UNIT-1

CHARACTERISTICS OF SIGNALS AND THEIR REPRESENTATION

Measuring systems, performance characteristics, static characteristics, dynamic characteristics; errors in

measurement-gross errors, systematic errors, statistical analysis of random errors .signals and their
representation ; standard test, periodic, a periodic, modulated signal, sampled data, pulse modulation and
pulse demodulation.

Measuring Systems

Measurement is a process of gathering information from the physical world and comparing this
information with agreed standards.

Instrumentation is a collective term for measuring instruments that are used for indicating, measuring
and recording physical quantities such as flow, temperature, level, distance, angle, or pressure.

Any instrument or a measuring system can be described in general with the help of a block diagram.

Fig.Functional Elements of an Instrument

Functional Elements of an Instrument

Primary Sensing Element: An element of an instrument which makes first contact with the quantity to
be measured is called primary sensing element. In most of the cases, a transducer follows primary
sensing element which converts the measurement into a corresponding electrical signal.

Variable Conversion Element: The output of the primary sensing element is in electrical form such as
voltage, frequency or any other electrical parameter. Such an output may not be suitable for the
actual measurement system.

For example if the measurement system is digital then the analog signal obtained from the
primary sensing element is not suitable for the digital system. Thus analog to digital convertor is required
which is nothing but variable conversion element.

Variable Manipulation Element: - The level of the output from the previous stage may not be
enough to drive the next. Thus variable manipulation element manipulates the signals, preserving the
original nature of the signal.

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For example an amplifier which just amplifies the magnitude of the input, at its output, retraining original
nature of the signal. It is not necessary that variable manipulation element must be always after variable
conversion element. It may be before variable conversion element. In some cases, the levels of the output
of the previous stage are high and required to be lowered. In such case alternators are used on the variable
manipulation elements.

Sometimes the output of the transducer may get affected due to unwanted signals like noise. Thus such
signals are required to be processed with some processes like modulation, clipping, clamping etc. To
obtain the signal in pure and acceptable form from highly distorted form. Such a process is called signal
conditioning.

Data Transmission Element: When the elements of the system are physically separated, it is necessary
to transmit the data from one stage to other.

Data Presentation Element: The transmitted data may be used by the system, finally for monitoring,
controlling or analyzing purpose.

If the data is to be monitored then visual display devices are used as data presentation element. If
the signal is to be recorded for analysis purpose then magnetic tapes, recorders, high speed cameras
are used as data presentation elements. For control and analysis purpose, the microprocessors,
computers and microcontrollers may be used as data presentation elements.

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Limiting Errors (Based on True Value)

The manufacturers specify the accuracy of the instruments within a certain % of full scale reading. The
components like the resistor, inductor, and capacitor are guaranteed to be within a certain % of the rated
value. This % indicates the deviations from the nominal or specified value of the particular quantity.

Guaranteed Accuracy Error: (Based on Full Scale Value)

It is specified by manufacturer, it is a constant seeing by the instrument since it‟s with respective full
scale value.

Ex: A (0-10A) ammeter has GAE is ±1%.

As the pointer reaches full scale value the % Limiting Error is decreases %GAE is constant.

Performance Characteristics

The performance characteristics of an instrument are mainly divided in two categories:

i) Static characteristics.
ii) Dynamic characteristics.

The set of criteria defined for the instrument which are used to measure the quantities which are slowly
varying with time or mostly constant I.e. do not vary with time is called static characteristics.

The set of criteria defined based on such dynamic differential equations is a called dynamic
characteristic. When the quantity under measurement changes rapidly with time, it is necessary to study
the dynamic relations existing between input and output. These relations are generally expressed with the
help of differential equations.

“The various performance characteristics are obtained in one form or another by a process called
calibration. Calibration is the process of making an adjustment or making a scale so that the readings of
an instrument agree with the accepted and the certified standard”.

Static Characteristics
The static characteristics are defined for the instruments which measure the quantities which do not vary
with time. The various static characteristics are accuracy, precision, resolution, error, sensitivity,
threshold, Dead time, stability and linearity.

1. Accuracy: The degree of closeness of a measurement compared to the desired value.

It indicates the ability of instrument to indicate the true value of the quantity.

Among the following which one is accurate?

a) ±1% b) ±99% c) 98% d) 1%

2. Precision: A measure of the consistency or repeatability of measurements, I.e. Successive reading

does not differ.

ACCURATE INSTRUMENT MAY BE PRECISE INSTRUMENT but PRECISE INSTRUMENT

WILL NOT CONFIRM ANY ACCURACY.
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 3. Resolution: It is the smallest increment of quantity being measured which can be detected with
certainty or clarity by an instrument. Thus the resolution means the smallest measurable input
change.

Resolution= full scale value/total no.of divisions

 The total number of divisions increases the resolution increases.

4. Error: The most important static characteristics of an instrument is its accuracy, which is
generally expressed in terms of the error called static error. The algebraic difference between the
indicated values of the true value of the quantity to be measured is called an error.

Mathematically ; e = -Am

Where e: error,

Am: measured value of the quantity

At: true value of the quantity

In this expression, the error denoted as „e‟ is also called absolute error.

Instead of specifying absolute error, the relative or percentage error is specified.

Relative error =

% of = *10

From the relative percentage error, the accuracy can be mathematically expressed as

A=1– =1-

% accuracy [% a ] = A × 100

Error as a % of full scale reading = ×100

F.s.d = full scale reading

5. Sensitivity: The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured variable to which the
instrument responds. It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an instrument to
change in the value of the quantity to be measured.

Sensitivity = change in output / change in input

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If the calibration curve is linear, as shown in above fig, the sensitivity of an instrument is the slope of the
calibration curve. If the calibration curve is not linear, then the sensitivity varies in the input.

Sensitivity can be defined in terms of deflect factor.

Deflection factor = 1 / sensitivity

6. Threshold (Dead Zone): If the input quantity is slowly varied from zero onwards, the output
does not change until some minimum value of the input is exceeded. Thus minimum value of the
input is called threshold.
A
O/P
B C
A
D
A

INPUT

Among the four above instruments best instrument is ‘A’. Because it is highly sensitive
instrument.

7. Dead time: The time taken by the instrument to move the pointer from it‟s initial position is
called Dead time. The dead time can be reduce by less weight pointer.

8. Stability: The ability of an instrument to retrain its performance throughout its specified
operating life and the storage life is defined as its stability.

9. Linearity: The Instrument requires the property of linearity that is the output varies linearly,
according to the input. The linearity is defined as the ability to reproduce the input characteristics
symmetrically and linearly.

The linearity is defined as the maximum deviation of the actual output from the idealized straight line,
expressed as a percentage of full scale reading or a % of the actual reading.

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Fig : Linearity

% linearity = ×100

10. Range or Span: The minimum and maximum value of a quantity for which an instrument is
designed to measure is called its range or span. Sometimes the accuracy is specified in terms of
range or span

Dynamic Characteristics: As the input varies from instant to instant, output also varies from instant to
instant. The behavior of system under such condition is called dynamic response of the system.

The system dynamic behavior of an instrument is determined by subjecting its primary element to some
unknown and predetermined variations in the measured quantity. The three most common variations in
the measured quantity are as follows

Step change, in which the primary element is subjected to an instantaneous and finite change in
measured variable.

Linear change: The primary element is following a measured variable, changing linearly with time.

Sinusoidal change: The primary element follows a measured variable, the magnitude of which changes
in accordance with a sinusoidal function of constant amplitude.

The dynamic characteristics of an instrument are speed of response, fidelity, lag of dynamic error.

Speed of Response: It is the rapidity with which the system responds to the changes in the quantity to be
measured. It gives the information about how fast the system reacts to the changes in the input. It
indicates the activeness of the system.

Fidelity: It is the degree to which an instrument indicates the changes in the measured variable without
dynamic error.

Lag: It is the retardation or delay in the response of an instrument to changes in the measured variable.

The lags are of two types:

Retardation Lag: In this case, the response of the system begins immediately after a change in the
variable has occurred.

Time Delay: - In this case, response begins after sometime called dead time, after the application of
input. Such a delay shifts the response along time axis and hence causes the dynamic error.

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Dynamic Error: It is the difference between the true value of the variable to be measured, changing
with time and the value indicated by the measurement system, assuming zero static error. Fig shows the
dead time, I.e. time delay and the dynamic error.

Errors in Measurement: The error of a measuring instrument is the numerical difference between the
true value of a quantity and its value obtained by measurement, i.e., repeated measurement of the same
quantity gives different indications.

Sources of Errors:-

 Insufficient knowledge of process parameters and design conditions.

 Poor design, poor maintenance
 Change in process parameters, irregularities, upsets etc.
 Errors caused by person operating the instrument or equipment, certain design limitations.

The errors are classified as:

1. Gross Errors
2. Systematic Errors
3. Random Errors

GROSS ERRORS: The gross errors mainly occur due to carelessness or lack of experience of a human
being. These cover human mistakes in readings, recordings and calculating results.

The complete elimination of gross errors by the following ways:

 Taking great care while taking the readings, recording the readings and calculating the result.

 Without depending on only one reading, at least three or even more readings must be taken of
preferably by different

Systematic Errors:

The Systematic errors are mainly result due to the short comings of the instrument and the characteristics
of the material used in the instrument such as defective or worn parts, ageing effects, environmental
effects, etc.

There are three types of Systematic errors as;

1. Instrumental Errors
2. Environmental Errors

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3. Observational Errors

Instrumental Errors: These errors can be mainly due to the following three reasons

Shortcoming of Instrument: These are because of the mechanical structure of the instruments for
example, friction in the bearings of various moving parts, irregular springs tensions, reduction in tension
during to improper handling, hysteresis gear back lash, stretching of spring, variation in air gap, etc.
These errors can be avoided by the following methods:

i) Selecting a proper instrument and planning the proper procedure for the measurement.
ii) Recognizing the effect of such errors and applying the proper correction factors.
iii) Calibrating the instrument carefully against a standard.

Misuse of Instruments: A good instrument, if used in abnormal way, gives misleading results. Poor
initial adjustments, improper zero setting, using leads of high resistance etc. are the examples of misusing
a good instrument. Such things do not cause permanent damage to the instrument but definitely cause
serious errors.

Loading Effects: Due to improper way of using the instrument cause the serious errors. The best
example of such loading effect error is connecting a well calibrated voltmeter across the two points of
high resistance circuit. The same voltmeter connected in a resistance circuit gives accurate reading. Thus
the errors due to the loading effect can be avoided by using an instrument intelligently and correctly.

2. Environmental Errors:

The various factors resulting in these environmental errors are temperature changes, pressure
changes, thermal EMF, stray capacitance, cross capacitance, effect of external field ageing of
equipment and frequency sensitivity of an instrument.

The various methods which can be used to reduce these errors are:

 Using the proper correction factors and using the information supplied by the manufacturer of the
instrument.
 Using the arrangements which will keep the surrounding conditions constant. This includes the
use of air conditioning, temperature control enclosures etc.
 Reducing the effects of dust, humidity on the components by hermetically sealing the components
in the instruments.

Observational Errors: These are the errors introduced by the observer. There are many sources of
observational errors such as parallax error while reading a meter, wrong scale selection etc.
To eliminate such observational errors one should use the instruments with Mirrors, knife edge
pointers, etc. Now-a-days, the instruments with digital display are available which can largely eliminate
such observational errors.

Random Errors: Some errors still result, though the systematic and instrumental errors are reduced or at
least accounted for the cause of such errors are unknown and hence the errors are called random errors.
These errors cannot be determined in the ordinary process of taking the measurements.

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These errors are generally small. Hence, these errors are of real concern only when the high degree of
accuracy is required.
The only way to reduce these Errors is by increasing the number of observations and using the
statistical methods to obtain the best approximation of the reading.

Statistical Analysis of Random Errors:-

For statistical analysis, the same reading is taken number of times, generally using different
observers, different instruments and by different ways of measurement.
Arithmetic Mean: When the number of readings of the same measurement had taken, the most likely
value from the set of measured variable values in Arithmetic mean of the number of reading taken.
Diabetic mean value can be mathematically obtained as,
=

where ; = Arithmetic mean

= nth reading taken

n = total number of readings

When the numbers of readings are large, calculation of mean value is complicated. In such case a median
value is obtained which is a close approximation to the Arithmetic mean value

= /2

Deviation from Mean:

The deviation tells us about the departure of a given reading from the Arithmetic mean of the data set.
This is denoted as„d‟ and calculated for each reading as

= -

= deviation of reading, = value of reading, = Arithmetic mean

Average Deviation:
The average deviation is defined as the sum of the absolute values of deviations divided by the number of
readings. This is also called as mean deviation
= =

Standard Deviation:

The standard deviation is defined as the square root of the sum of the individual deviations squared,
divided by the number of readings. It is denoted as. It is also called root mean square deviation.

σ= = For n <20,

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 σ= , For n>20

Variance:
The variance means mean square deviation. So it is the square of the standard deviation. It is denoted as
„v‟.

V= = For n <20,

V= = , For n>20

Signals and Their Representation:

A function of one or more independent variables which contain some information is called signal. In
general any signal can be defined as any physical quantity or parameter varying with time. Any quantity
providing excitation or stimulus to the physical system is treated as the input signal or input excitation.
The response of the physical system to the excitation provided at input is called output signal or response
of the system.

All Signals are represented graphically as function of time, the amplitude of the signal varying with time
to have better knowledge of the signal, variation of the amplitude of a signal with time is represented by
means of mathematical function.

Signals obtained from physical systems or representing physical phenomena are classified as either
deterministic or nondeterministic. Deterministic signals are those that can be represented by an explicit
mathematical function of time so that the value of the function at any desired instant can be calculated.

Deterministic signals are

 Periodic
 Aperiodic

Aperiodic signal has a web form that repeats itself at regular intervals of time .Nondeterministic signals
cannot be described mathematically and treated as random signals whose amplitude at any instant cannot
be determined. Random signals are analyzed by application of probability theory and Statistical
Techniques. Signals may also be broadly classified as either analog or Digital.

Analog Signal: Analog Signals are continues with time and the signal is described by one single value
only at any particular instant as shown in figure a

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 Fig a: analog signal

Digital Signal:- If the values over a range at anyone instant, the signal is said to have an instantaneous
jump from one value to another. It may assume a new level and remained at that value for a certain
amount of time as shown in figure b. such a signal is known as digital signal.

Fig b: Digital signal

It may assume discrete levels, with jumps from one Level to another, at certain intervals of time. Assume
the analog signal to be composed of a series of steps as shown in figure c, with each step at a discrete
level is of which is determined for its amplitude in binary code and a digital signal consisting of a series
of pulses having only 2 levels (0 and 1) spaced at equal intervals of time is brought out to represent its
amplitude. Fig d shows a typical digital signal with pulses representing a binary number.

Standard Test Signals:

Physical systems are severely strained when subjected to sudden changes in the input conditions. Their
dynamic behavior may be studied by subjecting them to standard test signals commonly known as an
impulse, a step, a ramp and a parabolic – input function. Another common test signal of great relevance is
a sinusoidal signal.

If the system function is determined from the mathematical model of the system, the time response can
be estimated by making use of Laplace transform technique.

Step function: This step input function is shown in figure a and is seen to be a signal that jumps from one
Level to another instantaneously.

And, it is represented as;

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F (t) = Au (t)

Where ; u (t) = 1 for t > 0

= 0 for t < 0

A = change in level

The Laplace transform of the step input function is

F (S) = A /s

fig: unit function

Ramp function: The ramp input function is shown in figure b, is a signal that starts at value of zero and
increases linearly with the time, it is represented as

F (t) = At for t > 0

=0 for t < 0

The Laplace transform of ramp input function is F(S) =

Fig: Ramp input function

Impulse Function:-
The derivative of a step function has zero value at all times except at the instant at which the jump
occurs, I;e at t =0. At that instant the derivative assumes infinite value. Such a function is known as
impulse function.

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A unit impulse function is defined as a signal which has zero value at all times except at t = 0, where its
magnitude is infinite. It is usually referred to as δ function and is expressed as
δ(t)=0 for t‡0
=1
The Laplace transform of a unit impulse function is δ(t) = 1

It is difficult to create an ideal Impulse of this expression; it is usually approximated by a pulse of small
width of 1/A and a height A, so that the area of the pulse is unity as shown in figure c. As the width tends
to zero, the height tends to infinite value while maintaining the area at unity.
Parabolic Function:
A parabolic input function shown in figure and is represented as

F(t) = for t > 0

=0 for t < 0
The Laplace transform of a parabolic – input function is

F (S) =

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Periodic Signal:-

A signal is said to be periodic if it repeats at regular intervals. A periodic

function of time can be represented as a series given by

Fig: A periodic function of time

A function shown in above figure is periodic in the interval T as g (t) = g ( t +T), and hence T is known
as the period of 1 cycle in seconds. The frequency at which g(t) is periodic is indicated by is the angular
frequency, the co-efficient a0, an, bn are Fourier co-efficients determined from

a0 = 1/T

an = 2/T dt

bn = 2/T t with n = 1, 2, 3...

a0, represents the average value of the function over the period of the T & is known as the dc
component of the signal . an& bn define the amplitude of the ac components. The waveform of the
periodic function can be analyzed for determining the Fourier coefficients

Fig a: rectangular wave

Fig (b): rectangular pulse train

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 Fib (c): saw tooth wave

Fig (d): triangular wave

Fig : common forms of periodic signals a: Rectangular wave b: Rectangular pulse train c: saw tooth
wave d:triangular wave

A triangular wave of period T is shown in the fig a. Possessing cosine symmetry. It can be seen that
a0 = 0, b1 & the a coefficients are given by

An = (-1)(n-1)/2 , n = 1, 3, 5.....

& the function g(t) is

g (t) = [ cos - cos + cos +..........]

A rectangular pulse train of period T possessing cosine symmetry is shown in fig b. The value of the
component a0= At0/T , where t0 is the duration of the existence of the pulse in the period T. The function
is given by

g (t) =

A saw tooth wave is shown in the fig c & can represented by

g (t) = A[

A triangular wave is shown in the fig d & is given by

g(t) = A[

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Aperiodic Signals:

An aperiodic signals that occurs once in some finite time & is never repeated, maybe considered as one
with finite period. Application of this condition to a periodic function results in narrowing the frequency
spacing b/w the spectral components as T becomes larger. At the limiting value of T,the discrete line
spectrum becomes a continuous spectrum.
The Fourier transform of a rectangular pulse of amplitude A& duration to, is shown in fig a is given by
F (jω) = At0 sin v-s

Fig a: Rectangular Pulse b: Its Frequency Spectrum.

The unit impulse function δ(t) is defined as δ(t)= →0 ,A→∞

and δ (t) = 0 for all values of t except t=0 &

The Fourier transform of the unit impulse function is given by

Fδ(jw) = 0= 1

The impulse function has a uniform spectral density & the frequency spectrum is that at unity for

At0 = 1, as shown in the fig below

Fig(a) fig(b)

Fig: a. A unit impulse function Fig: b. Its frequency spectrum

Similarly, it is possible to develop the Fourier spectrum for other forms of a aperiodic Signals such as
Triangular & trapezoidal pulses.

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Modulation Signal: periodic signals are characterized by their amplitude, frequency and phase with
respect to a reference point of time. Aperiodic signals such as rectangular pulses are characterized by
their amplitude, width and position w.r.t the instant of reference.

In the field of instrumentation and communication it becomes necessary to modify one of this
characteristic by utilizing another signal such a process known as modulation the signal which is
modified are modulated is known as carrier signal, & the signal used for modifying the characteristics of
the carrier signal is known as modulating signal.

The process modulation is known as amplitude (A), phase (P), or frequency (F),Modulation,
depending on which of them is subjected to variation by the modulating signal. If the carrier signal is a
pulse, it is referred to as a pulse modulation.

It is essential that the amplitude variations of the modulating signal with time are properly reproduced;
such a process of reconstruction is known as demodulation. The entire process of modulation and
demodulation is carried out in the analog domain.

In contrast with analog modulation, digital modulation refers to the process of utilizing a series of short
duration pulses of constant amplitude to represent the amplitudeof modulating wave.

The modulating signal is sampled for its amplitude at regular intervals of time, and during each interval
a numbers of pulses are released in a coded format so to signify the amplitude of modulating signal. Such
a process constitutes digital modulation and theprocess of recovering the modulating signal at the output
is digital demodulation process of modulation with several advantages in signal processing &
transmission to a far of location.Transmission of measured data over a distance by digital modulation and
demodulation results in several advantages as compared to analog process.

TYPES OF MODULATION:

Continuous Wave Modulation Pulse Modulation

Amplitude Modulation Angle Modulation Digital Modulation Analog Modulation

Frequency Modulation Phase Modulation Pulse Code Modulation (PCM) PAM PDM
PPM

PAM: Pulse Amplitude Modulation

PDM: Pulse Duration Modulation

PPM: Pulse Position Modulation

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Sampled Data:

In several situations, it may be necessary to obtain the amplitude of a signal at a certain desired instant.
For signals that persist for a long time and for some repetitive signals, it may be enough if a set of
instantaneous values of the signal or procured at regularly spaced intervals of time. It is necessarily
presumed that the signal does not abruptly jump in its amplitude during the intervals b/w the sampling
instants. Under this condition it is possible to convey all the information‟s contained in the signal by re
constructing it from the set of instantaneous values of the amplitude. Such a process is known as
sampling process and the values of amplitudes are known as samples.

In a sampling process a continuous time signal is converted to an equivalent discrete time signal. As
shown in figure, switch position is controlled by the sampling signal. The sampling signal is a periodic
train of pulses of unit amplitude and of period. The T is known as sampling time and during this time
switch is closed so that sampled signal is equal to I/p signal. During remaining time switch is opened and
no input signal appear at the o/p. The sampling process and the sampled signal can be seen in fig b. The
sampled signal Z (t) present itself as sampled data and it is seen that Z (t) is zero if X (t) is zero.

