HIGHWAY

ENGINEERING
 First Edition 1971
Sixth Edition 1987
Reprinted 1990
Seventh Editon 1991 PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
Reprinted 1993, 1998, 2000
Fighth Edition 2001 The basic concept of highway engineering have been considerably changed in the last
Ninth Edition 2011 two decades. In the past, the subject was essentially based on the empirical practices and
thumb rules. The design and construction thereby were done mainly based on the
experiences of individual engineers. Like in other countries, in India also several
organisation namely, Central Road Research Institute, Ministrf of Transport
(Roads Wing), P. W. D. Research Stations and some educational institutions have
Contributed’a great deal to the knowledge and newer concepts in this field of engineering.
All these contributions have given the subject a scientific outlook, The authors have been
CoryYRIGHT © NEM CHAND & B
associated with the teaching and research in this discipline at the University of Roorkee
ROS, 2011 for the past several years and as a result of this experience this book embodies the latest
know-how on the subject.
No part of this publication may
be reprinted or reproduced or
any electronic, mechanic utilized d
al or any means, now known or hereafter \y form or It has been the objective of the authors to prepare this book introducing the subject of
Photocopying and recording, or in any T Inin
veventnted, includ
by
highway engineering to the student in a systematic manner covering the latest knowledge.
i n f o
translated in any language with lout the prior writte r m a t i o n s t o r age and retrieval syst tem i n g The treatment of the subject is fully in metric system. Besides being useful for the Civil
n permission. of the Publisher/ oF Engineering students in general, it is hoped that the book should also fulfill the need of
A\ uuthors , the students of those institutions where this subject is being taught at an advanced level
for the final year degree class as an optional paper or for the preparation of a complete
Highway Project.
Edited by In preparing this book, the authors have liberally drawn information from a number of
Mrs. Indira Khanna & Mrs. Lalitha Justo Publications, particularly, of Indian Roads Congress. The authors feel that the book
should serve the purpose of a standard text book for the undergraduate students of Civil
Engineering for almost all the teaching institutions in the country.
It is possible that some errors might have been left unnoticed while the book was in
print. The authors would sincerely welcome the constructive criticism for improving the
book for the subsequent edition.
ISBN 978-81-85240-63-3

January 26, 1971 Ke anna

Roorkee C.E.G. Justo

Published by
Nem Chand & Bros., Civil Lines, Roorkee 247 667, India
e-mail : ncb_rke@rediffmail.com
Photoset and Printed at the
Roorkee Press, Mahavir Marg, Roorkee 247 667
 CONTENTS
e
— ee a

INTRODUCTION

eo
1 1. Importance of Transportation
1.2 Different Modes of Transportation

anan-
PREFACE TO THE NINTH EDITION 1.3 Characteristics of Roads Transport
1.4 Importance of Roads in India
1.5 Scope of Highway Engineering
The book has been revised in general and efforts have been made to improve the HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING

8
°
presentation. Suggestions and comments on the contents and subject matter received
from the students, teachers and professionals will be considered by the authors during 2 2.1 Historical Development of Road Construction
2.2 Highway Development in India

Bo
further revision of the book.
23 Necessity of Highway Planning

s
2.4 — Classification of Roads

e
2.5 Road Patterns

bid
y
2.6 Planning Surveys
2.7 Preparation of Plans
2.8 Interpretation of Planning Surveys
2.9 _ Preparation of Master Plan & its Phasing
March, 2011 2.10 Highway Planning in India
HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND SURVEYS
3.1 Highway Alignment
3 32 Engineering Surveys for Highway Location
3.3. Drawings and Report
3.4 Highway Project
HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
4.1 Introduction
4 42 Highway Cross Section Elements
4.3. Sight Distance
4.4 Design of Horizontal Alignment
46 Design ofVertical Alignment
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
5.1 Introduction
5 52 Traffic Characteristics
5.3. Traffic Operation —
5.4 Design of Intersections
Desig n of Pa rk in g Fa ci li ty
5.5 a e
5.6 Highway Li gh ti ng
n g & A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
5.7 Traffic Planni
 268-329

268 HILL ROADS

292
301 1 2 24 erations
mt Concrete 314 122 Aligntnent of Hilt Roads
326 12.3 Geometries of Hill Roads
DESIGN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS 24 Design & Construction of Hilt Raaaw
330 - 408 12.5 Drainage in Hill Roads
12.6 Maintenance Problems in Hill Roads
330
7 of Flexible Pavements 335 ROAD SIDE DEVELOPMENT
of Rigid Pavements 346 Environment Factors in Pianning and Development of Highways
HIGHWAY
371 13 33 Road Side Development and Arboriculture
CONSTRUCTION 13.3 Planning Plaatation of Trees
40-9462 13.4 Species and their Selection
8
General Construction
Earthwork 409 13.5 Care ofTrees
83 Construction of Earth Roads 41
HIGHWAY ECONOMICS AND FINANCE
84 Construction of Gravel Roads 418
8.5
8.6
Construction Water Bond Macadam Roads
Construction of Bituminous Pavements
419
420 14 ii Introduction
Highway User Benefits
8.7 Construction of Cement Concrete Pavements 425 143 Highway Costs
442 44 Economic Analysis
8.8 — Construction of Joints in Cement Concrete Highway Finance
Pavements 449 14.5
8.9 Joint Filler and Sealer
8.10 Reinforced Concrete Pavements 454
8.11 458
Prestressed Concrete Pavements INDEX
458
SOIL STABILIZED ROADS
463
- 487
9.1 Introduction 463
9 9.2 Mechanical Soil Stabilization 465
9.3 Soil-cement Stabilization 471
9.4 — Soil lime Stabilization 475
9.5 Stabilization of Soil Using.Bituminous Materials 478
9.6 Special Problems in Soil Stabilization Work 481

HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE 48-8517

10 102 Introduction
Pavement Failures
488
489
10.3 Maintenance ot Highways 498
10.4 Pavement Evaluation 505
10.5 Strengthening of Existing Pavements 507
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE 51-8534
IL Introduction 518
11 V1.2 Importance of Highway Drainage 518
WN Surface Drainage 519
11.4 Sub-surface Drainage 528
WS Drainage of Slopes & Erosion Control 532
11.6 Road Construction in Water-logved Areas $32
 (Y) Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 IMPORTANCE OF TRANSPORTATION

1.1.1 Role of Transportation

Transportation contributes to the economic, industrial, social and cultural development
of any country. Transportation is vital for the economic development of any region since
every comm odit y prod uced whet her it is food, clot hing , indus trial prod ucts or medi cine
needs transport at all stages from production to distribution. In the production stage,
transportation is requ ired for carr ying raw mate rial s like seeds , manu re, coal, steel etc. In
the distribution stage , tran spor tati on is requ ired from the prod ucti on centr es viz; farms
centr es and later to the retai lers and the cons umer s for
and factories to the marketing
tra nsp ort ati on fac ili tie s ret ard the pro ces s of soc io- eco nom ic.
_ distribution, The inadequate ica tes
ad eq ua cy of tr an sp or ta ti on sys tem of a cou ntr y ind
development of the country. The
its economic and social development.

1.1.2. Economic Activity and Transport

se s by me an s of wh ic h the pr od uc ts are util
The economic activities are the proces ty are :
fa ct or s we ll kn ow n in ec on om ic ac ti vi
to satisfy human wants. Two important
(i Production or supply and

ug h pr od uc ti on an d di st ri bu ti on .
goods and satisfaction thro at the increased
ti on , it ma y be sa id th
effects of transporta
ca n lo we r th e co st of th e pi ts.
transportation es .
co ns um er pr ic e of ‘c om mo di ti
influencing factor on

E f f e c t s of ‘ T r a n s p o r t a t i o n
1.1.3 Social a y s se tt le d al on g. td lh e
. P*opulation have a l w
w s t h e l i n e s o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n n s p o r t a t i o n
Progress f o l l o n s . In t h e p r e s e n t c o n c e p t o f t r a
s ‘and n e a r r a i l w a y s t a t i o
river s h o r e s , r o a d s i d e
 . INTRODUCTION

etwork, this kind of ribbon development is greatly discouraged, Atte;

DIFFERENT MODES OF TRANSPO
ide re decentralize the population centres away from the
transportation routes. Thus town planning Patterns are rapidly changin,
ide oe cs
ei being RTATION 3
can be soiC ld at the nearest marketing centres for mo
re remunerative Pricpri e resultin
ing g ini faster
congestion around the populated areas suburban living and industrial sate © avoig economic growth and decreased wastage. With improved facilities for education, health
developing. These suburbs and satellite towns, acting as counter-magnets show)“ care and other social needs in the villages, the urge for
the migration to urban centres
linked up with rapid transit systems. The various social effects of transnortatioy ould be decrea ses, thus helping in balance development of the country as a whole,
further elaborated as follows : n Maybe
1.2 DIFFERENT MODES OF TRANSPORTATION
(a) Sectionalism and transportation : Improved transportation has im
implication in reducing sectionalism within the country and also Outside the pea Three basic modes of transport are by land, water and air. Land has given scope for
Under-developed colonies and tribes are improving their living conditions since «2 development of road and rail transport. Water and air have developed waterways and
distances have apparently been reduced with reduction in travel time. More- airways, respectively. The roads or the highways not only include the modern highway
ee
travels in other parts of the country and outside the country tend to increase knowledge af F system but also the city streets, feeder roads and village roads, catering for a wide range
the people from other sections of the society. The international understanding for tet of road vehicles and the pedestrians. Railways have been developed both for long
peace and order also improves with efficient network of transportation. 4 distance transportation and for urban travel, Waterways include oceans, rivers, canals
and lakes for the movement of ships and boats. The aircraft and helicopters use the
(b) Concentration of population into urban area : The airways.
improved transportation
network brings prosperity to the urban population. The prosperi
opportunities of urban area attract the population from other ar
ty and employment Apart from these major modes of transportation, other modes include pipe lines,
economic activities. Adequate mass transportation faci
eas resulting in enhanced elevators, belt conveyors, cable cars, aerial ropeways and monorails. Pipe lines are used
internal movements in urban area such as daily movements
lities are needed to cater the for the transportation of water, other fluids and even solid particles.
to and from factories, offices, The four major modes of transportation are :
schools, hospitals and other social needs. Efficient rapi
d transit facilities are necessary
for sub-urban and inter-city long distance travel
for business needs, social visits and (i) Roadways or highways
tourist activities. This also encourages the People
to live in places away from their work (ii) Railways
centres, thus helping to decrease the growth of sl
ums in urban areas. In general the
transportation facilities are essential for the well bein (iii) Waterways
g of the community.
(c) Aspect of safety, law and order : Transport fa
(iv) Airways
cilities are essential for rushing aids
to areas affected by an emergency. To maintain law and order at home, it is required to The transportation by air is the fastest among the four modes. Air travel also provides
have an efficient svstem of transport network. more comfort apart from saving in transportation time for the passengers and the goods
To defend the territory of the country Transportation by water is the slowest among the four modes; but
against the external aggression and to guard the between the airports.
borders with the foreign territories, this mode needs minimum energy to haul unit load through unit distance. The
transport facilities are needed connecting the
farthest border area from the head quarters transportation by water is pos sib le bet wee n the por ts on the sea rou tes or alo ng the rive rs
or capitals. At times, this alone may be a suffic
ient reason to develop a transport network or canals where inland transportation facilities are available.
which may not involve any economic and
social benefit directly. adv ant age ous by rai lwa ys bet wee n
transportation alon g the rai lwa y tra ck cou ld be
All the advantages of transportation ma par tic ula rly for lon ger Ce ig or d
y now be summarized : ie oth for the ce oe te er t and goo ds,
art eri es for tra nsp ort ati on by lan d and the oa so ld oe
(i) Transportation is for advancement of the railway tracks could serve as
community. on to the int eri or par ts and to the St em s iat e =
as feeder system for transportati pees
(ii) Transportation is essential for
r the economic prosperity and general development of between the railway stations. The energy requirement to haul unit I
the country, and (on e fou rth to one six th) of that sea ls ra t sar e
distance by the rai lwa y is onl y a fra cti on
uld be tak en for the tra nsp ort rs
ati on of
(iii) Transportation is ‘essential for Therefore full advantage of this mode sho ne t:
strategiic movement in emerget defence of the alo ng lan d whe re the rai lwa y fac ili tie s are ava ila ble .
Country and to maintazn better law and
order. oan mo de whi ch cou ld giv e ma xi mu m ser vic e ns
The transporta tion by ro ad is the onl y
tra vel wit h ref ere nce to rou te,
1-14 Role of Transportatio
n in Rural Development i as also the maximum flexibility for possible to
thr oug h any mod e of roa d veh icl e. It is
ae Te eae s of tra vel etc. ther three modes, viz., airways,
te over 75 percent of
the provide door to door service only by road transport. The hy road s for the serv ice OtoS and
leve lopment ini urb; d o n s r a n s p e r t a t s e e +
‘one do not indicate the overall development of the waterways a n d r a i l w a y s h a v e to d e p e n
i n e s v e r t 8
e r m i n a l s , a i r p o r t s , t e s ! =
from their resrecti v e t
t e m e e = a e r e t e m a r i s s
no t o n l y to s e r v e as f e e d e r s y s
therefore needed provide
to i n d e p e n d e n t fa ci li ty
t h e m , b u t a l s o
ie gupplesiett o u t th e c o u n t r y .
h r o u g h
ned net work of roads t
 INTRODUCTION

tr an sp or ta ti on is des i IMPORTANCE OF ROADS IN INDIA

seach el
Th ou gh co -o rd in at io n be tw ee n di ff er en t mo de s of ra bl e, it j s
be tw ee n the di ff er en t mo de s,
y co mp et it io n
necessary to permit a health provide roads links between the villages and market centres. The
sridel y va ry in g ch ar ac te ri st ic s. urban areas alone do not reflect the economic and living cw
diioe tke ane
The branch of transportation engineering which deals with the Plannin, country as a whole. Overall economic progress can be achieved, on
ly if reasonabl)
Of aj Bn, adequate transport facilities are made available between the villages and other disc
construction and maintenance of airports and other facilities for the operation mde
is termed Airport Engineering. The development of terminal facilities for ships head quarters and commercial centres. The road networks have also ta be supplemented
their harbouring, repairs etc. are covered under Harbour Engineering. The design 2 with Express ways to keep pace with the requirement of uninterrupted movement of fast
laying of railway tracks and yards, their maintenance and the safety and contro} ofa vehicles along the arterial roads. In general, developing countries have to raise their
Engineering. The planning, design, construction a transportation systems to a higher level both in terms of length and quality so as to meet
movements are dealt in Railway the demand which is being generated by the development plans. Also road development
maintenance of road and roadway facilities to cater to the needs of road traffig 2 generates considerable employment potential. It is estimated by Planning Commission
covered under Road Engineering or Highway Engineering. are
and the National Council of Applied Economic Research that Rs. 1,000 crores invested in
roads would yield employment for six million persons.
1.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD TRANSPORT
It has been shown that a paved surface in reasonably good condition can contribute to
It is an accepted fact that of all the modes the transportation, road transport is the 15 to 40 percent savings in vehicle operation cost. This is very significant from the point
nearest to the people. The passengers and the goods have to be first transported by toad of view of energy crisis and conservation of petroleum fuel. Thus it is all the more
before reaching a railway station or a port or an airport. The road network alone could important to construct and maintain road pavements in good condition. Revenue from the
serve the remotest villages of the vast country like ours.
road transport in India has been much higher than the investment made on road
development plans. Out of the estimated revenue of Rs. 10,000 crores from the road
‘The characteristics of road transport are briefly listed here. sector during the sixth five year plan 1980-85, only Rs. 3439 crores was provided for
roads during the plan period. During the seventh plan Rs. 6,000 crores was spent for road
(i) Roads are used by various types of road vehicles, like passenger cars, buses, trucks, development in the country. There is a great need and considerable scope for higher
two and three wheeled automobiles, pedal cycles and animal drawn vehicles. But investments for development of road transportation in India.
railway tracks are used only by rail locomotives and wagons, waterways are used
by only ships and boats. ‘ 1.42 Requirement of Rural Road Development
(ii) Road transport requires a relatively small investment for the government. Motor There are 5.76 lakhs vil lag es in Ind ia. Of the se onl y abo ut 57 per cen t of vil lag es wit h
population about 1500, 36.3 per cen t vil lag es wit h pop ula tio n 100 0 to 150 0 and 23
vehicles are much cheaper than other carriers like rail locomotives and wagons, h all -we ath er roa ds by
water and air carriers. Construction and maintenance of roads is also cheaper than percent villages with population less tha n 100 0 wer e con nec ted wit
1980-81. Realising the urgency of dev elo pin g the vil lag e roa ds, the se hav e bee n tre ate d
that of railway tracks, docks, harbours and airports. i as a part of minimum nee ds pr og ra mm e sin ce the fift h fiv e-y ear pla n.
(iii) Road transport offers a complete freedom to road users to transfer the vehicle from (as per 19 80 co st es ti ma te s) wi ll be ne ed ed to
one lane to another and from one road to another according to the need It is estimated that Rs. 11,000 crores llage is not more
ro ad ne tw or k so tha t on the av er ag e an y vi
convenience. This flexibility of changes in location, direction, speed and timings of provide all weather motorable pl an (1 98 0- 85 ) out of th e pr ov is io n of
than 1.6 km from a road. During the sixth five ye ar
travel is not available to other modes of transport. pm en t an d ma in te na nc e, Rs. 11 65 cr or es wa s set pa rt
cr or es for the ro ad de ve lo
Rs. 34 39
ra mm e. Th e sta tes are als o sc iv el y
(iv) In particular for short distance travel, road transport saves time. Trains stp # j for the rural ro ad s un de r the mi ni mu m ne ed s pr og
e, @ ma st er pl an for rur al ro ad s
junctions and mai n stations for comparatively longer time. engaged in the de ve lo pm en t of ru ra l ro ad s. Fo r ex am pl
‘ for Ka rn at ak a St at e at an es ti ma te d cost of Rs. 949 crores.
been prepared
(V) Soret of movement is directly related with the severity of accident. The road ;
‘ccreases with increasing dispersion in speed. Road transport is subjected t0 8 1.4.3 Compa r a t i v e St ud y of Ro ad St at is ti cs
ices of accidents due to the flexibility of movements offered to the
iment of railway locomotives and air d
uncommon. They are in fact cr as h of air planes are road stat is ti cs m a y be p r e s e n t e
more di be c o n s i d e r a b l y in ct
sastrous. road n e t w o r k of th is c o u n t r y ha s to
th e pa st m a y be d u e to th e
(vi) Road transport whole. p m e n t in In di a in
i plans. T h e p o o r st at e of r o a d develo zines
comaminiy alte the only means of transport that offers itself to the
following reasons : n a
i t
n i
i toi n
a t i oonf
o|
v e l o p m e n t o f r o a d i
sin n the cou n t
u p r
t o yt h e
1.4 IMPORTANCE OF R i was no planned de 3. Only during t h e f i v e - y e a r p l a n s s i n c e
OADS IN INDIA. g eat Road P l a n in t h e y e a r 1 9 4
1.4.1 Significance of t works
developmen w e r e s p e e d e d u p .
Planned Road Netwo
rk
It maybe said 4 . atl)
to the se-backs inapace) tthe road development in india has conibe
rcultural, commercial and industrial sectors. It is ¢5™
 6 INTRODUCTION

(ii) The investment even today on the road development programme is my ch lower thay
the revenue from the road transport. REFERENCES

(iii) Poor economic conditions of the vast majority of the population in Villa, Scope of Highway Engineering
the owning of priv at e ve hi cl es an d di sc ou ra ge th e us e of tr an sp or t. Be s Pr oh ib ig

There has been a noteworthy progress in road development in India dur

ring the pees PHASES DETAILS
independent period, especially since the start of the five year plans in the ye ear 1951. The
total road length by the year 1951 was only 3,97,600 km, whereas the road length Development, Planning Historical background; Basis for Planning; Master Plan,
and Locations Engineering surveys and highway alignment.
area
:
the year 196) Highway Design, Road Geometrics and their Design; Rigid and Flexible
ued “ensit) © developed Geometries and Pavements; Design factors and thickness design; Overlay
developing countries by the year 1981 are given in Table 1.1 for comparison, a Structures design; Design of drainage system.
Table 1.1 Road Density Values in Different Countries by the Year 1981
Traffic Performance Traffic studies analysis; Need for new road links; Traffic
and its Control regulation and control; Intersection design and their controls
County: | per Road density in km
100 sq, imarea_| County
ity i
| ceitnae ee a with signs, signals, islands and markings.
Afghanistan 3 New Zealand a is Materials, Construction Highway Materials and mix design; Highway construction; Earth
Egypt 3 India 46* and Maintenance work, construction of different types of pavements; Earthen, soi
wel bd U.S.A. 68 stabilized, water bound macadam, Bituminous surfaces an
ustralia in Hun; cement concrete roads; pavement failures; pavement evaluation
—
[ Nigeria 12* inl 4 mr Maintenance of pavements and drainage system.
Pakistan 13* France | 146 Economics, Finance Road user cost and economic analysis of highway projects;
Malaysia 14* Great Britain 153 and Administration pavement types and maintenance measures; Highway Finance
aul 16 Netherlands 225 and phasingof expenditures; Administration.
reece 28 Japan 296
*1984_ Statistics from World Bank Policy Study. Fig. 1.1 Scope of Highway Engineering
1,5 SCOPE OF HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
REFERENCES
ee roel Pavements are generally constructed The Indian Concrete Journal,
on small embankments, slightly above |. Sinha S. N., ‘Development of Roads in India’.
7 sisi Pomme level wherever possible, in orde
r to avoid the difficult drainage and Oct. 1958.
€ problems. The term road or roadway thus constructed is therefor
‘highway’ and the sci fine: e te rmed |. ECAFE Report of the Seminar of Low Cost Roads and Soil-Stabilization,
called ‘Highway Engineering’ d technology dealing with Road Engineering is generally New Delhi, 1958

Ministry of Information and Broadcasting . Ou r Ro ad s, Mo de rn Ind ia Ser ies No . 11,

Publication Division, Government of India.
n In tr od uc ti on to Tr an sp or ta ti on En gi ne er in g" , To pp an
|. Wi ll ia m W. Ha y, “A
Company Ltd., Tokyo.
8 L. , "R oa d De ve lo pm en t in Ka ma ta ka ", In di an Hi gh wa ys , Vo l. 9.
aces _. Shivalinga ia h,
i No. 12 , In di an Ro ad s Co ng re ss , 19 81 .
development, planning, ali highway engineering deals with variaoursious phpahsatse like
or t, R o a d s Wi ng , " R o a d D e v e l o p m e n t Pl an fo r
traffic operation and is
cm intrmoli
, t ema te ri als, » Paveme Ministry of Shipping and Tr an sp
maintenance, economic consi
de: rationon.s, finance and nt delesisign, i
construction: India, 1981-2001", Indi an R o a d s C o n g r e s s , 19 84 .
a

v e l o p i n g C o u n t r i e s , C a u s e s and
D e t e r i o r a t i o n in D e
The World Bank, "Road a s h i n g t o n D . C .
W o r l d B a n k P o l i c y S t u d y , W
Remedies", A
8 INTRODUCTION

PROBLEMS

1. Discuss the role of transportation in the economic and Soci

country. ‘Al activitig @
2. What are the different modes of transportation ?- Explain 1
each of them. Plain
=
the specific (7) Chapter 2
3. Compare the characteristic feature of different modes of transportati
ion,
Highway Development
4. What are the characteristics of road transport in comparis
5. What, in your opinion were the chief causes of ne,
on with oth 'er SYstems
9 and Planning
Blected condit,
transportation in India ? Ons Of poe
6, Explain the role of transportation in rural develo
pment in India ?
7. Outline and discuss the scope of the highwa
y engineering study,

2.1 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF ROAD CONSTRUCTION

2.1.1 Early Development

‘The oldest mode of travel obviously was on the foot-paths. Animals were also used to
transport men and materials. Later simple animal drawn vehicles were developed and this
for a very long period after the
became a common and popular mode of transportation
invention of wheel. This brought up the necessity of providing a hard surface for these
wheeled vehicles to move on. Such a hard surface is believed to have existed in
Mesopotamia in the period about 3500 B.C. The first road on which there is some
authentic record is that of Assyrian empire constructed by about 1900 B.C. Only during
the period of the Roman empire, roads were constructed in large scale and the earliest
construction techniques known are of Roman Roads. The Romans constructed an
extensive system of roads radiating in many directions from Rome through the empire
mainly for military operations. Hence Romans are considered to be the pioneers in road
construction.

2.1.2 Roman Roads

Many of the early Roman roads were of elaborate construction. Some of these roads
are still in existence after over 2000 years. During this period of Roman civilization
many roads were built of stone blocks of considerable thickness. The Appian way was
built in 312 B.C. extending over $80 km which illustrate the road building technique used
by Romans.
The main features of the Romans roads are :
(i) They were built straight regardless of gradients.
(ii) ‘They were built after the soft soil was removed and a hard stratum was reached.
iii) The total thickness of the construction was as high as 0.75 to 1.2 metres at some
the magnitude of wheel loads of animal drawn vehicles was
© places, even though
very low.
9
 10 HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING

A typical cross section of Roman road is shown in Fig. 2,1, The CORStRUcton HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF RO
procedure was as follows : a
AD CONST RUCTION " i
so hhis method of construction Was
imy plemented in that count
regime of Napoleon the major development of road system in Ta 177:
LARGE STONE SLABS IN LIME LIME CONCRETE sik we 7
MORTAR 10 TO 15m THICK 25 TO.40cmr THICK The typical cross section of Tresag
uet’s road construction 6 give
in nFi
fp 22 10. 2 Sm construction steps may be enumer
ated as below
g. 22 an d th e

fi ING WEARING SURFACE 1 OOOKEN Stem

(10 651 Sem tite. OG cm @%
SHOULDER SLOPING 12m tr ac e
14M 20 |} $4
LARGE FOUNDATION STONES. e2 cm
IN LIME MORTAR 10 10 20¢m_ \SIDE Drain MARGE FounoanoN StoNES
THICK
HARD SOIL STRATUM ON EDULE. I7em tHicK
Fig. 2.1 Typical Cross section of Roman Road Fig. 2.2 Typical Cross Section of Tresaguet’s Construction (1775 A.D.)
(i) A trench of width equal to that of the carriage way was dug along a
(The subgrade was prepared and a layer of large foundation stones were laid on edge
straight path : by hand. -At the two edges of the pavement large stones were embedded edzewise
removing the loose soil ftom the top. The trench was cut upt to serve as submerged kerb stones.
o a depth until a hard
stratum was reached. E (ii) The comers of these heavy foundation stones were hammered and then the
(ii), One or two layers of large foundation stones were laid in lime interstices filled with smaller stones. Broken stones were Packed to a thickness of
mortar at the bottom. about 8 cm and compacted.
The thickness of this bottom layer ranged from 10 to 20
cm. Vertical kerb stone
were placed along the edges of the pavement. (ii) The top wearing course was made of smaller stones and compacted to a thickness of
(iii) A second layer of lime concrete with large size broken stones mi about 5 cm at the edges and gradually increased towards the centre, giving a cross
a ; xe d in lim e mor tar slope of | in 45 to the surface, to provide surface drainage.
‘was laid over the bottom course up to a thickness of 25 to 40 cm. (iv) The shoulders were also provided cross slope to drain the surface water to the side
(iv) Another layer of lime concrete was laid over this with smaller broken stones
in lime mortar to a th
mix ed. drain.
ickness of25 to 40 cm, cm, or even more if necessary. 4
2.1.4 Metealf Construction
(v) The wearing course consisting of dressed large stone
blocks set in lime mortar was
provided at the top. The thickness of these blocks also varied
from 10 to 15 cm.
John Metcalf (1717-1810) was engaged on road construction works in Engiand during
the period when Tresaguet was working in France. He apparently followed the
Obviously the above construction should have been much stro
nger than what was’ recommendations of Robert Phillips whose paper was presented in Royal Society,
Tequired for the animal drawn carts in those days. The enormous Metcalf was responsible for the construction of about 290 km of road in the northern
cannot be justified at all, if this
cos t of con str uct ion region of England. As Metcalf was blind, much of his work was not recorded.
technique is compared witi the modem trend of pavement
design based on more scientific approaches.
2.1.5 Telford Construction
2.1.3 Tresaguet Construction Thomas Telford (1757-1834) began his work in early 19th century. He was the
After the fall of the Roman empire, their tech
founder of the Institution of Civil Engineers at London. He also believed in using heavy
nique of road construction did not gain foundation stones above the soil subgrade in order to keep the road foundation firm. He
Popularity in other countries. Until the eighteenth century there is no
road construction method, except the older concep evidence of any ne” insisted on providing a definite cross slope for top surface of the pavement by varying the
t of using thick construction of thickness of foundation stones.
beads as the Roman did.
A typical cross section of Telford's construction by the year 1803 is shown in Fig, 23.
Pierre Tresaguet
France by the year 1964 A.D. The construction steps are given below :
Tre:
(i) A level sub gra de was pre par ed to des ign ed wid th of abo ut ‘9 met ers .

i ) Large foundatiion stones of thic i kn es s 17 to 22 cm wer e lai d wit h ha nd wit i

h s the ir
consideration was given by hi ” font face down so as to be laid in a stable position. The stones of lesser thickness
water. Tresaguet was the Ins;
 HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING

