure (d): Hysteresis Curve

The mismatch of the input-output is mainly due to internal friction, free play and change in damping of
the spring elements in the sensor. Hysteresis effects can be minimized by taking arithmetic average of
the readings corresponding to ascending and descending values of the input.

Output Impedance
Loading effect occurs when a sensor is coupled to the subsequent stage of a system. We can avoid
loading, if the output impedance of sensor is zero. But, in practice, it is not possible to obtain a sensor
with zero output impedance. The loading effect can be reduced if the output impedance of sensor is
very low.

Q. Explain the dynamic characteristics of sensors.

ANS
Dynamic Characteristics
The following are the dynamic characteristics of a sensor:

Speed of Response
It is the speed with which a sensor responds to abrupt variations in the amplitude of the input signal.
Alternatively, the complete time taken by the sensor to reach the steady state condition is also known as
speed of response. The sensors speed of response is assessed using measurement lag of the sensor.

Measurement Lag
Measurement lag also termed as time delay is the amount of time it takes for the output signal to
respond to changes in the input signal. The measurement lag is entirely reliant on the sensor's
characteristics. Measurement lag can be specified in a variety of ways depending on the type of input
signal being used. Figure (a) illustrates a measurement lag.

Figure (a): Time Delay in Measurement Reading

Fidelity
The values of some of the input quantities change over time. Fidelity is the ability of a measuring device
to respond to changes in the measured quantity at every instant of time. The term "excellent fidelity"
refers to a sensor's response being error-free.

Dynamic Error
Dynamic error is defined as the difference between the value shown by the measurement device and
the true value of the quantity (which is a function of time). Because a device's dynamic response is
composed of steady state and transient state responses, the dynamic error is also made up of transient
and steady state errors. Figure (b) illustrates a dynamic error.

Figure (b)
Dynamic Range
The dynamic range of the sensor is the range of values of a certain quantity (for instance, temperature,
pressure, voltage) for which the measuring device can produce a reliable response under dynamic
conditions. The dynamic range is defined as the ratio of the maximum value to minimum value for which
the sensor can respond efficiently.

Settling Time
Settling time is the time by the systems output (after the application of a step input) to reach and stay
within a very close range of the steady state output value. It is as illustrated in figure (c). The settling
time represents the system's response time. If the settling time is short, it can be assumed that the
system's response time is fast.

Figure (c):
Time Constant
The time constant is the amount of time it takes for the system's output to reach 63.2 percent of the
final output value. In order to achieve high response speed, it is preferable to have a low time constant.
The system's parameters determine the time constant.

Q. Explain the influence of environmental parameters on sensors.

ANS
Each sensor is programmed to function only under specific conditions. A wide range of environmental
factors can have an impact on the performance of a sensing device. These factors can have an impact on
the power consumption, sensing capabilities, and radio communication capabilities of the sensor.

One of the most common factors impacting sensor operation is temperature. It will have varied effects
on different sensors.  It's important to note that the temperature ranges supported by the sensor
hardware and the batteries may differ. You may suffer irregular battery performance or faster than
planned battery depletion if you operate your sensor outside of the batteries specified operating
temperature. Temperature is the most crucial environmental parameter for sensors that do not
measure temperature.

If you need to install a sensor inside a freezer or refrigerator, we recommend a sensor with an industrial
enclosure. Because freezers are cold and dry, the air outside is usually warm and humid. When warm,
humid room-temperature air meets cold, dry freezer air, condensation forms on the sensor. This
exposes the sensor to liquid and damages the components.

Noise can also have an effect on the output signal of a sensor, and the sensor's performance can
deteriorate with time. Other elements, such as electrical, mechanical, chemical, and thermal effects, can
also have a negative impact on the performance of sensor devices. Therefore, by designing components
for extreme environments, it is possible to improve the performance and long-term stability of the
sensor, ensuring that none of these factors have an unfavorable effect on the sensor's functioning.
Q. What is sensor characterization? What is reliability? Explain the need for sensor characterization.
ANS
Sensor characterization
The process of obtaining measurements from a sensor under controlled conditions is known as sensor
characterization. In other words, sensor characterization is a key test technique for determining the
reliability and accuracy of a sensor under a variety of operating conditions.

Reliability
The capacity of a sensor to fulfill a desired function under specified conditions for a certain amount of
time is referred to as reliability. In statistical terms, reliability is defined as the likelihood that a device
will perform without failure for a certain period of time or for a specific number of uses. A failure, or a
temporary or permanent malfunction of a sensor, is described by reliability.

Need
Sensor characterization is essential to ensure readout accuracy and reliability under varied operational
conditions. Sensors can be exposed to a broad range of temperatures, humidity, and even air pressures.
Under all of these conditions, the sensor must be reliable. Manufacturers must characterize sensors for
dynamic range, linearity, bandwidth, reaction time, noise, and stability and disclose sensor
characterization data. The characterization data enables users to employ sensors more effectively in
their applications.