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Pulse Modulation:

The sampling process described so for may be treated as multiplication type modulation, where in the
input signal X(t) is the modulating signal M(t) and the carrier signal is the sampling signal S(t).

The amplitude of each pulse after modulation defines the amplitude of the modulating signal & hence the
sampled data becomes the modulated carrier signal. The sampled data does not contain the carrier signal
when M (t) = 0 and hence it is equivalent to DSBSC signal. But in pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)
system it is so arranged that when M (t) = 0, the unmodulated carrier appears in the o/p and hence it is
equivalent to full AM.

The PAM pulse train becomes the basis for other pulse modulation systems such as pulse duration (or
width) modulation (PDM or PWM), pulse position modulation (PPM), or pulse frequency modulation
(PFM), figure shows the representation of this signals. The combination of the train of PAM pulses with
a coding technique leads to pulse code modulation PCM.

In pulse width modulation , the width of the pulse of tp is made proportional to the amplitude of the signal
sample, were as in PPM, the time at which each narrow pulse occur relative to a mean or reference
position, defines the amplitude of the signal sample .

Pulse Code Modulation: The sampled data or the PAM signal is suitable for analog transmission but
due to the many advantages of digital transmission techniques, the analog pulses are converted into
digital signals prior to transmission.

At the receiving end the digital signals are used direct for display and recording or connected into an
analog signal, were ever needed. Hence the combination of PAM pulses with a coding technique and
conversion of the log signals into digital signals, leads to PCM.

In PCM , the amplitude range of the sampled analog signal is divided into a finite no of discrete levels
known as quanta if 32 levels uniquely specified the amplitude range, then it becomes a five digit code in
the binary system at 25 = 32 . in such a case, the samples are said to be simply binary coded.

A larger number of discrete levels may be chosen when higher accuracy is desired. The sample amplitude
is represented in digital code by a set of five rectangular pulses of same height and duration. Recognition
of the levels of these pulses as neither near to zero or near to one is all that is needed to reconstruct the
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amplitude of analog signal at the receiving end. The conversion of analog electrical signals into digital
signals is accomplished by analog to digital convertors (ADC).

The process of obtaining the PCM signal in a four digit code is shown in fig a. The PCM pulses
representing each of the sampled amplitudes are indicated in fig b. & the duration of each PCM pulse is
decided by the sampling interval and the number of binary digits (bits) is used to represent the amplitude.
Hence, for higher accuracy, if a larger number of quanta are used, the band width of the changed.

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 DATA TRANSMISSION, TELEMETRY AND DAS
1. Introduction
The terms data transmission and telemetry refers to the process by which information regarding the
quantity being measured, may be using a transducer and signal condition equipment ,is transferred to a
remote location ,perhaps to be processed ,recorded ,displayed.
Telemetry is the technology which enables a user to collect data from several measurement points at
inaccessible or inconvenient locations, transmit the to a convenient location & present the several
individual measurements in a usable form.
The transmission of a measured variable to a remote point is a important function in Instrumentation
systems because of the size & complexity of modern industrial plants. The most common variables
encountered in industrial plants are temperature, pressure & flow. Most measuring devices for these
variables such as mercury thermometers, pressure gauge or flow rate meter would require fluid –line
connections of length from the place of measurement to the place of data recording or display. This will
result into excessive measurement logs .Hence there is a need for fast transmission data.

1.1 METHODS OF DATA TRANSMISSION

The methods employed for the data transmission depending upon the variable & the distance over
which it has to be transmitted .The following methods may be used for the data transmission:
1.1.1 Hydraulic Transmission
1.1.2 Pneumatic Transmission
1.1.3 Electrical and Electronics Transmission
The electrical and electronics methods are extensively used in instrumentation & measured
systems
2. TELEMETRY SYSTEMS
2.1 General telemetry system:-

The telemetry may be defined as measurement at a distance .A general telemetry system is shown
below figure

Fig: Functional Representation of General Telemetering System

The primary detector and the end device of the telemetry system have the same position and
functional roles as in a generalised measurement system .However there are three system elements in

1
the intermediate stage which are peculiar to be telemetering system, they are:
1. Telemeter Transmitter
2. Telemeter Channel
3. Telemeter Receiver.
The function of telemeter transmitter is to convert the output of a primary sensing element into an
electrical signal & to transmit it over a telemetering channel . This signal is in electrical format & is
received by a receiver placed at remote location .this signal is converted into a usable form by the
receiver &is indicated or recorded by an end device which is graduated in terms of Measured .The end
device may be a control element which may be used for the control of the Input
quantity(measured),through a feedback loop to produce desired output.
2.2 FREQUENCY MODULATION TELEMETRY SYSTEM:
One of the earliest techniques for mixing data channel in a telemetry system is the frequency
modulation:

Fig: Basic Frequency Modulation (FM)System

An FM system which is used for R.F telemetering application is shown in below fig
The output of the each transducer / signal conditioner modulates the frequency of a voltage
Controlled subcarrier oscillator .several oscillators each operating in a dedicated part of the
frequency spectrum are mixed for radio transmission .This can be linked to several FM broadcast
Stations .each is assigned a unique place in the frequency spectrum &each can be modulated With in
the assigned band without interfering with others .
At the receiving station , a FM modulator ,which is referred to all a discriminator is tuned to the
frequency of each sub-carrier & has a band width equal to that of the modulated sub-carrier.
As the measurement value changes at the source ,the discriminator output voltages changes
Accordingly

2.3 Pulse Modulation (PM) Telemetry System:

Pulse modulation may be used for the transmission of both digital & analog data . As far as the Digital
data are concerned ,we are dealing with logic levels –high and low & can modulate the carrier with the

2
train of pulses that represent the digital data. To utilize pulses techniques for transmission of analog
data ,we must first convert the analog data into pulse format .This conversion is also referred to as
modulation ,since the analog data Are used to modulate modify a train of pulses or a pulses subcarrier
.fig(a) shown is a train of pulses.

Fig: Pulse Amplitude Modulated Waveform

The amplitude of each pulse in the modulate train depends on the instantaneous amplitude of
the analog signal .The sine wave may be reconstruction from the modulated pulse train by
simple filtering .fig(b) shows graphically the process of reconstruction the original signal by
connecting the pulses using straight lines.

Fig: Pulse Amplitude Modulation Reconstructed Waveform

This process of PAM, may be accomplished by sampling the analog signal at constant intervals with a
fixed –width sampling pulse . The samples are pulses whose amplitude is that of the original analog
signal at the sampling instant. The sampling rate must be selected to be at least twice the highest analog
signal frequency. Usually, for better reproducibility the sampling frequency is about 5 times that of the
highest modulating frequency. Pulse duration modulation (PDM) or (PWM) converts the sampled
voltage levels into a series of Pulses whose width is directly proportional to the amplitude of the
sampled value as shown in figure(c)

3
 Fig: Pulse Duration Modulation

In PDM, the magnitude of all the pulses remains constant but the duration of pulses varies.
Pulse frequency modulation converts the sampled voltage into a train of pulses whose instantaneous
frequency and repetition rate,is directly related to the sampled voltage magnitude. Here again the
amplitude of the pulses is fixed only its frequency changes. The pulse frequency using the voltage to
frequency technique. The frequency of pulse train lies between 0 to 10hz. The pulses are counted by
electronic counters.

Fig: Pulse Frequency Method

Pulse code modulation converts the sampled voltage into a coded message. For example, if we Were to
transmit the use the train of 0‟s &1‟s shown to modulate the carrier. Each „0‟ may be represented by
the „0‟ volt level & each 1 by a 5v level. The resulting train of pulses is shown in below fig

4
 Fig: Pulse Train Representing Number 37 In BCD

The order of pulses in the train shown is important . First ,we transmit the LSD 7 ,then later in time
MSD 3.

2.4 PULSE AMPLITUDE MODULATION (PAM) TELEMETRY :

Information theory tells us that signals need not be monitored continuously in order to have
Accurate data . The signal in each channel is sampled in sequence by a commutator & the
amplitude of each is an indication of the instantaneous data value at that point ,when all channel Have
been sampled , the sequence starts over at the first channel . Thus , samples from particular Channel
are interleaved in time with samples from all other channels and the amplitude of each Is modulated
by its data input. Practical telemetry systems use high sampling rates to preserve all the information
in the original Signal the Sampling rate in a typical telemetry system is about five times the highest
frequency Component in the sampled signal. For example, if the highest frequency component in a
particular channel is 40hz ,the channel is sampled about 200 times per second . If there are eight such
channels in a system, the commutator must take at least 1600 samples per second. At the receiving end
of the system, a de-commutator operating at exactly the same frequency as the commutator distributes
the parts of the multiplexed signal to the proper output channels.

5
 Fig: Basic PAM System

PAM is the simplest form of time – division multiplexing because the samples are transmitted without
being modified.It is vitally important in a time division system that the de-commutator be synchronised
exact with the commutator synchronization channels must be introduced as part of the commutation
scheme as shown in fig ,on the receiving end ,no data is de- commutator until these channels have
been properly recognized & ”time tagged”,at which time the decommutation process can begin.

2.5 PULSE CODE MODULATION TELEMETRY (PCM):

A pulse code modulation telemetry system may appear to be like a PAM system .Here we use time-
division multiplexing to sample all the measured points for a test sequentially with a commutator. An
another element called encoder added in this system .This device accept each PAM sample in turn,
converts the amplitude of that sample into a binary number and shift the bits of that number out
serially.
The encoder may convert a zero amplitude pulse into the binary number “0”, the full scale pulse into
the binary number “1023” and pulses between those extremes into appropriate binary numbers so that
each number is almost exactly proportional to the instantaneous amplitude of its measurement point.

Fig: Basic PCM System

The receiving station must synchronise on the serial data stream, identify the sequence of bits which
make up each binary number & convert those bits sequences or words into computer data, analog

6
values, or other useful outputs.
Since the system makes binarily weighted “codes” of the measurement data, we call it a pulse code
modulation (PCM) system.
In PCM system modulation, the data to be measured are quantized &transmitted serially as data words
in pulse code. This is the most efficient of the pulse coding systems.

2.6 Comparison: FM, PAM &PCM:-

Telemetry systems for general use employ one of the methods of data multiplexing: FM, PAM, or
PCM.

1. FM has one clear cut advantage, it is about twice efficient as PCM in translation of input data
bandwidth multiplex bandwidth also in a system of just a few channels FM is generally less
than expansive than PCM.
2. PAM is used in several navy missile programs in which the low complexity and small size of
the encoder i.e., themselves to small missile applications. Also the bandwidth efficiency is even
better than FM. However it is relatively inaccurate form of data transmission, & this makes it
unpopular except in rare cases.
3. PCM has better accuracy, greater dynamic range, & less noise. And if the system has more than
about the data channels, PCM is generally less expensive per channel than FM. There are many
advantages of using PCM multiplexing, transmission & storage.

FM PAM PCM
Efficiency in use of radio or tape Medium Best Worst
recorder Band width
Cost of a small transmitting system Lowest Low High
Size Smallest Small Large
Cost of a large transmitting system Highest Lowest Medium
Size Largest Smallest Large
Cost of a small receiving system Lowest Higher High
Cost of a large receiving system Highest High High
accuracy Poor Poor Excellent
%of use 20 15 6

Table: Comparison Of FM, PAM, PCM

3. DATA ACQUASITION SYSTEM

The system used for the data processing, data conversion, data transmission, data storage is called data
acquisition system. The data systems are basically in two ways. Firstly, the system may be originating

7
from direct measurement of an electrical quantity such as ac ,dc voltage ,frequency, resistance,
capacitance etc., Secondly the signal may originated from the transducers such as pressure transducers ,
thermometers.
The DAS is mainly classified as analog data acquisition system &digital data acquisition system. The
analog DAS mainly deal the measurement information which is in the analog form. An analog signal is
the continuous signal such as voltage Vs time or displacement due to the pressure. While the digital
DAS may consists of number of discrete &discontinuous pulse representing high & low pulses which is
digital form. The relationship of these pulses with time gives the nature or magnitude of the quantity.

3.1 ANALOG DATA ACQUASITION SYSTEM

The basic components used in analog DAS are as follows:
1 Transducer :- The transducer is used to convert the physical quantity into an electrical quantity. The
transducers such as strain guage, thermocouples, plezo electric devices, photo sensitive are most widely
used. The transducer generates a voltage proportional to the physical quantity being measured.
This voltage is applied as a input to the data vacquisition system. Apart from this some special sensors
produce frequency which can be counted by an electronic counter. This frequency forms the integral
part of the quantity being measured. Otherwise the signal may be modulated then voltage level reduced
with the help of discriminator.
2 Signal Conditioner:- This device includes the supporting circuitry for the transducers. It allows the
output voltage of transducer to amplify up to desired level. It also converts the output voltage to the
desired form that is accepted by the next stage. It produce the conditions in tranasducers so that they
work properly. It also provides excitation power of balance circuit.
3 Multiplexers :- It allows a single channel with more than 1 inputs quantity. It accepts multiple analog
inputs with the help of multiplexers we can transmit more than one quantity using same channel. The
multiplexers are mostly used when quantity are to be transmitted. Also when the distance between the
transmitting end and receiving end is more, the multiplexers are used. Multiplexers reduce the cost of
installation, maintenance and periodic replacement of channels if those are used for separate input
signals.
4 Calibrating Equipment :- Before each test, the calibration n is carried out. This is called pre-
calibrally after each test calibration is carried out and it is called post-calibration. It usually consists
millivolt calibration of all input circuits and shunt calibration all bridge type transducers.

5 Integrating Equipment :- This block is used for integration or the summation o a quantity. The
techniques are normally used for integration purposes.
6 Visual Display Devices :- These are necessary to monitor the input signal continuously. These
devices include panel meters, numerical displays, single or multichannel.
7 Analog Recorders :- These are used as data reduction device. The output voltage of the analog
computer may be converted to digital form for further computations even though the accuracy of analog
computations is comparatively less than the digital one the analog computers are used because of its

8
less cost.
3.2 Digital Data Acquisition System

Fig: Digital DAS

A digital DAS may include some or all of the components shown in fig, the essential functional
operations of a digital data acquisition system are:
 Handling of analog signals
 Making the measurement
 Converting the data to digital form and handling it, and
 Internal programming and control
The various components and their functions are described below:

1 Transducers :- They convert a physical quantity to an electrical signal which is acceptable by the
DAS.
2 Signal Conditioning Equipment :- Signal conditioning including supporting circuit for amplifying
,modifying or selecting certain position of these signals.
3 Multiplexer :- Multiplexing is the process of sharing a single channel with more than one input. Thus
a multiplexing accepts multiple analog inputs & connection these sequentially to one measuring
instrument. Another name for a multiplexer is “scanner”.
4 Signal Converter:- A signal converter translates the analog signal to a form acceptable by the analog
to digital converter, an example of the signal converter is an amplify for amplifying the low level signal
voltages produced by transducers.
5 Analog To Digital Converter (A/D Converter):- An A/D converter converts the analog voltage to
its equivalent digital form . the output of the A/D converter may be fed to digital display devices for
visual display or may be fed digital recorders for recording . It may be fed to a digital computer for data
reduction & further processing.

6 Auxiliary equipment:- This contains devices for system programming functions & digital data
processing .some of the typical functions done by auxiliary equipment are linearization & limit
comparison of signals. These functions may be performed by individual devices or by a digital
computer.
7 Digital recorder:- Recorders of information in digital form may be had on punched cards , perforated

9
paper tapes , type written pages, floppy ,discs, magnetic tape or a combination of these systems. After
all the tests have been completed & the data generated, it becomes necessary to record the numbers &
in some cases reduce the data to a more meaningful form. A digital printer can be specified to
interference with an electronic instrumentation system in order to perform this work & thus provide a
high quality hard copy for records & minimizing the labour of the operating staff.
4. Multiplexing Systems

Any pulse modulation scheme involves translating the audio or modulating signals into a series of
encoded pulses, sending these pulses over a transmission medium & reverting the pulses back to an
analog signal.
A number of methods have been developed to accomplish this increase in transmission efficiency. The
two most common are frequency division, frequency multiplexing & time division or time
multiplexing.

4.1 Time-division multiplexing

Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is concerned with the usage of a single wire or a radio link for
tramission of analog data obtained from a large number of data channel. The data is obtained from a
set transducers which may develop analog voltages. These voltages are periodically and sequentially
sampled by means of a switching device and the sampled data thus obtained constitutes the pulse-
amplitude modulated (PSM) signal. When the signals to be multiplexed vary slowly with the time,
mechanical switches known as commutators may be used for sampling the input data. At the receiving
end, a similar device known as decommutator is used to deliver the respective samples to the
corresponding output terminals. Both the commutator and decommutator should rotate in synchronism
as shown in figure 11.9(a). So that they make contact simultaneously at terminals bearing the same
channel index. If the multiplexed signalsare transmitted directly over a pair of wires, no additional
processing is done. At the receiving end, the output pulse of each channel is passed through a low-pass
filter, so that its output is treated as the reconstructed signal resembling the original signal.
When the input signals to be multiplexed are of a higher frequency, higher switching speeds are
required which may be beyond the range of mechanical commutators, and in such a case, electronic
switches system are employed. The train of PAM pulse become the base band signal. When the data is
to be transmitted over a radio link, thereby constituting either a PAM/FM system or PAM/FM/FM
system. The carrier or the sub-carrier signal is frequency modulated, in most cases, by the PAM pulse
train.
The PAM pulse train thus consists of a series of rectangle pulse, regularly spaced at intervals of Ts as
shown in figure 11.9(b). Each pulse is flat-topped, signifying the fact the analog signal sampled has not
changed in its amplitude during the period of sampling and that it has not changed much during the
period between any two of its successive samples. The amplitude of the pulse is a representation of the

10
amplitude of the signal at the instant at which it is sampled and the duration of the pulse is so adjusted
that it is between 40-65 percent of the interval Ts between any two pulses of the pulse train. A
synchronizing pulse is added at the beginning of each series of the pulse so as to signify the starting of
the sampling process from input channel with index number one. The synchronization pulse is of full-
scale amplitude and its duration is equal to 1.5Ts with „off‟ time of 0.5Ts as shown in figure 11.9(b).
A frame is said to consist of the pulse obtained from all the input channel once, along with the synch
pulse. The frame rate is the number of times the entire groups of input channels get sampled per
second. Thus the number of pulses (samples) obtained per second is the product of the frame rate and
the number of samples per frame. In each frame, two more pulses are usually added, one representing
the zero level and the other the maximum value which a pulse is likely to assume and which may be
used to calibrate the system at the receiving end.

Fig: Simple TDM Scheme

11
 Fig: PAM Pulse Train

The numbers of samples per frame is normally chosen as 18 or 30 and the frame rate is standardized
such that the commutation rate for mechanical sampling varies from 75 to a maximum of 900 samples
per second. For PAM/FM/FM telemetry system, the lowest subcarrier frequency recommended for a
train of 75 samples per second is 14.5kHz. whereas for the case of 900 samples per second a subcarrier
of 70 kHz is used. But for electronics switching, the numbers of frames per second may be increased to
the desired level, depending on the limitations of the link and the technique of telemetry chosen.
Thus is is seen that in time in time-division multiplexing, a regularly occurring time slot is allocated to
each data input channel and the PAM pulse train is the consequence of amplitude modulation of a pulse
which is located within the specified time slot. Other possibilities of modulation such as PWM, PPM or
PCM are possible, once the PAM train is obtained, as can be understood from the following sections.
4.2 Frequency-division multiplexing:

Frequency-division multiplexing(FDM) is always associated with FM/FM telemetry system, in which a

number of analog signals obtained from transducers are transmitted to a far-off station by using one
single high frequency carrier signal. Depending on the frequency of the high frequency carrier, the
telemetry link may be wire or radio waves. In power line carrier current(PLCC) system, the hf carrier is
of a frequency within the range of 20-300kHz, depending on the characteristics of the wire-link, and in
the case of radio telemetry a radio frequency carrier.
Figure 11.5 shows another simple telemetry system for transmission of linear displacements obtained
from primary mechanical transducers. The indeed emfs of the two secondary winding are transmitted
over the wires to the receiving end. The receiver consists of a servo-operated self-balancing system
providing indication of input displacement. The arrangement is more or less free from the effect of
loading the line due to the receiving system. It is equivalent to an ac bridge network with one half
located at the transmitting end and the other half at the receiving end. It may be noted that the accuracy
of the system is limited due to the fact that the servo-amplifier cannot discriminate the 50Hz
components of the unbalance voltage and 50Hz noise signals indeed in the wires. A pair of screened
wires may be used with their metallic screens connected together and grounded so that the effort of
noise signals is minimized.

12
 Fig : linear displacement telemetry system using LVDT

MODERN DIGITAL DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM

The electronic devices that perform the interfacing function between the analog and digital world are
the analog-to-digital converters abbreviated as A/D converters or ADC, and digital to analog converters
abbreviated as D/A converters or DAC They have been described in Chapter 28

Some of the specific applications in which data converters are used include data telemetry systems
pulse coded communications, automatic test systems computer display systems, value signal processing
systems, data logging systems, and sampled-data control systems. In addition, every laboratory digital
multimeter or digital panel meter contains an A/D converter.

Besides A/D and D/A converters, data-acquisition systems may employ one or more of the following
circuit functions
1. Transducers

13
2. Amplifiers
3. Filters
4. Nonlinear analog functions
5. Analog multiplexers
6. Sample-holds

The interconnection of these components is shown in the diagram of the data-acquisition portion of a
computerized feedback control system in Fig. 31.13.

The input to the system is a physical parameter, such as temperature, pressure, flow, acceleration, or
position, which are analog quantities. The parameter is first converted into an electrical signal by means
of a transducer once in electrical form, all further processing is done by electronic circuits.