HISTORICAL DEVELOP
MENT OF ROAD CONST
SLOPING WEARING SURFACE BROKEN STONE RUCTION 13
(VIN 65) Gem THICK Sem THICK -

BROKEN STONE Passing,

‘SURFACE COURSE wiTH 375¢m SEVE.Wem THICK.
es HORIZONTAL STONESPASSING 1-9cm
SUBGRADE| SIEVE, Sem THICK.
BROKEN STONEIN Urounoation STONES OF ANGULAR BRO) K |
UME MORTAR VARYING SI7FII7 10 22m) STONE, 2em moet
lem THICk BROKEN STONES Passing,
COMPACTED SUBGRADE ‘Sem SIEVE 10 em THICK
Fig. 2.3 Typical Cross Section of Telford’s Construction (1 WITH CROSS SLOPE 1IN 36.
803 A.D.)
(17 cm) were placed towards the edges and stones of increasing thicknes
towards the centre.
s laid Fig. 2.4 Typical Cross Section of Macadam’s Construction (1827 A.D.)
At the centre the largest stones of approximate thickness 22
were used such that these foundation stones of varyin (i) Macadam was the first person to suggest that heavy foundation stones are not at
slope designed by Telford.
g thickness provide the cma}
hecessary to be placed at the bottom layer of construction. He realised that theall
. subgrade being the lowest portion of the pavement should be prepared properly and
(ili) The interstices between foundation stones were Kept drained so as to carry the load transmitted through the pavement. Compacted
filled with smaller stone and
chipping and properly beaten down. layer of smaller size broken stones placed at the bottom, according to Macadam,
(iv) The central portion of about 5.5 metre width was covered wi could replace, with advantage, the heavy foundation stones.
angular-broken stones to compacted thicknes th tw o layers of (iii) Though the total thickness of construction, was less than previous methods, this
s of 10 and Sm. These layers were’
initially rammed and later allowed to be comp
acted under the traffic and get
technique could serve the purpose in a better way, due to better load dispersion
consolidated by the rains. characteristics of compacted broken stone aggregates of smaller sizes.
(v) A certain width of the Pavement towards th
e edges was constructed by compacted
(iv) The size of broken stones for the top layer was decided based on the stability under
broken stones, 15 cm thick, sometimes in animal drawn vehicles. The pavement surface was also prepared with a cross slope
lime mortar instead of using the kerb ~ of | in 36 for drainage of surface water.
stones so as to provide lateral stability.
(vi) A binding layer of wearing course 4 Macadam's method is the first method based on scientific thinking. It was realised that
cm thick was constructed on the top usin the stresses due to wheel load of traffic gets decreased at the lower layers of the pavement
gravel. The finished surface had a cross g
slope of about | in 45. and therefore it is not necessary to provide large and strong boulder stones as foundation
:
or soling course at the lowest layer of the pavement, This method became very popular
far and wide. Various subsequent improved methods were based on Macadam's
construction and some of the methods still in use are known after his name, such as water
subgrade. bound macadam, penetration macadam and bituminous macadam constructions.
The construction steps are :
2.1.6 Macadam Constructi
on
(i) Subgrade is compacted and prepared with a cross slope of 1 in 36 upto a desired
= comma tacadam (1756-183 width (about 9 metres).
6) put forward an entirely
maaan0 al new method of road co!
tohe e
previous m ethods . T h e fi rs t attempt to iimprove the road (ii) Broken stones of a strong variety, all passing through 5 cm size sieve were
v
his new concept of road co M a c a d a m was the Si compacted to a uniform thickness of 10 cm.
nstruction became pb i f a
i on ee (iii) The second layer of strong broken stones of size 3.75 cm was compacted to
A typical cross sectio thickness of 10 cm,
n of Macadam's con
stru ction is shown in Fig, 2.4.
The most importany it iiv) ii less than 2 cm compact red to a thickness of0
i d of stones of size
The top layer consiste
modifications made in Macada
older methods are : m's methods with respect ie about 5 cm and finished so that the cross slope of pavement surface was also 4 in
to % 5
36.
The Mac ada m and Telf ord met hod s of coas trec tion diff er cons ider ably thou gh both
the methods were put forward in the early nineteenth century.
 HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING
4

b e e n c o m p a r e d h e r e :
The two methods have

‘Macadam method Telford methog

i) give n a cross s' lope
yas give
The subgrade was The subgrade was kept hori
us of I be 36 to facilitate subgrade hence subgrade draj
| proper. :
drainage. MABE Wag
(ii) The bottom layer of pavement or the
sub-base course consisted of broken tying
stones of less than 5 cm size to As the main problem in develop
uniform thickness equal to 10 cm ing countries like India is to have
length at minimum cost, , the only so maximum toad
lution is to resort t lo the construction of
only. and stage constriction of roads. Hence the best low cost roads
cheapest materials have to be made in ut il is at ion of locally available and the
(iii) Base and surface courses consisted of Two layers of broken St road construction. In this Tespect there
ones Scope for the use of soil stabilization and other lo is pood
broken stones of smaller sizes to compacted over the foundati
on we several techniques w co st pavement materiale There are
compacted thickness of 10 and 5 cm of soil stabilization which have been explained in
before laying the Wearing book. The choice of the a later chapter of the
respectively and the top surface was co method of stabilization depends on severa
cm thick with a cross slop soil type, availability of l factors such as the
given a cross slope of | in 36. e of 1 ings stabilizers, climatic conditions, the compo
nent of pavement
which is being constructed and the traffic.
(iv) The total thickness of pavement The total thickness
construction was kept uniform from of construct 2.2 HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA
varied from about 35 cm at the ci
edge to centre to a minimum value of g
to about 41 cm at the centre.
f only 25 cm. s
2.2.1 Roads in Ancient India

The excavations of Mohenjo-daro and Harappa have revealed the existence

2.1.7 Further Developments
Macadam's method of construction gained
recognition as a scientific method 0
construction and hence was adopted by various
countries with slight modifications. One’
of the most popular methods whic!
even now prevalent in many countries is the
er
known after Macadam's technique. In this method
and surface course, if any, are bound by the stone
¢ the name. WBM roads are in use in India bothas
of ro
India as early as 25 to 35 centuries B.C. Old records reveal that in early periods the ads in
were considered indispensable for administrative and military purposes. ro ads
Th e
| Scriptures refer to the existence of roads during the Aryan period in the founh ceanntcient
} B.C. Kautilya the first prime minister of Emperor Chandra Gupta Maurya, laid down y ur
rules in the literary piece titled ‘Arthasastra’. Rules have been mentioned about the
regulating the depth of roads for various purposes and for different kinds of traffic.
Mention has been made regarding the punishment for obstructing roads. In the beginning
} of fifth century A.D, emperor Ashoka had improved the roads and the facilities for the
travellers.

2.2.2 Roads in Mughal Period

During the Pathan and Mughal periods, the roads of India were greatly improved.
Some of the highways either built or maintained by Mughals received great appreciation
from the foreign visitors who visited India during that periods. Roads were built running
from North-West to the Eastern areas through the Gangetic plains, linking also the coastal
and central parts.

2.2.3 Roads in Nineteenth Century

At the beginning of British rule, the conditions of roads deteriorated. The economic
and political shifts caused damage to a great extent in the maintenance of the road
transportation. The fall of Mughal empire led therefore to the scant attention to the
communication, Prior to the introduction of railways, a number of trunk roads were
= metalled and bridges were provided. this was mainly done on the remains of old roads
The next development wa
s the penetr at a
I9Pes of surface dressing methods using bie gn ituminous macadam 4 other which existed, under the supervision of the British Military Engineers. In fact these roads
Superior bituminous mix ing bituminous materials. For betterroadsperfanor connected important military and business centres.
es like the bi ituminous mane®
carpet an id bituminous concrete Were
developed in a scientific 8°
way,
 16 HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNI
NG
Military maintenance was not quite adequate and in 1865 Lo, . HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT
was Governor-General formed the Public Works Department in fon e) Tess Hee is
form that exists today. ‘The construction of the Grand Trunk Road was unde, the same Indian Roads Congress
new department. Immediately: with the development of railways, mer et” OY this At the instance of central goverment i. i ji
Government was shifted from road development except for Providing beter visi a
the railway was gaining the privileges.
Roads Congress (IRC) was formed in 1934. This,ana ben oe a Indian
recommendations made by the Jayakar Committee. The Indian Roads Cor
instituted to provide a forum for regular p o l i it i sp p
2.2.4 Jayakar Committee and the Recommendations bee ‘gular pooling of experience and ideas on all ematttiers
After the first World War, motor vehicles using the roads increased standard specifications and to provide a Platform for the expression of profes
i: sional
a better road network which can carry both bullock cart traffi opinion on matters relating to road engineering including such questions as those of
existing roads when not capable to withstand the
c an d Fi te p eg organisation and administration. The IRC has played important role in the formulation of
mixed traffic conditions. A resoluti ; the three 20-year road development plans in India. Now the Indian Roads Congress has
was passed by both Chambers of the Indian Legislat
ure 1927 for the appointment of become an active body of national importance controlling specifications, standardisation
committee to examine and report on the question of road develo
pment in India. ik and recommendations on materials, design and construction of roads and bridges. The
response to the resolution, Indian Road Development
committee was appointed by the IRC publishes journals, research publications, standards specifications guidelines and
government with M.R, Jayakar as Chairman, in 1927.
other special publications on various aspect of Highway Engineering. The technical
The Jayakar Committee submitted its report activities of the IRC are mainly carried out by the Highway research Board and several
by the year 1928, The most i
recommendations made by the committee are : 7 committees and subcommittees consisting of experts in each subject.
aaa” close collaboration with Roads Wing of the Ministry of Surface Transport, Government
The IRC works in
(i) The road development in the country shou
ld be considered as a national interest of India.
this has become beyond the capacity of prov as
incial governments and local bodies.
Economic depression during the thirties of this century delayed the road development
(ii) An extra tax should be levied on Petrol fr
development fund called Central Road Fund.
om the road users to devel programmes. During this period the share ftom the Central Road Fund was almost the
sea only source for highway financing. During the second world war intensive efforts were
(iii) A semi-official technical body should be formed made to develop the road net work essential required for strategic considerations. These
variou
to po ol te ch ni ca l kn ow how from projects were substantially supported by defence services funds.
e s parts of the country and to act as an adv
isory sory bod: body on variicous aspects of
Affer the second world war, there was a revolution in respect of automobiles using the
roads in our country and a large number of military vehicles started plying on the rvads.
(iv) Aworkresearch organisa4tion should be institute
and to.be available for consultations. d to cai out research and devel Thus the road development could not cope up with rapid increase in road vehicles end so
” sei an the existing roads started deteriorating fast. The need for proper highway plannit g was
Most of the recommene ndndaetions of the Ja yakar Committi ee were urgently felt by this time by the authorities.
government, and the major items were implem accepted by the
ented subsequently. The Central "Road
Fund was formed by the year 1929, the semi-offic Motor Vehicle Act
aadose C ‘OngressS was formed ini 1934 and the
Ro
ia l te ch ni ca l bo dy called the Indian
Central Road Research Institit ute was started In 1939 the Motor Vehicles Act was brought into effect by Government of India to
regulate the road traffic in the form of traffic laws, ordinances and regulations. The three
Central Road Fund phases primarily covered are contro! of the driver, vehicle ownership and vehicle
opera tion on roads and in traffi c stream . The Motor Vehic le Act has been appe nded with
several ordinances subsequently. The Motor Vehicles Act has been revised in the year
1988.

2.2.5 Nagpur Road Conference in

: 5 2 ed
the Chief Engine er s of all the sta tes an d pr ov in ce s wa s co nv en t
a at Na gp ur , at ini tia tiv e of t J a a Ro ad s G o n e e
1983 mae co ve ime nt of In di z
ve lo pm en t pl an for the co un tr y as a whol le. This is isa
i road de “a
0 the various states based on ora development in India, as it wa s the fir st o e r e p e
pit as The
a c t u a l p e t r o l aes
gramme in a planned ma nn er . In this t
maintained , Pl an , all ro ad s m e st a
by the Accountant General of Caml fee the Central Road Fund are inca! oe ety Uinown as the Nagpur Road
de ve lo pm en t pe oe ra rs ee OF th e ke el e p
neapcas ee ‘an d a tw en ty ye ar pe
the tar get ro ad len gth aim ed at wa s
A At the en d of thi s pl an
a iP i s t a
square km area of the country,
 1s HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING

During the first and second five-year plan periods (1951-56 and 1956. HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA
development programme also was systematic and hence the Nagpur plan he roag 19
road length was achieved about two years ahead, in 1961. But even as e; Le f total Highway Research Board
meeting of the Chief Engineers of the central and state Governments wae aS 1957 The Highway Research Board of the Indian Roads Congress was set up in 1973 with a
consider the future road development programme. A committee was appointedconvened, to view to give proper direction and guidance to road research activities in India. The board
the Second Twenty-year Road Development plan starting from the year 196]
to pr repare
is expected to act as a national body for co-ordination and Promotion of highway
Central Road Research Institute , research. The Highway Research Board (HRB) has recommended suitable financial
allocation of research by central and state governments and has chosen high priority
In the year 1950 the Central Road Research Insti red research schemes for being taken up first.
for research in various aspect of highwa
; y enginee rin; . It ma y be ind i cat e at New Delhi The objective of IRC Highway Research Board are :
recommendations of akar
Jay tee
Commit report was to set un a cent 4 that one Of the: ~
research and dissemination of information. 1 organisation for (i) To ascertain the nature and extent of research required.
The CRRI isis one of the
the natna ional laboratories of the Council of Scieien
nttif
ii : (ii) To correlate research information from various organisations in India and abroad
Research; the institute is mainly engaged in applied research and offers
ea
with a view to exchange publications and information on roads.
fo state governments and the industries on various problems co Industria
ncerning roads, nleal advice (iii) To co-ordinate and conduct correlation services.
National Highway Act
a (iv) To collect and disseminate results on research
tn 1956 the National Highway Act was passed. The main features
of the act are (v) To channelise consultative services
(i) the responsibility of develo pment and maini te
nance of tl i i (N H)
‘There are three technical committees of the HRB for (i) identification, monitoringand
be provisionally taken by the central govern
ment, montonal es) research application (ii) road research evaluation and dissemination and (iii) bridge
(ii) the central governmu ent to be em po
MB research, evaluation and dissemination.
wered to declare i
omit any of the existing national h
ighways from the list ner Me 2.2.7 National Transport Policy Committee
k Nt
2.2.6 Second Twenty Year R
oad Development Plan 1961 The Government of India appointed the National Transport Policy Committee (NTPC)
-81 in the year 1978 to prepare a comprehensive national transport policy for the country for
the next decade or so, keeping in view the objectives and priorities set out in the five year
plans, The NTPC report was made available in the year 1980 and many of the major
recommendations of this report have been accepted by the Government of India. Some of
the important recommendations of the NTPC report relate to the liberalisation of the
transport sector, inclusion of transport in the priority sector, optimal in-er-modal mix
between railway and road transport based on resource-cost consideration and energy
conservation. A number of suggestions were made on the road development, these
include the need to take into account the requirements of roads in rural, hilly and tribal
areas in the next perspective road development plans, strengthening of National Highway
system, increase in funds for the maintenance of roads and to connect all the villages with
all-weather low-cost roads within next twenty years. Separate recommendations were
also made for various factors connected with the development and growth of road
» te road development i . transport by the year 2001.
pace. The thetotal lengt pment in India continued at a steady
lakhs km, oemeee of all categorie:
than the 1981 targ ‘ being 34.8km 2.2.8 Third Twenty Year Road Development Plan 1981-2001
ich ig hil
there was an initedae eae Twenty Year Rod ‘The Thir d Twe nty Year Roa d Dev elo pme nt plan 1981 -200 1 was prep ared by the Road
country by then, How ee ‘clo
ie pmen
san t area,
© Prepare the third ton Plan1961
hh-81. Ee
Thus
Wing of the Mini stry of Ship ping and Tran spor t with the acti ve co-o pera tion from a
1974-78,
yee onflemerannual
se plas 1978-80 and the 8¢ in planning pojiej, .
sixth mi"s Policies during the fifth plan period r number of orga nisa tion s and expe rts in the field of Hig
45th
hwa
Annu
y
al
Engi
Sess
neer
ion
ing
and
and
the
Year 1980-85, the preparation of Transportation. This document was rele ased duri ng the
The Third Twenty Year Road the Golden Jubilee celebrations of the Indian Road Cong ress in Febr uary 1985 at Luc kno w.
,
ed ‘Lu ckn ow Road Plan’
Prepared by a committe Devel ‘opment Pj, , Therefore this road development, plan for 1981 -200 1 is also call
patt ern envi sage d in vari ous
e of ex prep ared keep ing in view the grow th
Congress and also at the meetinas n sen 3ae ePPr Phy ot the period 1981-2 This plan has been
MB Of the Chief Engine the Council ofthe Indian001 Roawdsas
ers of the Country in the year
1984.
 points which were given » ggdie
ovement of teansport
ation facilities jn v
ation oF envitonmi illes, Fale 24 Gro of w
Rast Lenyth, Wevenue
enay d h
al nis and Exper: eon Be 0 the Comatr y
Total toad| t
sing the total road length ¢ ; ‘ i \
‘ ar 1981 10 27.02,000 km by gi i
‘ ity thom 46 ka per 100 sq, km in
ys h 200]. As the development of National Hie | 1960-61 |
st two twenty year road development lai | 1965-66 |
set the target Tength of NH to be completed by ihe fasion
. 1977-78
2.2.9 Review of Highway Development in India after Independence
1980-81

ed independence on 15th August 1947, the total road len, ; 23 NECESSITY OF HIGHWAY PLANNING
.226 km with the density of road length working out to about |
km area, out of this the length of surfaced roads was only about 36,8 In the present era planning is considered as a pre-requisite before anemptme any
* ten the pace of road development inthe country has improved considesoft development programme. This is particularly true for any engineering work, = plasning
is the basic requirement for any new project or an expansion programme. Thus hichenry
| road length in the country increased from 3,97,600
2.700 km by the year 1980-81.
km it planning is also a basic need for highway development. Particularly planning is of seat
in the year 1950. importance when the funds available are limited whereas the total requirement is smuch
higher. This is actually the problem in all developing countries like India as the best
There has also been a tremendous transportati dig isation of available funds has to be made in a systemandati cd way.
planne
in the umber of road vehicles and ceasldeable
onre pte e e theposed aa see ee
ale in trightand, eas ‘The objects of highway planning are briefly given below =
The total number of motor
Y 2 lakhs to over 44 (i) To plan a road net work for efficient and safe traffic operation, but at minimum
Gena waffic on roads increased from abit i t cost. Here the costs of construction, maintenance and renewal of pavement layers
add acme te = the passenger eS ae a bi and the vehicle operation costs are to be given due consideration.
traffic from about 23 to over 315 bi
ary elcario een thiry years. (ii) To arrive at the road system and the lengths of different categories of roads which
Obviously the above growth in the roa
nies spat growth in the National income and the could provide maximum utility and could be constructed within the available
"= increase in agricultural and industria population and resources during the plan period under consideration.
l production. The annual revenue
‘axati road transport sector
on on ‘
Tors during the sbove thingy year pe from about Rs. 61 crores to Rs. (iii) To fix up date wise priorities for development of each road link based on utility as
the main criterion for phasing the road development programme.
(iv) To plan for future requirements and improvements of roads in view of anticipated
developments.
(v) To work out financing
system.
evelopment and main
given in this table. fp
Seth be 2.4 CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
's being spent on development “a
2.4.1 Types of Roads
of roads are classified into two categories, depending on whether
‘The different types
of the year :
they can be used during different seasons
(i) All-weather roads and
(ii) Fair-weather roa ds. All wea the r roa ds are tho se whi ch are neg oti abl e dur ing all
weather, except at major riv er cro ssi ng whe re int err upt ion to traf fic is per mis sib le
te
n
23
CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
n s t r u c t e d b y t h e C e n t r e a n d
N a t i o n a l T r a i l s s h o u l d b e c o
a g r e e d t h a t a fi rs t s t e p t r a f f i c c o n d i t i o n s . It w a s
it was c o n v e r t e d i n t o r o a d s to su it t h e
r t h e se s h o u l d b e t h e e n t i r e r o a d
that latte d b e t h e f r a m e o n w h i c h
specified that al highways shoul
nation
g h w a y s m a y n o t n e c e s s a r i l y b e o f s a m e
n s h o u l d b e b a s e d a n d th at t h e s e h i a
communica t i o ' n u n i n t e r r u p t e d r o a d c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h r o u g h o u t I n d i
i o n , t t h e y m u s t g i v e a
s p e c i f i c a t b u
t h e entire road network.
and s h o u l d c o n n e c t
th e r e s p e c t i v e n u m b e r s : T h e h i g h w a y
t h e r a t i o n a l h i g h w a y s ar e a s s i g n e d f u r c a t i o n o f th is
(ii) unpaved roads, ifi th = Al l N H - 1 , w h e r e a s 4 b i
WBM laye r. s
Thu pr e be
mt Provided with a hard Pavement co) e l h i - A m b a l a - A m r i t s a r is d e n o t e d as
is d e n o t e d N H - I - A . T h e h i g h w a y
connect i n g , D
y o n d J a l a n d a r to S r i n a g a r a n d U r i N H - 3 . A m a p
gravel roads may be called hig h w a y b e a m is N H - 4 9 a n d ‘ B o m b a y - A g r a r o a d is
Based on the type of : pa vern
ent suri faciing 3 providVied;aedthe r
npaved eal ia
aeneeting Madur i a n d R a m e s w a r
y s is g i v e n in P l a t e [-
(i) surface roads, which are provided with a
oad types are diivvidideded as :
3 } Showing National Highwa at e, c o n n e c t i n g u p w i t h t h e n a t i o n a l
b i t u m i n s ( S H ) a r e a r t e r i a l r o a d s o f a st a n d
and o u s or cement concrete surfacin, ;
3 (ii) State Highway d i s t r i c t h e a d q u a r t e r s a n d i m p o r t a n t ci ti es w i t h i n t h e s t a t e
highways of adjac e n t s t a t , d i s t r i c t r o a d s .
(ii) m unasutro
fanced Gro a r t e r i e s fo r tr af fi c to a n d f r o m
had
ese which ; are notot provided with bitumi
no us 3 wie ing as the main m m e r c e by r o a d s w i t h i n a st at e or
sues Is provided with bituminous surfacing are
ar e c o n s i d e r e d as m a i n a r t e r i e s of c o s o m e
aleu ealed Noch ick toopead E- ‘These highw a y s m a y e v e n c e r r y h e a v i e r tr af fi c t h a n
i c a l un it . In s o m e p l a c e s t h e y
a similar geograph th is wi ll n o t al te r th ei r d e s i g n a t i o n or f u n c t i o n . T h e N H a n d
g h w a y s b u t n s .
2.4.2, Methods of Classification of Roads of the nati o n a l h i
s p e e d a n d g e o m e t r i c d e s i g n s p e c i f i c a t i o
SH have the same d e s i g n s e r v i n g a r e a s
) ar e i m p o r t a n t r o a d s w i t h i n a di st ri ct
The roads are generally classified on the following basis : (iii) Ma j o r D i s t r i c t R o a d s ( M D R e r or w i t h th e m a i n
k e t s a n d c o n n e c t i n g t h o s e w i t h e a c h o t h
of p r o d u c t i o n a n d m a r n d g e o m e t r i c d e s i g n s p e c i f i c a t i o n s
(a) Traffic volume of a di st ri ct . T h e M D R h a s l o w e r s p e e d a
highw a y s
(b) Load transported or tonnage than NH/SH. a s of p r o d u c t i o n a n d
O D R ) ar e r o a d s s e r v i n g ru ra l a r e
Location and function (iv) Other District Roads ( c e n t r e s , t a l u k h e a d q u a r t e r s , b l o c k d e v e l o p m e n t
(c) m a r k e t
providing them with outlet to ds. These are of lower design specifications than MDR.
dee aioranl mer e se traf fic vol ume or ton nag e hav e bee n arbi trar ily fixe d by hea d q u a r t e r s or o t h e r m a i n r o a
o n n e c t i n g v i l l a g e s or g r o u p s of v i l l a g e s w i t h e a c h
t n y not be a common agreement regarding the limits for each (v) Village Roads ( V R ) ar e r o a d s c
Based on the traf fic vol ume , the roa ds are clas sifi ed as heav y, d of a h i g h e r c a t e g o r y .
of classification group. each clas s other to the neares t r o a
medium and ligh t traf fic roa ds. The se ter ms are rela tive and so the limi ts und er It was specified th at t h e s e v i l l a g e r o a d s s h o u l d be in e s s e n c e f a r m t r a c k s , b u t it w a s
icl es per day etc. Lik ewi se the c e of l e a v i n g s u c h t r a c k s to d e v e l o p a n d m a i n t a i n by
should be clearly as veh
defined and expressed desired that th e p r e v a l e n t p r a c t i
be clas sifi ed as p l a n fo r a d e s i g n e d a n d r e g u l a t e d s y s t e m .
classification based on loa d or ton nag e is also rela tive and the roa ds may themselves should be replaced by a
and ressed as tonnes per day.
the limi ts may be exp by th e Na gp ur Ro ad Co nf er en ce re ga rd in g th e ec on om ic s
class I, Il etc. or class A, B etc. A gene ra l no te wa s as si gn ed
be so co ns tr uc te d th at
a n d f u n c t i o n s h o u l d t h e r e f o r e be a m o r e
of road construction that all roads of whatev er ty pe or cl as s, sh ou ld
s i f i c a t i o n b a s e d on l o c a t i o n ars will be minimum. The
The clas t h e y m a y be d e f i n e d - c l e a r l y . T h e N a g p u r R o a d
maintenance and capital costs over a period of 20 ye
f i c a t i o n fo r a c o u n t r y as o w i n g fi ve gh wa ys wa s de ci de d to be
acceptable class i
t i o n a n d f u n c t i o n in to f o l l li ty of co ns tr uc ti on an d ma in te na nc e of na ti on al hi
in I n d i a b a s e d o n l o c a resp on si bi
th at “C en tr e sh ou ld se le ct th e na ti on al hi ghways
Plan classified the r o a d s
e c t i o n 2 . 4 . 3 . ‘with the central government; it was stated maintenance".
b e d in s an d
categories and descri and trails, ac co rd pr io ri ti es an d pa y fo r all co ns tr uc ti on

a l H i g h w a y s ( N H ) Plan,
(i) Nation 2.44 Modified Classification of Road System by Third Road Development

a t e H i g h w a y s ( S H ) 1981-2001
(ii) St
int o th re e cl as se s, for the pu rp os e of
) Major Di s t r i c t R o a d s ( M D R ) ‘The roads in the country are now classified king administrative jurisdictions and
( O D R ) a n d transpor t pl an ni ng , fu nc ti on al id en ti fi ca ti on , ea rm ar
R o a d s
(i v ) O t h e r D i s t r i c t
assi gn in g pr io ri ti es on a ro ad net wo rk viz .;
o a d s ( V R )
(v) Vill a g e R
o a d P l a n (i) Primary system
a gp u r R
2 . 4 . 3 C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f R o a d s b y N
r u n n i n g t h r o u g h t h e l e n g t h a n d (ii) Secondary system and
m a i n h i g h w a y s
(i) N a t i o n a l H i g h w a y s ( N H ) a r e
; r e i g n h i g h w a": , c a p i t a l s o f l a r g e s t a t e s
f o r
(iii) Tertiary system or rural roads.
c o n n e c t i n g m a j o r r t s , f o
o r s t r a t e g i c m o v e m e n t s
br e a d t h o f I n d i a ,
i n g a r ao a r
d s p r e q u i a f
l a n d t o u r i s t c e n t r e s i no e
c l u d
larg e i n d u s t r i a
i . t e f e n c e o f I n d i a .
 HIGHWAY DEVELO
PMENT AND PLAN
. Ny I
P%rimarmy osoysmtemm rconsists oftwo category NG
es

]
(o) National Highways ROAD PATTERNS
(NH) sid
Expressways
Standards and are meant as y are a separate cla: ss of hy i Radial or star and grid pattern
t h i
r o
essWaYS are to be Provide ugh ries pe With ‘superi Hexagonal pattern
d with divige 8, YET hi
peng whee hero
Separations at cro
ss roads and fencing,
Ve hicles. These

a itl Cn
Ex; ‘ hig he:

The Secondary s
ystem Consists o
f two ihn
(a) State Hi ighways (SH) fii Me cemraay
Sussie'ss
and nen
(b) Major District Ro ees
ads (MDR)
The Tertiary sys
tem are rural To
a ds and these Consists
(a) Other District Ro of two cat Fe
ad (ODR}
(b) Village Roads (
VR)
The definiti
classi fication of
roads by Nee
mere in Art,
2.43
2.4.5. Classificati
on of Urban Road
s Cera, Bussiness
‘AREA O@ FOCAL PoIMT

O Ci m i
SS naoiat oss

e
length of urban

ae
roads are not includ
Development Plan 1981- ed in
2001.
The urban roads, other than expres
sways, are classified as :

she
(i) Arterial roads
(©) Radial or star and circular pattern
(ii) Sub-arterial roads
(iii) Collector streets and
(vv)) Local Local streetstre ts iy fir t e a g a n i : - a
5 o s a a e a s e J -
/~ —
sub-a r t e r i a l s ar e st re et s p r i m
Arterials and a t h e e e a \
d
Seavi p e i a l s o e h a v eto a ar l
te o
riw e
al r s le
r ve
e el o'
n n p e a t e a l an d di st ri S
oie pee \
d e ac ce ss to pr op er ty .
lo ca l streets w h i c h p r o v i
po d i a n i l e n

2.5 ROA D PATTERNS

%:

i follows :
= Ny fond
various road patterns may be chelsea (@) radial or star and grid pattern
tiesRectangular or block
bloc’ pattern Fig. 25 Road Patterns (Contd)
(a) ny and block pattern
(b) Radial a n d circular
eee atts
Radial or s c a r
(c)
 LMT MENT AND
PLANNING
i

PLANNING SURVEYS.
7
rinThee concept of star and gird patterns has been explamed below and illustrated
in

1 MoR/o08
mie MOR/SM
N1ae2)d gain
Fig. 2.6 Concept of Star and Gird Pattern
Let us assume that 'X' and "Y' represent the villages and towns; 'Z’ represent
the capeal
towns of cities or state capitals Y,, Y2, Y3 etc. are therefore acting as focal pomts for
connecting Xj, Xz, X; etc., the villages, Similarly, Z,, Z3, 25 ete. are focal points for
connecting Y), Y, Y3 ete., the capital towns or cities or state capitals. Thus star and grid
patter is formed between points X,, Xz, X; etc. Similarly a bigger star and grid pattern
is formed with Y,, Yz, Y3 etc. and Z,, Z>, Z; etc. as focal points, the whole area can thus
be covered on an expanding scale. Such a network therefore, provides mter-
communication facilities to each of the villages, towns, district headquarters, state capitals ete.