Q. Explain the construction and operation of resistive potentiometer sensors.

ANS
Construction
A potentiometer is an electromechanical sensor that converts mechanical energy (Linear displacement
or angular displacement) into electrical energy (into voltage). Figure (a) illustrates the construction of a
linear potentiometer. It encompasses a resistive element, a sliding contact (wiper) that slides along the
resistive element, a Voltage source across the resistive element .This is an active sensor as it needs an
excitation signal for its operation, that is, it measures resistance by passing current through the
potentiometer wire.

Figure (a): A Linear displacement potentiometer Figure (b): Fluid level sensor

Working principle
This sensor's working principle is based on the equation for a wire resistance. According to the
formula, resistance increases linearly with wire length. A displacement measurement can be made by
controlling the length of the wire.
The resistance changes when a moving object is mechanically coupled to the potentiometer wiper
(figure (a)). Figure (b) depicts a liquid level sensor with a float being coupled to the potentiometer wiper.
As the object moves, the position of the slider (wiper) located on the resistive element of the
potentiometer changes, so the resistance between the fixed point and the slider changes. Due to this
the voltage V across these points also changes. The change in voltage or the resistance is proportional to
the change in the displacement of the object. Thus the voltage change indicates the displacement of the
object.
From figure (a) we can see that, the voltage across the wiper of a linear potentiometer is proportional to
the displacement d and is written as,

Where D is the full-scale displacement and V 0 is excitation voltage across the potentiometer.

Q. Classify potentiometers and give their applications, advantages and disadvantages.

ANS
A potentiometer in short is known as POT. Depending on the motion of the sliding contact (wiper),
potentiometers are classified into three types.
1. Linear potentiometer: The only motion that the wiper has in a linear potentiometer is linear
motion, that is, the wiper moves in a straight line.

2. Rotary potentiometer: The only motion that the wiper has in a rotary potentiometer is
rotational motion. The resistive element in this case can be either a single turn or a multi turn.

3. Helipots: In this the wiper has both linear and rotational motions. The resistive element in this
case takes the shape of a helix.

Application of Potentiometer
Potentiometer sensors are widely used to monitor a wide range of physical properties, like location,
displacement, level, motion, pressure, airflow, and many others. Furthermore, they can be incorporated
with other sensors for the monitoring of chemicals, gases, or biocells.

Advantages
Potentiometers have a number of significant advantages,
1. Low cost and simplicity.
2. Adaptable to a wide range of applications.
3. It gives high output signal level. Thus, eliminates the need for signal amplification and
conditioning.
4. They are useful for measurement of large displacement.
5. There efficiency is very high.

Disadvantages
Their disadvantages include, sensitivity to vibration, and finite lifetime associated with wiping elements.
The following are some disadvantages of using a potentiometer:

1. It has a sluggish response time when in use.

2. It has a low level of precision.
3. It only has a limited amount of bandwidth.
4. High hysteresis due to sliding friction
5. Wiping elements have a limited lifetime.
6. External variables can occasionally degrade the accuracy with which results are produced.

Q. Describe the operational problems with potentiometers. Also, describe the critical parameters to
consider while evaluating the performance of a potentiometer.
ANS
Operational problems with potentiometers
The potentiometers are used to determine how far an object has moved. However, there are certain
issues with this measurement. These issues commonly occur at the point where the slider and the
resistance track come into contact. Some of these issues include:

1. Dirt can develop between the slider and the resistance surface, causing the resistance to appear
higher than it actually is. This results in erroneous voltage output, and in rare situations, total
voltage loss.
2. If the slider is moved too quickly, the contact may bounce, resulting in discontinuous output
instead of continuous voltage output.
3. The slider's friction with the resistance surface might be extremely strong at times, limiting the
slider's ability to move in relation to the body's real movement.

Manufacturers state that most potentiometers are accurate to within +-1% of the full scale reading. POT
Sensors with a precision of +-2mm or +-1mm are also available.

Important parameters

Resolution: A wire's resistance changes linearly with its length but this does not hold true while moving
a slider over it. Resolution is the lowest possible slider increment that can be recorded over the entire
length of the potentiometer. If a resistance winding is employed in the potentiometer, the limiting
resolution is estimated as the reciprocal of the coil's number of turns. The shorter the length that can be
recorded, the better the resolution of the potentiometer.

Potentiometer linearity: In an ideal situation, the resistance measured between the fixed point and the
slider point is a linear function of the contractor's location in relation to the end point being measured.
In practice, the change in resistance and the distance between the stationary and moving points are
never linearly proportional to each other. The linearity tolerance is the maximum permitted difference
between the change in resistance and the linear location of the slider when the slider is moved.