Next an amplifier or signal conditioner boosts the amplitude of the transducer output signal to a useful
level for further processing. Transducer outputs may be microvolt or millivolt level signals, which are
then amplified to 1 to 10 V levels. Furthermore, the transducer output may be a high impedance signal
a differential signal with common-mode noise, a current output, a signal superimposed on a high
voltage, or a combination of these. The amplifier, in order to convert such signals into a high level
voltage, may be one of several specialized types.

The amplifier is frequently followed by The low-pass active filter, which reduces high frequency
wanted electrical interference noise, or electronic noise from amplifier is sometimes also followed by a
nonlinear analog function circuit that nonlinear operation on the high-level signal.
Such operations include squaring, multiplication, division rms conversion, log conversion, or
linearization.

The processed analog signal next goes to an analog multiplexer, which sequentially switches between a
number of different analog input channels. Each input is in turn connected to the input of the
multiplexer for a specified period of time by the multiplexer switch. During this connection time a
sample hold circuit acquires the signal voltage and then holds its value while an analog-to-digital
converter converts the value into digital form. The resultant digital word goes to a computer data bus or
to the input of a digital circuit.

Thus the analog multiplexer, together with the sample-hold, time shares the A/D converter with a
number of analog input channels. The timing and control of the complete data-acquisition system

While this is perhaps the most commonly used data acquisition system configuration, alternatives.
Instead of m signals, with the amplifier following the multiplexer. In such cases only one amplifier is
required, but its gain may have to be changed from one channel to the n ext during multiplexing.
Another method is to amplify and convert the signal into digital form at the transducer location and
send the digital information in serial form to the computer. Here the digital data must multiplexed on to
the computer data bus.

Several other amplifiers are useful in conditioning the input signal in a data acquisition system. A
isolation amplifier is used to amplify a differentia , which is superimposed on a very high common
voltage, perhaps several hundred or even several thousand volts. The isolation amplifier has the
characteristics of an instrumentation amplifier high common-mode input voltage capacity

14
Another special amplifier, the chopper stabilized amplifier, is used to accurately microvolt-level d
amplifier B signals to employs low input offset voltage drift. Another extreme vice, the electrometer
amplifier, has ultralow hias currents, generally less than 1 picoampere and is used to convert extremely
small signal currents into a high-level voltage

Filters
A low-pass filter frequently follows the signal-processing amplifier to reduce signal noise. Low pass
filters are used for the following reasons: to reduce man-made electrical interference noise, to reduce
electronic noise and to limit the bandwidth of the analog signal to less than half the sampling frequency
in order to eliminate frequency folding. When used for the last reason, the filter is called a presampling
filter or intialiasing filter.

Man-made electrical noise is generally periodic, as for example in power line interference, and is
sometimes reduced by means of a special filter such as filter. Electronic noise, on the other hand, is
random noise with noise power proportional to a notch bandwidth and is present I circuit
transducer resistances resistances, and in amplifiers themselves. It is reduced by limiting the bandwidth
of the system to minimum required to pass desired signal the components.

No filter does a perfect job of eliminating noise or other undesirable frequency components, and
therefore the choice of a filter is always a compromise. Ideal filters, frequently used as analysis
examples have flat passband response with infinite attenuation at the cutoff frequency, but are
mathematical filters only and not physically realizable.

In practice, the systems engineer has a choice rate and resultant phase particular filter characteristic and
the number of pole in the filter functions. Some of the more popular filter
characteristics include Butter-worth, Chebychev Bessel, and elliptic. In making this choice, the effect of
overshoot and non-uniform phase delay must be carefully considered. Figure 31.14 illustrates some
practical low-pass filter response characteristics.

15
Passive RLC filters are seldom used in signal-processing applications today owing chiefly to the
undesirable characteristics of inductors. Active filters are generally used now since they permit the
filter characteristics to be accurately set by precision, 'stable resistors and capacitors. Inductors, with
their undesirable saturation and temperature drift characteristics, are thereby eliminated. Also, because
active filters use operational amplifiers, the problems
of insertion loss and output loading are eliminated.

Settling Time
A parameter that is specified frequently in data acquisition and distribution systems is setting timer.
The term settling tome originates in control theory, but it is now commonly applied to amplifiers,
multiplexers, and DA converters

Settling time is defined as the time elapsed from the application of a full scale step input to a circuit to
the time when the output has entered and remained within a specified error band around its final value

The method of application of the input step may vary depending on the type of circuit, but the
definition still holds. In the case of a D/A converter, for example, the step is applied by changing the
digital input code, whereas in the case of an amplifier the input signal itself is a step change

The importance of settling time in a data- acquisition system is that certain analog operations must be
performed in sequence, and one operation may have to be accurately settled before the next operation
can be initiated. Thus a buffer amplifier preceding an A/D converter must have accurately settled
before the conversion can be initiated

Settling time for an amplifier is illustrated in Fig 31.15. After application of a full-scale step input,
there is a small delay time, following which the amplifier output slew's or changes at its maximum rate.
Slew rate is determined by internal amplifier currents that must change internal capacitances. As the
amplifier output approaches final value, it may first overshoot and then reverse and undershoot this

16
value before finally entering and remaining within the specific error band. Note that settling time is
measured to the point at which the amplifier output enters and remains within the error band. This error
band in most devices is specified to either 0.1% or
001% of the full-scale transition.

Amplifier Characteristics
Settling time, unfortunately, is not readily predictable from other amplifier parameters such as
bandwidth, slew rate, or overload recovery time, although it depends on all of these. It is also
dependent on the shape of the amplifier open-loop gain characteristics, its input and output capacitance
and the dielectric absorption of any internal capacitances designed for optimized settling time, and
settling time is a parameter that must be determined by testing.

One of the important requirements of a fast-settling amplifier is that it has a single-pole open-loop gain
characteristic, that is, one that has a smooth 6-db/octave gain roll – off characteristic to beyond the
unity gain crossover frequency. Such a desirable characteristic is shown in Fig. 31.16.

17
It is important to note that an amplifier with a single pole response can never settle faster than the time
indicated by the number of closed-loop time constants to the given accuracy. Figure 31.17 shows the
output error as a function of the number of time constants T, where

1

2 f

And f is the closed-loop 3-db band width of the amplifier.

Actual settling time for a good-quality amplifier may be significantly longer than that indicated by the
number of closed-loop time constants due to slew –rate limitation and overload recovery time. For
example an amplifier with a closed-loop bandwidth of 1 MHz has a time constant of 160 ns which
indicates a settling time of 1.44 μs (9 time constants) to 0.01% of final value. If the slew rate of this
amplifier is 1 V/μs, it will take more than 10 μs to settle to 0.01% for a 10 V change.

If the
amplifier has a nonuniform gain roll- off characteristic, then its settling time may have one of two
undesirable qualities. First, the output may reach the vicinity of the error band quickly, but then take a
the to actually enter it. Second, it may overshoot r band and then oscillate back and forth long time t
error it before entering and remaining inside it.

Modern fast-settling operational amplifiers come many different types, including modular, hybrid
and monolithic amplifiers. Such amplifiers have 0.1 % or 0.01% of 2 s down to 100 ns
and are useful in data acquisition and conversion applications. Figure 31.17 an example of an ultrafast
settling times of settling operational amplifier of the hybrid type.

ANALOG MULTIPLEXER OPERATION

Analog multiplexers are the circuits that time share an A/D converter among a number of different
analog channels. Since the A/D converter in many cases is the most expensive component in a data
acquisition stem, multiplexing analog inputs to the A/D is an is the economical approach. Usually, the

18
analog multiplexer o a sample-hold circuit that holds the analog voltage long enough for A/D
conversion.

As shown in Fig. 31.18 an analog multiplexer consists of an array of parallel electronic switches
connected to a common output line. Only one switch is turned on at a time. Only one switch is turned
on at a time Popular switch configurations Channels, which are connected in or dual (differential)
configurations to a common output line. Only one switch in include 4, 8 and 16 channels, which are
connected in single ( single-ended) or dual (differential) configurations.

The multiplexer also contains a decoder-driver circuit that decodes a binary input word and turns on the
appropriate switch. This circuit interfaces with standard transistor-transistor-logic (TTL) inputs and
drives the multiplexer switches with the proper control voltages. For the 8-channel analog multiplexer
shown, a one-of-eight decoder circuit is used.

Most analog multiplexers today employ the CMOS switch circuit shown in Fig. 31.19. A CMOS driver
controls the gates of parallel-connected P-channel and N-channel MOSFETs. Both switches
turn on together, with the parallel connection giving relatively uniform on-resistance over the required
analog input voltage range. The resulting on-resistance may vary from about 50 Ω to 2
depending on the multiplexer this resistance increases with temperature

19
 Because of the series resistance, it is common practice to operate an analog multiplexer into a very
high load resistance such as the input of a unity gain buffer amplifier. The load impedance must be
large compared with the switch on-resistance and any series source resistance in order to maintain high
transfer accuracy. Transfer error is the input-to-output error of the multiplexer with the source and load
connected error is expressed as a percent of input voltage.

Transfer errors of 0.1% to 0.01% or less are required in must data acquisition systems. This is
readily achieved by using operational amplifier buffers with typical input impedances from 108 10 to
19122. Many sample-hold circuits also have very high input impedances.

Another important characteristic of analog multiplexers is break-before-make switching. There is a

small time delay between disconnection from the previous channel and connection to the next channel,
which assures that two adjacent input channels are never instantaneously connected together.

Settling time is another important specification for analog multiplexers ; it has the same definition
previously given for amplifiers except that it is measured from the time the channel is switched on.

Throughput rate is the highest rate at which a multiplexer can switch from channel to channel with the
output settling to its specified accuracy

Cross talk is the ratio of output voltage to input voltage with all channels connected in parallel and off :
it is generally expressed as an input-to-output attenuation ratio in decibels.

As shown in the representative equivalent circuit of Fig. 31.20, analog multiplexer switches have a
number of leakage currents and capacitances associated with their operation. These parameters are
specified on data sheets and must be considered in the operation of the devices. Leakage currents,
generally in picoampere at room temperature, become trouble-some only at high temperatures.
Capacitances affect crosstalk and settling time of the multiplexer.

20
Analog Multiplexer Applications
Analog multiplexers are employed in two basic types of operation high level and low level. In high-
level multiplexing, the most popular type, the analog signal is amplified to the 1 to 10 V range ahead of
the multiplexer. This has the advantage of reducing the effects of noise on the signal during the
remaining analog processing. In low-level multiplexing, the signal is amplified after multiplexing ;
therefore, great care must be exercised in handling the low-level signal up to the multiplexer. Low-level
multiplexers generally use two-wire differential switches in order to minimize noise pickup. Reed
relays, because of essentially zero series resistance and the absence of switching spikes, are frequently
employed in low-level multiplexing systems. They are also useful for high common-mode voltages.

A useful specialized analog multiplexer is the flying-capacitor type. This circuit, shown as a single
channel in Fig. 31.21 has differential inputs and particularly useful with high common-mode voltages
The capacitor connects first to the differential input, charging up to the input voltage, and is then
switched to the differential output, which goes to high-input-impedance instrumentation amplifier. The
differential signal is therefore transferred to the amplifier input without the common-mode voltage and
is then further processed up to A/D conversion

To realize large numbers of multiplexed channels you can connect analog multiplexers in parallel using
the enable input to control each device. This is called single-level multiplexing. You can also connect
th output of several multiplexers to the inputs of another to expand the number of channels this method
is double-level multiplexing.

OPERATION OF SAMPLE-HOLD CIRCUIT

Sample-hold circuits, discussed earlier, are the devices that store analog information and redu aperture
time of an A/D converter. A sample hold is simply a voltage-memory device in which an input voltage
is acquired and then stored on a high-quality C capacitor. A popular circuit is shown in Fig. 31.22

21
A1 is an input buffer amplifier with a high input impedance so that the source, which may be an analog
multiplexer, is not loaded. The output of A1 must be capable of driving the hold capacitor with stability
and enough drive current to charge it rapidly. S1 is an electronic switch, generally an FET, which is
rapidly switched on or off by a driver circuit that interfaces with TTL inputs

C is a capacitor with low leakage and low dielectric absorption characteristics; it is a polystyrene
polypropylene, or Teflon type. In the case of hybrid sample-holds, the MOS-type capacitor is
frequently used.

A2, is the output amplifier that buffers the voltage on the hold capacitor. It must therefore have
extremely low input bias current, and for this reason an FET input amplifier is required

There are two modes of operation for a sample-hold sample (or tracking) mode, when the switch is
closed; and hold mode, when the switch is open. Sample-holds are usually operated in one of two ways.
The device can continuously track the input signal and be switched into the hold mode only an
specified times, spending most of the time in tracking mode. This is the case for a sample hold
employed as a deglitcher at the output of a D/A converter, for example.

Alternatively, the device can stay in the hold mode most of the time and go to the sample mode just
follow converter, for example. to acquire a new input signal level. This is the case for a sample-hold
used in a data-acquisition system following the multiplexer

Sample-hold as a Data-Recovery Filter

A common application for sample-hold circuits is data-recovery, or signal-reconstruction, filters. The
problem is to reconstruct a train of analog samples into the original signal; when used as a recovery
filter, the sample-hold is known as a zero-order hold. It is a useful filter because it fills in the space
between A common samples, providing data smoothing.

As with other filter circuits, the gain and phase components of the transfer function are of interest. By
an analysis based on the impulse response of a sample hold and use of the Laplaee transform, the
transfer function is found to be

22
Where f s is the sampling frequency.

This function contains the familiar (sin x) / x term plus a phase term, both of which are plotted in fig.
31.23

The sample-hold is therefore a low-pass filter with a cutoff frequency slightly less than f s /2 and a
linear phase response that results in a constant delay time of T/2, where T is the time between samples.
Notice that the gain function also has significant response lobes beyond f s . For this reason, a sample-
hold reconstruction filter is frequently followed by another conventional low-pass filter.

Other Sample-Hold Circuits

In addition to the basic circuit of Fig. 31.24, several other sample-hold circuit configurations are
frequently used. Figure 31.25 shows two such circuits, which are closed-loop circuits, as contrasted
with the open-loop circuit of Fig. 31.24. Figure 31.25(a) uses an operational integrator and another
amplifier to make a fast, accurate inverting sample-hold. A buffer amplifier is
sometimes added in front of this circuit to give high input impedance. Figure 31.25(b) shows a high
input impedance non inverting sample-hold circuit

The circuit in Fig. 31.22, although generally not as accurate as those in Fig. 31.24 can be used with a
diode-bridge switch to realize ultrafast
Sample-Hold Characteristics
A number of parameters are important in characterizing sample-hold performance. Probably most
important of these is acquisition time. The definition is similar to that of settling time for an amplifier.
It is the time required, after the sample-command is given for the hold capacitor to change to a full-
scale voltage charge and remain within a specified error band around final value

Several hold-mode specifications are also c important. Hold-mode droop is the output voltage h change

23
per unit time when the sample switch is open. This droop is caused by the leakage currents of the
capacitor and switch and the output amplifier bias current. Hold-mode feedthrough is the percentage of
input signal transferred to the output when the sample switch is open. It is measured with a sinusoidal
input signal and caused by capacitive coupling

The most critical phase of sample-hold operation is the transition from the sample mode to the hold
mode. Several important parameters characterize this transition. Sample-to-hold offset (or step) error is
the

change in output voltage from the sample mode to the hold he switch transferring change onto the by
the with a constant input voltage. Ito capacitor as it turns off.

Aperture delay is the time elapsed from the command when the switch actually generally uncertainty
(or aperture jitter) is the time variation, from sample to sample, of the aperture delay. It is the on how
precise is the point in time of opening t switch. Aperture uncertainty is the time used t determine the
aperture error due to rate of chang d the input signal. Several of these specifications as illustrated in
Fig. 31.25.

Sample-hold circuits are simple in concept, but generally difficult to fully understand and apply. Their
operation is full of subtleties, and they must therefore be carefully selected and then tested in a given
application.

24
25
 SIGNAL ANALYZERS AND DIGITAL METERS

CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION OF SIGNL ANALYZERS

A signal may consist of a D.C component or a pure sinusoidal component. A complex waveform is
made up of a fundamental frequency and its components called harmonics.

For example, a D.C power supply contains some distortion due to the harmonics of the input
frequency. An ideal linear amplifier produces sine wave output when sinusoidal signal is applied at
the input terminals. But due to non-linear characteristics of the input terminals of the active
devices, different types of distortion are introduced in the output signal. In case of modulated
frequency signal, there are number of frequency components.

It is necessary to measure the distortion in the signals. It is also required to measure the amplitude
of each harmonic or fundamental frequency individually. The devices used to measure distortions
are called signal analyzers.

Frequency domain analysis is possible with the help of analyzers such as spectrum analyzer, FFT
analyzers, vector analyzers etc.

1.1 WAVE ANALYZER:

Fig 1.1: Basic Wave Analyzer.

Figure shows the basic wave analyzer. It consists of a primary detector, which is a simple LC
circuit. This LC circuit is adjusted for resonance at the frequency of the particular harmonic
component to be measured.

The intermediate stage is a full wave rectifier, to obtain the average value of input signal. The
indicating device is a simple dc voltmeter that is calibrated to read the peak value of the sinusoidal
input voltage.

Since LC circuit is tuned to a single frequency to which it is tuned filters, connected to the
indicating device through a selector switch, would be required for a useful wave analyzer.

There are two types of wave analyzers:

1) Frequency selective wave analyzer

2) Heterodyne wave analyzer

1
1.2 FREQUENCY SELECTIVE WAVE ANALYZER:

Fig 1.2: Frequency Selective Wave Analyzer

The frequency selective wave analyzer is used for measurements in the audio frequency range(20
HZ to 20 KHZ) the analyzer has a filter section with a very narrow passband that can be tuned to
the frequency component of interest. The block diagram of frequency selective wave analyzer is
shown in the below figure.

By using selector switch on the front panel, selected frequency signal is applied and a driver
amplifier feeds the attenuated waveform to a high quality active filter. The filter is a cascaded
arrangement of RC resonant sections and filter amplifiers. The passband of the total filter section
is covered in decade steps over the entire audio range by switching capacitors in the RC sections
close-tolerance polystyrene are generally used for selecting the frequency ranges. Precision
potentiometers are used to tune the filters to any desired frequency within the selected passband.
A final amplifier stage supplies the selected signal to the output meter circuit and also to an
unturned buffer amplifier. The output meter is driven by an average type detector and usually has
several voltage ranges as well as a decibel scale and indicates magnitude of that selected frequency
signal. The buffer amplifier can be used to drive a recorder or electronic counter or any other
output device.

Fig 1.3: Attenuation Characteristics

2
The bandwidth of the instrument is very narrow typically about 1% of the selected frequency. The
below figure is a typical attenuation curve of a wave analyzer.

1.3 HETERODYNE WAVE ANALYZER:

The input signal is to be analyzed is heterodyned to a higher intermediate frequency by an internal

local oscillator; the measurements are in the range of MHz’s. Such measurements are usually done
with heterodyne wave analyzer. Tuning of the local oscillator implies shifting of the various signal
frequency components into the If amplifier passband.

The output of the IF amplifier passband is rectified and applied to the metering circuit.

The block diagram of heterodyne wave analyzer is shown below. The operating frequency range of
this instrument is from 10 kHz to 18 MHz in 18 overlapping bands selected by the frequency range
control of the local oscillator. The bandwidth is controlled by an active filter and can be selected at
200 Hz, 1000 Hz and 3000 Hz.

Fig 1.4: Functional Block Diagram of Heterodyne Wave Analyzer

The input signal enters the instrument through a probe connector that contains a unity-gain
isolation amplifier. After appropriate attenuation, the input signal is heterodyne in the mixer type
stage with a signal from a local oscillator. The output of mixer forms an intermediate frequency
that is uniformly amplified by the 30 MHz if amplifier again this amplified if signal is mixed with a
30MHz crystal oscillator signal which results in information centered on a zero frequency.

An active filter with controlled bandwidth and symmetrical slopes of 72 decibels/octave then
passes the selected component to the meter amplifier and detector circuit. The output can be read
off a decibel calibrated scale or may be applied to a recording device.

3
1.4 HARMONIC DISTORTION ANALYZERS:

In the ideal case, application of a sinusoidal input to an electronic device, such as an amplifier a
sinusoidal waveform as an output. However in practice the output waveform is not an exact
replica of input waveform because various types of distortion may arise. Distortion may be a result
of the inherent non-linear characteristics of the transistor in the circuit or a result of the circuit
components themselves. Non-linear behavior of circuit elements introduces harmonics of the
fundamental frequency in the output waveform and the resultant distortion is often referred to as
harmonic distortion.

A measure of the distortion due to a particular harmonic is the ratio of that harmonic amplitude to
the fundamental frequency amplitude. Harmonic distortion is represented by

D2 = A2/A1, D3=A3/A1, D4=A4/A1……. = /

Where = Distortion of the nth harmonic

An = amplitude of nth harmonic

A1 = amplitude of the fundamental frequency

N = 2, 3, 4……..

The total harmonic distortion or distortion factor

D=

Let

D=

% total harmonic distortion %D =

The simplest method to measure total harmonic distortion is to suppress the fundamental
frequency by means of a high pass filter whose cut-off frequency is a little above the fundamental
frequency. This high pass allows only the harmonics to pass and the total distortion can then be
measured.

The following shows a harmonic distortion analyzer, used to measure total harmonic distortion.
The signal from the source is fed into the amplifier under test. This generates harmonics and the
original fundamental frequency is removed by the notch filter.

4
 ⒜Manual reading

⒝ Ratio reading

Fig 1.5: Block Diagram of Fundamental Suppression Harmonics Distortion Analyzers

In the manual system the switch is first placed in position-1nand the total content of fundamental
and harmonics (A1) is measured. Then the switch is moved to position-2 to measure just the
harmonics (AH). Then the value of total harmonic distortion (THD) is found from equation.