2.6 PLANNING SURVEYS

Legend : City centre ~ encircled dot,
s e
Neighbourhood centers - «, Representa c t o r c e n t ers - Highway planning phase includes
tion of a “ imum Travel” city (i) Assessment of road length requirement for an area (it may be a district, state of the
(Assume d population of 2 mill
ion)
whole country)
Fig. 2.5 () Road Patterns (ii) Preparation of master plan showing the phasing of plan in annual and or five year
Each of these pattems have their advantages and limitations. Ther
of otEther geometric pattere ns also. The choi
. ce of the
e can be a nu mb er _ a
locality, a the layout of different towns, atten very much depend: ‘Thus for assessing the road length requirement, field surveys are to be carried out to
tht
the choice of the planning engineer.
5 villages, ges, in
ir dustrifial and prod Sonera real : collect the data required for determiningthe length of the road system. The field surveys
a Ra i thus required for collecting the factual data may be called as planning surveys & ver
The rectangular or the block pattern has been finding surveys. The planning based on the factual data may be considered scientific
adopted in the city roads of Chandigarh. sound.
But from traffic operation point this is not cons
idered convenient. An example of radial for plannin g best iapad
and circular pattern is the road net work of Conn The factual studies point to an intelligent approach
aught Place in New Delhi. The Nagpur if the highway program me is to be protecte d from
road plan formulae were Prepared assuming Star should be carried out
and Grid, pattern,
short sighted policies.
 28 HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING
; th e d e t a i l s s h o w n in Fj ‘
s i s t of t h e f o l l o w i n g s t u d i e s
The planning surveys con R a e a n e r
ig. 2, 7
PREPARATION OF PLANS a
(a) Economic studies
(b) Financial studies (i) Sources of income and estimated revenue from taxati ion on road transport
(ii) Living standards
(c) Traffic or road use studies
(d) Engineering studies (iii) Resources at local level, toll taxes, vehicle registration and fines,
PLANNING SURVEYS (iv) Future trends in financial aspects.

Ezonomic d ch i i
Population, , its distribution Hon anof anPaes NMS Rd Ua
studies population growth; Listing rl Trend of [All the details of the existing traffic, their volume and pattern of flow should be known
development, their future trends-classificati ral and ind before any improvement could be planned. Traffic surveys should be carried out in the
e ot
and
of these details; other activities viz. income per tsis
} whole area and on selected routes and locations in order to collect the following
particulars :
banking, post office etc.
(i) Traffic volume in vehicles per day, annual average daily traffic, peak and design
Financial DataCollected Source of income, Revenue from taxation on hourly traffic volume.
Studies Must Confirm To transport. Living standard, future trends-details
vehicle registration, Court fees and Local taxes ete, (ii) Origin and destination studies
Traffic volume, traffic flow patterns- O and D (iii) Traffic flow patterns
Mass transportation facilities, Accidents - thei f (iv) Mass transportation facilities
studies trends; Growth of vehicular traffic, passenger tripe
good movements,
(v) Accidents, their cost analysis and causes
> (vi) Future trend and growth in traffic volume and goods traffic; trend in traffic pattern
Engineering Road location and and alig
alignnmmentent stustudies, Classifici
studies ‘Types of roads in use; Maintenance problems - | (vii) Growth of passensen ger
ger trips trips and the trend in the choice of f modmodes.
Soil and:
topography studies; Road life studies. Find | (d) Engineering Studies
Fig. 2.7 Details of Planning Surveys i All details of the topography, soil and other problems such as drainage, construc-ion
;
(a) Economic Studies and maintenance problems should be investigated before a scientific plan or programme is
suggested. The studies include :
ted ae useful in estimating the economics involved | (i) Topographic surveys
. Hence it is desirable to find the service given Gi) Soil surveys
i (iii) Location and classification of existing roads
letails to be collected include the following | + (iv) Estimation of possible developments in all aspects due to the proposed highway
()) Population and its distribu
classified in groups. tion in each village, town or other locality with the a Gevelopeneat
(¥) Road life studies
(ii) Trend of population growth, (vi) Traffic-studies-Origin and Destination studies
@) Agricultural and industri
al Products and their li (vii) Special problems in drainage, construction and maintenance of roads.
sting in classifi
(iv) Industrial and agricu
l tural development and f ‘Thus all the above studies for collec tin g the fac tua l dat a for hi gh wa y pla nni ng are
(v) Existing facilities with
utu ae known as fact finding surveys. Th e det ail s col lec ted are tab ula ted and plo tte d on the
regard to
communication, recre
e en ation and education ete- maps of the area under planning,
(vi) Per capita income,
(b) Financial Studies 2.7 PREPARATION OF PLANS
te an d ot he r de ta il s of th e ro ad de ve lo pm en t pr og ra mm e,
The financial studies are 5 Be fo re fi na li si ng th e al ig nm et int
. F off d in th e fo rm
income and the manner in sential to study the vari pects like sources OF th e in fo rm at io n co ll ec te d du ri ng th e fa ct fi nd in g su rv ey s sh ou ld be pr es en te
7 lich ious financial
pr sh ow in g th e va ri ou s de ta il s of th e ar ea as
gs ar e re pa re d
a aaa ‘ind forthe project may be mabil ied ‘the details of plans. Usuall y fo ur dr aw in
listed below.
 30 HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING

PLAN I General area plan showing almost all existing details yj PREPARATION OF MASTER PLAN AND ITS PHASING u
network and drainage structure, rivers, - 12. tong
existing road
S Pee wes with the population;
Doe
m
rial
a
comme, ‘anals, 1;l
ji
s ,nal lah e If some target of road length has been fixed for the country on the basis of
agricultural activities are also shown in this map, ndustig) 2M opulation and production or both, the same may be ten as" guide for decking the
PLAN IL Thdeisecieplsoanvicsincludesmale the ditail stribution elof population groups in ag Cordan tojengtathsl we th ot
lengre f a s e h e i l i p a P o l a o t a
3 by the
pur road plan formulae for the period 1943-6and
y
i categories made in the appropriate plan. second 20-year road development plan for the period 1961-81, as mentioned in res 25
PLAN IIL This plan shows the locations of places with their res; are and 2.2.6 and also as described in Art. 2.10, ‘These plan formulae for finding the road
productivity. WVe quantite, length are based on population and areas div de into different categoBt ries, dependdepeinndingg on
5 development achieved.
PLANIV This plan shows the existing road network with traffic flows
and ‘ The next step is to compare the various alternate proposals of road systems in hand
lines s obtained ftfrom Origin and Destination studies of
and to select the one which may be considered as best under the plan period This is a
received from different sources may also be shown in ae quite diffi cult prob lem as the deci sion has to be a bala nced one, In arriv ing at the best
road syst em out of the alter nate prop osal s, it is desir able to make use of the conc ept of
2.8 INTERPRETATION OF PLANNING SURVEYS ‘saturation system based on U. S. system of highway planning.
‘After deciding the opt imu m roa d len gth for a plan per iod the fina l step is the pha sin g
The various details collected from the plann
planni
ing surveys and it of the road dev elo pme nt plan by fixi ng up the prio riti es for the con str uct ion of diff eren t
plans should be interpreted in a sciet
development programme.
: : Lehnert ed
‘ay before arriving at the fina road links.
Thee data
me
Saturation system
collected could be int ed on the con cep t of
int erpreted and used for the i
following impo In this system the opt imu m roa d len gth is cal cul ate d for area , bas
obtaining maximum util ity per unit len gth of roa d. Hen ce this sys tem is cal led sat ura tio n
(i) a
Tore
arriveHoatuethe
er roa
adenet-work, out of the ¢ several alternate possibil le syst system or maximum util ity sys tem . “The fac tor s whi ch are tak en for obt ain ing the util ity
ems,
per unit length of road are :
(ii) To fix up priority
ity of0 the constrtr uction Projec (a) Population served by the road network
proj ts, so as to phase the road
plan of an area in different periods of time such as
five yee plans and cat (b) Productivity served by the net work
(iii) To assess the actual road use by 4 () Agricultural products
; therefore show areas of congestionion whwhicich h neowed
tudyin
pa rt ie c e
ed immediate relief.
s Thi s da ta (ii) Industrial products
(iv) Based on the traffic type and intensit
‘The : following steps may be: fol low ed to fin d the roa d net wor k hav ing ma xi mu m util ity
Pavement and cross draina es ay bade eftaince of <
eceihs t i n g g
ed eg
usi per unit length by the saturation system.
data and the past eogeriene tructu res , a new str uct ure may be des ign
Step (i) Population units. Since the are a und er con sid era tio n may con sis t of vil lag es
i bas is of the ir eco nom ic a c t i v i t e s foe} and towns with different pop ula tio ns, itis req uir ed to gro up the se into som e con ven ien t
sh i inbeai ais the are as may be obt ain ed on the son abl e val ues of uil ity unit s to eac h ran ge of
neneeonmation may therefore sug ges t the are as of imm edi ate nee d for 1 population ranges and to assign somevillagreaes having population range between 1001 and
populations served. For example, uni t per vil lag e. Sim ila rly the
2000 may be grouped together and be assigned one uti lit y
(vi) a Statistical basis, the
ou pe d in dif fer ent po pu la ti on ra ng es and be as si gn ed
ture t
data obtained in fact fi
rends in development of an inding surveys may be analysed for Ul Various villages and towns may be gr
a r e a i , + Br ow th in pr od uc ti vi ty an d pop u! suitable utility units as given below :
twhuirceh p
in lta
umn generate hiiigher traffic vo
lume,
This information may be usefulin Population less than 500, utility unit = 0.25
501 to 1000, utility unit = 0.50
29 Pl REPARATION OF
MASTER PLAN AND ITS 1001 to 2000, utility unit = 1.00
PHASING
Master plani: 2001 to $0 00 , uti lit y uni t = 2,0 0 etc .
aiblok, Wik dae mal road development plan forthe area under study which maf to wn s and vi i
ll ag es wit hy
lation ared earlier, the nu mb er of
possible net work of ne ies Whole country. Based on the above plans; di Seve d by s e e system is fo un d andd the n co nv er into ) the utility
te d
Proposed. In each proposal the oat improvement of some of the existing roads a a a
lation ran g e s
of un it s b a s e d on p o p u l a t i o n ca n be
u m b e r
Of each locality, the traffic flow: nario" and Productivity (industrial and agricul rs avai y e a c h r o a d . T h u s th e
e d .
to ta l n

Possible changes in futuarerekept a oeraphy and all other details, both existing | obtained fo r e a c h ro ad s y s t e m p r o p o s
32 HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING

es than the yet

the total Productivit
y

Step Utility. The total utility units of each toad system is found b =
population units and productivity units. The total units are divided by the oa h
length of each system to obtain the utility rate per unit length, '
Each road system having different layout and length would show different
utility per unit length. The proposal which gives maximum utility per unit length Plan - P Pian -O
Road Length = 300 km Road Length Ps 400 ken
chosen as the final layout with optimum road length, based on maximum Utility Population units © = 175
Population units = 125
saturation system. = 200 Productivity units = 270
Productivity units
This method is useful not only to choose the best layout from the alternate pro.
but also to phase the road development plan. The only limitation of the system
possible variation in the relative weightages assigned to population and produetiy
possible to give a relatively higher weightage either to the population or to a certain
of products. A sound judgment based on professional skill and experience
helpful in providing balanced weightages for arriving at the optimum road length
best road system with maximum utility per unit length of road. +
Phasing of Road Programme
The road net-work to be constructed and improved in the plan period is decided w
finalising the master plan of the road development project. The plan period maybe
long term, like that of the 20-year road plan or of shorter period like five year plans, Plan - RB
whatever be the plan period, it is necessary to phase the road development p Road Length = 500 km
from financial considerations. In other words, it is necessary to fix up the priorities Population units = 210
Productivity units =
the construction of each link of the road net work development programme to. Productivity units = 315
which link should be taken up first and which oné the next and so on. The phasi Existing roads in the area
also be done for each annual budget year by fixing up the priorities. Proposed roads in the
:
Here again the priority for each road link may be fixed scientifically Fig. 2.8 Example 2.1
maximum utility. The utility per unit length of road based on populati fo r ea ch of th e sy st em s an d in di ca te wh ic h of th e
on and prod Work ou t th e ut il it y pe r un it le ng th
for each road is worked out. Then each link of the net work is listed in the plans yield the ma xi mu m ut il it y ba se d on sa tu ra ti on sy st em ,
(
Priority based on utility per unit length of the
road. ‘Assume ut il it y un it s as gi ve n be lo w >
Example 2.1
(a) Population unit
An imaginary area with existing roads is showinnFig, 2.8. There are four alternate 1001-2000 0.25
Proposals P, Q, R and S with different road length by adding extra road links to the &x!iH
‘roads in the area and the details of the Popula 2001-5000 0.50
tion and prod ucts served are given below!
Pop- Mook ea ‘Number of towns and villages served 5001-10000 1.00
. W i t h p o p u l a t i o n r a > 10000 2.50
tL = 1901-2000 t 2001-5000] 5001-1000 n g e Z
P | 5 ce wa 0] i > 10000 (b) Productivity unit

a
$s 550 240
[248 || i10
> 70 i
1000 tonnes 1.0
 3

Solution
din Table
The problem is solved and values obtained are tabulate: tay HIGHWAY PLANNING IN INDIA
3s
that the plan proposal Q (with total road length of 400 km n) has maxi; imum un y 2.10 HIGHWAY PLANNING IN INDIA
length of road (based on population and productivity), equal to 1.49. lity
optimum road length in this area is 400 km. “145 theres The first attempt for proper planning of the highway development Programme in
India
on a long term basis was made at the Nagpur Conference in 1943, as indicated
Table 2.2 Solution of Example 2,1 in Art
) 2.2.6. After the completion of the Nagpur Road Plan targets, the Second Twenty Year
(Method of arriving at optimum road length based on Saturati + Plan was drawn for the period 1961-1981. The Third Twenty Year Road Development
ion
No.of towns
& vilages served with] stem) ey | Plan for the period 1981-2001 was approved only by the year 1984,
ae
bite
‘ae population Total units
Pe 001 2001- 5001- |> 70000) popu- = } 2.10.1 Nagpur Road Plan or First 20-Year Road Plan
2000 | 5000 | 10000 lation | tivity The Conference of Chief Engineer held at Nagpur in 1943 finslized the first twenty
P 300_| 160 x 0.25} 800.5 |30x1/ 6x25 | 125 | 200 year road development plan for India called Nagpur Plan for the period 1943-63. The
Q 400 | 200 x 0.25| 90x05 |60x 1] 8x 25 | 175 road net-work in the country was classified into five categories viz (i) National
R 500_| 24x 0 0.25 | 110x 0.5] 70x1/10x2.5/ 210 | 315 Highways (ii) State Highways (iii) Major District Roads (iv) Other District Roads and (¥)
s §50_| 248 x 0.25] 112x0.5|73x 1/1225] 221 | 335
Village Roads as, explained in Art. 2.4.3.
Recommendations were made for the geometric standards of roads, bridge
Example 2.2 specifications and highway organizations. Two plan formulae were finalised at the
Nagpur Conference for deciding two categories of road length for the country as a whole
Three new roads A, B and C are to be completed in
a district duri Ing a five year p as well as for individual areas (like district). This was the first attempt for highway
peri
ri od. Wo
Work out the order of priority for phasiny ig the plan planning in India.
programm / maxim
utilityprinciple, from the data given below. Adopt utility fal fi 0 for eeAlct
with population range 2000 to 5000, or for j e s The two plan formulae assumed the Stat and Grid pattern of road net work. Hence
products/100t of industrial products. Assume an r catering for 11000t of i the two formulae are also called Star and Grid Formulae.
y
other data. The total length of the first category or metalled roads for National and State
Road | Length
ne |_No. of village served population Productivity 1000 tonnes | Highways and Major District Roads in km is given by the formula :
<2000[_2000-5000 | > 5000 | Agri ;
A is 10 3 3 eriegturl lodestial Nit+sH+ MDR n= [4+ B-o1ov-et] +D-R en
16 3 I
c | 18 [ 20 10 2 > ur, alkm?
where A = Agricultarea
Solution B = Non-agricultural area, km?
n ran ge 200 1-5 000 .
N = Number of tow ns and vil lag es wit h pop ula :
tio
Tabl 2.3 T = Number of towns and villages with population over 5000.
(Phasing of road development plan)
— | D = Development all owa nce of 15 per cen t of roa d len gth cal cul ate d to be
Length, ltsitseryved by the road Utilitype ei | p r o v i d
for e
a g r d
i c u l t u r a l and Ind ust ral d e v e ldur oingp m
the e
nex t n
20 tyea rs.
a Total utiuni lengt 3
R = Existing length of railway track, km.
unit
a 15
10x0548x1+3x 14 12
x x10
2 + 24 6] 4 6 =
/ 3.107 ] 51]
7 “The total length of second category roads for Oth er Dis tri ct Roa d and Vil lag e Roa ds in
is 16 x0 .5 +3 x1 +1 x2 +1 1x 1+ 0= 24 / 24 /1 2= 20 [ a ]
be 20X05 +10 «1+2%242 14 0.8 x 10= 52) 52/8=289)
0% km is given by the formula :
. 8 Q + 1. 6P + 3 . 2 S ] + D (2)
Therefore order of, priorit ODR + VR (km) = [0.32 V + 0
y is A, C and B
th po pu la ti on 50 0 or le ss
AS es, Vv = Number of villages wi
Ssume the following utility units as per the given guide lines : where vi ll ag es with popu la ti on ra ng e 5 0 1 - 1 0 0 0
Per village served with Population Q = N u m b e r of
< 2000 = 0.5 l a g e s with popu la ti on ra ng e 1 0 0 1 - 2 0 0 0
Per vil lage served witi h populatioi n 2000-50 = 1. p=. N u m b e r of v i l
00 0 s = Number of villages with population rang 2001-5000
Per village served with population > 5000 = 2.0 D = Development a l l o w a n c e o f 1 5 % mucneski ate
Agricultural Products served per 1000t = 1.0
cus en
Industrial products served p
er 1000t 10.0
 6 HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING
From the above WO fonmulag, it may be seen that in addition to the HIGHWAY PLANNING (N INDIA rd
on agricultural and non agr icu ltu ral are as, spe cif ic roa d len gth wer e
o n 1 Table 2.4 Targets of Nagpur Road Plan and Achievement by the year 1961
se of di f f e r e n t p o p u l a t i
2 eR sawcen 2 0 0 1 a n d $ 0 0 0 ) is a l o e
National Highway.
(a) NH 2613 | |
.
that an area of f 16 7 x 16 km? isj provided with ¢ (b) National Trails = 6,680 |
roads are spaced at 16 kms, suc’
or 32 kim of road length, i¢., 32 km road length is available in an agricy| (6 Sovtimen NH Bae
256 km? of 1.0 km per § sq. km area and therefore the term A/8 is used inthe Eq, > Major District Roads a0 145

. Total main roads ‘ 2,00,365

Salient Features of Nagpur Road Plan (metalled
of national highways i 3 niet Diseie Roads LAL
(® The responsibility of construction and maintenance
assigned to the central government. y A tea ia te

(it) It was a 20-year plan intended for the period 1943-63 aiming to provide fon Total $,32,700
two lakh km of surfaced roads and remaining unsurfaced roads, so that en nam
target is reached, the total road length of 5, 32, 700 km with a density of ab ‘xamp!
km of road length per 100 sq. km area would be available in the countryby The following data were collected for planningthe road development progran.me of &
1963. backward district.
(iii) The formulae were based on star and gird pattern of road network. But the (i) Total area be] 9600 km?
irregular pattern of roads and obligatory points not fitting in the geometric andltu
(ii) Agricu ped area
develoral = 3200 km?
were to be given due consideration.
) (iii) Existing railway track length = ‘10S km.
(iv) The first category roads are meant to provide main grids bringing the farthe
st points (iv) Existing length of metalled road = 322 km.
in developed and agricultural area within 8 km of metalled road. The size of
gird of this category of road in agricultural area would be 16 km so that (9) Existing length of unmetalled road = 450 km.
maximum distance from the centre is 8 km and the average distance of the village (vi). Number of towns or villages in different population ranges are as below
from metalled road would be Jess than 3.2 km. In non-agricultural area the size
the gird is of 64 km sides, the farthest distance from the centre
to
roads being 32 km. The length of road of this category is governed bythe met al
percenlaty the.
the agricuitural area and towns or villages with population
Calculate the additional lengths of metalled and unmetalled roads for the road system
based on Nagpur Road Plan formulae for this district.
(+) Th1 e second: category roads are meant
to providide e it internal road system linking :s
villages with fist category roads. The road length of second cate Solution
on the basis ofvillages of different population ra go ry is worked (i) The total length of metalled roads by Nagpur Plan formula is obtsined from
nges, ofpopulation less than 5
(iy An allowance for agricultural and industrial dev equation 2.1 and is equal to:
e l o p m e n t du ri ng the next20
Seal as 15 percent and this allowance was
to be i
ALB ston+st+D-k
ating the road length for both the
Categories of roads.
Here,
ofestimated
first category road. A. = 3200 km?; B = 9600 -3200 = 6400 km?
road lengtho| ;pe
D rc en
= t; R=
1 105
5 km

neigag
N = 40; T = 8

achievement of total road

SH achieved were lesser than the
‘ rs] cih
maetine 8
 HIGHWAY DEV ELOPMENT AND PLANNI
NG

a
= [400 + 200 + 64 + 64] + 15% Of RL - 105
HIGHWAY PLANNING IN INDIA 4”

2 73s + ESTE 728

~ 105 = 732.2 km - ‘ .
ili), National Highways + State Highways + Major District Roads (km)
A.B. C
Additional metalled road needed “ [4-2 +S] + [48K + 24M + 11.2N + 9.6P + 64Q+24R]+D (2.5)
= 732.2 -322=410.2km iv) Nala Highways + State Highways + Major District Roads + Other District Roads
of un me ta ll ed ro ad s by N a g p u r plan formula (km)
(ii) To ta l le ng th May be obtaine
an d is eq ua l to : d f rrom i
equation 2.2 _= /24,
[3A 33,
3B, &}
c ti 2am 11.2N + 9.6P + 12+4R
.8+ 9
0.85 +032T}+D
(0.32V+0.8Q+1.6P+32S]+D 16 "32
(26)
Here,
National Highways + State Highways + Major District Roads + Other District

=
V_ = $90, Q=280, P= 130,S =40, D= 15% Roads + Village Roads i.e., all roads (km)
Unmetalled road length A BOC
- [4-2-4] + [48K
+ 24M+ 11.2N
+ 9.6P + 12.8Q + 5.9R + 1.65 +
= [0.32 x $90
+ 0.8 x 280 + 1.6 x 130 +3.2
x 40}+ 15% road length Ane 0.647 + 0.2V]+D fee)
[188.8 + 224 + 208 + 128] + 15%
of RL.
= Developed and agricultural areas; km?
748.8%
15 _

TD
748.8 ++ SS = 861 km = Semi-developed area, km?

vrPOvZzZZERA
= Undeveloped area, km?
Additional unmetalled roads required
= Number of towns with population over 1,00,000
= 861-450=411km Number of towns with population range 1,00,000-50,000
2.10.2 Second Twenty Year Road Plan (1961-81) = Number of towns with population range 50,000-20,000
‘Number of towns with population range 20,000-10,000
The Nagpur road plan was intended for the period 1943-63, but the target road len

0
was nearly completed earlier in 1961 (as shown in Table 2.4), mainly because of = Number of towns with population range 10,000-5,000
phased development that took place in the country during the first two 5-year pla = Number of towns with population range 5,000-2,000
Hence the next long term plan for the twenty year period commencing from 1961 = Number of towns with population range 2,000-1,000
initiated by the IRC and was finalised by the sub committee and this was approved by
Chief Engineers. The Second Twenty Year Road Development Plan 1961-81 = Number of towns with population range 1,000-500

usr
called Bombay Road Plan. = Number of towns with range below 500
The second road plan envisaged overall road length of 10,57,330 km by the year 198 = Development allowance of 5 percent of road length calculated for
The cost of the plan has been worked out to Rs. 5,200 crores based on 1958 wie ley further development and other unforeseen factors.
for a period of20 years from 1961. jalient features of the Second 20-year Plan (1961-81)
Five different formulae were framed to calculate the lengths of National Highway This plan is considered to be drawn more scientifically in view of development
State Highways, Major District Roads, Other District Roads and Village Roads. needed in under-developed areas, The target of this plan is to provide a total road
length of 32 km per 100 sq. km area whi ch is almo st doub le of that achi eved up to
These five formulae are given below :
the year 1961.
ac e in a de ve lo pe d or ag ri cu lt ur al ar ea wo ul d be
an y pl
serbia “=
Ma x i m u m di st an
6.4 km from a metall
ce
ed
of
ro ad an d 2. 4 km fr om an y ca te go ry of roads.
[ A,B distance from any pllaceace in a semi -d ev el op ed ar ea wo ul d be : 12 .8 km
to ad an d 4. 8 km fr om an y ro ad ; si mi la rl y th e ma xi mu m di stance in
" ta
“Lo 6] *PAK* one
5| p e t a l
Tanraundeveloped area would be 19.2 km from a metalled road and 8.0 km from any
(ii) os ys + State Highways (km)
ilhwa
National sHig
road.
= (A,8 C
20 24 3g | * 48K +24M + 11.2N+1.6P]+D
40
HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING
fh population above 2000 in plains and above 10 ;,
(iv) Every town wit HIGHWAY PLANNING IN INDIA
and
areas and above 500 in hilly areas es be connected by a metalled roag
should ; (vi) Allowance for development of agriculture and industry during the ca
(9) While calculating road length in hilly eos pen allovaree YP to 100 percn fe] Was made in Nagpur plan by allowing 15 percent increase inthe calcaedrod
be made in arriving at the road length. Hil ith altitude above 2300 length of both categories. The allowance for development due to unforeseen factors
be ignored in calculating road length in view of thin population, according to the second plan is only 5 percent.
(vi) Expressways have also been considered in this plan and 1600 km
19 61 -8 1 pl an ha s pr ov id ed 16 00 km of ex pr es sw ay s ou t of th e pr op os ed
included in the pr op os ed ta rg et of ‘N at ional
io na l Hi H igh wa ys . Of Le ng thag p fk ”) Te ,
National Highways.
ns id er ed in de pe nd en t of th e -n ad sy st em Fh e leng ths of vari ous cate gori es of roa ds as per the targe ts of Bom bay Road Pian of
(vii) Length of railway track is co and henge gf 1961-81 and the road lengths achieved by the year 1981 are given in Table 2.5. The
ro ad le ng th . 3
not su bt ra ct ed to ge t th e ngths of NH, SH and MDR achieved by the year 1981 fell short of the Plan targets.
(viii) The development factor of only 5 percent is provided for future development uurther there were considerable deficiencies in geometric design standards, pavement
surfacing and bridging requirements specified in the Plan. The lengths of ODR and VR
unforeseen factors. hieved were however much higher. Therefore the total road length achieved by the year
“1981 was higher than the targeted total length, resulting in a overall road Gensity of 45.7
Comparison of Nagpur Plan & Second 20-year Road Plan or Bombay Road Plan of road length per 100 sq. km area in the country (including unclassified roads) as
inst the targeted density of about 32 km per 100 sq. km area in the Plan.
(i) Nagpur road plan gives two formulae, one is to find the length of first cate,
or metalled roads consisting of National Highways, State Highways’ and Table 2.5 Targets of Bombay Road Plan and Achievements by the Year 1981
District Roads; the second formula is to find the length of second 0 Bombay Plan Road len;
unmetalled roads consisting of other District Roads and Village Roads, Hence Gir of Riad exper tines foxy Tei
not possible to get the road length for each class of the road separately. In National Highways 51,500 31,737
second 20-year plan (1961-81), five different formulae have been given from State Highways. 1,12,650 95.491
the length of each class of road i.e., NH, SH, MDR, ODR and VR, could be Major District Roads 2,41,400 1,53,000
obtained individually. | Other District Roads | 2.89.680 -
fi | Village Roads 3,62,100 =
(ii) The Nagpur road plan divides the area into two parts, viz. agricultural and non-| Total ODR and VR. 6,51,780 9.12.684
agricultural area. In Bombay road plan, the area is divided into three parts. Total or NH, SH. MDR, ODR and VR. 10,57,330 11,92,912
i Unelassified roads such as urban roads - 3,09,785
(1) developed and agricultural area and project roads
@) semibdeveloped areaand [Grand total of all categories 10,57,330 15,02,697
(3) undeveloped and uncultivated area Pe Example 2.4
(iii) The second 20-year plan has a target road length of 32 km per 100 sq. km Calculate the lengths of National and State highways required in a district with a total
which is double the Nagpur plan target.
rea of 7200 km?, developed, semi-developed and undeveloped areas being 30. 45 and
5% of the district. The number of towns with population over 1.0, 0.5-1.0, 0.2-0.5 and
(iv) Nagpur road plan formula does not take into account ~0.2 lakhs are 3, 7, 12 and 20 respectively in the district. Use the formulas :
th e to wn
Population. First category road length is decided based on towns with Very NH = [A/64+B/80+C/96 + 32K +8M]+D
range 2001-5000 and those with population above 5000, s wi th poptl
‘owns with population higher than 5000 together. But thus grouping al INH+SH = [A/20+B/24+C/32 448K #24M+11.2N + 1.6P]+D
number of towns having population va at present there are
rying from few thousands to
Sipenis that such high growth of population in towns wa A = 7200x 0.30 =2160 km?;
divided ed Plan was drawn in 1943, In second 20-y s not antici}
‘ ed into nine different population Ta ea r pl an , to wn s = 7200 x 0.45 = 3240 km?;
‘own or villages to above 1,00,0 nges from less than 500 for os
rm ROD