THD = D =

The meter can be calibrated by putting the switch in position -1 and adjusting the reading for full
scale deflection with the switch in position -2 the meter reading is now proportional to THD.

An alternating arrangement is ratio reading, in which the values of AH and A1 are read
simultaneously and their ratio calculated and displayed as THD on the indicator.

Notch filter must have an excellent rejection of fundamental frequency and also needs to be tuned
accurately to the fundamental of the signal source. Different methods employed for notch filter of
harmonic distortion analyzer based on fundamental suppression are as follows.

5
 CHAPTER-2

BRIDGES

2.1 Resonance Bridge:

Fig 2.1: Resonance Bridge

The bridge is balanced for the fundamental frequency i.e. L and C are tuned to the fundamental
frequency and is unbalanced for the harmonics. Therefore only harmonic power will be available
at the output and can be measured. Indicators can be thermocouples or square law vacuum types
voltmeter (VTVMS). This indicates the rms value of all harmonics. This method is suitable only
when the test signal has a fixed frequency. On the other had if there is continuous adjustment of
the fundamental frequency, a Wien’s bridge is used.

2.2 WIEN’S BRIDG:

The bridge is balanced for the fundamental frequency. The fundamental energy is dissipated in the
bridge circuit elements. Only the harmonic components reach the output terminals and are
measured with a meter. Under balance condition C1=C2=C, R1=R2=R and R3=2R4.

Fig 2.2: Wien’s Bridge Method

6
2.3 BRIDGE T-NETWORK METHOD:

Fig 2.3: Bridged T-network Method

Above shown bridged T-network method of harmonics distortion analysis, in which L-C tank
circuit is tuned to the fundamental frequency. The fundamental energy will circulate in the tank
and is bypassed by the resistance. Only harmonic components will reach the output terminals and
the distorted output can be measured by

CHAPTER-3

DIGITAL VOLTMETER

3.1 INTRODUCTION:

A digital voltmeter (DVM) displays the value of a.c or d.c voltage to be measured directly on a
screen in the decimal numbers. Due to the numerical readout most of the human errors such as
parallax or approximation errors are entirely eliminated and reading speed is increased.

Fig 3.1: Block Diagram of a Digital Voltmeter

The block diagram of a simple digital voltmeter is shown in figure. The input voltage is fed to the
pulse generator, which generates a pulse whose width is directly proportional to the input voltage.
The output of the pulse generator is one of the inputs of a AND circuit. The other input signal to the
AND circuit is a train of pulses. The AND circuit produces a positive trigger train of duration T
second and fed to the NOT circuit.

7
The NOT circuit changes positive trigger train to a negative trigger train. The decimal counter
count the number of triggers in ‘T’ seconds which is proportional to the voltage to be measured.
Thus, the decimal counter can be calibrated in volts and gives digital readout.

Thus, the digital voltmeter acts as an A/D converter which converts analog signal into digital
readout. The input range of the digital voltmeter may vary from 1 V to 1 KV. It resolution may be a
1 part in giving 1 V reading on the 1 V input range.DVM is essentially an analog to digital
converter (A/D) with a digital display. A digital voltmeter is versatile and accurate voltmeter with
the use of integrated circuits(IC), the size of the digital voltmeter is reduced. The various types of
digital voltmeters are:

1. Ramp type digital voltmeter

2. Integrating type digital voltmeter
3. Potentiometric type DVM
4. Successive approximation type DVM
5. Continuous balance type DVM

The basic function of each type is analog to digital (A/D) conversion. Hence, the first component
required in a digital instrument is an analog to digital (A/D) converter, which converts the analog
signal into digital form. The comparator compares the unknown voltage with a reference voltage.

3.2 RAMP TYPE DVM:

The operating principle of a ramp type digital voltmeter is to measure the time that a linear ramp
voltage takes to change from level of input voltage to zero voltage (or vice-versa). This time
interval is measured with an electronic time interval counter and the count is displayed as a
number of digits on electronic indicating tubes of the output readout of the voltmeter.

The conversion of a voltage value of a time interval is shown in the timing diagram.

Fig 3.2: Timing Diagram Showing Voltage to Time Converter.

8
 Fig 3.3: Bock Diagram of Ramp Type Digital Voltmeter

At the start of measurement a ramp voltage is initiated .A negative going ramp is shown in figure
ⓐ. But a positive going ramp may also be used. The ramp voltage value is continuously compared
with the voltage being measured (unknown voltage). At the instant, the value of ramp voltage is
equal to that of unknown voltage a coincidence circuit, called an input comparator, and generates a
pulse which opens a gate. The ramp voltage continues to decrease till it reaches ground level (zero
voltage). At this instant another comparator called ground comparator generates a pulse and loses
the gate.

The time elapsed between opening and closing of the gate is ‘T’ as indicated in figure ⓐ. During
this time interval pulses from a clock pulse generator pass through the gate and are counted and
displayed. The decimal number as indicated by the readout is a measure of the value of input
voltage.

The sample rate multi vibrator determines the rate at which the measurement cycles are
indicated. The sample rate circuit provides an initiating pulse for the ramp generator to start its
next ramp voltage. At the same time it sends a pulse to the counters which set all of them to ‘0’.This
momentarily removes the original display of the readout.

3.3 INTEGRATING TYPE DIGITAL VOLTMETER:

The voltmeter measures the true average value of the input voltage over a fixed measuring period.
In contrast the ramp type DVM samples the voltage at the end of the measuring period. This
voltmeter employs an integration technique which uses a voltage to frequency conversion. The
voltage to frequency (v/f) converter functions as a feedback control system which governs the rate
of pulse generation in a proportion to the magnitude of input voltage.

Actually when we employ the voltage to frequency conversion techniques, train of pulses, whose
frequency depends upon the voltage being measured is generated. Then the number of pulses
appearing in a definite interval of time is counted. Since the frequency of these pulses is a function

9
of unknown voltage, the number of pulses counted in that period of time is an indication of the
input (unknown) voltage.

The heart of this technique is the operational amplifier acting as an integrator.

Output voltage of integrator, E0 =

Thus, if a constant input voltage is applied an output voltage E0 is produced, which raises a
uniform rate and has a polarity opposite to that input voltage.

Fig 3.4: Graphs Showing Slopes and Magnitudes of Output Voltages for Various Input Voltages

In other words, it is clear from the above relationship that for a constant input voltage the
integrator produces a ramp output voltage of opposite polarity. The graphs showing relationship
between input voltages of three different values and their respective output voltages are shown. It
is clear that the polarity of the output voltage is opposite to that of input voltage. Not only that, the
greater the input voltage the sharper is the rate of rise, or slope of output voltage.

The basic block diagram of a typical integrating type of DVM is shown in below figure. The
unknown voltage ( ) is applied to the input of the integrator and the output voltage (E 0) starts to
rise

10
 Fig 3.5: Block Diagram of Integrating Type Digital Voltmeter

The slope of output voltage (E0) is determined by the value of input voltage ( ). This voltage is fed
a level detector and when E0 reaches a certain reference level, the detector sends a pulse to the
pulse generator gate. The level detector is a device similar to a voltage comparator. The output
voltage from integrator E0 is compared with the fixed voltage of an internal reference source and
when E0 reaches that level the detector produces output voltages.

The output pulse of the level detector opens the pulse generation gate, permitting pulses from a
fixed frequency clock oscillator to pass through pulse generator. This generator is a device such as
Schmitt trigger that produces an output pulse of fixed amplitude and width for every pulse it
receives.

This output pulse, whose polarity is opposite to that of and as greater amplitude is feedback to the
input of the integrator. Hence, the next input to the integrator is now of a reversed polarity. As a
result of this reversed input, the output E0 drops back to its original level. Since E0 is now below
the reference level of the level detector. There is no output from the detector to the pulse
generator gate the gate gets closed. Thus, no more pulses from the clock oscillator can pass
through to trigger the pulse generator.

Fig 3.6: Timing Diagram of Integrating Digital Voltmeter

When the output voltage pulse from the pulse generator has passed, is restored to its original
valve and E0 starts its rise again. Ehen it reaches the level f reference voltage again, the pulse
generator gate is opened. The pulse generator is triggered by a pulse from the clock generator and
the entire cycle is repeated again. Thus, the waveform of E0 is a saw tooth wave whose rise time is
dependent upon the value of input voltage and the fall time is determined by the width of the
output pulse from the pulse generator.

11
Thus the frequency of the saw tooth wave (t0) is a function of the valve of , the voltage being
measured. Since one pulse from the pulse generator is produced for each cycle of the saw tooth
wave, the number of pulses produced in a given time interval and hence the frequency of saw
tooth wave is an indication of the valve of voltage being measured. Pulses from the clock oscillator
are applied to a time base selector. The first pulse passes through start-stop gate, producing an

output which is applied to the main gate thus opening the gate. As a result of this, the same output
pulses from the pulse generator also pass through the main gate. The next pulse from the time
being closes the start-stop gate and also the main gate. Thus, no more pulse generator pulses can
pass through. Hence, the counters and their associated readouts indicate the number of pulses that
have passed during a known interval of time. This count is an indication of the voltage being
measured. In order to make the counter read directly in terms of voltage, the amplitude and width
of pulse generator pulses can be suitably adjusted.

3.4 Successive Approximation:

The successive approximation principle can be easily understood using a simple example, the
determination of the weight of an object. By using a balance and placing the object on one side and
an approximate weight on the other side, the weight of the object is determined. The successive
approximation DVM works on the same principle. It’s block diagram shown in below figure. When
the start pulse signal activates the control circuit, the successive approximation register (SAR) is
cleared. The output of the SAR is 00000000. Of the D/A converter is 0.

Fig 3.7: Successive Approximation Digital Voltmeter

Now if Vin >Vout the comparator output is positive. During the first clock pulse, the control circuit
sets the D7 to 1, Vout jumps to the half reference voltage. The SAR output is 10000000. If is
greater than Vin, the comparator output is negative and the control circuit resets D7. However if

12
Vin>Vout, the comparator output is positive and the control circuits keeps D7 set. Similarly the rest
of the bits beginning from D7 to D0 are set and tested. Therefore the measurement is completed in
8 clock pulses.

At the beginning of the measurement cycle, a start pulse is applied to the start-atop multi vibrator.
This sets a ‘1’ in the MSB of the control register and a ‘0’ in all bits (assuming an 8-bit control) its

reading would be 10000000. This initial setting of the register consists of output of the D/A
converter to be half the reference voltage i.e., ½ V.

This converter output is compared to the unknown output by the comparator. If the input voltage
is greater than the converter reference voltage, the comparator output produces an output that
causes the control register to retain the 1 setting in its MSB and the converter continues to supply
its reference output voltage of ½Vref.

The ring counter then advances one count, shifting a 1 in the second MSB of the control register
and its reading becomes 01000000. This causes the D/A converter to increase its reference output
by 1 increment to ¼ V, i.e., ½ V + ¼V and again it is compared with the unknown input. If in this
case the total reference voltage exceeds the unknown voltage, the comparator produces an output
that causes the control register to reset its second MSB to 0.

The converter output then returns to its previous value of ½ V and awaits another input from the
SAR. When the ring counter advance by 1, the third MSB is set to 1 and the converter output rises
by the next increment of ½V and 1/8V.

The measurement cycle thus proceeds through a series of successive approximations. Finally
when the ring counter reaches its final count, the measurement cycle stops and the digital output
of the control register represents the final approximation of the unknown input voltage.

Compar
Vin =1v Operation D7 D6 D5 D4 D3 D2 D1 D0 Output Voltage
e
00110011 D7 set 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Vin>Vout D7 Reset 2.5

00110011 D6 set 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Vin<Vout D6 Reset 1.25

D5
00110011 D5 set 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 Vin>Vout 0.625
Reset
00110011 D4 set 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 Vin>Vout D4 Reset 0.9375

00110011 D3 set 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 Vin<Vout D3 Reset 0.9375

00110011 D2 set 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 Vin<Vout D2 Reset 0.9375

00110011 D1 set 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 Vin>Vout D1 Reset 0.97725

00110011 D0 set 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 Vin>Vout D0 Reset 0.99785

Table 1.1 Measurement Cycle Successive Approximations

13
 CHAPTER-4

DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS

INTRODUCTION:

Digital instruments are rapidly replacing their analog comparators. The parameters of interest in a
laboratory environment are

(1) Voltage
(2) Current
(3) Power
(4) Frequency
(5) Logic

Analog to
Digital
Signal Processing Display
converter

Fig 4.1: Building block of a digital instrument

To enable digital systems to recognize information, inputs which are analog in nature must be
converted to digital form. Hence, any digital instrument would invariably consist of an analog to
digital converter in its input stage.

The basic building block of a digital instrument is shown in the above figure. The display block
may be analog or digital in nature. If an analog readout is desired, it becomes necessary to include
a stage involving digital to analog conversion.

4.1 Digital Multimeters:

Analog meters require no power supply; they give a better visual indication of changes and suffer
less from electric noise and isolation problems. These meters are simple and inexpensive.

Digital meters offers high accuracy, have high input impedance and are smaller in size. They give
an unambiguous (misunderstanding) reading at greater viewing distances. The output available is
electrical, in addition to a
visual readout.

14
 Fig 4.2: Digital Multimeter

The basic circuit shown in figure ⓐ is always a dc voltmeter. Current is converted to voltage by
passing it through a precision low shunt resistance while alternating current is converted into dc
by employing rectifiers and filters.

For resistance measurement, the meter includes a precision low current source that is applied
across the unknown resistance again this gives a dc voltage which is digitalized and readout as
ohms.

A basic digital multimeter (DMM) is made up of several A/D converters circuitry for counting and
an attenuation circuit. A basic block diagram of a DMM is shown in figure ⓑ. The current to

voltage converter shown in the block diagram of figure ⓑ can be implemented with the circuit

shown in figure ⓒ.

The current to be measured is applied to the summary junction ( ) at the input of the OP-AMP.
Since the current at the input of the amplifier is close to zero because of the very high input
impedance of the amplifier, the current IR is very nearly equal to Ii, the current IR causes a voltage
drop which is proportional to the current, to be developed across the resistors. This voltage drop
is the input to the A/D converter. There by providing readout that is proportional to the unknown
current.

Fig 4.3: Block Diagram of a Basic Digital Multimeter

15
 Fig 4.4: Current to Voltage Converter

Resistance is measured by passing a known current from a constant current source, through an
unknown resistance. The voltage drop across the resistor is applied to the A/D converter, thereby
producing an indication of the value of the unknown resistance.

4.2 Digital Frequency Meter:

The signal waveform is converted to trigger pulses and applied continuously to an AND gate, as
shown in figure 4.5. A pulse of 1s is applied to the other terminal and the number frequency
pulses.

Fig 4.5: Signal waveform to trigger pule

The signal whose frequency is to be measured is converted into a train of pulses, one pulse for
each cycle of the signal. The number of pulses occurring in a definite interval of time is then
counted by an electronic counter.

4.3 Basic circuit for frequency measurement:

16
 Fig 4.6: Basic Circuit for Frequency Measurement

The output of the unknown frequency is applied to a Schmitt trigger, producing positive pulses at
the output. These pulses are called the counter signals and are present t point A of the main gate.
Positive pulses from the time base selector are present at point B of the START gate and at point B
of the STOP gate.

In order to start the operation, a positive pulse is applied to reset input of F/F-①, thereby causing
its state to change. Hence =1 and Y = 0 and as a result the STOP gate is disabled and the START
gate enabled.

This same read pulse is simultaneously applied to the rest input of all decade counters, so that they
are reset to ‘0’ and the counting can start.

When the next pulse from the time base arrives, it is able to pass through the START gate to reset
F/F-② therefore, the F/F-② output changes state from 0 to 1, hence changes from 0 to 1. This
resulting positive voltage from called the gating signal, is applied to input B of the main gate
thereby enabling the gate.

Now the pulses from the unknown frequency source pass through the main gate to the counter
and the counter starts counting. This same pulse from the START gate is applied the set input of
F/F-①, changing its state from 0 to 1. This disables the START gate and enables the STOP gate.
However, till the main gate is enabled, pulses from the unknown frequency continue to pass
through the main gate to the counter.

17
 Fig 4.7: Block Diagram of a Digital Frequency Meter

The assembly consisting of two F/Fs and two gates is called a gate control F/F. The block diagram
of a digital frequency meter is shown in figure c.

The time base selector output is obtained from an oscillator and is similarly converted into
positive pulses.

The first pulse activates the gate control F/F. This is gate control F/F provides an enable signal to
the AND gate.

The trigger pulses of the input signal are allowed to pass through the gate for a selected time
period and counted.

The second pulse from the decade frequency divider changes the state of the control F/F and
removes the enable signal from the AND gate, thereby closing it.
The decimal counter and display unit output corresponds to the number of input pulses received
during a precise time interval, hence the counter display corresponds to the frequency.

4.4 Digital Tachometer:

The technique employed in measuring the speed of a rotating shaft is similar to the technique used
in a conventional frequency counter, except that the selection of the gate period is in accordance
with the rpm calibration.

Let us assume that the rpm of a rotating shaft is R. Let p be the number of pulses produced by the
pickup for one revolution of the shaft. Therefore in one minute the number of pulses from the
pickup is R*P.

Then, the frequency of the signal from the pickup is (R*P)/60. Now, if the gate period is G s the
pulses counted are (R*P*G)/60. In order to get the direct reading in rpm, the number of pulses to
be counted by the counter counts.

(R*P*60) / (60*P) = R pulses

And we can read the rpm of the rotating shaft directly. So, the relation between the gate period and
the number of pulses by the pickup is G=60/P. If we fix the gate period as one second (G=1s), then
the revolution pickup must be capable of producing 60 pulses per revolution.

18
 Fig 4.8: Block Diagram of a Digital Tachometer

Vector Impedance Meter

The meter used for complex impedance measurements is called Vector Impedance Meter. It is used
to measure the impedances over wide frequency range, from 400 kHz to 110 MHz. The sweep
frequency plots i.e. magnitude and phase angle against frequency can also be obtained by vector
impedance meter. Such plots provide complete information within the frequency band of interest.
With the help of this meter, the magnitude and the phase angle of the impedance e measured
simultaneously. The unknown impedance is simply connected across e input terminals and
desired frequency can be selected from the front panel control. Then the two front panel readouts
give the magnitude and the phase angle.
The block diagram of vector impedance meter is shown in the Fig. 5.25. (Fig. 5.25 Please show on
next page)

The two measurements taking place in the meter are:

I) Magnitude of impedance determined by measuring current through component applying known

voltage or by measuring voltage across the component when known current flows through the
component.
ii) Phase angle of the impedance is determined by the phase difference between the voltage across
the component and current passing through the component.

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In the vector impedance meter, Wien bridge oscillator is used as a source with two front panel
controls. One for selecting the frequency range and other to adjust the selected frequency
continuously. The oscillator has a frequency range from 5 Hz to 500 kHz. The oscillator output is
given to the ACC (automatic gain control) amplifier which permits the accurate gain adjustment by
means of its feedback voltage. The AGC output is connected to impedance range switch which is an
internal control with which the gain adjustment is possible. The impedance range switch is an
attenuator network which controls the oscillator output voltage.

The impedance range switch operates in two modes. and the constant voltage mode are the two
modes of operation. ranges (X1, X10 and X100) operate in constant o (XIK, X10K, x100K and
X1M)operate in constant voltage mode

Constant current mode : The unknown component is connected at the input of differential
amplifier. The impedance switch decides the current to be supplied to the component. The trans-

20
resistance or Rr amplifier maintains this current constant. The Rr amplifier is an op-amp whose
output voltage is proportional to the input current The output of the a.c. differential amplifier is
fed to amplifier and filter section. The filter section frequency range and restrict the amplifier
bandwidth.

The constant current mode

The terminal that was connected to the input of trans resistance amplifier in the constant current
mode is now grounded. The other input of a.c. differential amplifier that was connected to the
voltage terminal of the unknown component is now connected to a point on Z magnitude range
switch which is held at a constant voltage.

The voltage across the unknown components is maintained at the constant level. The current
through the unknown component is applied to the trans resistance amplifier which again produces
the output voltage proportional to the input current.

Now this output voltage is applied to the detector and the filter section. The Z magnitude meter
deflects proportional to the magnitude of the impedance in the same manner as that in constant
current mode. The roles of the a.c. differential amplifier and trans resistance amplifier are
reversed in constant voltage mode.

Phase angle the magnitude measurement.

The phase measurements are carried out simultaneously with the magnitude measurement. The
output of the voltage and current channel are applied to the Schmitt triggers. The input to the
Schmitt triggers is a sine wave. Thus app trigger produces a spike whenever input sine wave goes
through the zero These spikes are applied to binary phase detector circuit. It consists of a bistable
multivibrator a differential amplifier and integrating capacitor The positive bistable going pulse
from constant current channel sets the multivibrator while pulse from constant voltage channel
resets the multivibrator. These set and reset outputs are applied to the differential amplifier. It
applies the difference voltage to an integrating amplifier. Thus the voltage across capacitor is
directly proportional to the difference

Between the zero crossings of current and voltage waveforms. This is applied b t phase angle
meter which directly indicates the phase difference in degrees.

The calibration of the vector impedance meter is performed by connecting standard components
to the input terminals.

The applications of vector impedance meter are,

i) The magnitude and phase angle of unknown impedance can be determined simultaneously

i) Using the oscilloscope, displaying the Lissajous pattern, the reactance can calculated

21
ii) Impedance measurement over wide frequency range is possible.

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 TRANSDUCERS

Introduction to transducers:

An instrumentation system commonly consists of three components (devices) namely

(1) Input device

(2) Signal conditioning device &
(3) Output device

Fig: Components of an Instrumentation system

There is a variety of measurands to be measured. These measurands may be either non-electrical

or mechanical quantities or electrical quantities. The input devices sense the measurands, changes
it to proportional electrical signal & delivers it to the signal conditioning device. Here the signal is
amplified, filtered & modified into a format acceptable to the output device.

The measurement quantities in the industries & scientific use in most cases are non-electrical.
Because of easy in measurement, recording, storing & transmission of electrical quantities, it is
preferred to use electrical methods of measurement of a non-electrical quantity. Hence the input
device must have a component which converts a non-electrical quantity into an electrical signal.
This device is known as “Transducers”.

DEFINITION OF TRANSDUCERS:

A transducer is a device which converts a non-electrical quantity into an electrical signal. It may be
defined as a device which converts a physical quantity or a physical condition into an electrical
signal another name of a transducer is pick up.

A transducer is a device that converts one type of energy to another. The conversion can be
to/from electrical, electro-mechanical, electromagnetic, photonic, photovoltaic or any other form
of energy. While the term transducer commonly implies use as a sensor /detector, any device
which converts energy can be considered a transducer.

Examples:

1. Differential Transformer - Converts Pressure Into Voltage

2. Photoconductor - Converts Light Intensity Into A Change Of Resistance
3. Thermocouple - Converts Heat Energy Into Voltage
4. Strain Gauge - Converts Force Into A Change Of Resistance
5. Piezoelectric Crystal - Converts An Acceleration Into A Voltage

Transducers mainly consists of two important elements namely

(1) Sensing or Detector Elements &

(2) Transduction Element

1
A sensing element senses the measurement. The transduction element transforms the output of a
sensing element to an electrical output.A device which converts a displacement into electrical
signal is known as a electrical transducer. In order to convert non-electrical quantity into
electrical quantity, first non-electrical quantity is sensed by a detector which usually converts
the physical quantity into displacement. This displacement is converted into an electrical signal by
using electrical transducer. The electrical transducer acts as a secondary transducer. The
electrical output gives the magnitude of the physical quantity being measured. The electrical
signal may be a current or a voltage or a frequency in nature.

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICAL TRANDUCERS:

The various advantages of electrical transducers are,

1. Electrical signals can be easily attenuated or amplified & can be brought to a level suitable for
other devices, with the help of static devices FGK.

2. The power requirement of transducers is very small. The electrical systems can be controlled
with a small level of power.

3. The electrical output of the transducer can be easily used, transmitted & processed for the
purpose of measurement.

4. The reduced effects of friction & other mechanical nonlinearities.

5. Due to the integrated circuit technology, the electrical & electronic systems are compact, having
less weight & portable.

6. The data transmission through mechanical means is eliminated. Thus no mechanical wear &
tear & no possibility of mechanical failures exist.

7. The reduced effects of mass inertia problems.

In modern world, the use of electrical transducers is must. The main disadvantage of an electrical
transducer is its cost. And while designing the circuit the effects of ageing & drifts of parameters of
active components must be considered. This makes the design complicated.

CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS:

Transducers can be classified as follows:

1. Based upon the principle of transduction

2. Primary & Secondary transducers
3. Passive & active transducers
4. Analog & digital transducers
5. Transducers & inverse transducers

Transducers based upon the principle of transduction:

The transducers can be classified on the basis of principle of transduction as resistive, inductive,
capacitive etc depending upon how they convert the input quantity into resistive, inductive or

2
capacitive respectively. They can be classified as piezoelectric, thermo-electric, magneto
restrictive, electro kinetic & optical.

Primary & secondary transducers:

Fig: Examples of primary & secondary transducers

In example as shown in fig, the bourdon tube firstly senses the pressure & converts it into a
displacement of its free end. The displacement of the free end moves the core of a linear variable
differential transformer (LVDT). The LVDT produces an output voltage which is proportional to
the movement of the core. Here, the pressure is firstly converted into a displacement by a bourdon
tube & then the displacement is converted into an analogous voltage by L.V.D.T. Hence the
bourdon tube is called as primary transducer, while the LVDT is called as secondary transducer.

Passive & active transducers:

The ideal conversion is where absolutely no energy is extracted from the measurand during the
process of conversion of quantity from to another, so that measurand is not distorted. Transducers
may be classified according to whether they are passive or active.

(1) Passive transducers: The transducers which require an external power source for
transduction are known as “passive transducers”. These are also called as “externally powered
transducers”. Typical examples of passive transducers are resistive, inductive & capacitive
transducers.

(2) Active transducers: The transducers which do not require external power source for
transduction are known as “Active transducers “.These are also called “self generating
transducers”, because they develop their own voltage or current. The energy required for
production of output signal is obtained from the physical quantity being measured. Typical
examples are tacho-generator (for velocity), thermocouple (for temperature), photo voltaic diode
(for light intensity) & piezoelectric crystal (for force).

Analog & Digital transducers:

On the basis of output which may be a continuous function of time or in the form of pulses, the
transducers can be classified as analog & Digital transducers.

3
(1)Analog transducers: The transducers which convert the input quantity into an analog output
which is a continuous function of time are called “Analog transducers”. The typical examples of
analog transducers are Strain Gauge , L.V.D.T, Thermocouple, Thermistor etc.

(2)Digital transducers: The transducers which convert the input quantity into an electrical
output which is in the form of pulses are called “Digital transducers”. The output is in digital form.
The typical examples of digital transducers are the shaft-angle encoder& the A\D converter.

Transducers & Inverse transducers:

On the basis of type of output quantity, the transducers can be classified as Transducers & Inverse
transducers.

(1)Transducer: The device which converters non –electrical quantity into an electrical quantity is
known as “Transducer”. For example microphone is a transducer which converts sound signal into
electrical signal.

(2)Inverse Transducer: The device which converts an electrical quantity into non-electrical
quantity is known as “Inverse trasducers”. for example loudspeaker is an inverse transducer
which converts an electrical signal into sound signal. The indicating instruments & recording
instruments are also examples of inverse transducers.

CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSDUCERS:

1. Accuracy:

It is defined as the closeness with which the reading approaches an accepted standard value or
ideal value or true value ,of the variable being measured.

2. Ruggedness:

The transducer should be mechanically rugged to withstand overloads .it should have overload
protection.

3. Linearity:

The output of the transducer should be linearly proportional to the input quantity under
measurement. It should have linear input-output characteristics.

4. Repeatability:

The output of the transducer must be exactly the same, under same environmental conditions,
when the same quantity is applied at the input repeatedly.

5. High Output:

The transducer should give reasonably high output signal so that it can be easily processed and
measured. The output must be much larger than noise.

Now-a-days, digital output is preferred in many applications.

4
6. High Stability and reliability:
The output of the transducer should be highly stable and reliable so that these will be minimum
error in measurement. The output must remain unaffected by environmental conditions such as
change in temperature& pressure.

7. Sensitivity:
The sensitivity of the electrical transducer is defined as the electrical output obtained per unit
change in the physical parameter of the input quantity. For example, for a transducer used for
temperature measurement, sensitivity will be expressed in mv/◦c. A high sensitivity is always
desirable for a given transducer.

8. Dynamic range:
For a transducer, the operating range should be wide, so that it can be used over a wide range of
measurement conditions.

9. Size:
The transducer should have smallest possible size and shape with minimal weight and volume.
This will make the measurement system very compact.

10. Speed of response:

It is the rapidity with which the transducer responds to changes in the measured quantity. The
speed of response of the transducer should be as high as practicable.
TRANSDUCER SELECTION FACTORS:
1. Nature of measurement:
The selection of transducer will naturally depend upon the nature of quantity to be measured. For
example, for temperature measurement, temperature sensor will be used; for measuring stress a
strain. Strain gauge will be utilized.

2. Loading Effect:
If the transducer in anyway affects or changes the value of the parameter under measurement,
errors may be introduced. The transducer is selected to have minimum loading effect to keep the
errors to minimum.

3. Environmental considerations:
A careful study be made of the conditions under which a transducer is expected to give
satisfactory output. The troublesome aspects of the transducer location are temperature changes,
shock and vibration and electromagnetic interference.
4. Measuring system compatibility:
The transducer selected and the electrical system used for measurement should be compatible.
The output impedance of the transducer and the impedance imposed by the measuring system
must be such that one does not adversely affect the each other.
5. Cost and availability:

General factors involved in selection are cost, availability, basic simplicity, reliability and low
maintenance.

5
RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS

Introduction

In general, the resistance of a metal conductor is given by

R = ρL/A

Where ρ = Resistivity of conductor

L = length of conductor

A = Area of cross section of conductor

The electrical resistive transducers are designed on the basis of the methods of variation of
anyone of the quantities in above equation; such as change in length, change in area of cross
section and change in resistivity.

POTENTIOMETRIC RESISTANCE TRANSDUCERS (POTENTIOMETERS)

A potentiometric resistance transducer is generally used to measure linear or angular

displacement. A resistance potentiometer consists of wire wound resistive element along with a
sliding contact which is called as wiper. A wire is made up of platinum or nickel alloy with
diameter as small as 0.01mm. The resistive element is made up of cement, hot moulded carbon or
carbon film, The wire is wound on an insulating former. The linear and rotary potentiometers are
shown in fig.

Using resistance potentiometers mechanical displacement is converted into an electrical output.

Linear or angular displacement is applied to the sliding contact and then the corresponding
change in resistance is converted into voltage or current. Note that the resistance potentiometers
shown in fig. may be excited by either a. c voltage or d. c voltage. To measure combination of linear
(translational) and angular (rotation) motion, the heliports are used. As the resistive element in
suchpotentiometer is in the form of helix, it is called helipot.

(a) Linear
(b) Rotary

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 (c) Helipot

Fig: Resistance potentiometer

A potentiometer (simply called POT) consists of a resistive elements provided with a sliding
contact. Let us consider a translational pot as shown in the below fig.

Fig: Translational Potentiometer

In above transducer, the measurand is converted into a change in position of wiper which causes
the change in ratio of resistance ie; the ratio between one fixed end and wiper contact divided by
the total resistance of the potentiometer. The potentiometer is excited by d. c or a. c voltage. The
output of the potentiometer is given by

=[

Where = Voltage between wiper contact and fixed resistance end.

= Total applied voltage to potentiometer wire.

L = Length of wire between wiper contact and reference end.

L = Total length of the potentiometer wire.

ADVANTAGES & DIS-ADVANTAGES:

7
The advantages of resistance potentiometers are as follows.

1. Simple in construction and operation.

2. Best suitable for measurements in the systems with least requirements.

3. Inexpensive.

4. Useful for displacement measurements of large amplitudes.

DIS-ADVANTAGES:

1. In linear potentiometers, large force is required to move wiper.

2. Suffer from mechanical wear and misalignment of wiper.

3. Limited resolution and high electronic noise in output.

INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS

Introduction

Inductive transducer is a simple and most popular type of displacement transducer in which
variation of inductance as a function of displacement is achieved by variation in self inductance or
mutual inductance.

The inductive transducers generally operate upon of the following three principles.

1. Variation of self inductance of coil.

2. Variation of mutual inductance of coil.
3. Production of eddy currents.

Operating principle:
Based on variation of self inductance coil:
let us study inductive transducers based on above principles one by one. Transducers based on
variation of self inductance of coil.

In general the value of self inductance of an inductor is given by,

L = N²/S

Where N = Number of turns of the coil.

S = Reluctance of the coil (A/Wb)
But the reluctance S is given by,
S = 1/µa Hence self inductance L is given by
L = N²µa/l
Where N = Number of turns of coil.
µ = Permeability of core (H/m).
A = Area of magnetic circuit through which flux is passing (m²)
L = Length of the magnetic circuit (m).

Thus the variation in the self inductance may be due to

8
1. Change in Number of Turns
2. Change in Reluctance
3. Change in Permeability

Change in self inductance with variation in number of turns:

From the expression of the self inductance it is clear that L is directly proportional to N i.e. square
of the number of turns. This property can be used to measure linear as well as angular
displacement as shown in fig.

In both cases, as number of turns changes, the values of self inductance changes and hence the
output voltage also changes.

(a) Linear Displacement (b) Angular Displacement

Fig: Inductive transducer based on change in self inductance

In above transducers, depending upon operating frequency , an air cored or iron cored coils are
used. In air core coils, eddy currents are absent hence such coils can be used at higher frequencies.
Because of constant permeability of air core, the inductance is independent of coil current. But due
to lower value of permeability of air core, the changes in inductance of air cored coils are smaller.

On the other hand the inductance variations are larger in case of iron cored coils. But the
disadvantage is that the inductance varies with changes in coil current and higher frequencies,
eddy current losses are significant which affect the impedance of coil. Hence for better
performance the supply voltage is kept below 15 V rms and frequency is kept below 2KHZ.

Change in self inductance by change in permeability of magnetic circuit:

Fig: Variable permeability inductive transducer

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The value of self inductance of a coil also depends on the permeability µ. The transducer based on
variable permeability is as shown in fig above.

In this transducer, the displacement to be measured is applied to the rod which moves in and out
of ferrite core according to the direction of the displacement. When iron core moves in, the
effective permeability increases, While when iron core moves out, the effective permeability
decreases and accordingly output voltage changes. Such transducer is used in current sensitive
circuits.

Change in self inductance with variation in reluctance of magnetic circuit:

Fig: Variable Reluctance Inductive Transducer

The self inductance L is inversely proportional to the reluctance S a variable reluctance type
inductive transducer is as shown in fig. it is a self generating type transducer.
A coil is wound on a ‘c’ shaped ferromagnetic core with a target plate placed above core with a
small air gap. The size of this air gap determines the reluctance of the magnetic circuit, which in
turn decides the self inductance. The displacement measured is applied to the target plane moves
which change the air gap and hence the self inductance. Thus for different airgaps we get different
values of inductance hence we get different output voltage
In general, the reluctance of a magnetic circuit as shown in above fig. is the sum of reluctance of
iron path ( ) and that of the air gap ( ).
= +

The magnetic permeability of iron path is considerably larger than that of the air gap thus << .
Hence we write,
=

Thus self inductance and coil becomes,

L=N²/SG
Thus we can write,
Lα1/SG i.e. Lα1/
Where is length of air gap

10
Thus we can conclude that the self inductance of coil is inversely proportional to the length of air
gap.
Based on variation of mutual inductance:

The mutual inductance between two coils is given by

M =K

Where M = Mutual inductance between two coils

K = Coefficient of coupling

The mutual inductance between two coils can be varied by varying either self inductances of the
coils or co-efficient of coupling.

Fig: Inductive transducer based on change in mutual inductance

The transducers based on variation of mutual inductance two or more coils are used and the
variation in measured is applied to the transducers. The output is measured in reference with
variation in mutual inductance between the coils. The measurement of linear displacement based
on the variation of mutual inductance is as shown in above fig.
The coils are connected in series type of connection. It may be series aiding or series opposing
depending upon it. The total equivalent inductance varies from ( + -2M) to ( + +2M).
When linear displacement is applied to iron core the core moves towards a away from circuit. This
result variation in airgap and thus the magnetic flux linking with two coils changes which results
in variation of a mutual inductance between two coils. The change in value of mutual inductance is
sensed by the bridge circuit.

Based on production of eddy currents:

An eddy current type inductive transducer is shown in below fig. It is a self generating type
transducer.

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 Fig: Eddy current type induction transducer

A non-ferrous plate moves in a direction perpendicular to these lines of flux in a magnet. The eddy
currents are generated in a plate which are proportional to the velocity of the plate. These
currents set up a magnetic field in a direction opposing the magnetic field producing these
currents. Thus the output is proportional to the change in eddy current or the acceleration of the
plate. As the air gap between the magnet and the plate remains constant, the transducer
characteristics are linear.

CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER

Introduction

The capacitive transducers work on the fundamental principle of electrical capacitance. The
capacitance C of a system depends on the dielectric medium used and properties of a capacitive
system.

The important capacitances used in the capacitive transducers are,

Parallel plate capacitor:

Fig: Parallel plate capacitor

The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by,

C=£A/d F
Where £= , =8.85 × F/m
=Relative permittivity of material
A= Cross sectional common area of plates
D=Plate separation.

Composite Capacitor:

Fig5.1.2
Composite
Capacitor

12
By using simple methods, the capacitance of the capacitor can be varied and change in its value
can be used for transduction in transducer.

This capacitance consists of more than one dielectric medium in between the plates as shown in
fig.

It consists of three layers of dielectrics having relative permitivities and . The layers
having thickness d1, d2 and d3. The capacitance of a system is given by

C=

It creates the effect of three capacitances connected in series.

2.1.1 Cylindrical capacitor:

Fig5.1.3.1 Cylindrical capacitor

In this system, the plates are cylindrical separated by a dielectric as shown in fig.

Let r= Outer radius of inner cylinder

R=Inner radius of outer cylinder

Then its capacitance is given by

C=

and ‘l’ is length of cylinders.

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CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS BASED ON CHANGE IN AREA OF PLATES:

Fig: Change in common plate area

By keeping the one plate moving and changing its position parallel to the other plate. Common
plate area can be varied. This is shown in fig. By varying area A, the capacitance can be varied.
The common area can be changed by employing the serrated electrodes as shown in fig (a).

Fig: Measurement of angular displacement

From the equation of capacitance, it is clear that the value of C is directly proportional to area ‘A’ of
the plates. The capacitance varies linearly with change in the plate area. So this type of capacitive
transducer is useful for displacement measurement in the range from few mm to few cm. Let us
consider transducer based on the principle of change in capacitance with change in plate area as
shown in below fig (a) & (b).

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 (a)

(b)

Fig: capacitive transducer based on change in C with change in area A.

Consider the above fig (a) the area of overlapping part of a moving plate over fixed plate is

= (l)(b)

Thus overall ‘C’ is given by

C= =
Where l = length of overlapping part of plate in meter.
B = breadth or width of overlapping part of plate in meter.

The sensitivity of capacitor is given by

S= F/m

VARIOUS TRANSDUCERS

Strain Gauge Transducers:

The strain gauge is a resistive transducer which is based on the principle of conversion of
mechanical displacement into the resistance change.

A knowledge of strength of the material is essential in the design and construction of machines
and structures. The strength of the material is normally characterized in terms of stress, which is

15
defined as the force experienced per unit area, and in expressed in pressure units. Stress as such
cannot be directly measured.

It is normally deduced from the changes in mechanical dimensions and the applied load. The
mechanical deformation is measured with strain gauge elements. The strain is defined as the
change, ( ) in length (l), per unit length and is expressed as in microstrains.

The stress-strain curve for a typical metal specimen is shown in below fig:

Fig: Stress – Strain curve

The desirable characteristics of the strain gauge are gauge sensitivity range of measurement,
accuracy, frequency response and the ambient environmental conditions it can withstand.

Principle of operation and construction:

The basic principle of operation of an electrical resistance strain gauge is that the resistance of the
wire changes as a function of strain increasing with tension and reducing with compression. The
change in resistance is measured with a wheat stone bridge. The strain gauge is bonded to the
specimen and hence the gauge is subjected to the same strain as that of the specimen under test.

The materials used for fabrication of electrical strain gauges must passes some basic qualities to
achieve high accuracy, excellent reproducibility, good sensitivity, long life and ability to operate
under the required environmental conditions.

The most common materials used for wire strain gauges are constant an alloys containing 45% of
nickel and 55% of copper as they exhibit high specific resistance, constant gauge factor over a
wide strain range, and good stability over a reasonably large temperature range (from to
). For dynamic strain measurements, nichrome alloys, containing 80% of nickel and 20%
chromium are used. They can be compensated for temperature with platinum.

Derivation of Gauge Factor:

The gauge factor is defined as the unit change in resistance per unit change in length. It is denoted
as K or S. It is also called sensitivity of the strain gauge.

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S=

Where, S= Gauge factor or sensitivity.

R= Gauge wire resistance.
R=Change in wire resistance.
L=Length of the gauge wire in unstressed condition.
L=Change in length in stressed condition.

DERIVATION:

Fig: Deformed resistance wire

Consider that the resistance wire is under tensile stress and it is deformed by as shown in
above fig.

Let p=Specific resistance of wire material in Ω-m.

L=Length of the wire in m.

A=Cross section of the wire in m².

When uniform stress ‘σ‘ is applied to this wire along the length, the resistance R changes to R+ R
because of change in length and cross-sectional area.

σ = stress =

= per unit change in length

= Per unit change in area

= per unit change in resistivity (specific resistance)

17
Note that

Multiply both sides by

on right hand side

i.e. (1)

Key point: Thus for infinite stress, total change in resistance is due to fractional change in length,
area and resistivity.
For a circular wire,
A=

cancelling s ,

Now the poisson’s ratio µ for the wire is defined as the ratio of strain in lateral direction to strain
in lateral to strain in the axial direction.

µ=-

Using equation (2) &(3) in equation (1)

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=

S = gauge factor =

This is also denoted as G.

In general S= G = 1+2µ +

Where last term is due to piezoelectric effect.

PIEZO ELECTRIC TRANSDUCERS:

In 1880, J. Curie showed that when two opposite faces of a thin slice of certain crystals are
subjected to a mechanical force, then opposite charges are developed on the two faces of the slice.
The magnitude of the electric potential between the two faces is proportional magnitude of the
electric potential between the two faces is proportional to the deformation produced.

It is interesting to note that the polarity of a potential produced across the faces gets reversed if
the direction of deformation is reversed. Conversely if varying potential is applied to the axis of
the crystal, the dimensions are changed and the crystal deforms.

This phenomenon is called piezoelectric effect and the materials exhibiting this effect are called
piezoelectric materials.

A piezoelectric quartz crystal is hexagonal prism shaped crystal, which has pyramids at both ends.
This is shown in below fig (a). The marking of co-ordinates axes are fixed for such crystals. The
axis passing through the end points of pyramids is called optic axis or z-axis. The axis passing
through corners is called electrical axis or X axis while the axis passing through mid points of
opposite sides is called mechanical axis or y-axis. The axes are shown in fig (b).