00 for larger towns. 7200 x 0.25 = 1800 km?;

uv

Vv)
: :
Plan allowed deduction of the length of railways track a = 3;M=7;N=12;
a
ch 'ng the length of first category roads. But it has been reali = 20;D=5% of road length
Bombay Road system should be able to develop independently
fan, the length of, railway track is not deducted.
 PETE ee

+ SMOOFRE HIGHWAY PLANNING fv IntHA B

fried 3240 | 1800 | 59.5 4 8x7]
NH* | "go ' 98
243 x 1S = 287.25 km
Mo Abe S62 eI 1h 2 0 3 8 1 h e y S o o t
4g 3 4 2 4 K 7 HN L 2K I D O L :
+ SH ©
NH 3160 | 32= 40, 1800. 2+ 1.6%201+ 59, OfRL ; =
po 38 8 & {40 [400 +2 33 + 15 0 + 24 0 + 24 0 + B+
28 0 + 12 8) 1 2 K )
¥ + 23 .
777.65 < 1.08 = $16.53 km
1671 ae 1754.5 km
SH © $16.53 — 287.25 = $89.28 km
SH = 1754.5 ~ $09.25 © 1245.25 kin
Example2.5
e e d e d in a di st ri ct as ii) NH + SH + MDR (km) =
at
Calcul the e to ta l le ng th s of NH , SH . M D R , O D R an d V R n
second 20-year road development plan or Bombay Road Plan. The data collected pet q O
ALB LC sek. 2aM e 12N + OOP 64g) = 24)
the di st ri ct ar e gi ve n b e l o w : a’ 16° 24
(i) To ta l ar ea = 1 8 , 4 0 0 k m ? Jere. Q = = 300
180,R
l o p e d a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l ar ea = 8 0 0 0 k m ? acaiessnmes
(ii) Deve SH + SH+MDR * Pee SP odes Der wie
(iii), Undeveloped area = 4800 km?
s ar e as o v a be lo w : 6441904244560) + Ma of BE
(iv) Po pu la ti on ce nt re

Bod] ———
200 + 240 + 240 + 280 + 768 + 96+ 0
[200 {1+03500+0
[350
|__750__ ~ 4902 108 = 5147km
hi

[200 sno —| 360

{2180 a] MDR @ .5
= 3392
$147 ~ 1754 .5 km

aaa JA UBC
)NH + SH + MDR + ODR (km) = 6 + 35 + 7g 748K + 24M * HAN
30,000 50,000 ae
e +9.6P + 128Q+4R +088 -G.32T+D
Solaibie Jere S = 750; 1350
380 00
80,| 35
356
00 60
00 0 ,
| 4800
4800 | p5 4 2¢n10+‘ti2928+
B,t rdC + (32K +8MJ+D
:() ~— NHGkm = AaAL*e0 JH + SH + MDR + ODR = | 2516 22 16

Here, A = 8,000k 4,800 :km?

C= m? 9.680 +12.8x150-4 4360 +08x750-+0:32~340) + SMFRE
18,400 - [8,000 + 4,800) = 5,600 km? = [1500 + 525 + 300 + 240 + 240 + 280 + 768 + 1920 + 1449 + 600 + 2p es
W
a

K = 4;M=10;D=5%
NH (km) = [ae . 3600 , So
4800 = 7925 « 108 = 8321.2 km
+32x5+8x10] of RL
+5%
4 "80 * 96 ODR = 8321.2 - $147.0 = 3174.2 km

1125+ 70+ 50 + 160+ 80] 105 = 495 x 105 = 50925 v) NH + SH + MDR + ODR + VR (km) =

an,eancr 2 s a r s e n a t a s - o 6 t - 0 3 ] “D
(ii) NH+SH (km) = [ B [4obo8 eamcs za
5K 620M v1. 2N +160] +D
 ”
gg 5424810
4800, 11.22549.6 x89 5
HIGHWAY PLANNING IN INDIA 45
[soe . a8e
iq
50x36 + 1.6% eerie : (i) Expressways should be constructed alo ng maj or tra ffi c cor rid ors to pro vid e fas t
. 12.8x150+
travel,
240 + 240 + 280 + 768 + 1920 + 2124+ 1200 +294 4) (vii) All the towns and villages with popul: ion over 1500 should be connected by Major
2 at District Roads and the villages w' population I: 00 by Other
1000 to 15 District
sdr
= po70+ a di st an ce of 3.0 km in pla ins an d 5.0 km in
Roads. There should be a road within
ac 10S 2 10642.8 km hilly terrain connecting all villages or groups of villages with population less than
= 10136% 799 end
th e gr ow th of
y = 200 i ) Roads should also be built in less indust ri al iz ed ar ea s to at tr ac t
Here industries.
42 .8 - 83 21 .2 = 23 21 .6 k m
10 ,6
term master plans for road development shoul Id be prepare prepared at various levels,
a
The various road length requfedate #6 fllows
it 2 Long
ee taluk, district, state and national levels. The road, net work should be
NH = 509.25 km; scientifically decided to provide maximum utility.
The existing roa ds sho uld be imp rov ed by rec tif yin g the def ect s in the roa d
SH = 1245.25 km;
geometries; widening of the pav eme nts , imp rov ing the rid ing qua lit y of the
= 3392.50 km; pavement surface and strengthening of the pavement structure to save vehicle
MDR
operation cost and thus to conserve energy.
ODR = 3174.2 km;
There sho uld be imp rov eme nts in env iro nme nta l qua lit y and roa d safe ty.
VR = 2321.6km
jetermination of Road Lengths by Third Road Plan Formulae
2.10.3 Third Twenty Year Road Development Plan 1981-2001 Primary Road System
Policies and Objectives : (i) Expressways of total length 2000 km to be developed for fast travel based on traffic
i uirements.
As mentioned in Art. 2.2.8, the Third Twenty Year Road Development Plan, 191 sa
2001 (also known as Lucknow Road Plan) was finalised and the plan do National Highways are to be based on the concept of 100 km square grids, by
published by the year 1984. The major policies and objectives of this road plan a providing 100 + 100 = 200 km of road length per 100 x 100 = 10000 sq. km area
below: i.e., one km per 50 sq. km area. Therefore the total length of NH in the country or
ina state could be obtained by dividing the total area of the country by 50
(i) The future road development should be based on the revised classification th of NH in the country, km = 32,87,782/50 = 65,756 km,
system consisting of primary, secondary, and tertiary road systems as
mer
Art. 2.4.4, 66,000 km

(ii)
ii) The road net work should be developed so as to preserve the rural s Se dary Sys c:
; econday System Level OSH
villages to develo, Pp en towns with all the essential facilities.
economy withand populat ‘The roads consisting of NH and SH should pass through every town or urban area:
pulation over 500 (based on 1981 census) should be co nne ere are 3364 such towns in the country as defined by 1981 census. Therefore the area
all weather roads bythe end of
this century, Feach of the square grids would be equal to total area divided by the number of towns.
»87,782/3364 = 977.3 sq. km, with sides 977.3 = 31.26 km. Therefore the length
ii Bia - eats in the country should be increased to 82 km pe
for hill arew pain tld Correspondi va r 1 0 0 4 F(NH + SH) will be 2 x 31.21 5 km for each such square gird. Thus the total of
ng lues of planned road densities NH + SH) for 3364 towns in the country = 62.5 x 3364 = 2,10,250 km. The total length
uy s
for attude above 2100 men metres above MSL and 15 km per$4 ENH for the country as determined earlier is 66,000 km. Thus the total length of
SH in
he country = 2,10,250 — 66,000 = 1,44,250 km, or say 1,45,000 km.
The total length of SH required for any State may be determined from the following
#0 relations :
(a) By total area, SH, km = Area of the State, sq. km/25
(b) By total no. of towns and area in the State, SH, km = 62.5 x no. of towns in the
State — area of the State, sq. km/S0.
 “—
HIGHW, AY DEVEL
Git) Length of MDR
,
OPMENT AND PLANNING a7
REF!

1 3 4 0 0 / 5 0 = 1 6 8 k m
(i) Length of NH, km =
i) Length of SH :
(a) By area, SH, k m = 1 3 4 0 0 7 2 5 = 5 3 6 k m
o w n s , S H , k m = 6 2 . 5 » 1 2 — 1 3 4 0 0 / 5 0 = 4 8 2 k m
(b) By area and no. of t k m
H ( h i g h e r of t h e t w o c r i t e r i a ) = 5 3 6
‘ngth {Adopt length of S
droads
eveloi.e..
pmenNH, p l a n s h a o e a n d V R e D i s t r i c t =
t S) (iii) Length of M D R , in t h
= 1 3 4 0 0 / 1 2 . 5 = 1 0 7 2 k m
(a) By area, MDR, km
, m = 9 0 x 1 2 = 1 0 8 0 k m
(b) By no. of towns, MDR k
n g t h of M D R ( h i g h e r of t h e t w o c r i t e r i a ) ~ 1 0 8 0 k m
Pr o v i d e l e y
of ro ad s ma y be a s s u m e d to pr ov id e an ov er al l de ns it
(iv) Total length ofall ca te go ri es ye ar 20 01 .
of road length equal to 82 km per 10 0 sq . km ar ea by th e
NH+SH+MDR+ODR+VR = 13400 x 82/100 = 10988 km

SH+MDR
H+h
LenofgNt = 26 536 + 1080 = 1884 km
+8
Table 2.6 Estimated total road lengths in s Ru ra l ro ad s c o n s i s
of t i
OD R n+gVR = 10988— 1884 = 9104 km
ome states i the | Therefore length of
year 2001, as per third road development plan targets (Primary system of NH = 268 km

g of SH = 536 and MD R = 108 0, tot al len gth = 161 6 km

cota length (NH, SH, MDR, Secondary system consistin
State
‘Tertiary system of Rural Roads con sis tin g of ODR and VR = of len gth = 91 04 km
1, Andhra Pradesh YR) by ie yest 2001, km
2. Assam "85.282 Total road length = 10,988 km
3. Bihar 2,12,032
[4. Gujarat 1,14,886 REFERENCES
a
Haryanal 34,738
5.__
ig Himacn PRedah 61.262 1. Sinha, S., Development of Roads in India, The Indian Concrete Journal, Oct. 1968.
[7 Jammu & Kashmir : 53.840 + 2. Bahadur,J., Basis of Road Planning, Journal, Indian Roads CongressVol, . XII-5, 1948.
8. ion een 3. Srivastava,P. N., Fact Finding Survey and Highway Planning in Uttar Pradesh,
9. Kerala Journal Indian Roads Congress, Vol. XX-3, ‘i 1955-56. zg
de sh 3,41,268 4. Minis 2 - -
10. Madhya Prades! 2.20877 |. Ministry of information & Broadcasting, Our Roads, Modern India Series No. 11
Publications Division, Government of India. 7
Bed 5. ES CA FE ,Rep ort of th e S e m i e a s
bil iza tio n, Ne w
: ; ae em in ar on Lo w Cos t Ro ad s and Soi l Sta
13. Punjab
Be) 6 Mint i
14, Rajast7 T haNandu 2 an
inistry of Tr spsp or t an d Co mm un i t
‘ommunication, Road Developmen Plan for Indi
ES (1961-81), Deptt. of Transport, Government of India. 52
15._Tami
7. Bateman J. H., introduction to Highway Engineering, John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Bruce, A. G., Highway Design and Construction, International Text Book Co.

to wn s of
Collins, HJ, and Hart, C. A. Pr‘i inciple SaRo ad En gi ne er in g, Ed wa rd Am ol d & Co,
an d t h e r ae
e 12
ad

mei district in I ra di a is 13 ,4 00 sq . km
- v i d e d in
Th e Ro na ld Pr es s Co .
in
. Ritt er , LJ , Pa qu et te , R. J. , Hi gh wa y En gi ne er in g,
ide pi lengths of different ca te go ri es of ro ad s 0 be Pr o
1981 census. fe
district b y t h e y e a r 2 0 0 1 -
 L O P M E N T A N D P L A N N I N G
HIGH W A Y D E V E
PROBLEMS
sp or t: Po li cy C o m m i t t e e " Planning. Commission,
_ "Report of the? Na ti on al Tr an Total | Number of towns
Gover n m e n t o f I n d i a , 1 9 8 0 , Pro- | road por
s W i n g , “ R o a d D e v e l o p m e n t P l a n f o r posal | length, | <2000.
Ministry: of Shipping and Transport, Road
o, 1984.
n g r e s s
i
India (191 1- 2 0 0 1 ) " I n d i a n R o a d s C

PROBLEMS

Briefly discus s the his tor ica l de ve lo pm en t of roa d con str uct ion ,

What are the sali ent feat ures of earl y Rom an Roa ds ? How do thes e diff er fro m the -
[Ans. : Proposal S with 1.923 units/km is the best; R
present day road construction ? = 1.857,
T= 1.806, Q = 1.612, P= 1.268]
Compare the construction methods of Telford and Macadam; bring out the points of 18. Four new road links A, B, C and D are to be constructed during a five-year plan
differences. per iod, Suggest the order of priority for phasing the road construction Programme
based on maximum utility approach. Assume utility units of 0.5, 1.0, 2 and 4 for
Briefly explain the Macadam's method of road construction. Why is this method”
the four population ranges and 2, 2 and 5 units per 1000 t of agricultural, raw
+

considered better and more scientific compared to the. previous methods ? a

material and industrial products from the following data :
Discuss briefly with reasons how further improvements to the water bound
Aa

No. of villages served with

macadam road became necessary. Road | Length population range Productivity served, t
Briefly outline the highway development in India. link | km | <S00} SO1- | 1001- | >2000| Agric- Raw | Industrial]
so

1000_| 2000 ultural |_Material_| product

Explain the necessity and objects of highway planning. A 75 30 15 10 8000 3000 1000

jn fes fea
What are the various methods of classifying roads ? Briefly outline the B | 35 | 20 [ 8 6 $000 | 1000 | 1600
classification based on location and function as suggested in the Nagpur Road Plan. c | 4 [sl] 6 5 6000 | 2000 | 3200
D | so | 40 4 3 2 | 3000 | 7000 500
What are the significant recommendations of Jayakar Committee Report ? Mention
71), IN=A (1.453), IV=D(1.21)}
°

how this helped in road development in India? [Ans.: I Priori (1,888 units/
= C ty ),
B (1.7
I =km
. What is the imp ort anc e of Nag pur roa d plan in hig hwa y pla nni ng of our cou ntr y ?
. Explain briefly the modified classification of road system in India as per the Third
‘Twenty Year Road Development Plan, 1981-2001. Explain the plan formulae and the salient features of the plan.
. Discuss the se co nd tw en ty yea r roa d pla n of 196 1-8 1 and its sal ien t fea tur es.
+ Briefly outline the main features of various road patterns commonly in use. Explain
and the sec ond twe nty yea r roa d pla n; dis cus s the
with sketches the star and grid pattern. . Compare the Nagpur road plan 7
What are the various surveys to be carried out before planning a highway system merits of each.
ng th re qu ir ed ba se d on
fora given area? Explain briefly. ee Rea oe .. From the following data for a district, calculate the ro ad le

. bWh
isat are the various plans to be prepared af
ter the planning surveys are carried
Nagpur road plan.
Total area = 6300 km?
2 8 0 km? 008 ei ad
Agri i
cu lt ur al ar ea = = 2800 sexi 100
What are the uses of fact finding Surveys ? H
ow are these used and interpreted ? , , ‘ 00
No. of villages with population ranges < 500, 75 km.
itway tra= ck
ie r
. Explain how the master
Plan is prepared and the road development programme is Lenth of railway
above 5001 are 450, 320, 110, 0-and 10 respectively. mmber of towns and vill
Population range of towns and vill x oar
. Explain why the saturatior m system is considered a rational meth 2001 - 5000 35,
fii nae
s l,road e
netwn
ork e
and for esphastineg th ie road development p o d to decide the — 5001 - 10,000
rogramme. Mlustrate the : 10,001 - 20,000
20,001 - 50,000
. There are five alter ‘Mate proposal 50,001 - 100,001
are given below. J ai
:
S ofroad plans for a backward di"strict. The detailil s > 100,001
Units OF‘ 0.5.1.0, 2, 4 and 8 for ir thethe nich Prop‘ osal is the best assuming, Util 26373 and I category roads ~ 846.4 km}
of agricultural and industrial prod roads * 97
[Ans. Leategory
Population Fanges and 1.0 and 5 per 1000 ee
50 HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNING

23. Work out the lengths of NH, SH and MDR required in a district by second 20.ye
road development plan (1961-81) using the following plan formulas and data ;
Problem 22 : Ba

NH = A/64+B/80+(C/96
+ 32K+8M+D ; @) Chapter 3
NH+SH+MDR
NH+SH = A/20 + B/24+C/32 + 48K + 24M + 11.2N+ 1.6P+D
= 3A/16 +3B/32 + C/16 + 48K + 24M + 11.2N
+ 9.6P + i
Highway Alignment
12.8Q +4R+0.8S+ 0.32T +p | and Surveys
Area of the district = 10,800 km?
Developed and agricultural area = 4100 km?
Undeveloped area = 2300 km? x
[Ans. : NH = 267.8, SH = 618.6, MDR = 1149.9 km] _|

1981-2001 ?
25. Explain how the road lengths of different categories for a state are determined for
3.1 HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
the year 2001 using the Third Road Development Plan concept. q
26. Determine the length of different categories of roads in a state in India by the year ] The position or the layout of the centre line of the highway on the ground is called the
2001, using the Third Road Development formula and the following data : alignment. The horizontal alignment includes the straight path, the horizontal deviations
and curves. Cha nge s in grad ient and verti cal curv es are cove red unde r verti cal alig nmen t
Total area of the state 80,000 sq. km of roads.
i

care full y as impr oper alig nmen t woul d resul t ix

Total no. of towns as per 981 census= 86 A new road should be aligned very
‘one or more of the following disadvantages :
Overall road density aimed at = 82 km per 100 sq. km area
0, R (a) increase in construction cost
[Ans.: Primary/NH = 160 0, Sec ond ary : SH = 320 0, MD R = 774
Tertiary : ODR & VR = 52,485, Total = 65,600 km] (b) increase in maintenance cost
© in cr ea se in ve hi cl e op er at io n co st
. Write short notes on : eet eS
in ac ci de nt rat e. 2
@) in cr ea se
(a) Central road fund
(b) Nagpur road plan
Once the road is aligned and
c o n
an s
d o n of nl y s u c ye ad SE
increase g d
in cost of adjoinin lan considerati ‘ions while finalizing the alignment of anew
Hence the importance of careful
(c) Fact finding surveys
road need not be over emphasised.
(d) Master plan spas
3.1. 1 R e q u i r e m e n t s al s t a t i o n s
(e) Saturation system g n m e n t b e t w e e n t w o te rm in
e m e n t s of a n i d e a l a l i
The ba s i c r e q u i r
(f) Star and grid pattern should be :
(g) Indian Roads Congress (a) short
(h) Jayakar Committee (b) easy
©) safe, and
(d) economical
SI
 HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND SURVEYS

Short: It is desirable to have a short (or shortest) alignmen

t between tWo term HIGHWay A
stations. A. straight alignment would be the shortest, though th LIGNMENT
ere may be 3 (a) Obligator
practical considerations which would cause deviations from the
shortest path, y Points : Th 53
ere ar,
Easy : The alignment should be such that it is €asy highways. These c it
to construct and maintain the ontrol points ‘may be on
with minimum problems. Also the alignment (i) Points through which the align dded wena nei cnn Categories.
should be easy for the operation of Vehicle! ment is to pass, =
with ea sy gradients and curves. 7 (ii) Points through which
the alignment should not pass.
Safi : The alignment should be safe enough (i)
for construction and maintenance fro Obligatory points through
which the road alignment
the view point of stability of natural hill
slopes, embankment and cut slopes and alignment to often deviate from the sh
foundation of embankments. Also it should be safe for the traffic Operatio
ortest or easiest path. beh oo oct
n with category may be bridge site, intermediate town, a mountain
geometric features. pass or saci. cars
When it is necessary to cross hill fang
e. mountains or high
ri
. Economical : The road alignment could be alternatives are to cut a tunnel across the various
considered economical only if the total cost _ or to go round the hills or to ses ‘al
including initial cost, maintenance cost and vehi hill pass is available. The suitability of th iese a seiable
cle operation cost is lowest, All these alternatives depend on ‘many other factors,
factors should be given due consideration befo like the topography and site conditions and cost consid
re working out the economics erations. Figure 3.1 a shows how
alignment. of each | the straight alig
nment AB is deviated along the hill side pass, thus avoiding a tunnel or
The alignment should be such that it would off
heavy cutting.
er T maximum utility by serving

a| reat:
maximum population and products. The utility of a ro ra eacce
a id should be judged from its ut ity
value per unit length of road. (For details refer Art. 2.9) ).

3.1.2 Factors Controlling Alignment

For an alignment to be shortest, it should be straight between
the two terminal stations. q
This is not always possible due to various practical difficulties
such as intermediate
obstructions and topography. A shortest route may have very steep gradients and hence
not easy for vehicle operation. Similarly, there may be construction and main
tenance
problems along a route which may otherwise be short and easy. Roads are often deviated
from the shortest route in order to cater for intermediate places of importance or
obligatory points.
A road which is economical in the initial construction cost, need not necessarily be the
most economical in maintenance or in vehicle operation cost. It may also happen that the.
shortest and easiest route for vehicle operation may work out to be the costliest of the
different alternatives from construction view point. Thus it may be seen that an alignment —
can seldom fulfill all the requirements simultaneously; hence a judicial choice is made”
considering all the factors. ee aa eel
(ou) CONNECTING BY LINE ROAD area
(d) Alignment avoiding an intermediate
The various factors which control the highway alignment in general may be listed as; (c) Alignment to co nn ec t in te rm ed ia te to wn
trol li ng A l i g n m e n t of R o a d s
(a) Obligatory points s st ra ig ht
oe er e th e ri ve r bha
a t
(b) Traffic i ss a rive
a n a an d pi er ca n be pr op er ly : fo un de d.
aed where the brid g e a b
wel pericarp should‘ no t :
(c) Geometric design to thisis bri bridge

e h a
The road approaches
(d) Economics
(¢) Other considerations
L
m i e m
Tsiegrnn s sbiegtuse a s eae onE t n ing Sh
eh
i
i
h o w s
j o n
th at
at
th e
the
st
st
ra
ra
ig
ig
ht
ht
sl ee tal,
In hill roads additional care has to be given for : along the path panes
r on th e u p - s t r e a m s i d e ot
portion of the rive be desirable to connect some
Stability a r o a d b e t w e e n i o s i n s pa “The straight alignment AB
While aligning ia t e t o w n s , vi ll ag es
Drainage of th e i m p o r t a n t i n t e r m e d
Geometric standards of hill roads, and
Recicting lenoth
 $4 HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND SURVEYS
ENGINEERING SURVEys Fog
may be shifted along line ABC, as shown in Fig. 3.1¢ in order to connect the int HIGHWAY Locations
35
station C. It is also possible to connect the station C with a link road as shown in A foreign territory
coming across @ straiy
same figure, thus avoiding the deviation of the straight alignment. alignment around the foreign land. ight alignment will necessitate deviation of
At tiny ies the alignment is decided
considerat only on strategic
(ii) Obligatory points through which the road should not pass also may make ; ions.
necessary to deviate from the proposed shortest alignment. The obligatory points whie In a flat terrain it is possible to have a very long stretch of R é
Mie r long yi uA es sboo hatl y sat
should be avoided while aligning a road include religious places, very costly stru without horizontal curves, But straight road
unsuitable land etc. Religious places like temple, mosques, church, grave or
been protected by the law from being acquired for any purpose.
tomb h
Acquiring
drivi ng. Henc e after a few kilom
bend to break the monotony and keepeters of
the strai ght
drive r road,
alert. i t may be desir able to havea slight
structures would mean heavy compensation resulting in increased cost. Marshy,
peat
and water logged areas are generally unsuitable for road construction and Special considerations while aligning roads on hilly areas
should 6
avoided as far as possible. However if there, is no alternative and the alignment has to b
taken across such an area, the construction and maintenance costs are likely to be Stability : While aligning hill roads, special care should be taken to align the road
high due to special construction techniques and drainage measures to be adopted.
v along the side of the hill which is stable. A common problem in hill roads is that of land
slides. The cutting and filling of earth to construct roads on hill-side causes steepening of
A lake, a pond or a valley which falls on the path ofa straight alignment will existing slopes and affect its stability.
al
necessitate the alignment to deviate from the straight path and go round alo
ng the grade Drainage : Numerous hill-side drains should be provided for adequate drainage
line as shown in Fig. 3.1d.
facility across the road. But the cross drainage structure being costly, attempts should be
(b) Traffic: The alignment should suit traffic requirements. made to align the road in such a way where the number of cross drainage structures are
Origin and Destination
study should be carried out in the area and the desire lines be drawn showing minimum.
the trend of
traffic flow. The new road to be aligned should keep in view the desired lines, traffic
flow patterns and future trends. Geometric standard of hill roads : Different sets of geometric standards are followed
in hill roads with reference to gradient, curves and speed and they consequently influence
the sight distance , radiu s of curve and other relat ed featu res. ‘The rout e shou ld enab le the
(c) Geometric Design : Geometric design factors such as gradient, radius of curve pin
ruling grad ient to be attai ned in most of the lengt h, mini misi ng steep gradi ents, hair
and sight distance also would govern the final alignment of the highway. If straight
alignment is aimed at, often it may be necessary to provide very steep gradients, As far as bands and needless rise and fall.
possible while aligning a new road, the gradient should be flat and less than the ruling or Resisting
istir leng th : The resis ting
sti lengt h of a road may u
be calculated work
from the total
design gradient. Thus it may be necessary to change the alignment in view of the design route takin g the hori zont al lengt h, me ae
to be ons to move the loads along the = , in
speed, maximum allowable superelevation and coefficient two stations and the sum of ineff ectiv e rise
of lateral friction. It may be difference in levels between the should kept as
resis ting lengt h of the alig nmen t
necessary to make adjustment in the horizontal alignment of roads keeping in view the © excess of floating gradient. In brief, the fall should be kept minimum.
minimum radius of curve and the transition curves. low as possible. Thus the ineff ectiv e rise and exec utiv e

ad al ig nm en t ar e di sc us se d in ch ap te r 12 .
The absolute minimum sight distance, which should invariably be available in every The detailed co ns id er at io ns on hi ll ro
section of the road, is the safe stopping distance for the fast moving vehicles. Also thet A Y L O C A T I O N S
E E R I N G S U R V E Y S F O R H I G H W
should be enough distance visible ahead for safe overtaking operations of vehicles 3.2 ENG I N
moving at design speed on the road. Hence the alignment should be finalised in such a b e e a e s in H i s e p l e s i a l e o t i n g
Before a highway a l i g n m e n t is t se
way that the obstructions to visibility do not cause restrictions to the sight distance sy be completed in I C 7
i it, The surveyma n e eal fs
requirements. S e e p i n g f B e t sr e
pate aces alternate alignments k
as d i s c u s s e d in Ar t. 3. 1. 2. T h e fo
The details of these geometric design factors are given in Chapter 4. highway ali g n m e n t
sur v e y of th e s e l e c t e d a l i gt.
n m e n
(d) Economy : The alignment finalised based on the above factors should also
g i n e e r i n g s u r v e y s a r e
economical. In working out the economics, the initial cost the cost, of maintenance ani The stages of the en
vehicle operation should be taken into account. The initial cost of construction can 5
decreased if high embankments and deep cuttings are avoided and the alignment is cht (a) Map study
in a manner to balance the cutting and filling. (b) Reconnaissance

(¢) Other Considerations : Various other factors which may govern the alignmen! (c) Preliminary surveys
drainage considerations, hydrological factors, political considerations and monotony. c a t i o n a n d d e t a i l e d s u r v e y s .
(d) F i n a l l o
vertical alignment is often guided by drainage considerations. The subsurface water
seepage fiow and high flood level are the factors to be kept in view
.
 possible to suggest the fi Q a8 the distance > canton ips
m the Surver of ale to be Tem = 150 APLYING
are also sh APEFGB bs an
. Lis possible to have an idea of several pau Thus from the map study
sils.of these may be studied later at the si
te, The prot from map study to drop a certain route
rt ‘owing details available on t
he map, undesirable ground, enroute, Map ctudy thus
her surveyed in the field
f lakes
3.2.2: Reconnaissance
The second stage of surveys for highway location is the reccanaissance to =xam.
general character of the area for deciding the most feasible routes for detai
field survey party may inspect a fairly broad stretch of land slong
routes of the map in the field. Only very simple instrument lik y level, tangent
When a road is to be connected between two stations, one of the clinometer, barometer etc. are used by the reconnaissance party to cailect additional
top and the o
on the foot of the hill, then alternate routes can be suggested keeping in view details rapidly (not accurately). All relevant details not available in the map are collected
tl
permissible gradient; say the ruling gradient. Refer Fig. 3.2. Suppose the scale of and noted down. Some of the details to be collected during reconnaissance ere given
the contour map is known, then from the counter intervals it is possible to decide the below:
length of road required between two consecutive contours, keeping the gradier
(i) Valleys, ponds, lakes, marshy land, ridge, hills, permanent structures and other
within allowable limits. In this case, the contour interval is 15 metre and if th obstructions along the route which are not available in the map.
ruling gradient is fixed as 1 in 20, the road length between two consecutive contours
has to be 15 x 20 = 300 meter. With the known scale of the map, the various _ (ii) Approximate values of gradient, length of gradients and radius of curves of
alternate alignments.
possible alternate routes may be drawn by drawing arcs of the above (300 metre)
length between the consecutive contour lines. 7 (ii) Number and type of cross drainage structures, maximum flood level and namura
ground water level along the probable routes.
Let A and B be two stations to be connected by a road, see Fig. 3.2. AB is the shortest
(iv) Soil type along the routes fro m fie ld ide nti fic ati on test s and obs erv ati on of
route (straight line) APQB is a steep route in which the gradient positively exceeds | in
geological features. :

(v) Sources of construction materials, water and location of stone quarries.

tho ugh ily mo i en sop age ow
(vi) When the road passe
regarding the geological formation, 100s: Ce ef Hem the hill ¥! for iig
jighwa
hwayy
and uns tab le side s of
may be observed so as to decide the stable
alignment.
it is vast and the terrain is
A rapid reconnaissance of the area, especially when
difficult, may be done by an aerial survey.
ie s lec ted d u r i n g the re
feel co nn
Asa ai ss
resu the
lt anali
oft ce
he gnm ent
, pro
a pos ed aft
afe wer
From the details coll dur ing y.
study may be altered or even changed comp! “Study based on practical considerations
alternate alignments may be chosen for further
observed at the site.

3.2.3 Preliminary Survey

ji na ry su rv ey ar e:
ars 5 ie
The main objectives of the prelim
(i) To survey the various alter nate alig nmen ts Pgee detai ls of topo grap hy, drai nage
AB - Shortest route collect all the necessary physical informa
APQB - Steeper gra and soil. v i
in view e w of the req Si
uir eme nts of a goo d
pro pos als in
APLMNB
APEFGB
- Flattergt
- Flatter gradient Gi) To compare the different
alignment.
(Alternate route)
Fig. 3.2 Alignment with allowable Gradients
ss HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND SURVEYS

(iii) To estimate quantity of earth work materials and other construction Aspects
workout the cost of altemate proposals. And,
(iv) best alignment trom all
the se
To finali considerations,
The preliminary survey is carried out to collect all the physical information Which,
necessary in connection with the proposed highway alignment, The preliminary
uplo twice the height of
may be carried out by any one of the following methods : emba nk me nt fr om the gr ou nd lev el, Du ri ng the s i
¢ i

(a) Conventional approach, in which a survey party carries out surveys using
is struck, the depth from the ground surface is else nota nt Broad water table
required field equipment, taking measurements, collecting topographical and other When the work has to be done rapidly, Reophysical method
of soi
and carrying out soil survey. suited as accuracy is not very imponant during the preliminary strap
vity method is commonly used in road Projects. The method
is based on the
(b) Modem rapid approach, by serial survey taking the required aerial photo principle that the earth and rock materials may be identified by the different values of the
and by photogrammetric methods and photo-interpretation techniques for obtaii ing th resistance to flow of a direct current,
necessary topographic and other maps including details of soil and geology.
The soil samples collected during the field work are subjected to identification and
The procedure of the conventional methods of preliminary survey is given in follo classification test in the laboratory. Soil profile is obtained by drawing the longitudinal
steps: section along the proposed road alignment upto the depth of exploration. The types of
1) Primary frayerse : The first step in the preliminary survey is to establish th
soils encountered along the route upto the depth under consideration are marked on the
primary traverse, following the line recommended in the reconnaissance. soil profile either symbolically or by suitable colour coding.
Fo
alternate alignments either secondary traverses or independent primary traver (vi) Material survey : The survey for naturally occurring materials like stone aggregates,
may be necessary. As these traverses are open traverses no adjustment of errors soft aggregates, etc. and identification of suitable quarries should be made. Also
possible later, so the angles should be very accurately measured by the theodolite,, availability of manufactured materials like cement, lime, brick, etc. and their
The length of the centre line should be measured by using very good and acc locations may be ascertained.
chaining methods or by tacheometry or by moder instruments.
(vii) Traffic sur vey : Tra ffi c sur vey s con duc ted in the reg ion for m the basi s for dec idi ng
(ii) Topographical features : After establishing the centre lines of preliminary survey, the number of traf fic lan es and roa dwa y wid th, pav eme nt des ign and eco nom ic
the topographical features are recorded. All geographical and other man mad analysis of highway projec t. Tra ffi c vol ume cou nts of the cla ssi fie d veh icl es are to
be carried out on all the existing roa ds in the reg ion , pre fer abl y for 24 hou rs per dsy
sur vey s are ver y use ful for dec idi ng the
plotted. The width to be surveyed is generally decided by the survey party, but th for seven days. Origin and destination out on a sui tab le sam ple of
absolute minimum width is the land width of the proposed alignment. be car
alignment of the roads. This study mayrequired traffic data may also be collectedrie d
vehicle users or drivers. In addition the
(iii) Levelling work : Levelling work is also carried out side by side to give the
so that the traffic forecast could be mad e for 10 to 20 yea r per iod s.
line profiles and typical cross sections. The levelling work in the preliminar th e pr el im in ar y su rv es s so d
(Vil) Determinat io n of fi na l ce nt re li ne : Af te r co mp le ti ng
survey is kept to a minimum just sufficient to obtain the approximate earth work
at iv e st ud ie s of al te rn at iv e al ig nm en ts th e fi na l ce nt re Hin e
the alternate alignments. conducting the co mp ar lo ca ti on su rv ey . Fo r th is . th e
‘de in th e of fi ce be fo re th e fi na l
To draw contours of the strip of land to be surveyed, cross section levels should p s co ns is ti ng of co nt ou r p
preliminary survey ma aaneree
taken at suitable intervals, generally 100 to 200 metre in plain terrain, upto 50 metre sections of the alternate ali
e a
i
rolling terrain and upto 30 metre in hilly terrain. be st a l i g n m e n t sa ti sf yi ng d e n n a t e
decide the th e fi na l a l i g n m e n tth,e gr ad e li ne s m e
reqaliecaentl ‘A ft er e a i n g t s
(iv) Drainage studies and Hydrological data : Drainage investigations and hydrol geometric elements of th e ho ri zo nt al an d ve rt ic al a l i g n m e n
data are collected so as to estimate the type, number and approximate size of ¢ designed.
drainage structures. Also the vertical alignment of the highway, particularly #8 el im in ar y su rv ey s. e s p e c i a l l y
ji te pr
d for Prey
grade line is decided based on the hydrological and drainage data, such as Hi veryred much
Aerial photographic survey ysbearecove are vast. The suited” may be divided into the
ponded water level, depth of water table, amount of surface runoff, etc. when the distance and area (0
following steps : veyed with the required
) Soil survey : Soil survey is an essential part of the preliminary survey 3
suitability of the proposed location is to be finally decided based on the soi (a ) T a k i n g ae ri al p h o t o g r a p h s o! the
aps.
strips of
Vertical
land to
pho" Be AT necessa ry for the
data. The soil survey conducted at this stage also helps in working out detal lon g i t u d i n a l an d la te ra l ov er
pr e p a r a t i o n of m o s s a i c s .
earth work, slopes, suitability of materials, subsoil and surface
ents:
requirements and pavement type and the approximate thickness requirem
these details are required to make a comparative study of alternate P! ASATO
cert EENcer LT SLOET
 60 UIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND SURVEYS
:
(b) The photographs are examined under stereoscopes and control DRAWINGS AND
rOl points are sete REpouy
for establishing the traverses of the alternate proposals, 4.3 DRAWINGS AND
located on the maps.
The contro} Poi REPORT 4)

(c) Using stereo-pair observations, the spot levels and subsequel

3.3.1 Drawings
tly
be obtained. Also from the stereo pairs the topographical details
contour tines m y
may be p, © vena drawings are usualy prepared ina highway project
down on the maps,
(d) Photo-interpretation methods are used to assess. the geological features,
conditions, drainage requirements ete, (ii) Index map
, (iii) Preliminary survey plans
3.2.4 Final Location and Detailed Survey (iv) Detailed plan and longitudinal section
The alignment finalised at the design office after the prelim (v) Detailed cross-section
inary survey is to be fj
located on the field by establishing the centre line, Next detailed su
rvey should be cz (vi) Land acquisition plans
out for collecting the information necessary for the preparatio
n of plans and cons!
details for the highway project. (vii) Drawings of cross drainage and other retaining structures
(viii) Drawings of road intersections
Location
(ix) Land plans showing quarries ete.
The centre line of the road finalised in the drawings is to be translate
d on the grout
during the location survey, This is done using a transit theodolite and by Key map should show the proposed and existing roads, and important places to be
staking of tl
centre line. The location of the centre line should follow, as closely as practi
cable,
connected. The size of the plan generally should not exceed 22 « 20 em. The scale of the
alignment finalised after the preliminary surveys. Major and minor control points are map is chosen suitably depending upon the length of road.
established on the ground and centre pegs are driven, checking the geometric desi Index map should show the general topography of the ares. The details are
requirements. However modifications in the final loc: may be made in the field, if, symbolically represented. ‘The index map should also be of suitable scale, the size bem
found essential. The centre line stakes are driven at suitable intervals, say at 50 mets 32x 20cm,
intervals in plain and rolling terrains and at 20 metre it terrain.
Preliminary survey plans showing details ofthe various alternate alignments and afi
Detailed survey informations collected should be normally drawn to scale of 10 cm * 1 km to 2S cm
= Tkm,
Temporary bench marks are fixed at intervals of about 250 metre and at all drainag
and under pass structures, Levels along the final centre line should be taken at all stake Detailed plans show the ground plan with alignment and the boundaries, erate
intervals of | to 2 metre in plain country a scale of 1/2400 and in close country, a scale o
points. Levelling work is of great importance as the vertical alignment, earth 1/1200 may be adopted for detailed plans. The size of the drawing may be A-2 size or
calculations and drainage details are to be worked out from the level notes. The cro 60 = 42 cm approximately.
section levels are taken upto the desired width, at intervals of 50 to 100 metre in plalt
shou ld be arn t to * pa ce rs re e ii n: £6
Longitudinal sections
d plan. Vert ical scale may be enlar ges t ngit
terrain. The cross sections may be taken at closer intervals at horizontal curves and
there is abrupt change in cross slopes. All river crossing, valleys etc. should be su lor itudinal section should show the details such as datum line, tenn ground surface.
road and posit ion of drai nage cross ings.
in detail upto considerably distances on either side, Vertical profile of the proposed
025 m.th
to natural scale of | em * 2.toevel.
Detailed cross sections are generally drawn
All topographical details are noted down and also plotted using conventional si Cross section should be drawn every 100 m or where oe ee Soe.
Adequate hydrological details are also collected and recorded. section
hill roads the cross sections should be drawn at 4 ee tof way, The cress
A detailed soil survey is carried out to enable drawing of the soil profile. The d¢P drawings should extend at least up to the proposeng ar nd‘or cutting shouldbe shown on
ced dist ance s and the area of filli
upto which soil sampling is to be done may be 1.5 to 3.0 metre below the ground i number, the redu
However in case 0 Cross section drawings.
finished grade line of the road whichever is lower. from the survey drawings
wells
are ape jn
Lie vach as buiklings,
embankments, the depth should be upto twice the height of the finished emb Land acquisition plans and schedules
The spacing of auger borings very much depends upon the soil type and its et for land acquisition details. These plans show WR the values. The seale adopted
CBR value of soils along the alignment may be determined for designing the pave! nature of gradients and other details required £0
may be | em = 40 m or less.
The data during the detailed survey should be elaborate and complete for P
detailed plans, design and estimates of the project. abe
eislh
 HIGHW A Y A L I G N M E N T A N D S U R V E Y S ,
62
ct ur es ar e us ua ll y dr aw n tq) HIGHWAY PRojEcr
Detailed design for cross drainage and ma so nr y st ru
li ca te d po rt io n of th e st ru ct ur e en la rg ed sca} ®
of Lem = 1m, For details of any comp 3.4.2 New Highway Project
ze ma y be em pl oy ed . Ho we ve r th e si ze of q
to 8 cm = 1 m or upto half full si al e The new highway project work may be divided is week.
Cr os s se ct io ns of st re am s sh ou ld be to a sc
should not exceed the standard size. ig stages
less than Lem = 10 m. (i Selection of route, finalisation of highway alignment and Se pi
ometric ign details
tion s sho uld be pre par ed sho win g all deta ils of pay (ii) Collection of materials and testing
Drawin gs of road inte rsec mix design ofpavement materiaie Of subgrade soil and other construction materials
shoulders, islands etc. to scale. rs,
and design details of pavement laye
Land plans for qua rri es. Whe re qua rri es for con str uct ion mat eri als are to be acqu ip, (iii) Construction stages including quality control,
for new projects, separate land plans should be prepared. The size of these maps ¢ Route selection
scales may be similar to those suggested under land acquisition.
The selection of route is made keeping in view the requirements of. alignment
3.3.2 Estimates geological, topographical and other features of the Toeality as explained in ieee
However special care shoucd be taken as regards the geometric design standards of the
The project estimates should consist of general abstract of cost and detailed road for possible upgrading of speed standards in future, without being necessary to re-
for each major head. If the project work is proposed to be executed in stages, the esti align the road, After the alignment if finalised, the plans and working drawings are
should be prepared for each stage separately. prepared. The geometric design requirements of highways have been given in Chapter +
and the details and requirements of hill roads are given in Chapter 12.
3.3.3 Project Report Materials and design
The project report forms an important part of the project document. It should contai
The soil samples collected from the selected route during the soil surveys are tested in
information such as the laboratory in order to design the pavement thickness required and the design of
(i) general details of the project and its importance embankment and cut slopes. The basic construction materials such as selected soil,
aggregates etc. are collected from the nearest borrow pits and quarries and stacked alone
_ (ii) feature of the road including selection of the route, aligament, traffic, etc. the roads alignment after subjecti ng these materials to the specified laborator y tests. In
order to design the mixes for the pavement componen t layers and to specify quality
(iii) road design and specifications control test values during road construct ion, mix design tests are carried out in the
(iv) drainage facilities and cross drainage structures laboratory.
lik e so il -a gg re ga te mi xe s, sof t
(v materials, labour and equipment The possibility of using low- co st co ns tr uc
co
ti
nc
on
re te
mat
mi
eri
xe
al
s, in the su b- ba se or bas e co ur se
aggregates, stabilized soil and pozzolanic me nt mat eri als lik e
Wh en hig h qua lit y pa ve
(vi) rates
layers of pavement should be fully explored. in the sur fac e cou rse , the mi x des ign
bituminous mixes of cement concrete are to be use d
(vii) construction programming and con tro l tes ts sh ou ld be str ict ly fo ll ow ed . ‘Th e pa ve me nt
co ns tr uc ti on
specif ic at io n an d
tra ffi c, sta bil ity and dr ai na ge co nd it io ns of th e
thickness is designed based on anticipated
e di ve rs io n roa ds, tra ffi c con tro l, ro ad sid e ame nit it
(viii) other miscellaneous items lik co ns ru ct io n In
th ic kn es s of pa ve me nt lay ers ch os en for the
rest houses, etc. subgrade and the type and
e n t s , R e c o m m e n d e d p r o c e d u r e fo r th e d e s i g n of
e s i g n i n g th e t hSii c k n e s s of fl ex ib
i l le p a v e m as e
3.4 HIGHWAY PROJECT d signi b e e n sp ec if ie d by th e In di an R o a d s C o n g r e s s , (P le
cement concrete payment has also
3.4.1 General see Chapter 7 for details).
phe :
the en gi ne er has to pla n, des ign and co ns tr uc t eit her @ Construction
In a new highway project, . b a 2 (i ) ea rt h p c e “ y
link. There are also projects requiring re-design a a y be di vi de d in to tw o st ag es
work of new roads or a road The const r u c t i o n of th e r o a d m
of e p g e e u s e t a
upgrading the geometric design standards. ‘ n . T h e ea rt h w o r k co ns is ts
alignment of existing roads of pavement con s t r u c t i o
o e t i g o a y e s a
D u r i n g th e e x c a v a t i o n k e p e a l b e r
pla ce alo ng the adj oin ing embankm e n t s . r e . o 8 a o h n p o l e e d
Once a highwa y is con str uct ed, dev elo pme nt tak es
sta nda rds bec ome T and co n s t r u c t i o n of d r a i
m
n
e
a
t
g
h
e
o d by c o m p e c t i n g | p i e s Seay
subsequent cha nge s in ali gnm ent or imp rov eme nts in geo met ric
best constructe d by r o l l e d s i l th e h e a r ear s ,
hwa y is not onl y a sou rce of pot ent ial traf fic haz ard , but d e n ssing
i t y u su it ab le ro ll er . In
difficult. A bad ly ali gne d hig moistur e a n d op es ‘a nd th e po ss ib le embankme
m b a n k m e n t f o u n d a t i o n an d sl
causes a considerable increase in transportation cost and strain on the drivers of the e
i ee in ve st ig at ed .
passengers. Therefore, proper investigation and planning are most imy wi th ti me ha ve to be
project, kee pin g in vie w the pre sen t day nee ds as wel l as the fut ure dev elo pme n!
grr ra
region.
 ot HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND SURVEYS,
HIGHWAY Prosper
The pavement construction is subsequently taken up starting with the prey
subg de and the construction of sub-base, base and surface courses of the pavemeny &
Steps in a new project work
The various steps in a new highway project may be summarised as given below
(i) Map Suedy » with the help of available topographic maps of the area,
(ii) Reconnaissance Survey : a general idea of a topography and other features,
identification of soils and survey of construction materials, by an on-the.
inspection of the site.
(iii) Preliminary Survey Topographic details and soil survey along alt
alignments, consideration of geometric design and other requirements of alig

Fig.3.3 (a) Typical Drawing for a Highway Project

preparation of plans and comparison of alternate routes; economic analysi
selection of final alignment. Typical plan, longitudinal section and cross se
drawing for the new alignment are shown in Fig. 3.3 a & b.
(iv) Location of Final Alignment : Transfer of the alignment from the drawings to th
ground by driving pegs along the centre line of finally chosen alignment; set
out geometric design elements by location of tangent points, apex points, circuk
and transition curves, elevation of centre line and superelevation details.
(v Detailed Survey ; Survey of the highway construction work for the preparation 0
longitudinal and cross sections, computations of earth work quant and ot!
construction material; and checking details of geometric design elements.
(vi) Materials Survey ; Survey of construction materials, their collection and testing.
(vii) Design : Design details of embankment and cut slopes, foundation of embankment
and bridges, and pavement layers. '
(viii) Earth Work ; Excavations for highway cutting and drainage system, construction 0
embankments.
(ix) Pavement Construction : Preparation of subgrade, construction of sub-base and Ht
surface courses. i On
Controls : Quality control tests during different stages © L i
(x) Construction
constructions and check for finished road surface such as unevenness, cambefy
superelevation and extra widening of pavements at curves.

3.4.3 Re-alignment Project

Most of the present highways in India have been upgraded in stages, from the exi hi gh wa ys if ne ce ss ar y in fi ne o in cr ea si ng the wi th
local roads of the pre-automobile era. As these roads were then meant for slow
would be possible to upgrade the Fosaae!a ee
the ne ce ss it y of re -a li gn in g the roa a
standards only, but without pt
they are found deficient in the geometric design elements for the present day auton situations and in dif fic ult ter rai n, it ma y not al wa ys : e s
traffic. There are several stretches of National Highways in the country having 3
highway geometric to the re co mm en de d de si gn st an da rd s.
lane of carriage way, narrow bridges and culverts and many locations with
ic y Na ti o
onn a l al s Hi
t gh
e wa ys esh ou
e ld as efasr tas apo
t ss ib le
si tebe
)
horizontal curves and avoidable zig-zags, steep gradients and inadequate sight distan 5 It has been decide i d as a po li cy th at
able to fully c a t e r to the traf fic mov ing at des ign ‘ obj ect ive : is
These defects are to be res leastt inin reroadsof grei
possible atleas
iedas early asas po: valert @
greater impo the pre sen t and fut ure traf fic nee ds To pee uni eea ed ay e es
requlrements, bth for
like National and State Highways. It will be worth while to adopt more liberal
geometric design parameters than the ruling minimum values specified, where
ri
necessary to plan improvements in the geomettics
conditions are favourable and the costs involved are not excessive. In such ¢
 66 HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND SURVEYS

HIGHWAY PR
OJECT
(ii) While improving the vertical ali

for shock-free movement of vehicles tra

may be checked for comfort condition
CROSS SECTION NO 3A SkM-300q “TEM vehicles during night driving.
Fig. 3.3 (b) Typical Drawing for a Hig (iii) The road stretches which remain submerged under water even for a sho
hway Project rt duration
of the gear or those which are in water logged areas
n
ex eee
tent should be raised before
conomicaale
ly practicable along with the other i strengthening or widening pavement section. The formation level should be raised
improvements such as re-surfaci it
truction of overlay of raising the road abov such that the subgrade is at least 0.6 m above the HFL. Suitable measures should be
e the flood water level,
Necessity of re-alignment
adopted against water-logging and care should be taken to provide suitable drainage
facilities, including the cross drainage works.
The re-alignment of existing roads may be necessary in the following cases : (iv) While reconstructing bridges of length greater than 60 m on sites other than the
i) prov E . . 4 existing ones, separate surveys should be carried out for the selection of suitable
(i) a . bein of sgn Alignment design elements, such as radius, sites. The selection of site for major bridges would be governed by the river
, transition curve, cl learance on inner side of the curve of shifting the training works, sub-soil conditions for foundation and hydraulic considerations.
, elimination of reverse curves and” | However, in small bridges the road alignment would essentially govern the bridge
: site selection.
(ii) Improvement of vertical alignment design elements like steep gradie
summ
nts, changes in_
it curves to increase sight distance, correction of undesirable undulations like
(v) The deciding factor which is being considered for providing over-bridges or under
bridges for a National Highway across a railway level crossing is the produc. of
humps and dips, etc. number of gate closures and the intensity of traffic on the highway in tonnes p-r
(ii) Raising the level of a portion of a road which is subjected to flooding, submergence day in the design year. When this product exceeds 50,000 or when the level
crossing is within the shunting limits of a railway station, the grade separation is
or water-logging during monsoons.
justified. The locat ion is deci ded keep ing in view the high way align ment, the
(iv) Re-construction of weak and narrow bridges and culverts and changes in water-way topographic and other site conditions.
at locations slightly away from the existing site. : vi) ‘The necessity to provi de alter nate route s to bypas s throu gh-tr affic is asses sed from
car origin wand destination studies. Ifthe bypa ssab le wfc is more than the traffi c
(v) Construction of over-bridges or under-bridges at suitable locations across a railway.
terminating at the town or built -up area, then the bypas s may be justi fied.
line in place of level crossing or across another road to provide grade separated
inter-section. Steps in the Re-alignment Project
of th e st re tc h of ro ad to be re -a li gn ed , st ud y of th e de fi ci en ci es an d
(vi) Re-alignment required due to a portion of the road being submerged under water at (i) Re co nn ai ss an ce
2 the possible changes in alignment.
the reservoir area on account of construction of a new dam. 7(ii) Survey of existi; ng road recording: the topographici io ecoia and all other existing
(vii) Construction of a bypass to avoid the road running through a town or city. 7 a ns along a strip of
o f l on citer de ofo f the
t
feat ur es in cl ud in g dr ai na ge co nd it io
u r v e y e d o o o p
n h a s e s a e
of th e la nd to be s
(viii) Defence requirements. road. The width ry
ad is re -a li gn ed . Th e fi el d
anticipated when the ro
plan e ta bl e an d le ve l or by ta ch eo me tr y.
General Principles of Re-alignment ntre line of the road and cross section levels
of sp ot le ve ls al on g th e cet e c r o s s
Observations s s s l o p e , s u p e r e l e v a t i o n et c. T h
(i) While improving the horizontal alignment of roads, improvement in sharp cur at suitable in te rv al s to no te th e gr ad ie nt , ¢
‘ c r o
d v e r t i c a l c u r v e s
int tervals at horizon t a l a n
and zig-zags should be done after considering the whole alignment and not on pl ou ld be ta ke n at cl os er
section levels sh
meal basis, The improvement of transition curves would not generally be vi ‘ and at cross drainage works. i c h th e r e a l i g n e d r o a d m a y
, " h e s of land through w h in th e
costly and therefore the defects should be rectified where-ever necessary. The
(iv) Soil survey along the ene eet ei profiles a t er testing th e so il s a m p l e s
distance available generally gets increased when the horizontal alignment I%
possibly pass; preparation o!
improved; otherwise the set back distance may be increased at horizontal curves laboratory.
removing or shifting the obstruction from the inner side of the curve. upto.
desired extent.
 I G N M E N T A N D S U R V E Y S
68 HIGHWAY AL
shane
d c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of fe as D Pi
(v) Comparison of ec ‘onomics an
ci al st ud y of st re tc he s w h i c h ar e di ff ic ul t fo r th e re -a l
re-alignment and spe preparation of Drawings for Re-alignment py ject
i i of the de si gn fe at ur es of re -a li gn ed ro ad st re tc he s.
w Fi Prnaepliarsaattiioonn of drawings (Typical drawings showinit g plan, longitituud ‘Th
diinal sectioia n road eas drweawllingsas for the re -a li
all the proposgnedmentim Proovjecemtensh
‘ pr ou ld sh inti s
ts. Thhow all
e plone a tsotad A ne
oa resection for a re-alignment project are shown in Fig. 3.4). 5 needed drawi

(i) Plan showing existing road, proposed ali

importance. 'gnment, contours and all other features of
(ii) Longitudinal section showing natural ground el
evation, f the
- and the grade line for the re-construction, Surface of the exising road
VILLAGE
anise

A typical set of such drawings is shown in Fig.

3.4. The drawings along with a
comprehensive report to justify the re-alignment project should be prepared.

REFERENCES

- Indian Roads Congress, Standard Scales and Standard Sizes of Drawings for
TUM LINE Highway projects, Journal, Indian Roads Congress Vol. XI-I, 1946-47.
2. Bruce, A. G., Clarkeson, J., Highway Design and Construction, Internationa
l Text
Book Co., Scranton, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.
aoe 3. ECAFE, Report of the Seminar on Low Cost Roads and Soil Stabilization, New
SUPERELE VATION 1 in Delhi, 1958.
SSE KM. 4. Jones, R. T., Layout of Roads, Jounal, Indian Roads Congress, Vol. V, 1940-41.
LONGITUDINAL SECTION. soRtnaie«0m m 5. Indian Roads Congress, "Manual for Survey, Investigation and Preparation of Road
VERT ICAL lem +10 m
Projects", IRC Special Publication : 19, 1981. P

PROBLEMS

!. What are the various requirements of an ideal highway alignment. Discuss briefly.
2. Explain with sketches the various factors controlling the alignment of roads.