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(a) Quartz Crystal (b) Axes of Crystal

Fig: Quartz & axes of crystal

BASIC PIEZOELECTRIC PRESSURE TRANSDUCER:

The construction of basic piezoelectric pressure transducer is shown in below fig:

Fig: Piezoelectric transducer

A crystal is placed between said base and force summing member metal electrodes plated onto
faces of piezoelectric crystal are taken out to measure output the electrodes become plates of the
parallel plate capacitor. Thus it can be considered as charge generator. The output voltage is given
by

The output is very high about 1 to 30mv. No external power supply is required. High frequency
response is excellent. Its size is small and construction is simple.
But these crystals are water soluble and hence dissolve in a humid environment. The output
voltage is affected by temperature variations. It is not useful in measuring static conditions.
Practically the sensitive piezoelectric element of a piezoelectric pressure transducer is in the form
of pile or pairs of quartz disc. These discs are held in such a away that their optically flat faces are
between a flat metal face called load plate on one side and transducer housing on other side. For
this purpose preloading spring of stiffness of crystal is denoted as . This arrangement is shown
in below fig.

20
Fig: Crystal pile in a piezoelectric pressure transducer

THERMISTORS:

Introduction
Thermistor means thermal resistor. It is used for detecting low temperature. It has negative co-
efficient of resistance i.e. its resistance decreases with increase in temperature co-efficient of
resistance can be as large as several percent per degree Celsius. This allows the thermistor circuits
to detect very small change in temperature which could not be detected with thermocouples. It
can measure a temperature in the range of -60

Fig: Forms of the Thermistors (different)

Thermistors are made of manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron & uranium. They are available in
different sizes & shapes. These are available in the form of beads, probes, discs & rods as shown in
fig. Thermistor in the form of bead is smallest in size & is of diameters less than 0.1mm. The
diameter of glass probes is of about 2.5mm & length varying from 6mm to 50mm. Discs is made by
pressing a material under high pressure into cylindrical flat shape with diameters ranging from
2.5 mm to 25 mm.
ADVANTAGES:
1. They are rugged & compact & size.
2. They are cheaper than thermocouples.
3. Have good stability.
4. More sensitive, hence can detect very low temperatures.
5. Available in different sizes & shapes.
6. Fast response.
7. High negative temperature co-efficicent of resistance makes it an ideal temperature transducer.
DIS-ADVANTAGES:
1. The resistance temperature relation is non linear. To reduce this non-linearity a resistance is
connected in parallel with thermistors.
2. Not suitable to measure high temperature.

21
APPLICATIONS:
1. Measurements of temperature.
2. Control of temperature.
3. Temperature compensation.
4. Measurement of power frequencies, thermal conductivity, level, flow & pressure of liquids of
composition of gases.
5. Vaccum measurement.
6. Providing time delay.
CHARACTERISTICS OF THERMISTORS:-
Thermistors are extremely used in measurement & control applications due to their excellent
characteristics. The three important characteristics of thermistors are:
Resistance-temperature characteristics:-

Fig: Resistance - temperature characteristics

The resistance-temperature characteristics are shown in fig. The high negative temperature
coefficient of resistance makes it an ideal temperature transducer. As shown in fig, between -
100 & 400 , the thermistor changes its resistivity from Due to
this it is highly sensitive for measurement of temperature.

Voltage-current characteristics:-

22
Fig: Voltage – Current characteristics

As shown in fig, the voltage drop across a thermistor increases with increase in current until it
reaches peak value. Beyond the peak value the voltage drop decreases with increase in current
under any fixed ambient condition, the temperature of the thermistor may raise 100 to 200 &
its resistance may drop to one-thousand of its value at low currents. Due to self heat
characteristics of the thermistor, it is sensitive to anything that change, the rate at which heat is
conducted away from it. It is used to measure flow, pressure, liquid level, composition of gases etc.

Current-time characteristics:

Fig: Current – Time characteristics

The current-time characteristics shown in fig. indicate the time delay to reach max current as a
function of the applied voltage. When heating effect occurs in a thermistor, a certain finite time is
required for the thermistor to heat & the current to build up to a max steady state value.

Photoelectric Transducers:

The transducers based on effects of physical radiation of matter are used extensively. Optoelectric
devices are designed for the emission and absorption of the optical radiations. While the
photoelectric transducers are used for producing photoelectric effect which is the effect of visible
radiations.

23
The photoelectric effect transducers include photo-emissive, photo-conductive and photo voltaic
transducers. In photo-emissive transducers, when radiation falls on cathode, electrons are emitted
from cathode. While in photoconductive transducers, an electrical output is produced due to the
change in resistance of the material when light falls on that material. While the photovoltaic
transducers produce on output voltage proportional to the radiation intensity. Let us discuss
photoelectric transducers in detail.

Photo conductive transducers:

When light falls on a material, the energy in the radiation ionizes the covalent bonds. Thus the
bonds are broken and large number of electron-hole pairs are generated. This increases number of
current carrier and decreases the resistance of the material. The phenomenon is called
photoconductive effect. As in such devices, the change in conductivity appears as a change in
resistance. The devices are also called photo resistors or photoconductors.

In visible light detectors, the semiconductor materials used are cadmium sulphide (cds), cadmium
selenide (cdse). Both these materials have energy gap (Eg) between valence bond and covalent
bond of 2.42ev approximately

Fig: characteristics of photoconductive transducers

The photoconductors are constructed by applying a thin layer of semiconductor material on a

substrate of either ceramic or silicon. In photoconductors, junction is not required. Hence they are
also called junctionless (electrons) detectors.

Depending on device, the dark resistance changes from 10kΩ to 200MΩ.One can get ratio of dark
to light resistance as high as 10000. The swicting time of the photoconductors is relatively slow
and it ranges from 1ms to 100ms.

24
Fig: Photoconductive transducer

The most commonly used materials are cadmium sulphide (cds) and cadmium selenide(cdse). The
peak spectral response of cds occurs at approximately 5100 . While that of cdse at 5800
When the intensity of illumination increases, the number of photons increases giving large
number of free electrons which ion turns decreases resistivity.

PHOTODIODES:

The photodiodes is a diode which is used to detect light and its operation is limited in reverse bias
region only. The basic circuit arrangement and the symbol are as shown in below figures
respectively.

In a normal diode, under reverse biased condition, the reversed current is due to the minority
change carriers in p-type and n-type regions. This current is limited to few micro amperes. In
photodiode, when light falls on it, the energy in the form of photons is transfer to the atomic
structure. It results in increasing the number of minority charge carriers in both the region and
increasing reverse current level. The variation in reverse current with increase in light intensity is
as shown in fig©. The dark current is the reverse current in photodiode when no illumination.
From the characteristics it is clear that for same increment in luminous flux, there is same increase
in reverse current ( ). Thus the characteristics of versus luminous flux are linear s shown in
the fig(d).

25
(a)Basic circuit arrangement (b)Symbol

© characteristics
Fig: Photodiode and its
characteristics

The rise and fall time in photodiodes is very small, they are most widely used in the high speed
switching and counting applications. The semiconductors used are Ge and Si. Out of these two, the
spectrum of wavelength is wider than Ge. Hence Ge can be used to detect infrared light. It also has
higher level of reverse current as compared to Si but the dark current in Ge is higher than that in
Si.

When a photodiode is illuminated without applying reverse biasing voltage, It acts as a voltage
source with p-region positive and n-region negative. In this mode of operation it is called
photovoltaic diode or solar cell. In general the materials used in solar cells are silicon (Si) and
selenium(Se). Some other materials such as gallium arsenide (GOAS), cadmium sulphide (cds) and
indium arsenide (IDAS) are less commonly used.

PHOTOVOLTAIC TRANSDUCERS:

When an open circuited p-n junction is illuminated, large number of electron-hole pairs are
generated in the region near junction. Typically a small voltage appears across its terminals, hence
acts as a voltage source. The phenomenon in which light energy is converted to electrical energy is
called photovoltaic effect photovoltaic cell is the common example of this type.

PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL:

26
Fig: structure of photovoltaic cell

The above fig shows structure of photo voltaic cell. It shows that cell is actually a p-N junction
diode which appropriately doped semiconductors. When photons strike on the thin p-doped
upper layer, they are absorbed by the electrons in the n-layer; which causes formation of
conduction electrons and holes. The conduction electrons and holes are separated by depletion
region potential of the p-N junction. When a load is connected across the cell, the depletion region
potential causes the photo current to flow through the load.

LVDT:

Construction and working of LVDT:

As illustrated in the fig. The linear variable differential transformer consists of a single primary
winding p1 and two secondary windings s1 and s2 wound on a hollow cylindrical former. The
secondaries have an equal number of turns but they are connected in series opposition so that the
e.m.fs induced in the coils oppose each other. The primary winding is connected to an a.c source,
whose frequency may range from 50 Hz to 20KHz. A movable soft iron core slides inside the
hollow former. The position of the movable core determines the flux linkage between the A.c
excited primary winding and each of the two secondary windings. The core made up of nickel-iron
alloy is slotted longitudinally to reduce eddy current losses. The displacement to be measured is
applied to an arm
attached to the
core with the core
in the center or
reference, position,
the induced emf’s
in secondaries are

27
equal and since they oppose each other, the output voltage will be zero volt.

Fig: Linear variable differential transformer

When an externally appilied force moves the core to the left hand position, more magnetic flux
links the left hand coil than the right hand coil, is therefore larger than the induced EMF of the
right hand coil, . The magnitude of the output voltage is than equal to the difference between
the two secondary voltages and it is in phase with the voltage of the left hand coil.

Similarly when the core is forced to move to the right, more flux links the right hand coil than the
left hand coil and the resulting output voltage, which Is difference between and , Is now in
phase with the EMF of the right hand
coil.

Fig: Linear variable differential transformer core positions

When the core is at center we get output voltage as zero volt which is called a null position of
LVDT. In general, the output of LVDT is given by

Where = output across secondary

= Output across secondary .

So at null position, = , hence =0.

28
ADVANTAGES & DIS-ADVANTAGES OF LVDT:

Advantages:

1. High range

2. Frictionless operation

3. Immunity from external effects

4. High input and high sensitivity

5. Low power consumption

DIS-ADVANTAGES:

1. Relatively large displacements are required to produce small output.

2. They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields, hence require shielding.

3. Performance is affected by vibrations.

4. Temperature affects the performance of the transducers.

THERMOCOUPLES:

A thermocouple is a junction between two different metals that produces a voltage related to a
temperature difference. Thermocouples are a widely used type of temperature sensor for
measurement and control can also be used to convert heat into electric power. They are
inexpensive and can measure a wide range of temperatures.

Fig: Thermocouple

Thermocouples are used for the measurement of temperature. As shown in above figure. When
two wires of different temperatures, a voltage will develop in the circuit. The magnitude of the
voltage depends on the materials and the temperature difference between the two junctions. If
one of the junctions is kept at constant temperature and the other junctions is kept at the
temperature to be measured, the voltage developed is a measure of a temperature to be measured,
The e.m.f is called thermo-electric e.m.f and the transducer is called “ Thermocouple”.

The e.m.f. produced by a thermocouple is very small but it can be measured with sensitive moving
coil milli -voltmeters, which is calibrated in terms of temperature. This process is reversible, when

29
a current is allowed to flow in a thermocouple through the two junctions, heat is either generated
(heating) or absorbed (cooling) depends upon the direction of the current. The voltage developed
is given by.

E=α( -

Where E is the e.m.f. and are the temperatures of the two junctions, α and β are constants.
Several combinations of dissimilar metals make good thermocouples for industrial use. They
should be physically strong to withstand high temperatures, rapid temperature change.
Thermocouples are available in a variety of sizes ranging from 0.25 to 3mm.

ADVANTAGES AND DIS-ADVANTAGES OF THERMOCOUPLES:

The following are the advantages and disadvantages of thermocouples

ADVANTAGES:

1. These are cheaper than a resistance thermometers.

2. Rugged in construction.
3. Suitable for recording comparatively rapid change in temperature.
4. Possibility of making thermocouple with several combinations of dissimilar metals.
5. High sensitive for temperature change.
6. The output can be measured conveniently.

DIS-ADVANTAGES:

1. Lower accuracy and hence cannot be used for precision work.

2. Need protection from environment to ensure long life.
3. Extension wire of same material Is required when they are placed in remote from measuring
device. Hence the circuit is thus very complex.

SYNCHROS:

Synchros are widely used in control systems as detectors and encoders. Because of their rigidness
in construction and high reliability. Synchro is basically a rotary device, an electromagnetic
transducer which operates on same principle as that of transformer. It converts angular position
of shaft into n electric signal.

30
SYNCHROS TRANSMITTER:

This is a basic synchro unit. Its construction is similar to that of 3- alternator.

The stator which is stationary part is made up of laminated steel. This part is slotted to
accommodate a balanced three phase winding. The stator windings are star connected which are
usually of concentric coil type structure.

The rotor which is rotating part is a salient pole, dumbbell shaped magnet with a single winding.
Schematic diagram is shown below fig.

Fig: Synchro Trasmitter

A single phase A.c voltage is applied to the rotor through slip rings. The symbol ‘G’ is used to
denote synchro transmitter also known as synchro generator. Let a.c voltage applied to rotor is

When θ = with reference to schematic diagram, voltage induced in winding will be maximum
and position is called as electric zero.

The applied voltage causes a flow of magnetizing current in rotor coil which produces sinusoidally
varying flux. This flux gets distributed sinusoidally in air gap. Because of transformer action
voltages gets induced in all windings which is proportional to cosine of angle between rotor and
stator coil are

Consider now that the rotor of synchro transmitter is at an angle’ θ’ with reference to electric zero
than voltages in each stator coil w.r.to neutral are,

=K

=K

=K

Magnitudes of terminal voltages are,

31
 = K

= =

= - = K

At θ = 0, = 0, position called as electric zero position.

Thus it is seen that the input to the synchro transmitter is the angular position of its rotor shaft
and output is a set of three single phase voltages the magnitudes of these voltages the magnitudes
of these voltages are functions of the shaft position.

The function of error detector is to convert the difference of two shaft positions into an electrical
signal so to use synchros as error detector. Along with synchro transmitter one more component
is required called as synchro control transformer. An error detector involves both synchros
synchro transmitter as well as synchro control transformer.

Fig: Synchros as error detector

Photodiodes. The photodiode incur and an N type layer. The system has the characteristics of a
rectifier. Radiation directed in vicinity of the PN junction and cause a flow of cu Figure 19.26(a)
shows the circuit of a photodiode electrical The photodiode is reverse biased. The reverse biased
saturation current is dependent upon the intensity of the incident light. Figure 19.26(b) shows the
typical characteristics of a photodiode.

32
The photo-diode is very useful for applications where the space is restricted. The effective area of
a photodiode is about 0.2 mm 2 and it has a pinhead (serving as electrode) of a diameter of 0.5 mm.

The photocurrent versus light relationship is linear over a wide range. In order to maintain the
linearity the bias voltage should be kept constant.

From Fig. 19.26(b) it is clear that the output resistance R = ΔV /ΔI, is very high and is of the order
of tens of ΜΩ. The d.c. resistance, V/I, is the diode leakage resistance and that too is very high. This
de resistance depends upon the light intensity.

The frequency response of a photodiode largely dependent upon the intrinsic capacity which is
typically 2 pF for a reverse bias of -10 V.

C is capacitance of photodiode, and

RL is the load resistance.

where

The cut off frequency is of the order of MHz. Even in dark there is always leakage current of the
photodiode and this current is known as dark current. The dark current doubles about every 10°C
increase in temperature for silicon and this decreases the signal to noise ratio.

33
Comparing photodiodes with photoconductors, the photodiode possesses considerably better
frequency response, linearity, spectral response and lower noise. The disadvantages of
photodiodes include small active area, rapid increase in dark current with temperature, bias
voltage requirement, and the necessity of amplification at low illumination levels.

Because of their fast response time, photodiodes are used as cine film sound track readers.
Similarly they can be used as detectors of modulated light in optical communication systems and
also in switching circuits.

In recent years there has been considerable the development of integrated circuits which combine
photodiodes with circuits. photodiodes are very small and they give rise to very small signal
currents, typically as low a few picoampere. Various photodiode arrays and analogue
photodetector packages are now available. Devices which contain a linear array of photodiodes on
a single integrated circuit chip can be used for edge and width sensing. The photodiode centres are
spaced about 25 μm apart, and 1024 diodes in a line give a chip about 27 mm in length. The diodes
in the array can be sequentially addressed at a rate up to 10 MHz, so that a voltage level
dependent on the light intensity falling on each diode is available in serial form. A 64x64 diode
array containing 4096 photodiodes arranged in a square matrix is also available ; this allows area
measurements. Other developments include a single photodiode coupled to an amplifier in the
same encapsulation, and such an arrangement can provide high sensitivity at high frequencies.
Special controlled geometry photodiodes allow measurement of position or null of position

34
 STRAIN GAUGES AND MEASUREMENT OF STAIN

Stain Gauge Circuits

The theory and construction of stain gauges have already been explained in art.25.16 on page 776.
The gauge factor of a stain gauge is given by eqn.25.69, page777

Gauge factor

The various symbols have already been explained. When we consider the sensitivity of a metallic
stain gauge, we find that it is extremely versatile and reliable.
Typical values of gauge factor and resistance for commonly used stain gauges are

Stain gages are used for measurements of stains as low as 1 microstrain and therefore the
corresponding change in resistance is

This small change in resistance which is 0.002% of original resistance has to be measured. It is
quite resistance evident that in order to measure a change in resistance of this low order will
require the use of extremely, sensitive and sophisticated instrumentation.
Stain gauges utilize circuits like voltage measuring potentiometer circuits, ballast circuits and
Wheatstone bridges which have already been described. The purpose here is to review them.

Gauge sensitivity
Figure 29.2 shows a single stain gauge mounted on a cantilever beam. When a force is applied to
the

Beam, the gauge is subjected to a tensile stress. There –fore, the resistance of the stain gauge
increases. This increase in resistance is measured using a Wheatstone bridge as show in 29.3

1
The bridge is balanced under unstained conditions, but becomes unbalanced when the gauge is
stained.

2
Measurement of Displacement
In general, displacement can be classified as
a) Translational displacement, and
b) Rotational displacement
The motion of a body in a straight line between two points is called translational the
displacement.
The motion of a body of angular type, about some rotation axis is called rotational displacement.

In practice different variety of translational displacement transducers and rotational displacement

transducers are available. The translational displacement transducers are useful not only to
measure the translational motion but can be used as secondary transducers in measurement
systems which are used to measure various physical quantities like pressure, force acceleration
and temperature. In such systems, the basic physical quantities are translated into a translational
motion by promary transducers and then the quantity is sensed by the translational displacement
transducers, Similarly the rotational displacement transducers measures not only the rotational
displacement of the body but also the translational displacement of a body by converting
translational motion into rotary form.

3
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE

Pressure measurements are one the most important measurements made in industry. The
number Of instruments used are by far greater in number than the instruments used for any
Other Of measurement.

The principles used in the measurement of pressure are also, applied in measurement of
temperature, flow, and liquid levels. Thus it is essential to have complete knowledge working
principles Of these instruments.

Pressure is represented as force unit area. As such it may be considered as type of stress
since stress is also defined as force per unit area. In this section, the term ‘pressure’ refers to
the force per unit exerted by a fluid on a containing wall. Therefore, the discussion of
pressure measurement is limited to The forces that arise as a result of strains in solids are
designated as stresses and have been discussed earlier.

TYPES OF PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES

Industrial applications the pressure is usually measured by means of indicating gauges or

recorders. These instruments may be mechanical, electro-mechanical, electrical or electronic
in operation.

(i) Mechanical instruments. These instruments may be classified into two groups. The first
group includes those instruments in which the pressure measurement is made by
balancing an unknown force with a known force. Instruments using this principle include
manometers and ring and belt type of gauges. The second group includes those
instruments which employ the balancing of unknown force through a force produced on or
known are due to stress in an elastic member. This group employs quantitative
deformation Of an elastic member for measurement of pressure. The elastic members
used are Bourdor tubes, bellows and diaphragms.

(ii) Electro-Mechanical Instruments. These instruments usually employ a mechanical means

for detecting the pressure and electrical means for indicating or recording the detected
pressure.

(iii) Electronic Instruments. Electronic pressure measuring instruments normally depend on

some physical change that can detected and indicated or recorded electronically.

In this text, the discussion is limited only to Electro-mechanical and Electronic

instruments.

MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE USING ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS AS SECONDARY

TRANSDUCERS

The measurement of force or pressure can be done by converting the applied force or
pressure into a displacement by elastic elements which act as primary transducers. This
displacement, which is a function of pressure may be measured by transducers which act
as secondary transducers. The output of the secondary transducers is a function of
displacement, which in tum is a function of pressure. Mechanical methods have to be

4
used to convert the applied force or pressure into displacement. These devices are called
Force Summing Devices.

They possess elasticity, when deformed, the stresses established in the summing dev ices
establish equilibrium with the applied pressure. The choice and design of the type of
summing element used depends on the magnitude of force or pressure to be measured.
The most commonly used summing devices are :

 Flat or Corrugated Diaphragms

 Bellows
 Circular or Twisted Bourdon Tube
 Straight Tube
 Single or Double Mass Cantilever Suspension
 Pivot Torque

Exarnples of these force summing devices are shown in Fig. 25.4 on page 742. For
description of force summing devices like Bourdon tube, bellows and diagphrams see
pages 742-749. Pressure transducers generally use one of the first four types of force
summing members. While mass cantilever suspension and pivot torque types are found
in accelerometers and velocity transducers.