3. Explain obligatory points. With sketches, discuss how these control the alignment.
4. Discuss the special care to be taken while aligning hill roads.
CROSS SECTION 5. - Briefly explain the engineering surveys needed for locating a new highway.
Fig. 3.4 Re-alignment 6. . What are the uses of map study in engineering surveys for highwa
(viii) Marking out the:
centre line ofre-aalljign
Project y location ?
road to the maximum e ed ro: i l e tryi 7. - What are the objects of reconnaissance in engineering surveys ? Discuss the scope
xtent possible, = ili ”
(ix) Earth-work and saan ieniaei
k ie of aerial surv ey for the purpose.
Preparation of subgr
‘Out and construction of new bridges a ad 8. What are the i various a
objectives of preliminary survey for hig hwa y ali gnm ent ?
he re-alignment road stretches, ihe corneatipaal
culverts. Enumerate the: details to be collected and the various steps in
method.
 HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND SURVEYS

. Discuss the scope of aerial surveys in preliminary survey for hi

What are the steps to be followed ? ighway,
|. Explain how the final location and detailed survey of a highway are med
of drawin gs to be prepar ed in highwa y
carried 0 oy t %) Chapter4
. Give the details
recommended scales and size of the drawings. Highway Geometric Design
Explain briefly the various stages of work in a new Highway Project.
- What are the conditions which necessitate taking up of a re-alignment Project
highway.
. Discuss the general principles in the re-alignment of a highway and explain h
work is carried out.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
4.1.1 Importance of Geometric Design
The geometric design of a highway deals with the dimensions and layout of visible
features of the highway such as alignment, sight distances and intersections.
The geometrics of hig hwa y sho uld be des ign ed to pro vid e opt imu m effi cien cy in
traffic operations wit h max imu m safe ty at rea son abl e cost . The des ign er may be exp ose d
to either planning of new highway net wor k or imp rov eme nt of exis ting hig hwa ys to mee t
the req uir eme nts of the exi sti ng and the ant ici pat ed traf fic.
pav eme nt of a road in stag es; but it is very
It is possible to design and construct the ts of a road in stages at 8
rath er diff icul t to imp rov e the geo met ric ele men
expensive and feat ures of the road
and des ign the geo met ric
later date. Therefore it is important to plan re growth of traffic
during the initial alignment itse lf taki ng into con sid era tio n the furu
the roa d bei ng upg to a higher category or
rad ed to a higher design
flow and pos sib ili ty of
speed standard at a later stage.
de al s wi th fo ll ow in g el em en ts =
Geometric design of highways
(i) Cross section elements
(ii) Sight distance considerations
(iii) Ho ri zo nt al al ig nm en t de ta il s

(iv) Ve rt ic al al ig nm en t de ta il s

(vy) Intersection elements , f o r m a t i o n

e r a t i o n s fo r th e w i d t h of p a v e m e n t
Under cross sect i o n e l e m e n t s , th e c o n s i d
o p e of p a v e m e n t ar e i n c l u d e d . T h e si gh t
a n d c r o s s s l r v e s a n d at
and land, th e s u r f a c e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
e r at h o r i z o n t a l a n d ve rt ic al c u
r d i s t a n c e v i s i b l e ahead of a driv :
distance or clea e m e n t s o f v e h i c l e s .
intersections govern the safe ‘mov u c i n g h o r i z o n t a l c u r v e s .
i b l e b y i n t r o d
ae il d directions are made poss ‘edge of pavement to counteract: the
ov ad ed bY ra is in g th e outer
Super-elevation
l t r kt is oe
1
 h i o n w e s s
R
4 on a ve hi cl e tr av er si ng @ ho ri zo nt al cu rv e; ex tr a pa ve r, HIGHWAY CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS. B
centrifugal force develope horizontal curves. In order to introduce the centrifugal for. |
width is also provided on between the straj
‘on cu rv es ar e in tr od uced errain with general cross slope of 10 to 25% is 80 kmph and that on mountainous terrain
reelevation n gradu ally, trans iti 8 ii i
ith cross slope 25 to 60% is 50 kmph. As the speed standards affect every geometric
an ei of curves.
od igh. TheDesign gradients and vertical curves
of road intersections with facilities for safe and efficien are introduce d in the vertic, {design element, topography also affects the geometric design of roads. Further in hilly
. : “terrain, it is necessary to allow for steeper gradients and sharper horizontal curves due to
e d g e o f t r a f f i c e n g i n e e r i n g
m e n t n e e d s a d e q u a t e k n o w l
traff i c m o v e
t y a n d t r a p the construction problems.
d b y t h e t o p o g r a p h y , l o c a l i
c s a r e g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e (iti) Traffic Factors
Highway geometri d . T h e f a c t o r s w h i c h c o n t r o } t h
e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f d e s i g n s p e e
characteristics and th l a r h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , d e s i g The factors associated with the traffic that affect geometric design of roads are the
r i c d e s i g n r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e s p e e d , r o a d u s e r a n d v e h i c u c
geom e t i o n s . H o w e v e r , s p e e d is t h e ~ vehicular characteristics and human characteristics of road users. It is difficult to decide
i t y a n d b e n e f i t - c o s t c o n s i d e r a t
traffic, traffic capac m e nts of roads, as may dard traff ic lane unde r the mixe d traff ic flow cond itio n
i n g o s t o f t h e g e o m e t r i c d e s i g n e l e the design vehi cle or the stan
which is important govern m prevalent espe cial ly on urba n road s of deve lopi ng coun trie s. This is a comp lex prob lem.
seen from th e s u b s e q u e n t a r t i c l e s o f t h i s c h a p t e r . cars, buse s, truck s, moto r cycle s, etc. have
The different vehicle clas ses such as pass enge r
different speed and acce lera tion chara cteri stics , apart from havi ng diffe rent dime nsio ns
4.1.2. Design Controls and Criteria ) and weights. However, it is often necessary to consider some standard vehicle as the
The important huma n facto rs whic h affec t traff ic beha viou r inclu de the
The geometric design of highways depends on several design factors. The importa design vehicle.
physical, mental and psyc holo gica l char acte rist ics of drive rs and pede stri ans,
of these factors which control the geometric elements are : 4
(i) Design speed (iv) Design Hourly Volume and Capacity
The traffic flow or volume keeps flu ctu ati ng wit h tim e, fro m a low val ue dur ing off -
(ii) Topography ue dur ing the pea k hou r. It wil l be un ecto design
on om ic al
peak hours to the highest val
c flo w or the hig hes t hou rly tra ffi c vol ume .
(iii) Traffic factors the roadway facilities for the peak traffi
is dec ide d for the des ign and thi s is cal led
‘Therefore a reasonable value of traffic volume
(iv) Design hourly volume and capacity the design hourly volume. This value is to be de te rm in ed fro m ext ens ive tra ffi c vo lu me
The rat io of vo lu me to cap aci ty aff ect s the lev el of
(v) Environmental and other factors. studies as discussed in Art. 5.2.3.
service of the road.
(i) Design Speed
(v) Environmental and Other Factors
The design speed is the most it important fact lan dsc api ng, air pol lut ion , noi se
elements of highways. The desi; ign sp
i or
‘ co nt ro ll in g the geometrici di The environmental factors such as aes the tic s,
eed is decided taking into account th giv en due con sid era tio n in the des ign on
e Be s should be
pollution and other local condition
requirements of the highway. In In pr es sw ay s are de si gn ed
dia different speed roa d ge om et ri cs . So me of th e art eri al hig h spe ed hi gh wa ys and ex
depending upon the importance veh icl es by providing grade
or the class of the ‘ad a for higher ‘speed sta nda rds and uni nte rru pte d flo w of
Neonates
separated int ers ect ion s and con tro lle d acc ess .

Y C R O S S S E C T I O N E L E M E N T S
4.2. HIGHWA
Design of almost ever TY geometric design Ch ar ac te ri st ic s
speed. For example thi ie requirements = of a road is dépendent on the design 4.2. 1 Pa ve me nt Su rf ac e
Section
reauiemelement
éit theof hthe
of thi
on th e pa ve me nt ty pe wh ic h is de ci de d ba se d on th e
e road such as width and cherinct wank The pavement su rf ac e de pe nd s c, su bg ra de , an d
a eae fu nd s, vo me and composit
lu io n of tr af fi
availability of ma te ri al s an d
ctruranvsi ti c u r v e t e g su rf ac e
on
e lengiheall n gee em
o a elaelmiegnntmsentssuchsucash aa
ame e t
s oak curve hesupseirg-het ledviasttiaonnc,e fa ci li ti es an d co st co ns id er at io ns . Th e im po rt an t
climatic conditions, construction ev en ness, li gh t re fl ec ti ng ch ar ac te ri st ic s
07 rey ar e th e fr ic ti on un
'¥ on the desiign speed of the tal summit and valley characteristics of the pavement
anadncdreainage of surface water.
main!
es :

The topography or the terrai

accelerat f
on e of th e fa ct or s
Significantly. The terai in conditions j ‘eth
friction between vehicle
vel tyre 4 and pave meremments
rem
is
nt surfinacestopping
ppingSasicn and accelerating
and develo
based Dt
The
the alignment, haseg ais ae classifi iedit a
determining the
e
operating speed and distance requi ee ea
Frictional
es @ ho ri zo r tt he sa fe op er at in g sp ee d.
the vehicles. When a vehicle negotiat
r i e n 2 retardation ab il it ie s of ve hi cl es . Th e
cofoun te ra ct s th e
po
ce
rt nt
an tri fu
faga
ct)or a
i i
rc e is an im
 G E O M E T R I C D E S I G N
{GUWA Y
™ r a r i p
MIGHWAY CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS 7s
o f f e r e d b y t h e p a v e m e n t s u r t i c e u n d e v
e s k i d r e s i s t a n e s x i
f r i c t i o n o F t h r e n c e t o t h e V h e m a
coetticient of t i o n s I S i c a n t w i t h r e f e This is because the lubricating effect of water on the wet pavement is reduced as the water
s u r f a c e c o n d i
h e ‘ n g p a
e l
f f i c i e n c y i s h i g h e n o u y
driving and | n t o p l a y o n l y w h e n n t
t h e b r a k i entrapped between the tyre and pavement escapes into the treads of the tyre. Hence new
t o f f r iciti c
on t i o n C O
c M E
o S m e s i t l o w s p e e d s ,
coattfiiec!ien F fr
i o n o f t h e w h e e l s o n a p p l i c a t i o n o f b r a k e a tyres are more dependable than smooth ones in adverse surface and other conditions
parti a l l y a r r e s t t h e r o t a t ¢ to skidding, such as wet pavements, ‘The minimum anticipated value of coefficient
s w a l il y f o n e
s l i d e w i t h o u t r e v o l v i n g or w h e n t h e w h e e l of friction under worst possible pavement condition is generally taken for design
‘Sha d o c e u r s w h e n t h e
e t h a n t h e b i e ia l
n g t h e r o a d s u r f a c e is m o r purposes. ‘The friction coefficient decreases with skid speed, which in tum depends on
Avhen the path travell e d a l o ar e a p p l i e d , t h e w h e e l s
t h e i r r o t a t i o n , W h e n t h e b r a k e s the speed of vehicle and brake efficiency.
movements of the w h e e l s d u e to l o n g i t u d i n a l s k i d d i
w a r d , t h e
d pa
are locke r t i a l l y o r f i l l y , a n d if t h e v e h i c l e m o v e s : f o r
For the calculation of stopping distance, the longitudinal friction coefficient values of
w h i c h m a y ’ v a r y f r o m 0 t o 1 0 0 p e r c e n t , 0.35 to 0.40 have been rec omm end ed by the Indi an Roa ds Cong ress , dep end ing upon
ta k e s p l a c e ing in view the min imu m
if th e ce nt ri fu ga l fo rc e is gr ea te r th speed, See Art, 4.3.2. The se valu es have been sug ges ted keep
go ti at es a ho ri zo nt al cu rv e, pav eme nts and afte r allo wing a
While a vehicle ne
d c o m p o n e n t of gr av it y du e to su pe coefficient of fri cti on in the long itud inal dire ctio n on wet
(i .e . la te ra l fr i io n an
the counteracting forces is co ns id er ed d a n g e r o u s as suitable factor of safety. Furt her whe n a long itud inal fric tion coef fici ent of 0.40 is
sk id di ng ta ke s pl ac e. ‘T he la te ra l sk id is 3.93 m/se c? whi ch is not too
elevation) lateral m u m la te ra l sk id co ef fi ci en t allowed for stopping the vehi cle, the resu ltan t reta rdat ion
of co nt ro l le ad in g to an ‘a cc id en t, Th e m a x i
icle goes out en t in br ak in g te st s. uncomfortable to the passengers.
rw ar d sk id co ef fi ci
nerally equal to or slightly higher than the fo des ign , the Ind ian Roa ds Con gre ss has rec omm end ed
nt . In the case of hor izo nta l cur ve
wheel revolves more than
a n th e co rr es po nd in g lo ng ! id in al mo ve me
Slip occurs whe ee l of a ve hi cl e wh en t h e the lateral coefficient of friction of 0.15. Thi s low val ue of tra nsv ers e ski d res ist anc e has
along the roads. Slipping usually occurs in the dr iv in g wh been suggested considering the wor st pos sib le sur fac e con dit ion suc h as mud on
at io na ry po si ti on or fr om sl ow sp ee d on pa ve me nt , it is
Vehicle rapidly accelerates from st pavement surface at horizontal curve wit h sup er- ele vat ion , dur ing the rai ns, as
surface which is either slippe ry and wet or wh en the roa d sur fac e is loo se wit h mu d essential to prevent pos sib le late ral ski d, eve n und er adv ers e pav eme nt con dit ion s.
Factors affecting friction or skid resistance Pavement unevenness
‘The max imu m fric tion off ere d by pav eme nt sur fac e or the skid res ist anc e dep end s Higher operating speeds are pos sib le on eve n pav eme nt sur fac es wit h less und ula tio ns
Pav eme nt sur fac e sho uld hen ce be mai nta ine d wit h
upon the following factors : than on uneven and poor sur fac es.
minimum possible unevenness so that the des ire d spe ed can be mai nta ine d in con for mit y
(i) Type of pavement surface namely, cement concrete bituminous, WBM, eal Pav eme nt une ven nes s als o aff ect s veh icl e ope rat ion cost .
surface etc.
with other geometric standards.
sum pti on and wea r and tea r of tyr es and oth er mo vi ng part s
comfort and safety. Fuel con
une ven nes s. Loo se roa d sur fac es inc rea se the
(ii) Macro-texture of the pavement surface or its relative roughness. increases with increase in pavement
rea se in fuel con sum pti on. Un ev en sur fac es als o
sractive resistance and hence causes inc
(iii) Condition of pavement namely, wet or dry, smoothened or rough, oil spilled, m increase fatigue and accidents.
or dry sand on pavement. cal led
mm on ly me as ur ed by us in g an eq ui pm en t
‘The pavement surface condition is co measure of vertical
rm s of un ev en ne ss in de x, wh ic h is the cu mu la ti ve
Bump Integrator, in te For
tyre. ac e re co rd ed per uni t ho ri zo nt al le ng th of the roa d.
undulations of the pavement surf
me as ur ed in cm per km . It has been shown from the
(v) Speed of vehicle example, unevenness in de x ma y be
en ne ss in de x lo w, an d pr ef er ab ly les s tha n 150
tests that it is desirable to keep the unev ys . A va lu e of 25 0 cm ik m is
(vi) Extent of brake application or brake efficiency envk m for go od pa ve me nt su rf ac es of hi gh sp ee d hi gh wa
of ab ou t 10 0 km ph . Va lu e mo re tha n 35 0 cn vk m is co ns id er ed
(vii) Load and tyre pressure : satisfacto ry up to a sp ee d on of pa ve me nt
or ta bl e ev en at sp ee d of $0 km ph . (S ee Art . 10. 4.2 for ev al ua ti
Very un co mf s me as ur ed us in g a str aight
(viii) Temperature of tyre and pavement, and surface condition). Pavement undulations are als o so me ti me
rut s al on g an d ac ro ss the pa ve me nt .
of the ex te nt ‘of nu mb er of depression or
(ix) Type of skid, if any edge in te rm s
by th e Ce nt ra l Ro ad Re se ar ch
ha s be en de si gn ed an d pa te nt ed
Tl
es me ‘
peor ‘aegreente used and the mix design of pavement surface course affect ‘An Unevenness Indicator
ca te un ev en ne ss va lu es fr om 3 to 20 mm .
pm en t is us ef ul to in di
the pavements, particularly in the case of old or worn out pavements... 4 Institute, New Delhi. This equi
ca us ed by va ri ou s fa ct or s,
julations on pavement surface may be rs
t of th e fi ll , s u b g r a d e an d p a v e m e n t la ye
ae s red when the pavement surface is sm' e e t a d e a u s e es i m p r o p e r c t a p a c l o
The coefficient of friction also decreases slightly wth a s in cl ud in g th e us e of b o u l d e r st on es an d br ic ks as
increase i temperat \ co ns tr uc ti on pr ac ti ce m a t e r i a l s ww )
i) un-scientific (i ii ) us e of in fe ri or p a v e m e n t
lo os e s u b g r a d e so il (v i)
Tes offer higher friction factors on soling course over ge (v ) us e of i m p r o p e r co ns tr uc ti on i y a s h i n e )
an d s u b s u r f a c e dr ai na us es .
f large areas of contact, But on improper surface ii ) lo ca li ze d fa il ur es du e to c o m b i n a t i o n of ca
pr ac ti ce s an d (v
poor maintenance
 icatimenmieeed:, 2°
Light refle SEOMETRI
cting charac C DI
teris tics
7
}Night Visibilit o N E L E M E N 1S 5
Pavement s t y v e r y s. HIGHWAY CR O S S S E C T I O

On Wet pavem
urface, i eee . a . y the er ‘ o w n d u r i n g o v e r t a k i n g
throw of vehicle when erossins
ent su; (ilji) Discomfort causing
surface give
800d visibili a
fi
a t e {Y Pavement, operations. anwand and t tr ‘ucks.
of e m
to ppsli ng ov er of hi i gh ly la de n b u l l o c k ca rt s
ey
very e Strpoain du“o e bri SALseni
ring nlige
suty htn Parkticto,ularly during 8 Tairans,
, t Blac j ait 4) P
r o b l
Poor Visibility at nights, es P Pavement surface
o r m a t i o n of cr os s ru ts du e to ra pi d fl ow of wa te r.
Pecially when the si (iv ) F
4.2.2 Cross
urface is Wey
v e h i c l e s to t r a v e l a l o n g th e ce nt er li ne
Slope or Camb (v) Tenden cy of most of t h e
er ; = go.
b_ eCt
;
roeCrse ss slozpiee or ch ham ber is Shape of cross slope
ra ig ht li ne s h a p e i n t h e , o n s s e t e
Mee me iE T Is the slope Pr a m b e r is g i v e n a p a r a b o l i c el li pt ic or st th e mi dd le & — _
ha ea water ovided
‘The: © elliptic shape is g i v e n so th at th e pr of il e is fl at at
hele oe from the road pok
e y p r e f e r r e d by fa st m o v i n g v e h i c l e s as th ey h a v e | f e a t
: eee surface by Pro b as a posa Parabolic ges, w h i c h is o la ne h i g h w a y . S e e F i g . 4 . 1 3
viding cross sl
ope Piete proas:ne epstig Tine dur i n g o v e r t a k i n g o p e r a t i o n on a t w
r impor
(i) To prevent the e1 ntry of
, Stability, surface conditi
S u r f a c e water into the subj
on and the life
waler enters in the s
ubg) rade and the soil ge
(ii)

(iii)
‘in allow the pavement to get dry
soon after the rain: the skid

(©) Combination of straight and parabolic shape

Usually the camber is provided on the straight
roads by raising the center of the — ‘Note : vertical scale are enlargedin the above sketches
carriageway with respect to the edges, forming a crown or hi
ghest point on the center line. Fig. 4.1 Shapes of Cross Slope
At horizontal curves with super-elevation, the surface drainage is effected by ra
ising the —
outer edge of pavement with respect to the inner edge while Providing the desired super- When very flat cross slope is provided as in cement concrete pavements, straight line
elevation. The rate of camber or cross slope is usually designated by | in which means shape of camber may be provided as shown in Fig. 4.1b. Steel tyred wheels of animal
that the transverse slope is in ratio | vertical to » horizontal. Camber is also expressed as q drawn vehicles can cause considerable damage to the pavement surface due to high
stresses. The wheel does not have full contact increasing further the contact stress under
a percentage. If the camber is x%, the cross slope is x in 100.
these steel tyred wheels when the vehicle travels along the center of the pavement with
The required camber of a pavement depends on : straight camber. Some times a combined camber with parabolic. central portion and
straight line camber at the edges as shown in Fig. 4.1 c is preferred.
(i) the type of pavement surface, and
The values of camber recommended by the IRC for different types of road surfaces are
(ii) the amount of rainfall given in table 4.1. A range of values are given with a view that in localities with
lower
rf ac e rainfall, a flatter chamber and in places with high rainfall, a steeper camber
ic ie nt on re la ti ve
iv el y im pe 7
rv io us pa ve me nt su can be adopted.
A flat camber of 1.7 to 2.0% iiis suff i a
ce me nt co nc re te or bi tu mi no us co nc re te . In pervious surface like nee bone Table 4.1 Recommended values of camber for different types of road
surfaces
su rf ac e wa te r to ge t in to th e su bg ra de “ | , st ee pe t |
ea rt h ro ad wh ic h ma y al lo w sl.
Range of camber in
ov id ed in ar ea s of he av y ra in fa ll . ,
required. Steeper camber are also pr No. Types of road surface areas of rainfall range
f su rf ac e wa te r ma y be p a t a ie Heavy to
The minimu m ca mb er ne ed ed to dr ai n of Light
of ra in fa ll in th e lo ca li ty . 4 |_1. [Cement concrete and high type bituminous surface |1 in $0 (2.0
pa ve me nt su rf ac e an d th e am ou nt %) to lin 601.7 22
view the type of : wf 3 2. [Thin bituminous surface 1 in 40 (2.5%)
de si ra bl e be ca us e of th e fo ll ow in g re as on s to 1 in 50 (2.0 %)
cr‘oss sl lope is not 3. |Water bound macadam, and gravel pavement _|1 in 33 (3.0%) _to | in 40 (2.5 %)
co mf or ta bl e si i d e de th ru st an d a :d r a g 4,
(i) Transverse til ici le s ca us es un Vin 25 (4.0%) to 1 in 33 (3.0 %)
th ru st on th e wh ee ls al on g th e pa ve me nt
steering of autod moi ! le ‘A ls o th e
of th e ty res as we ll as ro ad su rf ac e.
more causing unequal | we ar
 78 HIGHWAY SOMETRIC DESIGN
L E M E N T S
A>" 1»
C K O S S HCT I O N E
HI G H W A Y
The cross slope for shoulders should be steeper than the cross slope of. adjo e n t o f
two- l a n e p a v e m
pavement, subject to a minimum of 3.0% (and a maximum value of 5.0% for car
J be ob ta in ed as sh ow n in Fig . 4. 24 In the case of h e ha sa n fo rs e
shoulders), 0.68 m woul two Janes of f
traffic i c wi
‘a minimum clearance between
width 0.7m . Fig, 4,2b
o n t he road, as shown in
Providing camber in the field widest ve h i c l e s
For providing the desired amount and shape of camber, templates of camber board be rtm
are prepared with the specified camber. These are used to check the lateral profile
finished pavement during construction. Depending on the shape of the camber chos
the camber board may be prepared. Forming a stri ight line camber is very simple. In
case of parabolic camber, the general equation y = x°/a may be adopted, PAVEMENT
«
Here a © nW/2 for a pavement of width W and cross slope | inn.
2
2x*
=
Hence.
nw
fa) sthGLE LANE PAVEMENT
Example 4.1
In a district where the rainfall is heavy, major district road of WBM pavement, 3.8 m—
wide, and a state highway of bituminous concrete pavement, 7.0 m wide are to be
constructed, What should be the height of the crown with respect to the edges in these
two cases ?
Solution
For WBM road
Provide a camber rate of | in 33 as the rainfall is heavy. Rise of crown with respect to - (b) TWO TANE PAVEMENT
edges
Fig, 4.2. Lateral Placement of Vehicles
= 381 -0058m The number of lanes required in a highway depends on the predicted traffic volume
2 "33
and the design traffic volume of each lane. The width of pavement is increased on
For bituminous concrete road horizontal curves as discussed in Art, 4.3.5.
Provide a cross fall of I in 50. In some highways, traffic separators or medians are provided between two sets of
Rise of crown with respect to the edges. traffic lanes intended to divide the traffic moving in opposite directions. In such
highways the road width depends on the pavement width (or the Jane widths and number
«= 2,1 -007m of lanes) and the width of traffic separators. The width of carriageway for various classes
2 “50 of roads standardised by Indian Roads Congress are given in Table 4.2.

4.2.3, Width of Pavement or Carriageway Table 4.2. Width of Carriageway

The pavement or carriageway width depends on the width of traffic lane and number Class of road | Width of carriageway |
of lanes. The carriageway intended for one line of traffic movement may be called
Single lane 375m j
waffic lane. The lane width is determined on the basis of the width of vehicle and
Two lanes, without raised kerbs 7.0 m |
minimum side clearance which may be provided for the safety. When the side clea
ii) Two Tanes, with raised kerbs 75m j
iv) | Intermediate carriageway (except on important roads! 53m
is increased (up to a certain limit) there is an increase in operating speed of vehicles an |
hence an increase in capacity of the traffic lane. Keeping all these in view a width of 3. 5 Multi-lane pavements 3Smoperlane |
m is considered desirable for a road having single lane for vehicles of maximum (i) The width of single lane or village roads may be decreased to 3.0 m
2.44 m. For pavements having two or more lanes, width of 3.5 m per lane is consi (ii) On urban roads without kerbs the single lane width may be decreased to
sufficient. 3.5 m and in access roads to residential areas to 3.0 m
‘The maximum width of vehicle as per IRC specifications is 2.44 m. For details rel (ii) The minimum width recommended for kerbed urban road is 5.5 m to make
Ant. 5.2. If a single lane carriageway of width 3.8 m is provided, a side clearance. 0
allowance for a stalled vehicle.
 ith _
Lon collision betweay 5 tat

(ii) Semi-barrier type kerl is provided

pedestrian traffic is high This type of +
pavement edge with a batter of 1
nS at intersections encroachment of parking vehicles, but at ae
d tuming traffic this kerb with some difficulty
and fo protect pedestrians (iii) Barrier type kerb is provided in built-up aree
considerable pedestrian traffic. The height of kerb
aresnta sey
rators used may‘ty be in the form of of pavement
ma rk in h
paveinent edge with a steep batter of 1.0 vertical 6 25 f
‘eparato rs. Paveelment marking is the simplest of 3 all : t
In rural roads submerged kerbs are sometimes provided at pavement edge betwen
i ii
eparator should be designed in such a mann e
oach, no part of vehicle body should be e r th at even if wheel, edge and shoulders. ‘These kerbs provide lateral confinement and stability to the grermiiar
damaged “ base course and flexible pavements.
‘iArea separatorsrs may may bebe memedidianans,s, dividing dividing isi lands or parkway
directions of traffic flow. It is desirable to have wide area se strips, dividing the : 4.2.5 Road Margins
But the width should be decided in conformity with the availa p a r a t o r
ofs 8 wad
minimum of 6 m is requ The various elements included in the road margins ere shoulder, parking lane. frontaze
ired to reduce head light glare.’ The
narrower strips by planting trees or shrubs, road, driveway, cycle track, footpath, guard rail and embankment slope.
‘Shoulders are provided along the road edge to serve as an emergency lane for vehicle
. The IRC recommends a minimum desirable width of 5.0 m compelled to be taken out of the pavement or roadway. Shoulders also act as service
highways, which may be reduced to 3.0 m where land is ted coat talaga th i
lanes for vehicles that have broken down. Refer Fig. 4.4, which gives cross section
width of the me dian may be reduced upto 1.2 to 1.5 m. The medians should normally
b details of roads in embankment and cutting. The width of shoulder should be adequate to
of uniform width on a particular road, but where change in width is un
avoidable, accommodate stationary vehicle fairly away from the edge of adjacent lane. It is desirable
transition of 1 in 15 to | in 20 must be provided. to have a minimum shoulder width of 4.6 m so that a truck stationed at the side of the
shoulder would have a clearance of 1.85 m from the pavement edge. The minimum
On urban highways with six lanes or more, medians should invariably be provided shoulder width recommended by the IRC is 2.5 m.
The minimum recommended width of medians at intersections of urban roads are 1.2
for pedestrian refuge, 4.0 to 7.5 m for protection of vehicles making right tum and 9.0 ps soa0 LAND
12 m for protection vehicles crossing at grade. The absolute minimum width of median
urban area is 1.2 m and desirable minimum is 5.0 m. 3 fet nen SE mt nen
SS ee oa
4.2.4 Kerbs
“shower 7 cagnasee- FL swouser
{ aie? ary

Kerb indicates the
or foot path or kerb
(See Fig. 4.3). There
three groups based on
boundary between the pavement and shoulder; or sometimesi a
parking space. It is desirable to provide kerbs on urban 0
are a vari ety of kerb desi gns. Kerb s may be main ly divi ded
their functions. (0). IN EMBANKMENT

gene! Frege Ome :

7 ale
tear rig seranaton ——at
OF ccane ervemtuy

DUONG LiNe
[root Pare.

e Tne
—tonTroltiwe
bikl :hy _i
Fi g. 4. 3 Ke rb an d Tr af fi c Se pa ra to r rs,
Bu ROAD LAND -———.
ty pe ke rb s wh ic h th ou gh en co ur ag e tr af fi c to re ma l 1
(i) Lo w or mo un ta bl e
iv er to en te r th e sh ou ld er a e
through traffic lanes, yet allow the dr m i b).IN- CUTTING
sh ou ld er ke rb s is ab ou t ne
difficulty. The height of this type of
tt er to he lp ve hi cl es cl im b th e k sa l a5 Fig. 4.4 Cross Section Details
pavement edge with a slope or ba
s an d ch an ne li za ti on sc he me s an
type of kerb is provided at median
for longitudinal drainage system.
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIG
N
The shoulders should have suft
icient load bearing capacity to
Support loaded: %3
HIGHWAY CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS

4.2.6 Width of Roadway or Formation

Width of formation or roadwa y is the su m of wid ths of pa ve me nt s or ca rr ia ge wa y
sho uld ers . Fo rm at io n or ro ad wa y wid th is the top
including separators if any; and the ex cl ud in g the
width of the highway embankment or the bo tt om wid th of hi gh wa y cut tin g
wid th of ro ad wa y st an da rd iz ed by the Ind ian Ro ad s
side drains, as shown in Fig. 4.4. The
Congress are given in Table 4.3.
of Ro ad wa y of va ri ou s cla sse s of roa ds
Table 4.3 Width
Roadway width, mat i
guide maps to enable dri St Road classification Plain and | Mountainous and |
5 geway. Lay-bye: ally be of 3.0 width ond a No, Rolling terrain | _ Steep terrain
30 m length with 15 m end tapers on both sides as
T, | National & State Highways i
Bus bays
2 may be provided by y recessinig the ke (2) Single lane 12.0 625 \
Bus bays should be located atleast 75 m aay i ict wil in : (b) Two lane 12.0 8.80 \
fai acl ee 2, | Major District Roads |
. Frontage roads are provided to Gigive (a) Single lane 9.0 475 \
hate lana aes i wnt
access to properties alot i i
(b) Two lanes 9.0 s |
way or free way. The frontage ee es set to
3. | Other District Roads |
are isolated by a separator, ili 4. 75 |
at selected points, preferably with ae
/ (a) Single 15
eee ae ete med (b) Two lanes 9. 0 e i
Drive ways connect the highway with commerci i i ions &_ | Village roads-sing le la ne 75 $0 0 /
service-stations etc. Drive fas should be Mey deseied ant banat ya ys , ro ad wa y wid th sho uld be ade qua te for the req uis ne
from an intersection. The radius of the drive way curve should be kept as large . Notes (i) In multilane highwa tra l med ian .
nu mb er of tra ffi c lan es bes ide s sho uld ers and cen
pees but the width of the drive way should be minimised to reduce the length of cross
walks. 7 (ii) The minimum roadway width on single lane bridge is 4.25 m.

Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic on the road. 4.2.7 Right of Way
is very high. Refer Fig. 4.10. A minimum width of 2 m is provided for the cycle track a of land acq uir ed for the road , alo ng its ali gnm ent . The wid th
The layout of Right of way is the are
and the width may be increased by 1.0 m for each additional cycle lane.
of this acquired land is kno wn as lan d wid th and it dep end s on the imp ort anc e of the roa d
intersections and traffic rotarie bee n pre scr ibe d for eac h
cycle tracks should be carefillly decided in large highway
and possible futu re dev elo pme nt. A min imu m lan d wid th has
in ur ba n are as wh en the ve hi cu la r as wel l category of road. A des ira ble ran ge of land wid th has also bee n sug ges ted for eac h
Footpath or side walks are provided hwa y it is des ira ble to acq uir e mor e wid th of land
pr ot ec ti on to pe de st ri an s an d to de eas category. While acq uir ing land for a hig
pedestrian traffic are heavy, to pro ide adj oin ing land inv ari abl y inc rea ses ver y muc h, soo n afte r the new hig hwa y
0. Si de wa lk s are ge ne ra ll y pr ov id ed on eit her si de of | as the cost of on
accidents. Se e Fig . 4.3 , 4.9 an d 4.1
d the wi dt h ma y be in cr ea se d ba is constr uct ed, Als o roa d side dev elo pme nts star t tak ing pla ce mak ing it diff icul t late r
sh ou ld be 1.5 m an er imp rov eme nts . In som e
the road and the mi ni mu m wi dt h
be pr ov id ed wit h a sur fac e § to acquire more land if req uir ed for futu re wid eni ng or for oth
on the pedest ri an tra ffi c vo lu me . Th e fo ot pa th sh ou ld
ped est ria n cases the lower width within the sug ges ted ran ge may hav e to be ado pte d in vie w of hig h
c lan e so as to in du ce the in urb an and indu stri al
smooth as or even sm oo th er th an the ad ja ce nt tra ffi
4 cost of land and other exi sti ng feat ures , ‘Thi s is par tic ula rly true
be 2.5 to 3.0 pe rc en t.
keep on to the footpath. Th e cr os s fal l sh ou ld areas.
th e sh ou ld er w h e n th e ro ad is co ns tr uc te d
Guard rails are provid e d at th e e d g e of The land width is governed by the following factors :
th e e m b a n k m e n t , es pe ci al ly wh en t h
n t e d fr om r u n n i n g of f hig hwa y and wid th of roa dwa y
fill so th at ve hi cl es ar e p r e v e
a r d ra il s ar e in us e. Gi n e t (i) Width of formation depending on the cat ego ry of
c e e d s 3 m. V a r i o u s de si gn s of g u
height of th e fi ll e x in te rv al s a n e n e and road margins.
e st ri ps ) ar e in st al le d at su it ab le
(painted wi th bl ac k an d wh it r i s the top ogr aph y and
of ro ad s r u n n i n g on e m p a n i a e a Height of embankment or depth of cutting whi ch is gov ern ed by
f o r m a t i o n at ho ri zo nt al cu rv es Gi)
edge of the of th e cu rv es un de r he ad li gh ts of ve " ; a the vertical alignment.
e be tt er ni gh t vi si bi li ty
areas so as to provid de pe nd on th e he ig ht of th e sl op e,
po ss ib le fo r th e pu rp os e of sa b s e (iii) Side slopes of embankment or cuttin; 2 which
mbankment sl op es s h o u l d be as fl at as
il it y po in t, 8 soil type and several other con sid era tio ns inc lu di ng ae st he ti cs .
on s. T h o u g h fr om th e sl op e st ab
so c e ae st he ti c re as
seated and al as fl at as pe rm it
slope may be po ss ib le , th e sl op e m a y be ke pt
e t i c f e aet e
u r e s o t
© r o a d
s c a p i n g c a n i m p r o v e t h e a e s t h
. R o a d s i d e l a n d
considerations
tin rg o a d t r a v e l m o r e p l e a s a n t .
 84 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
HIGHWAY CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS
(iv) Drainage systems and their size, which depends on the rainfall, topography, an 85
off. ) Tun Table 4.4 (b) Recommended standards for building lines
¥ and control lines
(v) Sight distance considerations on horizontal curves, as there is restriction to ¢.
visibility on the inner side of the curve due to obstruction such as 1B structy res
etc. At sharp curves it is desirable to acquire a wider strip of landin order to avo; Road
Classification
obstructions to visibility. Refer Fig. 4.5. a
INH & SH
(vi) Reserve land for future widening is to be planned in advance based on anticipate MOR.
future development and increase in the traffic. ooR
[R.
Note: *If the land width is equal to the width between building lines indicated in this
column, the building lines should be set back 2.5 m from the road land boundary,
The recommended land widths for different classes of urban roads are, 50 to 60 m for
arterial roads (high types of urban roads meant for through traffic, with controlled access),
30 to 40 m for sub-arterial roads, 20 to 30 m for collector streets (urban roads and streets
meant for collecting traffic from local streets and feed to the arterial and sub-arterial
roads) and 10 to 20 m for local streets.
BUILDING OR OTHER
OBSTRUCTION 4.2.8 Typical Cross Sections of Roads
Some of the typical cross sections of rural roads of different categories and urban
Fig. 4.5 Obstructions to Visibility at Horizontal Curve roads are shown in Fig. 4.6 to 4.10.
The values of normal and range of land width standardized by the IRC for various
categories of roads in rural areas and in different terrains are given in Table 4.4 (a).

It is desirable to control the building construction activities on either side of the road
boundary, beyond the land width acquired for the road, in order to reserve sufficient space
for future improvement of roads. Therefore, it is necessary to disallow the building _ |
activities upto “building line” with sufficient setback from the road boundary. In
addition, it is desirable so exercise control of the nature of building upto further set back "|
distance upto the “control lines”. The overall width requirements between the building —
iES |
lanes and between the control lines on either side of the road, recommended by the IRC
Fig. 4.6 Cross Section of VR or ODR in Embankment in Rural Area
for different classification of roads in rural areas at different terrain conditions are given
in Table 4.4 (b). It may be seen from Tables 4.4 (a) and 4.4 (b) that the normal land
width required for the National and State Highways on open plain terrain is 45 m and the
maximum land width required is 60 m, the corresponding width between the building
lines is 80 m and that.between the control lines is 150 m, thus allowing set back distan
of 10 and 45 m beyond the road boundary lines with the maximum recommended road
width. :

. |National and State Highways 30-60 o n a l o r S H it in Ru ra l Ar ea

4 . 8 C r o s s S e c t i o n o f N a t i
._ |Major District Roads [25-30 Fig.
15__| 15-5
12 197.12
86 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC
DESIGN

Fo} parm
3 OR he rastecta ram,
SIGHT DISTANCE

woes crowns
Ama orate \ZONTAL CURVE
Woe

Wen eras senens taoeyTT

ws 20 bres
2 sa
mewmen
eve LeveL
Fig. 4.10 Cross Section of Divided Highway 1GHT_LINE, venrica, sume
in Urban Area
s
4.3 SIGHT DISTANCE
4.3.1 Introduction (b) SIGHT PISTANCE AT VERTICAL SUMMIT CURVE
The safe and efficient operation of vehicle on roads depends, am
ong other factor on
the toad length at which an obstruction, if any, becomes visible to
the driver in the
direction of travel. In other words the feasibility to see ahead, or the visi lity is very
important for safe vehicle operation on a highway.
Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance along the road surface,
which a driver from a specified height above the carriageway has visibility of stationary.
or moving objects. In other words, sight distance is the length of road visible ahead to the
driver at any instance.
Restrictions to sight distance may be caused at horizontal curves, by objects
obstructing vision at the inner side of the road or at vertical summit curves or
intersections. These are shown in Fig. 4.11. LE) SIGHT DISTANCE(S 0) AT INTERSECTION

Sight distance required'by drivers applies to both geometric design of highways and Fig. 4.11 Sight Distance Consideration
for traffic control
(iii) Driver entering an unc ont rol led int ers ect ion (pa rti cul arl y uns ign ali sed int ers ect ion )
‘Tatee sieht Gistance stustions sre consslcyod ie ces has sufficient visibility to enable him to take control of his vehicle and to avoid
(i) Stopping or absolute minimum sight distance collision with another vehicle.

(ii) Safe overtaking or passing sight distance, and Apart from the three situations mentioned above, the following sight distances are
(iii) Safe sight distance for entering into uncontrolled intersections considered by the IRC in highway design : st) wa as pg pa ae
ne i is — This is defined as ie i zs
. .
The standards for sight distance should satisfy the following three conditions: wr & data ig IEA not be provided, ieee sight distance is
ot provided to give limited overtaking opportunities to fast vehicles. te
(i) Driver travelling at the design speed has sufficient sight distance or lena
visible ahead to stop the vehicle, in case of any obstruction on the ro: Head light sight distance ~ This is the distance visible to a driver during night
without collision. : diving sinter ‘liumination of the vehicle head lights. This sight distance is eritical at
b " it stretch of the ley
valley curves.
(ii) Driver traveling at the design speed should be able to safely overtake, at reasO” up-gradients and at the ascending
intervals, the slower vehicles without causing obstruction or hazard to traffic
opposite direction.
7] 88 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN

4.3.2 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) SIGHT DISTANCE 89

The minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot should be of s ] The brake reaction time also depends on sete ea nip te ob
length to stop a vehicle traveling at design speed, safely without collision with any driver, the typeof the problems and various ri environmental factors
obstruction. The absolute minimum sight distance is therefore equal to the stopping si | brake reaction time of the driver is taken together. eatin re ae
distance, which is also some times called non-passing sight distance. S PIEV Theory : According to this theory the total reaction time o} spl
into four-parts, viz., time taken by the driver for:
The sight distance available on a road to a driver at any instance depends on ;
@ Reteention
(i) features of the road ahead,
(ii) Intellection
(ii) height of the driver’s eye above the road surface,
(iii), Emotion, and
(iii) height of the object above the road surface. (iv) Volition
| a 7 scnssii ved by the eyes or earsto
The features of the road ahead which affect the sight distance are the horizontal | Perce ption time ste time requi red
alignment and vertical profi le of the road, the traffic condition and the position be transmitted to th e br ai n th ro ug h th e for
ne rv he
ou s Sees g
cho rd
system and spinal chord. Ino
In other words,
obstructions. At vertical summit curves the height of driver’s eye and the object ab ititisis ththee titi me requiri ed to perceiive saab ject or situation. e et SS
: i i ibility. The height of an object to Intellection time is the time required for inaesne ss oli ee 4
road level are more important factors affecting the vi
er to t h g
required for comparin th e di ff er en t th ou gh ts , re gr ou pi ng an d re gi st er in g ne w se ns .
e pe nd s on wh at mi gh t be a so ur ce of da ng
bemovicongnsidveerhiedcle.for Fostropthpieng puarpveoshiecl of demeasuring the stopping sight distance or visibility Emotion time is the time elapsed during, emotiona l ions sensat ters
and die n be
ahead. IRC has suggested the height of eye level of driver as 1.2 m and the height of the fear, anger or any other emotional feelings such as superstition etc. with rel ene a
object as 0.15 m above the road surface. | situation. Therefore the emotion time of a driver is likely to vary considerably depending
Hence the stopping distance available at a summit curve is that distance measured upon the problems involved.
along the road surface at which an object of height 0.15 m can be seen by a driver where on ti me is th e ti me ta ke n fo r th e fi na l ac ti on .
th e
eye is at a height of 1.2 m above the road surface. Refer Fig. 4.11 (b).
Voli ti
Gk i n by
4 ible that the driva er may apply brakes or take any avoiding action by
is st 12.
ra te d in Fi g. 4.
The distance within which a motor vehicle can be stopped depends upon the factors tna without th in ki ng . Th e PI EV pr oc es s ha s be en il lu
listed below :
Brain:
(a) Total reaction time of the driver
(b) Speed of vehicle brpancernian
(©) Efficiency of brakes Econ e
(d) Frictional resistance between the road and the tyres and ¥- VOLITION,
(©) Gradient of the road, if any
STIMULUS RESPONSE
Total reaction time

Reaction time of the driver is the time taken from the instant the object is visible to,
REFLEX ACTION
the driver to the instant the brakes are effectively applied. The amount of time gap. Fig. 4. 12 Re ac ti on Ti me an d PI EV Pr oc es s
depends on several factors. During this time the vehicle travels a certain distance at the: ime of a driver de pe nd s on se ve ra l fa ct or s su ch as ph ys ic al an d
original speed or the design speed. Thus the stopping distance increases with increase in” sabe sSeraiaeristcs of the c e ty pe of the pr ob le m in vo lv ed , ea vi eo nm es ta l
reaction time of the driver. The total reaction time may be split up into two parts. (e .g . mo ti ve of the tri p, tr av el sp ee d, ni gu e
condition and temporary factors ma y va ry ie
ac ti on ti me of an av er ag e dr iv er
(i) perception time consumption of alcohol, etc.). The total re mo re in co mp !
ions to as much as 3 to 4 se co nd s or ev en
0.5 second for simple situat
(ii) brake reaction time problems.
The perception time is the time required for a driver to realise that brakes must Speed of vehicle
s ve ry mu ch on th e sp ee d of th e v e h i First ducing
applied It is the time from the instant the object comes on the line of sight ofthedri The stopping distance depend di st an ce mo ve d by th e ve hi cl e wi ll depend on the
the instant he realises that the vehicle needs to be stopped. The perception time the total re nc ti on ti me of th e dr iv er th e
from driver to driver and also depends on several other factors such as speed
vehicle, distance of object and other environmental conditions.
 ®
HIGUWAY GEOMETRIC D
ESIGN
spent Seeond, the braking distance or the ata
distance moved by: the vehiely SIGHT DISTANCE
the Drakes, before SONAINE LO A st AREF
op depends also on the il Wal ap, n e d b y e q u a t i n g t h e w o r k
Heawe it is evident that higher the speed, speed of 4 b r a k i n g d i s t a n c e m a y be o b t a i
higher will be the Stopy Ping d
is Assuming a level road, the r g y .
tance, e a n d th e k i n e t i c e n e
Efficiency of brakes dlone in stopping the vehicl en wo rk ,
the brakin g di st an ce is /, th
fo rc e d e veloped and Fe /=0W 1, where W is the total
The braking efficiency is said IF F is the maximum frictional is
to be 100 perce nt if the in s t o p p i n g th e ve hi cl e
Preventing them from rotating on wheels are full lone against friction force ;
percentnt sskkiiddding which is normally
application of th ie brakes. Ly lo
This will Tesult in, weight of the vehicle,
Y undesi ble, » ¢ xcept ini utmos d e s i g n s p e e d o f v m / s e e wi ll be
skidding is considered to be d
angerous, as it is not Possible
t e m e r y ‘The kinetic energy at the
Hence to avoid skid, the brakin
g forces should not exceed the
to control a akin ae Wy 2
Wheels and tyres. frictional force ben i 1 lmvimy = im
Frictional resistance between road
and tyres 2
The frictional resistance develo Hence trwi= 2g
ped
depends on the type and conditi
on of the
4.11. The braking distance increase
s witl pu
a design friction coefficient of 0.3
5 to us 2gf
finding the braking distance in th
e calc
apart from having sufficient safety fact Here | = braking distance, m
comfortable for passengers, v = speed of vehicle, nvsec.
Analysis of stopping distance f = design coefficient of friction
The stopping distance of a vehicle is the sum of : = 0.4 to 0.35 depending on speed, from 30 to 80 kmph
g =
. 2
acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 m/sec”.
(i) the distance travelled by the vehicle during the total reaction time know as
lag distance and Stopping distance = lag distance + braking distance
(ii) the distance travelled by the vehicle after the application of the brakes, to a dea
stop position which is known as the braking distance.
d
i
ie, m=
SD,m vit x
er api:
Lag distance If speed is V kmph, stopping distance
During the total reaction time or PIEV time the vehicle may be assumed to proceed
forward with a uniform speed at which the vehicle has been moving and this speed may D, ,m
SD,m = .278 Vy V; + ace
0.278 Ist (4.2)
(4.2 :
be taken as the design speed. If ‘v' is the. design speed in m/sec and ‘t’ is the total
reaction time of the driver in seconds, then the lag distance will be ‘v.t’ metres. 7
Equation 4.1 and 4.2 are the general equations for stopping distance at level.

If the design speed is V kmph, then the lag

.distance works out to V x
1000.
coxa Stopping distance at slopes

‘When there is an ascending gradient of say, + n% the component of gravity adds

t= 0.278 V.t meters. to the
braking action and hence the braking distance is decreased. The component of gravit
y
The total reaction time of driver depends on a variety of factors and a value of acting parallel to the surface which adds to the braking force is equal to W
sin a =
W tan a = Wn/100.
sees. Is considered reasonable for most situations. The IRC has also recommended
value of reaction time t = 2.5 secs. for the calculation of stopping distance. Equating kinetic energy and work done,
Braking distance 2
(wie), = 4¥v
The coefficient of friction ‘f depends on several factors such as the type and co 100 8
of the pavement surface and tyres. Also the value of f decreases with increase in 2
IRC recommends the following f-values for design :
es 2g(r+
carr2.)
[ Speed. kmph 20 to 30
Lonvitudinal coefficient of friction. f | 0.40
 Simi 5 oe METRIC DE: SIGN
imilarly, in de
scending Sradie
component of gravj nt of — no a the oe 93
Sravity now opposes the braking force, Hee qiisance me siGHT DISTANCE
Wn 2 "quationig 9 «time of drivaser2.5 seconds
XY rcient of ftietion as 0.37 and reaction ie
me ae i= 2g ‘Assume coeffich

‘sol utio n = lag distanc e + :brakin g distanc e

PL 2 os ty stopping distance (Eq: 44) = 18
2g} f-_ = Me whos Sef
Hence cei thi the general equation 4, “( 100
Bradient and may be written ac: °°" “°PPINg distance may now be modified
4 7 y=! S0icuph orv= 5,50 713-9
_ miser
iif w

t= 25,8 =9.8, £=037

SD,m = — 2
28 (f£0.0In) 13 9 % 2 5 + 3 5 9 9 x 0 3 7
When the ground is lev stopping distance =
el, n= 0 Eq. 4.3 Teduces to Eq
- Equation 4.3 may be re-wr
. 4.1 = 348+ 26.6=61.4m
itten as follows where f o l l o w s =
1s n percent : the speed is V kmph and
b e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m E q . 4 2 a s
the f
Alternatively, th e s t o p p i n g d i s t a n c e may alfb =
SD - 0.278 Vi. +V254f
SD,m = 0.278 V+ Vo
2
50?
254(f£0.01)n = 0278 x50%25+ aqx0. 761-4
necessaryr to deattermine the critical ne s = st op pi ng di st an ce = 61 .4 m
value of th ie SSD (a) St op pi ng si gh t di st an ce wh en th er e ar e tw o la
Toads with gradients and two way traffic
flow, pre c wi th si ng le la ne = 2 [s to pp in g di st an ce ]
St op pi ng si gh t di st an ce fo r tw o- wa y traffi
2 The minimum stopping sight distance hence (b)
shoul id be equal to the stopping distan_ =2x 61.4 122.8.
in one-way traffic lanes and also in two-way traffic roads when
there are two or more
traffic lanes. On roads with restricted width or on single lane roads when two-way Example 4.3
movement of traffic is permitted, the minimum stopping sight
dist ance shou ld be
TWICE the stopping distance to enable both vehicle coming from opposite directions toequa l to, Calculate the minimum sight distance required to avoid a head-on collision of two cars
stop. The SSD should invariably be provided throughout the length of all roads
approaching from the opposite directions at 90 and 60 kmph. Assume a reaction time of
and 2.5 seconds, coefficient of friction of 0.7 and a brake efficiency of 50 percent, in either
hence this is also known as absolute minimum sight distance. ‘When the stopping si case.
distance for the design speed is not available on any section of a road, the speed should
restricted by a warning sign and a suitable speed-limit regulation sij However Solution
should be considered only as a temporary measure ant Stopping distance for one of the cars (Eq. 4.1).
the road should be re-aligned or the obstruction to removed so as to p
2
atleast stopping sight distance for the design speed. SD metres = vt+ S—
2gf
The safe stopping dis tan ce val ues cal cul ate d in the sim ila r man ner for var iou s
speeds and recommended by IRC are given in Table 4.5. v= 90 kmph, v= 20. =25 misee
Table 4.5 Stopping si gh t di st an ce va lu es for di ff er en t sp ee ds
es meas css tees
Design speed, kmph_ 2025 ate a 60] 65 fo 36
an ce fo r de si gn , m | 20 | 25 | 30] 45 60 | 80 | 90. [120] se:
Safe stopping sight di st
E diss the brake efficiency is 50%, the wheels will skid through 50% of the braking
fics ce and
rot ate th rough the remaining distance. Therefore, the value of coefficient of
Example 4.2 ee developed f may be taken as 50% of the coefficient of friction, i.e.,
of 50 kmph
for f= 0.5 x 0.7
Calcul at e th e sa fe st op pi ng si gh t di st an ce fo r de si gn speed
o wa y tr af fi c on a si n, ig le p l a n e r o a d .
way traffic on a tw o Ja ne ro ad (b ) tw
94
HIGHWAY GEOM
ETRIC DESIGN
The stopping distan ice for the first car SD; SIGHT DISTANCE 98

2s? 6s?
= 25x25+ = 0278 x65x25+ so a5 14m
eens a
2x91.8x035 | 193.6m
6672 : (ji) Intermediate sight distance = 2SSD=2%91
.4= 182.8m
cra!
298x035 822m 4. 3. 3 Ov er ta ki ng Si gh t Di st an ce (O SD )
‘ance to avoid head-on colli the de si gn sp ee d, th en th eo re ti ca ll y th er e sh ou ld
sion of the two approaching cars If all the vehicles travel on a road at d an d
es do not mo ve at the de si gn ed sp ee
= SD) + SD2 = 153.6 + 82,2 be no need for any overtaking. In fact all vehicl it is
= 235.8 m. s is pa rt ic ul ar ly tru e un de r mi xe d tra ffi c co nd it io ns . In su ch ci rc um st an ce s,
thi ng ve hi cl es . It ma y
ta ke or pa ss the sl ow mo vi
Example 4.4 necessary for fast moving vehicles to over throughout the cl es
not be possible to provide the fac ili ty to ov er ta ke sl ow mo vi ng ve hi
Calculating the stopping sight distance ca se s fac ili tie s for ov er ta ki ng sl ow ve hi cl es wi th adequate safety
on a hi length of a road. In such
for a design speed of 80 kmph. Assume other data ighway at a descending gradient o 2 shou ld be ma de po ss ib le at fr eq ue nt di st an ce in te rv al s.
as per IRC recommendations.
The minimum distance ope n to the vis ion of the dri ver of a veh icl e int end ing to
Solution t the tra ffi c of opp osi te dir ect ion is kn ow n
overtake slow vehicle ahead wit h saf ety aga ins
Pate
Totr,
al reaction ti‘ime t may be taken as 2.5 seconds and design as the minimu m ove rta kin g sig ht dis tan ce (O SD ) or the saf e pa ss in g sig ht dis tan ce
i coefficient of fri
available.
V = 80 kmph;n=-2% =~ 0.02, G=9.8 m/sec” The overtaking sight distance or OSD is the distance measured along the center of the
road which a driver with his eye level 1.2 m above the road surface can see the top of an
v
80
36
=== = 222: m/sec
object 1.2 m above the road surface. Refer Fig. 4.13.