Secondary transducers. The displacement Created by the action of the force summing
member converted into a Change of some electrical parameter force summing member
actuates a transducer which converts the displacement into an output electrical format.
The various transducers used are the following types .

 Resistive
 Inductive
 A Differential transformers
 Capacitive
 photo-electric
 Piezo-electric
 Ionization and
 Oscillation.

Resistive Transducers

The electrical strain gauges attached to a diaphragm as shown in Fig. 29.23 may be used
measurement of pressure.

5
The output of these strain gauges is a function the local strain, which, in turn, is a
function of the diaphragrn deflection and the differential pressure. The deflection
generally follows a linear variation with differential pressure P = P2—P1, (When the
deflection is less than one-third of the diaphragm thickness. )

One of the disadvantages of the method is small physical area is required for mounting
the strain gauges. Change in resistance of strain gouge account of application of pressure
is terms of the differential pressure. Gauges of this type are made in sizes having a lower
range of: 100kM/ to MN/ to an upper range of 100 kM/ to 100 MN/

Inductive Transducers

Inductive transducers have been successfully used as secondary transducers along with a
diaphragm for measurement of pressure. Figure 29.24 shows an arrangement which uses
two coils; an upper and a lower coil which form the two arms of an a.c. bridge. The coils
have equal number of turns. The other two arms of the bridge are formed by two equal
resistances each of value R.

The diaphragm is symmetrically placed with respect to the coils and so when = , the
reluctances of the paths of magnetic flux for both the coils are equal and hence the
inductances of the coils are equal.

Under this condition the bridge is balanced and the output e0 of the bridge is zero

6
 Suppose is greater than and therefore the differential pressure p = - deflects
the diaphragm upwards through a distance d. for small displacements of diaphragm, the
reluctance of the flux

Since K, D and are constant, the output voltage is directly proportional to displacement d, of

the diaphragm. Displacement d, is directly proportional to differential pressure P= - . hence

the output voltage may be calibrated in terms of the differential pressure P.

it is seen that there exists a linear relationship between output voltage and the differential

pressure for small values of deflection d.

It is possible to determine whether > or > with reference to the phase of output

voltage, , with respect to source voltage .

Standard laboratory equipment, such as an electronic voltmeter, an oscilloscope, as well as

recorders may be used for display and recording of the output. The gauge may be used for
pressures ranging from 0-5kN/ to 0-100 kN/

LVDT

7
The LVDT is used as a secondary transducer for measurement of pressure with bellows or bourdon
tube acting as the transducer i.e., as a force summing device. The two arrangements are shown in
figs.29.25 and 29.26. the pressure is converted into displacement which is sensed by the LVDT and
transducer into a voltage.

Capacitive transducers

Capacitive transducers are used for measurement of pressure by converting the pressure into a
displacement. The displacement is sensed by a capacitive transducer using a differential
arrangement as explained in art. 25.28.3 on page 818. This arrangement gives a linear relationship
between output voltage and displacement (and hence pressure) as show in Eqn.25.111.

The use of a three terminal variable differential circuit capacitor is shown in fig.2927. spherical
depressions of a depth of about 0.025 mm are ground into the glass discs. These depressions are
coated with gold to form the two fixed plates of the differential capacitor.

8
A thin stainless steel diaphragm is clamped between the discs, acts as the movable plate. With
equal pressures applied (i.e., = ) the diaphragm is in neutral position and the bridge is
balanced. The output voltage is zero under the conditions. If one pressure is made greater than
the other, the diaphragm deflects in proportion to the differential pressure, giving an output
voltage, from the bridge terminals. This output voltage is proportional to the differential
pressure. For an opposite pressure difference, the output voltage show 180˚ phase shift. This
voltage may be amplified by an emitter follower amplifier which gives a high input output
impedance. A direction sensitive d.c. output voltage may be obtained by using a phase sensitive
demodulator and a filter circuit

The use of capacitive transducers is not common because of low sensitivity. Also capacitive
transducers require high carrier frequencies (typically 2500 Hz) for dynamic pressure measurements.

Photoelectric Transducers
The photo-electric transducer makes use of the properties of a photo-emissive cell or photo-tube.
A photo tube is described in details on page 583. It is shown at Fig. 19.18 and its characteristics
are given in Fig. 19.20 on page 583.
From the characteristics of Fig. 19.20, we find that for voltage above approximately 20 V, the
output is nearly independent of the applied anode voltage but entirely depends upon the amount
of incident light. The current through the photo-tube produced as a result of incident higher is
very small. This current is the output of the photo-electric transducer. As the current is small (of
the order of a few A), it must be amplified to provide a usable output.

The photo-electric transducer of Fig. 19.28 uses a photo-tube and a light source separated by a
small window, whose aperture is controlled by the force summing member of the pressure
transducer.

9
The displacement of the force summing member modulates quantity of incident light falling on
the photo-tube (since the applied pressure or force changes the position of the force summing
member which in turn changes the position of the window thus causing a change in incident light).
According to curves given in fig. 19.20 page 583 a change in light intensity varies the photo-
emissive properties at a rate approximately linear with displacement. This transducer can use
either a stable source of light or an a.c. modulated light.

Advantages
(i) It has a high efficiency
(ii) It can be used for both static and dynamic conditions but it does not respond to high frequency
light variations
Disadvantages:
(i) It has a poor long term stability.
(ii) It requires a large displacement of the force summing member in order to produce a
detectable output.

Piezoelectric Transducers
Piezoelectric crystals produce an emf when they are deformed. The force or displacement or
pressure to be measured is applied to the crystal. The pressure is applied to the crystal through a
force summing member. This causes a deformation which produces an emf that is a function of
the deformation. This output emf may be measured to know the value of applied force and hence
the pressure.

Advantages
(i) This transducer needs no external power and is therefore self-generating (active types)
(ii) It has a very good high-frequency response.

Disadvantages
(i) The principal disadvantage is that this transducer cannot measure static pressure.
(ii) The output of the transducer is affected by changes in temperature. Therefore tempe- rature
compensating devices have to be used.

Oscillation Transducers

10
These transducers use a force summing member to change the capacitance, C, or inductance, L, of
an LC oscillator circuit. Figure 29.29 shows the basic elements of LC transistor oscillator whose
output frequency is affected by a change in the inductance of a coil. The change in inductance is
caused by the force summing member acting upon an inductive device

The output of oscillator is a modulated output and can be demodulated and calibrated in terms of
pressure or force applied.

Advantages:

(i) This transducer measures both dynamic and static phenomena.

(ii) This transducer is very useful for telemetry applications

Disadvantages

(i) This transducer has a very hunted temperature range.

(ii) It has poor thermal stability.

(iii) It has a low accuracy and therefore is used only in low accuracy applications

Example 29.18 A piezoelectric pressure transducer e gives an output of 1 mV per 100 kN/ . It
feeds into an amplifier which may be considered as having negligible output impedance and a
voltage gain of 25. The amplifier output is taken to an oscilloscope having calibrated vertical
sensitivities of 1, 5, 20, 100 and 500 mV/mm. The viewing area of the oscilloscope screen is 100
mm x 100m. The transducer is used to measure a pressure fluctuating at a frequency of 50 Hz
between upper and lower level of about 700 kN/ . and 100 kN/ . respectively. Assuming that
the trace seen on the screen is steady and the peak to peak amplitude may be estimated correctly
within 1 mm what is

(a) Optimum setting of the vertical sensitivity, and

(b) The likely maximum reading error in a measurement of the peak amplitude of wave in kN/ .

11
Solution. (a) The two extreme pressures of
700 kN/ and 100 kN/ . give the outputs as
700x (1/100)x 25= 175 mV
and 100x (1/100)x 25= 50 mV
The corresponding peak to peak voltages are
2 x 175 =350 mV
And 2 x 25 = 50 mV
Suppose we use the sensitivity of 1 mV/mm
Deflection on the screen corresponding to maximum pressure= 350/1=350mm.
Since the length of the screen in 100 mm, the waveform is out of rang and hence the 1 mV/mm
should not be used. Let us try 5 mV/mm setting.

The peak to peak deflection=350/5=70 mm this is within the range of the screen of the scope. If
we use 20, 100 or 500 V/mm, no doubt, the pattern will be visible on the screen but the sensitivity
will be lower as the deflections are lower. Hence the setting 5 mV/mm is the optimum setting.

(b) A 1 mm error corresponds to an input peak to peak pressure of

MEASUREMENT OF LOW PRESSURE (VACUUM GAUGES)

These Pressure gauges are used primarily for which is often referred to as vacuum. The science of
low pressure measurement is rather a specialized field considerable care on the part of the list.
The wide range of pressures to he measured under the general heading of vacuum low pressure
measurement makes the problem an ex extensive one. This range extends from the normal of 760
mm of mercury column down to mm of mencury column
A common unit of low pressure is the micron which is one-millionth of a meter (0.001 mm) of
mercury column. Very low pressure may be defined as any pressure below 1 mm of mercury and
an ultra low pressure is a pressure is less than a millimicron ( micron) or mm of mercury.
Torr is 1 mum of mercury column and therefore a millimicron is 1 microtorr.
There are two basic methods for measurement of low pressure
1. Direct methods. The direct methods of measurement involve measurement of a displacement
as a result of application of the pressure.
2. Indirect or inferential methods. These methods involve the measurement of pressure through
measurement of certain other properties which depend upon the pressure to be measured. The
pressure controlled properties which may be utilized for measurement of pressure are volume
and thermal conductivity etc.
Pressure is measured by direct methods using spiral Bourdon tubes, flat and corrugated
diaphragms, capsules and various forms of manometers. These devices have been discussed
earlier. They need not be discussed further except to state that these devices are useful for
measurement of pressures down to about 10 mm of mercury column. For measurement of
pressures below this value, indirect methods are used

12
Indirect or inferential methods for pressure measurement are used which involve a property that
pressure dependent and is examined for measurement of pressure. The property selected be
sensitive to change in pressure in the required.

Thermocouple Vacuum Gauge the gauge operates on the principle that at low pressures the
thermal conductivity of a gas Is a function of pressure. A thermocouple vacuum gauge consists of
a heater element (heated a temperature of 50° to 400° C by a known constant current) having a
thermocouple in contact with its centre shown in Fig. 29.30

The heater element and thermocouple are enclosed in a glass or metal envelope which is valued
into the vacuum system. The heater element is heated by a constant current and its temperature
depends upon the amount of heat which is lost to the surroundings by conduction and convection.
At pressures below mm Hg, the temperature of the heater wire is a function of the pressure
of surrounding gas. Thus the thermocouple provides an output voltage which is a function of
temperature of heater element and consequently of the pressure of the surrounding gas. The
moving coil instrument may be directly calibrated to read the pressure.
The advantages of the thermocouple gauges are that they are inexpensive. However, they are
subject to burnout if exposed at rugged and atmospheric pressure when hot and the current is
flowing.

Pirani Gauges The operation of a Pirani gauge depends on variation of the thermal conductivity of
a gas with pressure. For pressures down to about 1 mm Hg the thermal conductivity is
independent of pressure, but below this an approximately linear relationship exists between
pressure and the thermal conductivity. At very low pressures the amount of heat conducted
becomes very small and the method cannot be used.

The thermal conductivity of the gas is measured by detecting the amount of heat lost from an
electrically heated wire placed in the gas. Heat is conducted from wire by conduction through the
gas and greater the thermal conductivity of the gas, the lower will be the temperature of the
heater wire. Now since electrical resistance varies with temperature, the resistance of the heater
wire is a measure of the pressure. A Wheatstone bridge as shown in Fig. 29.31

13
may be used to measure the resistance of the heater wire. Alternatively milliammeter carrying a
current on account of unbalance in the bridge, may be calibrated to read the pressure directly.
Some heat is lost from heater by radiation and conduction and along leads, but these effects do
not depend on pressure or on the presence of gas. The compensation for this effect may be
carried out by introducing a similar Pirani element in an opposite arm of bridge. This second
element is enclosed in a sealed container evacuated to a very low pressure.
Pirani gauge is useful for pressures ranging from to mm of Hg. Pirani gauges are
rugged, inexpensive and usually more accurate than thermo- couple gauges. However, they must
be individually calibrated and checked frequently.

Gauge. Ionization is the process of removing and electron from an atom producing a free electron
and a positively changed ion. Ionization may be produced by the collision of a high speed electron
from the atom. Figure 29.32 shows the essential features of an ionization type gauge. Electrons
are emitted from heated cathode. Using a filament and are accelerated

towards the grid, which is positively charged. Some of the electrons are captured by the grid,
producing grid current . Electrons having high kinetic energy pass through and cause ionization
of gas atoms

14
The positive ions so produced are attracted to plate (which is at negative potential) and a current
is produced in the plate circuit.

It is found that the pressure of gas is proportional to ratio of plate to grid current.

where S- constant of proportionality.

S is called the sensitivity of the gauge. A typical value for nitrogen is S 20 . However, the
exact value must be determined by calibration of the particular gauge since sensitivity S is a
function of the geometry of the tube and the gas filled in it. Pressures that can be measured by
ionization gauge range from to mm of Hg

The disadvantage of these gauges is that the filament can burn out quickly if it is heated before
the pressure is at a low value. For this reason, it is usually necessary to have a Pirani or
thermocouple gauge in the system to ensure a low enough vacuum. Also an automatic cutout
circuit is used to protect the ionization tube in case of a system leak to break.

These gauges must be carefully installed in particular, absorbed gases must be eliminated.
Voltages required are in the range 50 to 300 V

MEASUREMENT OF TORQUE

Torque Transducers

Dynamic measurement of torque transmitted by a rotating shaft is based upon the angular
displacement ox twist in the shaft in a calibrated length of torque tube attached to the shaft. The
strain is sensed by transducers and is measured. The strain measurements are then interpreted in
terms of torque by proper calibration. These measurements can be used for measurement of
proper if combined with proper speed measuring devices

A number of physical effects and devices can be used for measurement of relative angular
displacement - strain by piezo-resistive (strain gauge) variable inductance, and magnetostrictive
effects. The various methods are described below.

Strain Gauge Torque Meters

The principle of this method is explained by Fig. 29.33. Two strain gauges are mounted on a shaft
at an angle 45 to each other. The torque is given by

15
where G= modulus of rigidity: N / ,
R = outer radius of shaft ; m,
r = inner radius of shaft ; m
L= length of shaft ; m.
And θ = angular deflection of shaft ; rad

A strain may be measured by electrical means to shaft as shown will indicate strains of

TR
 450

 G( R 4  r 4 )

A stain may be measured by electrical means to indicate the torque. Multiple stain gauges may be

installed and connected in a bridge circuit configuration so that any deformation due to axial or
traverse loads is cancelled out in the final readout.

The strain in the shaft may be measured by of strain gauges attached to its surface. The gauges
should be so mounted that they give maxim y sensitivity to the strains produced by torsion. The
theory of two dimensional stress systems shows that for a shaft subjected to pure torsion, the
gauges will be strained in the directions of their major axis if they are mounted at 45° to the axis
of the shaft. The normal method is to mount a complete strain gauge bridge on the shaft. The
strain bridge configuration generally used for measurement of torque is shown in Fig. 29.34(a). In
this arrangement two strain gauges are subjected to tensile stresses while the other two

16
experience compressive stresses. The gauges must be precisely at 45° with the shaft axis. Gauges
1 and 2 must be diametrically opposite, as must gauges 3 and 4.

This arrangement has the following advantages

(i) It is fully temperature compensated,

(i) It provides automatic compensation for bending and axial loads and
(iii) It gives the maximum sensitivity for a given torque.

The main difficulties associated with the use of this arrangement is the connection of the
bridge to its power source and display arrangement. Slip rings are used for this purpose. These are
conducting rings attached to the shaft, but insulated from it, with one of the slip rings connected
to each of the bridge terminals. Rubbing contact is made between the rings and the stationary
brushes, which are connected to the input and output equipment.

Inductive Torque Transducer

Figure 29.35(a) shows the use of an inductance transducer. Flange A carries a coil and flange B, an
iron core. This core moves in and out of the coil according to relative displacement of the two
flanges Therefore inductance of the coil is altered on account of relative displacement. The coil is
used as an arm of an a.c. bridge. The output of the a.c. bridge depends upon the inductance of the
coil which in turn depends upon the position of core and thus on the displacement. Since the
displacement is dependent upon the torque and hence the bridge output can be directly
calibrated to read the torque.

A scheme which gives higher sensitivity and better linearity uses four inductive transducers with
the coils connected as four arms of an a.c. bridge. The arrangement is shown in Fig. 29.35(b).

17
This arrangement is such that a torque applied to the shaft in a given direction moves the cores in
such a way that the inductance of two coils increases, while the inductance of the other two coils
decreases. (This arrangement is similar to use of four strain gauges, two in tension and two in
compression.) Thus the sensitivity of the bridge is increased four times as compared to the
sensitivity obtained with a bridge Fig using only one inductive transducer.

Digital Methods

Digital timing techniques can also be used for determination of relative displacement between
two flanges A and B. Suppose the flanges are made in the form of single toothed wheels as shown
in Fig. 29.36. The teeth produce voltage pulses in inductive pickups C and D respectively. When no
torque is applied to the shaft, the teeth are perfectly aligned and hence the voltage pulses are
produced in C and D simultaneously. If the two pulses are compared by an electronic timer, the
time difference shown will be zero. When a torque is applied to the shaft, there is a relative
displacement between the two flanges. This produces a phase shift between the pulses generated
in the inductive pickups C and D. When these pulses are compared with the help of an electronic
timer, it will show a time interval between the two pulses. This time interval is proportional to the
relative displacement of the two flanges which in turn is proportional to torque. Therefore, the
ratio of this interval to the time taken for one complete revolution gives the relative displacement
as a fraction of a fl revolution.

18
The advantage of digital methods is that they eliminate errors arising from the use of slip rings.
There is no leakage of the signal and also there is no noise problem

There are other ways of obtaining output signals from digital pickup. Figure 29.37 shows multi-
toothed wheels which replace the single toothed wheels of Fig. 29.36. The pickups are either
magnetic or 20 photoelectric. In case multiple toothed wheels are replaced by single toothed
wheels, the output of the pickoffs is perfectly sinusoidal. The two outputs are exactly in phase if
the two wheels are correctly aligned

The output voltage progressively becomes out of phase as the torque increases since an increase
in torque results in relative displacement of the two flanges. The phase difference may be
measured with the help of a cathode ray oscilloscope. The phase difference may also be measured
by converting it to suitable analog or digital signals.

Magneto-Strictive Transducers

The action of Magneto-strictive transducers depends upon the change which occurs in, the
permeability of magnetic materials when they are subjected to strain. The permeability decreases
wit positive strain and increases with negative strain.

The torque transducers described earlier use an attachment with the shaft whose torque is to be
measured resulting in substantial increase in the length of shaft. Magneto-strictive transducers
(see pages 838) can operate without any attachments or modifications to the shaft

19
It is well known that a shaft subjected to pure torsion, the highest positive and negativestrains are
experienced in the two directions at 45° to the shaft axis. Thus, if flux paths can be established in
these two directions, and their changes can be detected, a method for torque measurement can
be evolved.

This method is illustrated in Fig. 29.38. Two a.c energized coils, wound on iron cores, are
positioned close to the shaft so that their flux paths through the material of the shaft coincide
with the directions of maximum strain. The coils form adjacent arms of an a.c. bridge. The
inductance of one of the coils increases due to increase in permeability and the inductance of
other coil decreases due to decrease in permeability The bridge is initially balanced when there is
no torque applied and the two coils have equal inductance (or reactance). But when the torque is

applied the bridge becomes unbalanced on account of increase in inductance (or reactance) of
one coil and decrease in inductance (or reactance) of the other coil This is due to differential
change in inductance (or reactance) of the two coils, caused by change in permeability of flux
paths due to application of torque. Hence, the voltage output of the a.c. bridge is indicative of the
torque applied.
Example 29.19 A mild steel shaft is used to connect a motor drive to a constant load torque. A foil
strain gauge having a resistance of 120  and a gauge factor 2 is mounted on a shaft with its
active axis at angle 45˚ to the axis of the shaft as shown in Fig. 29.39. The shear modulus of steel is
80 GN/ m 2 , change in strain gauge resistance due to the load is 0.24  . Find the load torque.

20
where G is the Shaft Shear modulus, r is the radius or the shaft and T is the applied torque.

An area of the shaft surface, originally square with the sides of unit length, is deformed by strain
to a parallelogram. The original length of the diagonal is 2 . If the angle of shear,  , is small, the
length of the diagonal of the parallelogram is longer than the diagonal of the square. The
difference in lengths  / 2

Example 29.20 A shaft is to transmit power up ia 44 kW at a constant speed of 25 rps and it is

proposed that the torque be sensed by a pair of torque strain gauges bonded to a specially
machine portion of the shaft. The gauges are to be connected pushpull in an squirmed voltage
sensitive bridge, the output of which is to be calibrated in power units. If the maximum strain
value of the gauges is 0.0015, their resistance 120 Ω and gauge factor 2.1, calculate

(a) the diameter of steel shaft to which they should be bonded if its modulus elasticity is 200x 109
N / m2

(b) the output voltage at full power if the excitation voltage of the bridge is 6 V,

(c) the sensitivity of the bridge is in V/kW.

Solution.

(a) Angular speed co-2 π× 25=157 rad/s

21
Example 29.21 A digital timer is used to determine the in a rotating shaft using single toothed
flages and inductive pickups. Static califbration shows that the flanges twist by an angle of one
degree for an applied torque of 1000 Nm. In a test with the shaft rotating at 500 rpm, the torque
calculated from the timer readings is 1200 Nm. What is the maximum probable error, of final digit
on the timer display represents units of 10 5 s, and accuracy of instrument is specified is 005 per
cent of the reading  1 in the final digit

22
MEASUREMENT OF LINEAR VELOCITY

The most commonly used transducer for measurement of linear velocity is the electromagnetic
transducer. This transducer utilises the voltage produced in a coil on account of change in flux
linkages resulting from change in reluctance.

In general, the output voltage output from a coil is given by

Equation 29.44 is derived on the basis of following explanation

If the average value of reluctance R is considerably greater than the variations in R, the quantity
Ni/ R2 is approximately constant. Therefore the rate of change of flux is directly proportional to
the rate of change of reluctance. The change in flux produces an output voltages and hence the
output voltage is directly proportional to the rate of change of reluctance. The reluctance varies
directly as the length of air gap and therefore the output voltage is directly proportional to rate of
change of air gap and hence to the velocity. (This condition is only satisfied when the length of air
gap is small.) Thus this type of transducer is velocity sensitive.

The electro-magnetic transducers are classified into two categories

(i) Moving magnet type, and

(ii) Moving coil type.

23
Moving Magnet Type

The constant mmf (polarizing field) Ni, can be provided by a solenoid of N turns and carrying a
constant current i. But the electromagnetic transducers use a permanent magnet which provides a
constant 8 polarizing field

a moving magnet type of transducer. The sensing element is a rod that is rigidly 5 coupled to the
device whose velocity is being measured. This rod is a permanent magnet. There is a coil
surrounding the permanent magnet. The motion of the magnetindtices a voltage in the coil and
the

amplitude of the voltage is directly proportional to the velocity. For a coil placed in a magnetic
field, the voltage induced in the coil is directly proportional to the velocity

The polarity of the output voltage determines the direction of motion. The sensitivity of this
transducer is stated in terms of mV/mm-s.

Advantages
(i) The maintenance requirements of these transducers are negligible, because there are
(ii) The output voltage is linearly proportional to
(iii) These transducers can be used as event no mechanical surfaces or contacts. Velocity markers
which are robust and inexpensive to manufacture.
Disadvantages
(i) The performance of these transducers is adversely affected by stray magnetic fields. These
fields cause noise.
(ii) The frequency response is usually limited and is stated.
(iii) These transducers are not very useful for measurement of vibrations because their calibration
deteriorates as contact with steel tools etc. leads to progressive demagnetization.
There are two other forms of electromagnetic transducers which are described below:

24
Moving Coil type Velocity Transducer

The moving coil type velocity transducer shown in Fig 29.41 operates essentially through the
action of a coil moving in a magnetic field. A voltage is generated in the coil which is proportional
to the velocity of the

coil. (Note that in this transducer, the functions of f permanent magnet and the coil are reversed
from their functions as used in transducer of Fig. 29.47.)

The advantages of this transducer are

(i) This is a more satisfactory arrangement as the system now forms a closed magnetic circuit with
a constant air gap.

(ii) The whole device is contained in an antimagnetic case which reduces the effects of stray
magnetic fields.

Another type of velocity transducers uses a pivoted arm on which a coil is mounted. There is a
mass attached at the end of the arm. The velocity to be measured is applied to the arm and
therefore the coil moves in the field of a permanent magnet

A voltage is generated on account of motion of the coil in the magnetic field. The output voltage is
proportional to the velocity. This type of transducer is generally used for measurement of
velocities developed in a linear sinusoidal or random manner Damping is obtained electrically,
thus assuring high stability under varying tempemture conditions.

25
Seismic Tape Velocity Transducer

In this type of construction a permanent magnet is supported between two springs and fitted with
low friction bearing rings as shown in Fig. 29.42. If this transducer is attached to an object which is
vibrating at a frequency that is greater than the low natural

frequency of the transducer, the magnet appears to be stationary in space. The case and coil
oscillate around the magnet resulting in an output voltage which is proportional to the amplitude
of the vibration. The frequency of output is equal to the frequency of the vibration.

Both moving coil and seismic transducers have the disadvantage that the connections must be
made to the moving member.

MEASUREMENT OF ANGULAR VELOCITY

In many cases the only way to measure linear velocity is to convert it into angular velocity. For
example, a speedometer uses the wheel rotational speed as a measure of the linear road speed.
The disadvantage with measurement of linear velocity arises because a fixed reference must be
used and if the moving object has to travel large distances, the detection becomes impossible.
Hence angular velocity transducers are used.

The measurement of angular speed may be made with tachometers which may be either
mechanical or electrical type.

26
MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE

The following devices are used for the measurement of temperature

 Resistance thermometers
 Semiconductor thermometers
 Thermistors,
 Thermocouples, and
 Bimetallic Thermometers,
 Radiation Pyrometers

Electrical Resistance Thermometer

The principle of electrical resistance the meters has already been explained in Art. 25.19, page
975. The resistance of metals changes with change with change in temperature. The
thermometer uses the change in electrical resistance of a metallic conductor to determine the
temperature. The requirements of a conductor material to be used in resistance thermometers
are:

(i) the change in resistance of the material per ˚C should be as large as possible, and

(ii) the resistance of the material should have a continuous and stable relationship with
temperature

The resistance temperature characteristics of nickel, copper and platinum are shown in Fig 25.63,
page 786

Platinum Resistance Thermometer

The most commonly used material for material resistance thermometer is platinum. The
resistance temperature characteristics of pure platinum are very well defined and show a high
degree of capability Therefore, these resistance thermometer elements used over a wide range to
establish the temperature scale.

Resistance type temperature bulbs use elements in the form of wires or foil. The films deposited
on insulating surfaces are also temperature sensing. In the wire type, the arrangement is
commonly a helical coil wound as a double wire to avoid inductive effects. The laboratory
resistance thermometers have the temperature sensing element wound on a cross mica former
and enclosed in a Pyrex tube as shown in Fig. 29.,62a). The tube may be evacuated or filled with in
gas to protect the platinum.

The industrial type of thermometer is shown in Fig. 29.62(b) the former being of grooved ceramic
and the wire being protected by a glass coating or by a stainless steel tube. The element is
normally sealed in glass when used for temperatures up to 150 °C and ceramic for use in
temperatures up to 850 °C. This sealing has the two-fold advantage of providing structural
strength and protection from chemical attack. Resistance thermometers are sometimes used
above 850 °C but they have a reduced life.

27
Resistance elements are also available as thin etched grids of metal foil similar in shape to foil type
strain gauges. They are constructed of platinum an may be bonded to a plastic backing for
attachment to a surface. They may be open-faced or coated and have a fast response compared
with bulb type thermometers. Thin film sensors have an extremely fast response and they are
extensively used in ares- space industry.

Measurement of Resistance of Thermometers

The measurement of change of resistance o thermometer due to temperature changes is

measured by Wheatstone bridge. Ordinary Wheatstone bridge is not used for measurement of
changes in resistance as it has many disadvantages as explained below

(i) The contact resistance of the adjustable standard resistor may be large enough to produce an
error when measuring the change in resistance of thermometer

(ii) The leads from the thermometer to the bridge may introduce an error due to change of their
resistance produced by temperature changes

(iii) The current through the thermometer produces a heating effect equal to the product of the
current squared and the resistance of thermometer

Slight modification of the Wheatstone bridge such as a double slide wire bridge, eliminate most of
these problems

Three Lead Method

A double slide wire bridge is shown in Fig. 29.63. It has two slide wire resistors S1 and S 2 which are
tied together so that the fraction of S1 in series with the resistance R2 is equal to the fraction of
S 2 in series with resistance R3 . This fraction is defined as f

28
There are three equal leads from the thermo- meters to the bridge. The resistance of each lead is
RL

At balance we have

If the right hand side of the above expression is unity, the resistance of thermometer element is

This condition is obtained when:

This is an identity when

The bridge is designed using these values.

Since there are three leads coming out of the resistance thermometers, the method is known as
three lead method.

29
Four Lead Method

In applications, where the highest degree of accuracy is required, the four lead method is used.
Such a system is used with a platinum resistance thermo-meter employed as a laboratory
standard for calibration purposes. In this method, two circuit arrangements are used. They are
shown in Figs. 29.64(a) and (b). In fact, both the arrangements are required for measurement
purposes. First a measurement is made using circuit of Fig. 29.72(a) and then a second reading is
taken by using circuit of Fig. 29.72(b). The average of the two readings is taken to give the correct
result.

For circuit of Fig. 29.64(a), we have

Ra  C  Rt  T

For circuit of Fig. 29.64(b), we have

Rb  T  Rt  C

It is evident that this method should be used only when accuracy of the highest order is desired
since the method is both time consuming and inconvenient.

It should be noted that two separate leads are connected directly to each end of the resistance in
winding

These are leads C and c on one side and T and t on the other side.

Salient Features of Resistance Wire Thermometers

 Resistance wire thermometers have a higher degree of accuracy. Precision laboratory

instruments may be calibrated for measuring temperatures to within ± ˚C Industrial
instruments called "resistance temperature detectors (RTD)" can be calibrated to detect
the actual temperatures to within ± 0.25 °C up to 120 °C, and ±0.5 °C from 120°C to 550 °C

30
  Resistance thermometers are normally designed for fast response, as well as accuracy to
provide close control of processes in which narrow ranges or small temperature spans
must be A maintained
 A Each type of resistance thermometer is inter- changeable in a process without
compensation or relibration, because each type is calibrated with reference to a standard
resistance-temperature curve. Thus if a unit is damaged it can be easily replaced
 A Typical industrial applications of resistance thermometers for measuring temperature
are

cooling processes, heating ovens, drying ovens, kilns, process vessels, baths, quenches, refining
controlled cold storage plants, steam and power generation condensates, steam exhausts pickling
and plating plants, injection moulding. compression moulding, transfer moulding, and air inversion
measurements.

FLOW MEASUREMENT

In many process industries, measurement of flow is an important aspect. Depending on the quantity
flowing such as solid, liquid, gaseous, appropriate method of flow rate measurement is used. In
case of solids, rate of mass flow is measured while in the case of liquids and gases flow is usually
measured in terms of volume flow rate.

Mass flow rate

In the process industries, measurement of mass flow rate of solids is concerned with solids
transported from one point to another by some conveyor as shown in the fig given below. In such
systems, the mass flow rate is expressed in terms of mass of the solid along the length of conveyor
multiplied by speed of the conveyor.

Fig.23 Mass flow rate measurement

The mass of solid along the length of conveyor, L, is measured with the help of load cell. Let it be
‘m’. If the conveyor velocity is ‘v’, then the mass flow rate Q is given by

Q= (m.v)/L

The mass flow rate of fluids is measured with simultaneous measurement of volume flow rate and
the fluid density.

31
Volume flow rate
The volume flow rate measurement is the correct way of finding flow of materials which are in
liquid, gaseous or semi-liquid forms. The devices measuring the volume flow rate are flowmeters
and these are classified as mechanical and electrical type flow meters.

In mechanical type flow meters, an obstruction is placed in the flow pipe and the secondary effect
of the obstruction such as torque developed on vens or differential pressure across plate is
measured. In electrical type flow meters, the frequency of rotation of a turbine, change in velocity
of sound in fluid, change in resistance of an element, an electrical potential developed in a coil by
liquid moving in a magnetic field are measured. The instruments used for the measurement of
volume flow rate are as follows:

i) Head-type flow meters( based on differential pressure measurement)

ii) Variable area meters( Rotameters)
iii) Mechanical flow meters( Turbine flow meters)
iv) Electromagnetic flow meters
v) Anemometers
vi) Ultrasonic flow meters
vii) Vortex flow meter

Head type flow meters (Based on differential pressure measurement)

In these types of flow meters, some device is inserted into a pipe carrying a fluid. It obstructs the
flow of fluid and creates a pressure difference on either side of the device. The most commonly
used devices are as follow:

i) Orifice plate
ii) Venturi Tube
iii) Flow nozzle
iv) Doll flow tube
v) Pilot tube

The basic principle of all such devices is that due to obstruction, the velocity of the fluid increases
and the pressure decreases. Then, the volume flow rate is proportional to the square root of pressure
difference across the obstruction. To measure pressure difference, a diaphragm based on differential
pressure transducer is used.

The orifice plate

32
 Flow across flow nozzle Pitot tube

Flow across venture tube Doll flow tube

Fig.24. Head type flow meters

Variable Area Meter (Rotameter):

The rotameters are also called constant pressure drop meters or variable aperture meters. The area
of aperture is adjusted by a differential pressure across the variable pressure. The area of the
aperture directly gives the flow rate.

The variable area meter gives a visual indication of the flow. It consists of a glass tube tapered at
one end and a float in the vertical position. The float is made up of brass, steel, monel or special
plastic.

The float assumes a stable vertical position as its submerged weight is balanced by upthrust due to
differential pressure across it. The position of the float is a measure of effective annular area of
passage of the flow and hence the flow rate. The accuracy of rotamter is moderate but it is cheaper
and reliable. Hence its extensively used in the industries.

33
Mechanical flow meter
It extensively uses multi-bladed turbine. The basic structure of this type of flowmeter is shown
below.

Fig.25 The turbine flow meter

It consists of multi-bladed wheel mounted in side pipe along the axis parallel to the direction of the
flow of fluid. When the flow of the fluid passes the wheel, the wheel starts rotating at a rate
proportional to the volume flow rate. The flow meter is constructed such that it acts as variable
reluctance tachogenerator and then the rate of rotation of when is measured using tachogenerator.
The turbine blades are made of ferromagnetic material. During fabrication, the permanent magnet
and coil are placed properly inside the flow meter. When each blade on the turbine passes the coil, a
voltage pulse is induced in the coil. Then by counting these pulses, we can calculate frequency of
pulses and hence the flow rate. This type of flow meters provide high accuracy when the turbine
wheel is mounted on low friction bearing. Turbine flow meters are lighter and preferred mostly in
oil-industries, for low viscosity and high flow measurements.

Electromagnetic flow meters

Only the volume flow rates of electrically conductive fluids can be measured using electromagnetic
flow meters. The basic structure of this instrument is shown below.

Fig.26 Electromagnetic flow meter

34
The instrument consists of a stainless steel cylindrical tube. The tube is fitted with an insulating
linear which carries a fluid. The coils are placed on the either side of the tube. By energizing the
coils, the magnetic field is created in the tube. The voltage induced in the fluid is measured with the
help of two electrodes inserted into opposite sides of the tube. The electodes are manufactured from
a material such as stainless steel, platinum-iridium alloys, titanium and tantalum which is
unaffected by the most types of flowing fluids.

In this flow meter, there is no obstruction in the fluid flow and hence there is no pressure loss
associated with the measurement. It requires minimum length of the tube so as to increase the
accuracy. These meters are useful for the measurement of flow of slurries in which the liquid part is
electrically conductive. By using appropriate lining material, it can be used to handle corrosive
fluids.

The main drawback is that its application is limited for electrically conductive fluids. It is very
expensive since the electrodes used are costly. As electricity is required for proper use of meter, its
running cost is also high.

MEASUREMENT OF LIQUID LEVEL

Electrical Methods

The direct conversion to liquid level position to electrical signal is used in many instances. The
measurement is generally done by two conversions, so that the liquid level is determined indirectly.
The first conversion usually is liquid level to a displacement through a float in a liquid or a spring
loaded plate in contact with the surface in the case of granular solids. This displacement is then
converted into an electrical signal by a secondary transducer connected to float or plate. There are,
however, many applications where this is not possible and hence other methods like optical or
acoustic means or gamma rays are used.

The electric transducers used for level measurements are

Resistive,
Inductive, and
Capacitive

Resistive Method
This method uses mercury as a conductor as own in Fig. 29.89. A number of contact rods are placed at
various liquid levels. As head h increases the rising level of mercury above the datum, shots successive
resistors R and increase the value of h directly.

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Advantages
(i) Where there is a need for a fairly continuous record of the level, more and more contact rods can be
added, with separate signal outputs for each contact rod. The signal can be used for indication and also for
initiating some control action to actuate valves or pumps as well as warning lights and alarms depending
upon the level.
(ii) The system uses low voltage to eliminate danger to the operators and to prevent arcing at the contact
points.
(iii) The signal can be transmitted to any desired point.
(iv) These transducers can be used in pressurized containers without packing glands or shafts.
(v) The unit is simple to calibrate since the distance between the levels of contact rods can be accurately
measured and the indicated value may be checked for each measured value.

Disadvantages
(i) Due to arcing at the contact points, it is not safe to use this transducer in explosive atmosphere.
(ii) In order to have a stepless indication of the liquid level, an extremely large number of
contact rods are needed.
(iii) The contact rods are corroded by corrosive liquids. In addition, the electric charges
promote corrosion
(iv) These systems also present difficulties when there is saturated vapour above the liquid i
phase
(v) Any changes in the conductivity of the liquid causes serious errors

Inductive Methods

The inductive level transducers are mainly used for measurement of level of conductive liquids employing
variable permeability method. The arrangement shown in Fig. 29.90 uses two coils L1 and L2 wound around
a steel tube containing the liquid. The coils are connected in series through a resist and the circuit is
energised by an alternating current source. The inductance of each coil is initially equal say about 250 μH
One coil say L1 acts as the search coil. It can be set at a predetermined level. The inductance of the search
coil changes rapidly as the conducting liquid moves into the plane of the coil. The method works well
because the tape material is weakly magnetic and the liquid metal is a conductor which allows eddy
currents to flow in it. The relationship between the output voltage and the liquid level is essentially non-
linear

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Another method uses the loading of secondary winding of a transformer. This method is applicable to good
electrical conducting materials like mercury This is shown in Fig. 29.91.

A coil is wound round one core of a two limbed transformer. The mercury column surrounding the iron
core forms the secondary of the transformer. The resistance of the secondary winding depends upon the
height of the mercury column and therefore the power consumption as monitored on the primary side is
indicative of the liquid level.

Capacitive methods

Variable area method

The variable are capacitive transducer is used for measurement of levels of both solids and liquids. The
electrical conducting container containing the materials is used as one connection point of the transducer.
The other point is a metal rod completely covered by insulating material inside the container. The
insulating material acts as the dielectric medium and the capacitance varies linearly with the height of the
material.

The container should be earthed to avoid any danger of electric shock to the personnel and to prevent any
errors due to external metallic objects.

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Capacitive Voltage Divider Method

In case, the conductivity of a liquid is high, its surface can be used as one electrode of the capacitor. The
other electrode is a fixed reference plate parallel to the surface of the liquid. A system incorporating these
features is shown in Fig. 29.92. This uses an auxiliary electrode P1 placed at a fixed distance above the
reference electrode P2. The two electrodes P1 and P2 are electrically insulated from each other. An a.c
voltage is applied between the liquid and the electrode P1

Capacitance C2 is inversely proportional to the distance between the liquid surface and P2. Thus the output
voltage decreases with rise of liquid level and therefore the relationship between them is non- linear.

Variable Dielectric Constant Method

If the liquid is non-conducting it can be used as a dielectric in a capacitor. Article 25.28.5 on page 819
explains the measurement of liquid level with variation of dielectric constant.

The arrangements for measurement of liquid level for non-conducting liquids are explained below:

Figure 29.93(a) shows an insulated metal electrode firmly fixed near and parallel to the metal wall of the

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tank. If the liquid is non-conductive, the electrode and the tank wall form the plates of a parallel plate
capacitor with the liquid in between them acting as the dielectric. If the liquid is conductive the rod and the
liquid form the plates of the capacitor, and the insulation between them is the dielectric.

The capacitance of this capacitor depends, among other factors, upon the height of the dielectric between
the plates. The greater the height, the greater the capacitance. The lesser the height, the smaller is the
capacitance. Thus, the capacitance is proportional to the height of the liquid in the tank.

Where the tank is not of metal, two parallel insulated rods (electrodes) kept at a fixed distance apart are
used as shown in Fig. 29.93(b). The two rods act as two plates of a parallel plate capacitor. The higher the
liquid level, the greater is the capacitance

The capacitance in the above cases may be measured and this measured capacitance is an indication of
liquid levels.

Measurement of Liquid Level with Gamma Rays

Gamma rays are being increasingly used for detection of liquid levels. A source of gamma rays is placed at
the bottom of the tank. A sensor of gamma rays like a Geiger Müller tube is placed outside the tank near
the top. (See Fig. 29.94.)

As the gamma rays can penetrate the tank the tube senses the rays and other rays, the greater will be the
output of this tub Now the intensity of the rays will depend upon the liquid level. Maximum radiation will
reach the Geiger Müller tube if the tank is empty. But if there is some liquid in it, some of the rays will be
absorbed by the liquid and the radiations reaching the tube will be small, and hence its output is small. The
higher the level of the liquid, the greater is the absorption and hence lesser will be the output of the Geiger
muller tube. Thus the output of the Geiger Miüller tube is inversely proportional to the lie quid level. The
output the Geiger Muller tube is in the form of pulses which may be counted by a counter. Thus the
counter may be directly calibrated in terms of the liquid level.

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Ultrasonic Method

An ultrasonic transmitter receiver can be mounted on the top of for measurement of level of either solids
or liquids as shown in Fig. 29.95. The beam is projected downwards by the transmitter and

Is reflected back by the surface of the solid or liquid contained in the tank. The beam is received by the
receiver. The time taken by the beam is a measure of the distance travelled by the beam. Therefore, the
time ‘t’ between transmitting and receiving a pressure pulse is proportional to the distance ‘h’ between the
ultrasonic set and surface of the contents of the tank. Or

t h’ (H - h)

Since distance H between ultrasonic set and the bottom of the tank is fixed, time ‘t’ is measure of level ‘h’.

Measurement of Liquid Level using Float

A float operated voltage potential divider is shown in Fig. 29.96. As one liquid level rises in the

40
tank, the float, which is generally a hollow ball, is raised. Its arm causes the wiper to move over the
potential divider whose output terminals are connected to a voltameter. As a float rises, a greater part of
the potential divider is included in the output circuit giving an increased output voltage.

The output voltage V is proportional to the liquid level h.

The output terminals from the potential divider may also be taken to a remote location for display and
control.

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