SSD on road with gradient is given in Eq. 4.3 and 4.4. E LEVEL
2 2 1
SSD = perp en a n h P e ee .02) Revert AXING SIGHT
From Eq. 4.3, 2g (F£n%) 2%9.8(0.35-0 DISTANCE
t
verrica
QUMMIT CURVE:
55.5 + 76.2 = 131.7 msay 132m
Fig. 4.13 Measurement of Overtaking Sight Distance
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , u s i n g Eq . 4. 4 Some of the important factors on which the minimum overtaking sight distance
v2 required for the safe overtaking manoeuvre depends, are :
i= J 1
a f £ 0 0 1 ) n
SSD 0.278 V . t + (@) speeds of (i) overtaking vehicle (ii) overtaken vehicle and (iii) the vehicle coming
from opposite direction, if any.
80°80? _ 35,6 + 76.4 = 132 (b) distance between the overtaking and overtaken vehicles; the minimum spacing
= 0.278 x 802.5 + 55779 35-0.02) 4 depends on the speeds.
(©) skill and reaction time of the driver
(d) rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle
Example 4.5 e r m e d i a t e s i g h t di st
s i g h t d i s t a n c e a n d ( i i ) I n t
r e d (€) gradient of the road, if any
a l u e s o f ( i ) ight
s u i t a b lall t
y h e d a t a r e q u i
Calculate the v
t e f a e ‘A s s u m e Analysis of Overtaking Sight Distance
g h w a y w i t h a d e s i g n S| o
fo r a h i
Figure 4.14 shows the overtaking manoeuvre of vehicle A traveling at design speed,
Sosol lution y= 6s kmph: ad another slow vehicle B on a two-lane road with two-way traffic. Third vehicle C
‘omes from the opposite direction. The overtaking manoeuvre may be split up into three
ta ki ng si gh t di st an ce in to th re e pa rt s, d) , dz an d d3 .
Operations , th us di vi di ng th e ov er
A ssulm ie f = 0.36,t= 2.5 secs.
v2
soap “a1 ETRE TE
= ssp =0.278 Vit
 9% HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN

(i) dj is the distance travelled by overtaking vehicle A during the re; SIGHT DISTANCE
action ti
the driver from position Ay to Ap. Mime
La
Now the time T depends on speed of overtaken vehicle & and the acceleration of
(ii) dz is the distance travelled by the vehicle A from A: overtaking vehicle A.
2 (0 A3 durii This time T may be calculated by equating the distance d) to
overtaking operation, in time T sec. 3 curing the vp T + % aT), using the general formula for the distance travelled by an uniform! ly
(Vb
(iii) d3 is the distance travelled by on-comin; ig vehicle ) accelerating body with initial speed vp m/sec and ‘a’ is the acceleration in m/sec”.
C from Cy t .
overtaking operation of A, i.e. T secs. pte, during 2
dp (b+ 2s) = [wr =|

u
Certain assumptions are made in order to calculat
e the values of di, d2 and d3,
2
In Fig. 4.14, Aé is the overtaking vehicle origin b = vb-T,
and therefore 2s= a
ally travelin; ig at design i sg n
or V kmph; B is the overtaken or slow
moving vehicle moving vith cine e
Vp m/sec or Vp kmph; C is a vehicle coming
from opposite direction at the design n
v m/sec or V kmph. In a two-lane road Therefore, T= f sec, where s = (0.7 vp + 6)
the Opportunity t i
frequency of vehicles fr om the direction and the over
westuktaki
ing ng ig si Sight
eh tdditidist
ss i
ance availabl
G e um e at
instant. Hence, dy = (vpT+2s),m
(iii) The distance travelled by vehicle C moving at design speed v m/sec during the
overtaking operation of vehicle A i.e. during time T is the distance d2 between
positions C; to C2.
Hence, dy = vxT
‘Thus the overtaking sight distance
Fig. 4.14 Overtaking Manoeuvre
OSD = (di +d2+d3)
(i) It may be assumed that the vehicle forced to reduce its speed to the speed vp of
the slow vehicle B and moves behind it allowing a space s, till there is an = (vpt+vpT+2s+vT) (4.5)
opportunity for safe overtaking operation. The distance travelled by the vehicle; In kmph units, equations (4.5) worksout as :
during this reaction time is dj and is between the positions Ay and Az. This distanc
OSD = 0.28 Vyt+ 0.28 Vp T+ 2s + 0.28 V.T (4.6)
will be equal to vp x t metre where ‘t' is the reaction time of the driver in second
This reaction time ‘t’ of the driver may be taken as two seconds as an average value, Here Vy = speed of overtaking vehicle, kmph
as the aim of the driver is only to find an opportunity to overtake. Thus,
t = reaction time of driver = 2 secs.
dy = Vp t=2 vp, m V_ = speed of overtaking vehicle or design speed, kmph
(ii) From position Az, the vehicle A starts accelerating, shifts to the adjoining lan ax3.6s _ (tas
overtakes the vehicle B, and shifts back to it original lane ahead of B in position A3 " A A
The straight distance between position Az and A3 is taken as d2.
in time T sec.
s = spacing of vehicles = (0.2 Vb + 6)
minimum distance between position Az and B; may be taken as the mi
A = acceleration, kmph/sec.
spacing ‘s’ of the two vehicles while moving with the speed vp m/sec. d is
is not gi ve n, the sa me ma y be as su me
minimum spacing between vehicles depends on their speed and is given by emp! In case the speed of overtaken vehicle Vp
V is the de si gn sp ee d in km ph or vp = (v ~ 4:5 ) mu se e an d v is t h e
formula : (V - 16) km ph wh er e
s= (0.7 vp + 6),m design speed in m/sec. in ec e r e
e ov er ta ki ng ve hi cl e is to be sp ec if ie d. t e r
The minimum distance vetween Bz and A3 may also be assumed equal The acceleration of th lo ad an d the sp ee d. & he k e r He a
the make of the ve hi cl e, its co nd it io n,
of veh ic! Be La te b a c he
mentioned above, If the time taken by vehicle A for the overtaking operation us ed for fi nd in g the ma xi mu m ac ce le ra ti on
may be ki ng ma no eu vr e ma y co rr es
du ri ng ov er ta
position A2 to A3 is T second, the distance covered by the slow vehicle B travelin average rate of acceleration
speed of vp m/sec. = b = v,/T m. the design speed.
 98 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN

Table 4.6 Maximum overtaking acceleration at different s 3 SIGHT DISTANCE

Speed Maximum overtaking ac;

Vv. =n vemisec | A, kmphisec acceler] Overtaking Zones i ghways iin such riwayes thatat ithdeomlenpgrtahctiofcabrole ‘and there may aad visible ahead
to c o n s t r u c t h i w h e r e
25 6.93 5.00 F It is desi r a b l e
s u f f i c i e 4 , I n s u c h z o n e s
1.30 every poinint t iis s s u l
s s h o u l d b e i n s t a l l e d
30 8.34 4.80
e t c h e s w h e r e t h e s a f e o v e S i g n p o s t a r t s
40 11.10 4.45 1 | be swr n g i s n o t s a f e o1 si u c h r e s t r i c t e d z o n e s s t
34 ian ove r t a k i n g o F p a s s i
t a k i n g P r o h i bi b
t ietde”d ” b e f o r e
50 13.86 4.00 “ i n g ” o r ““
i c l e s m o v i n g a t d e s i g n
65 18.00 3.28 092 indic a t i n g
a k ien g o p p o r teuan i t t
y e v e h i
But th e o v e N
r t w h i c h a re mean t f o r o v e r t a k
80 22.20 2.56 0.72 n t e r v a l s . These zon e s
fre q u e n t i ‘
1.92 053 | o p e r a t i o n
100 27.80 zones. a f e o v e r t a k i n g
h e
s h o 0
u l d b e s u f f i c i e n t f o r
c e
s
t o i n d i c a t e t h e s t a r t o f t
The O S D a n d p a v e ment wid t h
d i s t a nce in adv a n a n d
At overtaking sections, the minimum overtaking distance should be (d) + 4;
Sign posts should b e i n s t a l l e d a t s u f f i c i e n t
4 ; + 4 2 ) f o r o n e - w a y r o a d s
distance ma y b e e q u a l t o (
when two-way traffic exists. On divide highways and on roads with one waa
overtak i n g z o n e s ; t h i s
regulation, the overtaking distance need be only (d) + dz) as no vehicle is expected
ea e e roi Si ost ins tal led ah ea d at di st an ce s sp ec if ie d 25 0% fi es
the opposite direction. On divided highways with four or more lanes, IRC
Suggests th in of o v e r t a k i n g z o n e s h o u l
ng dist
is not necessary to provide the usual OSD; however the sight distance on any his “nimum length + 3 ) f o r t w o - w a y h i v e s It is destin that
should be more than the SSD, which is the absolute minimum sight distance. ro a d s a n d 3 ( d y + d 2
ee ee s t h e o v e r t a k i ng sight distance.
g z o n e s is k e p t . f i v e t i m e
Effect of grade in overtaking sight distance Re length ‘of over t a k i n
c i f i c a t i o n s fo r t h e p o s i t i o n s o f t h e s i g n
an o v e r t a k i n g z o n e w i t h s p e
_ Apprec
Apr iable graddes on the road, both the descendin; 1, as well as ascendin;ing, Fi‘iguregure 4.4.15 shows
it posts.
\sight distance required for safe overtaking. In down grades though it ie cade fe
acies TOME srinune LEED 3 |
‘overtaking vehicles to accelerate and pass the overtaken vehicle may also accelerate aia’ me Ho 38)
cover a greater distance ‘b’ during the overtaking time. |
On up grades, the acceleration of the overtaking vehicle will be less and hence assinpasig |
i 4
will be difficult; but the overtaken vehicle like heavily loaded trucks may also dealer
at steep ascends and compensate to some extent the passing sight distance requirement, OS.D = Overtaking sight distance
Therefore the OSD at both ascending and descending grades are taken as equal to that = (di + d3) for one way traffic
level stretch. However, at grades the overtaking sight distance should be greater than th = (dy + dz + ds) for two way traffic
SP, = Sign post “over taking zone ahead”
minimum overtaking distance required at level. ‘SP2 = Sign post “end of overtaking zone”
The IRC has specified the safe values of overtaking sight distance required for vari Fig. 4.15 Overtaking Zones
design speeds between 40 and 100 kmph. These values have been suggested based on
observation that 9 to 14 seconds are required by the overtaking vehicle for the Criteria for Si gh t Di st an ce Re qu ir em en ts on Hi gh wa y
overtaking manoeuvre depending on the design speed. This overtaking time may be dis tan ce req uir ed th ro ug ho ut the len gth of the roa d is the
‘The absolute minimum sight
increased by about two-third to take into account the distance covered by the vehicle fron SSD which should invariabl y be pro vid ed at all pla ces . On hor izo nta l cur ves the
in e of the cur ves sho uld be cle are d to pr ov id e the req uir ed set
obstruction on the inner sid
operation. The OSD values thus obtained for various design speeds are rounded off § back distance and absolute minimum sight distance. The common obstruction to clear
the IRC and the recommended values of OSD on two lane highways are given vision on horizontal curves are buildings and other structures, trees, advertisement boards,
Table 4.7. cut slopes, etc. On vertical summit curves the sight distance requirement may be fulfilled
by proper design of the vertical alignment as given in Article 4.5. At uncontrolled
Table 4.7 Overtaking sight distance on two-lane highways for various speeds — intersections sufficient clearances to the sight lines may be given to provide for SSD.
Time component, seconds Safe overtaking sight) Intermediate Sight Distance
Sufficient overtaking sight distance should be available on most of the road stretches.
On horizontal curves the overtaking sight distance requirements can not always be
fulfilled especially on sharp curves, if the safe overtaking sight distance requirements are
high. In such cases overtaking should be prohibited by regulatory signs. In case of
 0 MISTRIC
DESIGN
vertical summit a
ly de si gn in g G e r a : is po ss ib le to pr ov id e th e
se
suit ab
i n a R N A
Svermiedniate ASight Distance, ISD equa
Ls Py ical i i

SIGHT DISTANCE
-5). The » ISD equal to twice sg} ta ki ng zo ne ar e sh ow n in Fi g. 4. 16
of the dri Ver and the ob g both te pee : {c) The details of th e ov er
i jecto tbe 1.2 Metres abo <mnene
ve the ti
Toad surface,
Example 4.6

(@) calculate safe overtaking sight di

Fig. 4.16 Overtaking Zone (Exa mple 4.6)
(6) mention the mini:
minimum length of vertakinovertaki g zone and ;
(©) drawa neat -ske of t ertaki
thecovh it s
enaist rike acs . | Example4.7
a des ign s p of
e 96
e km
d ph As su me
tiof
onthes sigIGNn po | cul lc
CalCa the
ul saf
at e
e o v e r t a k i n g s i g h t di st for
an ce ign
So@ lution Po si post
all other data suitably.
wertak ing sight

2) Overtak dist
sigihtng
Solution
for two way traffic OSD = (41 +43 ) for on e- tra
wa yffi c
es
ost = di+d=d = (dy + dz + ds) for two-way traffic
ign speed as the spe ed of ove rta kin g veh icl e A
Assume
: V = 96 kmph
V = 70kmph Vp = V - 1 80 6 kmp =h and
‘Assume
yea! 0 sre kmp h’s ec. (fr om Tab le 4.7 ); t= 2 sec s.
'A.2.5
; 3.6 | 4misec 0. 28 Vyt = 0.2 8 x 80 x2 = 44 8m
7 dy =
a 40 ‘ . ee
7 Ye = — =11.1 msec dz = 028VpT+2s
3.6
s = (02 Vp+6)=0.2x80+6=22m
Acceleration, a = ecsec.
0.99 m/sper
D; 1 = vp.t (A do pt t ==2 sec s) == 11. 1 x2 z
=2 22m Te ats eae = 113 secs.
dz = w.T+2s dp = 0.28 x 80x 11.3 +2%22=297m
m
S = (0.7 vot 6)=(0.7 x11.1 + 6) = 13.8m dy = 0.28 V T = 0. 28 x 96 x 11 .3 = 30 3. 7

[axi3.8 on on e- wa y tr af fi c ro ad = dy + dz = 341.8 m; say 342m

[as =747 secs
O.S. D.
T= JH =) é
a 0.99 O.S.D. on two-way traffic road = dy + da + dy = 645.5 m; say 646 m

1.1 x 7.47 + 2 x 13 .8 = 11 0. 5 m
d=
= v . T = 1 9x.7 4
. 4 7 = 1 4 4 . 9 m
d3

OS D = d i t d + d
2 2 + 1 1 0 . 5 + 1 4 4 . 9 = 2 7 7 . 6 m , s a y 2 7 8 m
= 2
o f o v e r t a k i n g z o n e = 3 ( O S D )
(b) Mi n i m u m l e n g t h
t w o - w a y tr a= 3
f x
f 2 i
7 8 =
c 8 3 4
= 3(dj + d 2 + d 3 ) f o r

= 5 x ( O S D ; ) = 5 x 2 7 8 = 1 3 9 0
o f ‘ o v e r t a k i n g z o n e
Desirable length
We HHOTIWAY GROMETIIC DrSiON
DESIGN OF HOKIZONTAL ALIGNMENT a

at unco ntro lled inte rsec tion s, suffi cient visib ility shou ld be prov ided such that the sight
equa l to the SSD come syam Ainy , to the desi gn upne t of toe
distance of each road is atleast
avai labl e is lees than the desi rabl e mini mnue n size Oue to
road, If the sight triangle oF
reasons, the vehicles approaching the intersection may oH warned
unavoidable
controlled by suit able signs ,
At rota ries the sigh t dist ance sho uld be at feas t equa l 10 the safe sop pin g Gis anc e for
At sig nal ize d inte rsec tion s, the Boo ve thre e req ure mem s
the design speed of the rotary.
are not applicable.
whe re a min or road cro sse s 2 maj or road , the traf fic on the
At priority intersections
minor road may be controlled by stop or giv e-w ay sign to give prio rity to the traf fic on the
Vig. 417 Sight Distance at Intersection the min or be sufficient 16
road sho uld
major road. The visi bili ty dist ance ava ila ble alo ng
(OSes the approaching vehicle to change speed: The visi bili ty dis tan ce 2lo ng the maj or road
The sight distance should be: enable the drivers stop their vehicles. road
sulticiont to enable either one or both the approaching vehicles to chan; i speed depends upon the time required for the sto ppe d vehi cles app roa chi ng fro m the min or
vehi cles on the maj or road , to acc ele rat e and to cros s the
avout collision, The vehicle approaching from the minor road should slow down to evaluate the gaps between the
the
major road safety. IRC recommends that a min imu m visi bili ty dis tan ce of 15 m alo ng
The total reaction time required for the driver to decide to change speed may e and cor res pon din g
145 and 110 m alon g the maj or
assumed as two seconds and at least one more second will be needed for making t minor road and a distance of 220, 180,
to the design speeds of 100, 80, 65 and 50 kmp h res pec tiv may
ely be pro vid ed.
change in speed. Hence the two sides AC and BC of the sight triangle along tf
intersection approaches upto the conflict point C should be atleast equal to the
distance covered by a vehicle traveling at design speed in two seconds. But thi 4.4 DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
sight distance being too less, should be increased in all possible cases. 4.4.1 General
Often changes in the direction are nec ess ita ted in hi gh wa y al ig nm en t due to obl izs tor y
(ii), Enabling approaching vehicle to stop : In this case, the distances for in the
points as discussed in Chapter 3. Various design factors to be considered
approaching vehicle should be sufficient to bring either one or both of the vehicle t of circula r curves, type and length of
Hence the two sides AC and BC of! horizontal alignm ent are design speed, radius
a stop before reaching a point of collision.
each be equal to the safe stoppi ng distanc e. In almostz on curves.
transition curves, superelevation and widening of paveme nt
sight triang le should
uncontrolled intersection s one of the two cross roads is a prefer ence highwa y or1 The alignment should enable consistent, safe and smooth movement of vehicles
operating at design speeds. It is hence necess ary to avoid those sharp curves and reverse
through road or a major road. Thus it is the responsibility of the drivers on the }
stop or change speed curves which could not be conven iently negotia ted by the vehicle s at design speed.
minor road who would cross or enter this main road, to of roads would necessi tate speed change s
lled by
the minor road is generally contro Improper design of horizon tal alignm ent
avoid collision. The traffic of
case the sight distance for 2 minor road should! resulting in increased vehicle operation cost and higher accident rate.
appropriate traffic sign. In such a
atleast equal to the SSD for the design speed of that road. The sight dist
4.4.2 Design Speed
requirement of stopping is higher than that of condition (i) above and hence is sal
2 The overall design of geometrics of any highway is a function of the design speed.
as vehicles can stop if necessary.
: Thi s cas e is ap pl ic ab le wi The design speed is the main factor on which geometric design elements depends. The
(iii) Enabling stopped vehicle to cro ss a ma in ro ad widening of pavement,
sight distances, radius of horizontal curve, superelevation, extra
ers ect ion fr om the mi no r roa d are co nt ro ll ed by st op :
vehicles entering the int length of horizontal transition curve and the length of summit and valley curve are all
and so these vehicles have to sto p and the n pr oc ee d to cro ss the ma in ro ad .
the st op pe d pos iti on of the mi no r dependent
on design speed.
a situation, the sight distance ava ila ble fr om
d veh icl e to sta rt, acc ele rat e and cros s 5 The design speed of roads depends upon (i) class of the road and (ii) terrain. The
should be sufficient to enable the stoppe class of road thus depends on the classification of the
e tra vel lin g at its de si gn sp ee d on the ma m speed standards of a particular
main road, before another vehicl terrain through which it passes. The terrains have been classified as plain, rolling,
T re qu ir ed for the st op pe d ve hi cl e to cr s
reaches the intersection. The time mountainous and steep, depending on the cross slope of the country as given below :
nd up on (a) rea cti on tim e of the dri ver (b) wi dt h off te m
main road would depe Terrai n cla ssi fic ati on | Cro ss slope of the cou ntr y. per cen t |
e. Th us the mi ni mu m sig ht = é
road (c) acceleration, and (d) length of vehicl 0-10
the di st an ce tra vel led by 3 veh icl e on the ma n roa d Plain
fulfil this co nd it io n is
this tim e 'T*, 3 Rolling _
speed during Mountainous
From safety con sid era tio ns, the sig ht dis tan ce at un co nr al ie d inte
therefore fulfil all the above three conditions. The higher of the three ood
Jaken at unslgunalived intersections at grade, except at rotaries. The IRC
 lean bol R T A E s t e e "
DESI G N O F H O B S t h e
p / w i s k n o w n
Theedesignmisp
fe reee
s d Cullini g and minimum) standardized b i g h t © f t h e v e h i c l e .
e t o t h e w e e q u a l 1 0 V e k .
Genk weitere frainsin rural areas are given in t t h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c
r a t i o i s t h i u s
a Pe a l e s Th ye ra t i o o f . ‘ t h e c e n t r i f u g a l
e f f e c t s
Ceeieee: eer, ed ite for the geometric design, "a oan el ry f i g O F t h e é m p a c t f a c t o r
n t a l c u r v e h a s t w o
ge contr i f u g e l l r a l
! J e n e g o t i a t i n g 4 h o r i z o
re site conditions or ¢ fecconserall been! c t i n g o n a v e h i c a n d
t r i y g a l f o r c e a 0 1 t e r w h e e l s
‘phe cen v e h i c l e o u t w a r d s a b o u t t h e
o a v e r t u r n t h e
agisreed mpn n c y w
passing ria occ h eanb
dothrougso
gh h roll
Srin
olieg terrg nis o80bkmuysph,
aine = (i) Tende i c l e J a t e r a l l y . o u t w a r d s .
id t r a n s v e r s e
1 0 s k i d t h e v e h e r t u r n i n g a n
Ti ‘able 4.8 Design.Speeds on Rural Highways (i i ) T e n d e n c y
c o n d i t i o n s a g a i n : st o v
v a t i o n a r e g i v e n
o f t h o s e t w o h o u t s u p e r e l e
s i s o f s t a b i l i t y
t a l 1 c u r v e s w i t
aly o t i a t i n g h o r i z o n
—— Desi it is f t h e v e h i c l e s n e g
Road classification skiddainng ‘ ©!
Plain cr ae 7
7 3 F ou below + oonn
Ruling | Min. | Ruli|ng
Min. | Ruling
{| Min. Taine o u t e r w h e e l s B
v e r t u r n i n g e f f e c t r t u r n a t u t t h e i t t
Ni ational & State H Highwayty:s | 100 80 80 6: 5 | 5 0 | 40 | 40 | 30) (i) O t e n d s t h e v e h i c l e 1 0 o v e
g . 4 . 1 8 . G i R e s e a r
c e t h a t i n F i
Major District Roads 65 65 50_| 40 30_| 30 trifugal for r e l e v a t i o n i s i l l u s t r a t e d
e r e s t o r i n g a t
w i t h o u t s u p e r e s i s t e d b y t h b e
Other District Roads [65 [so | so | 40 | 30 [25 | 25 a waste s e r v e
u g a l f o r c e P i s P p x h ; t h i s i s
h i s t h e h e i g h t ” N e e e
c e n t r i f h e r e
Village
illage Roads {so [40 [ 40 [35 | 25 [20] 25 [20 mom e n t d u c ( 0
c l e W a n d i s e q u a l t o w . b i 2 , w
t h e w i d t h o f t h e w h e e
o f t h e v e h i f a c e a n d b i s
tha n passe! f weight e a b o v e t h e r o a d s u r
Speed restrictions have e been i
n im po se d for hea vy veh icl es (ot her
t y o f t h e v e h i c l
F eo gr a v i
veh icl es pul lin g tra ile r uni ts und er Mot or Veh icl es Ae k o f t h e v e h i c l e .
ve fr us and sig ns on urb an w h e e l t r a c
dif fer ent cat ego rie s ‘of veh icl es by reg ula tor y
i are specified for due to saf ety con sid era tio ns.
of rur al hi gh wa y wh en war ran ted awnecruev3e1E08
and on some stretches oF
e r e n t c l a s s e s o f u r b a n r o a d s ar e :
o m m e n d e d d l e s i g n s p e e d s fo r d i f f
The r e c
(i) for ar te ri al r o a d s80 k m p h , a
ii) sub-arterial r o a d s 60 k m p h ,
r e e t s 5 0 k m p h a n d
(iii) collector st "
to l F o r c e
(iv) loca l s t r e e t s 3 0 k m p h
Fig. 4.18 Overturning due C e n t r i f u g a
e n
o r w h
f o r o v e r t umning will occur WI h e n P h = W b / 2 ,
l C u r v e s n c o n d i t i o n
The equilibrium ns that there is danger o' f overturning when the c e n t r i f u g a l r a t i o
4.4.3 H o r i z o n t a d e c h a n g e i n d i r e c t i o
e i n p l a n t o p r o v i l = b / 2 h . T h i s m e a
i s a c u r v c e n t r i f u g a P/W
b / 2 h .
A horizontal h i g h w a y c u r v e
t r a v e r s e s 4 h o r i z o n t a l c u r v e , t h e
PIW or v2/gR attai n s a v a l u e s o f
W h e n a v e h i c l e v e h i c l e . r .
f a r o a d . a v i t y o f t h e n g e f f e c t
central line o
h r o u g h t h e c e n t r e o f g r
(ii) Transv e r s e s k i d d i e h i c l e o u t w a r d s in
acts horizontal l y o u t w a r d s t
ch e
o i
r i z o o
n tta l c u r v e s é f i
h a s a l s o th e t e n d e n c y to p u s h t h e v
d d e p e n d s a
o n t h e r a d i i
u s o f t h e
e ‘The c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e d e v e l o p e d d e x c e e d s th e m a x i m u m
l f o r c e d e v e l o p e r i !i n fo rc e i p the centrifugal f o r c e P d e v e l o p e
The centr i f u g a c u r v e . Th is c q
e n t | the t r a n s v e r s e d i r e c t i o n . If w i l l st ar t s k i d d i n g in t h e
n e g o t i
t a
i at i
i nng g t h e h e st an ce du e to th e fr ie ti on , th e v e h i c l e
d o f t h e v e h i c
i l e e d b e t w e e ! t h e possible transver se sk id re si fo r th e u a n s v e r s e sk id
spe e s i s t a n c e d e v " e l o p
‘ a n d t o m a i n t a i n Refer Fig. 4.19. Th e e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n
f r i c t i o n a l r e a l o n g t h e c u
u rrvv e transverse direction.
i r r e c t i o n
d resistance developed is given by :
r s e
transv e
e t o c h a n g e t h e i o n =
b l e s t h e v e h i c l e n b y t h e e q u a t
ena g a l f o r c e P i s g i v Rp) =f
C e n t r i f u P=Fa+Fa=f(Ra+
the vehicle.
S e v e
th e ty re an d th e P a
n
o gR b e t w e e n
In the above relation, fis th e co ef fi ci en t of fr ic ti on
at th e w h e e l s A a n d B
surface in the transverse direction, Ra and Rp are normal reactions
ght W of th e vehic! Je, as no s u p e r e l e v a t i o n ha s b e e n
ssuch that (Ra + Rp) is equ al to the wei
l f o r c e , k g
= centrifuga :
provided in this case.
Here
P
k e rat io P/ W is equ : al to ‘f . In other words when the
t o f t h e v e h i c l e , 7 sine P= f W, the centrifugal th er e is a d a n g e r
w = wei g h attains a value equ al to the coe ffi cie n t of l a t e r a l fr ic ti on
v e , m nirifugal ratio
t h e c i r c u l a r c u r f lateral skidding.
= radius o f
R
i c l e , m / s e c
v = speed of veh
YY enlseee
106 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
DESIGN OF HORIZON T
AL ALIGNMENT
107
INNER SIDE
OF CUavE

‘SHADED AREAS SHOW THE PRESSURE UNDER

‘THE INNER AND OUTER WHEELS A AND B
Fig. 4.19 Skidding Effect due to Centrifugal Force
Thus to avoid overtuming and lateral skiddin: iy ‘
3 ON a horizontal curve, the centrifugal MMI 4 a aiysis of superelevation
Fig. 4.20 Superelevated Pavement Section

ratio should always be less than b/2h and also ‘f.

The vehicle negotiating a horizontal curve with no superelevation has to fully depends) SS ee ee ee RIE Oe cree CNet aa ees
on the coefficient of friction *f to resist the lateral skidding. The centrifugal force may: at speed of vinisecare
be enough to cause overturning or lateral skidding of the vehicle ifeither the speed of the (i) the centrifugal force P = Wy"/gR acting horizontally outwards through the center of
vehicle is high or the radius of the curve is less. In such a case the vehicle would skid ang gravity. CG
notMt overtum ifif the value
vi of “Pi
“f is less than b/2h,
/2h. On the other hand
the other han the vehicl
vehicle (ii) the weight W of the vehicle acting vertically down: igh the CG
Overtum on the outer side before skidding if the value of b/2h is lower than *f. Thus the
relative danger of lateral skidding and overturning depends on whether f is lower (iii) the frictional force developed between the wheels and the pavement counteractions
higher than b’2h. transversely along the pavement surface towards the center of the curve.

If the pavement is kept horizontal across the alignment, the pressure on the 0 by corresponding value of the friction developed
‘The centrifugal force is thus opposed
wheels will be higher due to the centrifugal force acting outwards and hence the r e a and component of the ies
and‘igureby by. 4.21aa:sompane force of gravity due merteuihes sate
to the superelevation rorscd
provided
. i distribution ee shows the cross sectionof a pavement with al the forces actingon the vehic!
Rg at the outer wheel would be higher. The difference in pressure distribution at i sertcd pall ad peqandicula 4 ne ueled Wad. tease,” Corshdclng a
and Koute r whe els has been indi cate d in Fig. 4.19 . Whe n the limi ting equi lib oived
, s Pi tt equi libr
See eciaalium of
it the
sem com
hea l pon ent
fare s b of
org forc
soe des by
acti ng (Wake 6)
para be
llel ca
to me
the plan e, (P SHI
cos 6) the
condition for ove rtu rni ng occu rs the pres sure at the inne r whe els bec ome s equa l to

frictional forces F4 and Fy.

4.4.4 Superelevation
For equilibrium condition,
of cen tri fug al for ce and to red uce the te nd en cy ¢
In order to counteract the effect Pcos0=Wsin@+Fa+Fa
ski d, the out er edg e of the pa ve me nt is rai sed wit h res pec t to
vehicle to overtum or
a tra nsv ers e slo pe thr oug hou t the len gth of the hor izo nta l cur ve.
edge. thus providing
sur fac e is kn ow n as sup ere lev ati on or can t or b a
transverse inclination to the pavement
is exp res sed as the rat io of the hei ght of out er edg e wit h res pec t
The superelevation *e’
hor izo nta l wid th. Fr om Fig . 4.2 0 it ma y be see n tha t sup ere lev ati on,
NL
e = — L =tan0
in

th the ho ri zo nt al is ve ry sm al l an d the ik e of t
In practice the inclination @ wi
va lu e of tha n @ is pr ac ti ca ll y eq ua l to sin 8 .
seldom exceeds 0.07. Therefore the

Hence, e = tan 0 = sin @ = é Which is measured as the ratio ofthe relative ¢

of the outer edge, E to wid th of pav eme nt, B. Thi s is mor e con ven ien t to mea sur
i er
Ife is the superelevation rate and E is the total superelevated height of | er ss
total rise in outer edge of the pavement with respect to the inner edge =
 108 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
The limiting equilibrium is reached when the full values of the frictional forces If the coefficient of friction is neglected or assu: imed equal to bi
th m a x i va lu e of f x Rg an d fx . ‘equilibrium superelevation required to counteract ze ro , ie. if f = 0, th e
developed and e th va lu es of Fa an d Fg re ac h ei r m u m the centrifugal force fully will be given
respectively wh er e ‘f' is th e co ef fi ci en t of la te ra l fr ic ti on an d Ra an d Rg ar e th e n o by:
reactions at wheels A and B.
oe EE
Therefore, Pcos® = Wsin@+f(Ra+Rp) eR 127R
= Wsin@ + f(W cos 0 +P sin 8) If superelevation is provided according to this formula, the pressures on the outer and
ie, P (cos 0-fsin6) = Wsind+fWcos0 inn er wh ee ls wil l be equ al; but thi s wil l res ult a very higresistance
infrictional levation. As
h value of superecounteract
considerable role is played by the lateral in
Dividing by W cos 0, contifgal force, its always ten in cco tn plants whare sperccason eek
provided dueto practical difficulties, ie. where e = 0 and f = agk oe
= (fran 0) = tanO+f 127R"
frictional force has to fully counteract the centrifugal ratio. In some types of intersections
it is not possible to provide superelevation and in such cases the friction counteracts the
centrifugal force fully; with no superelevation, the allowable speed of vehicle negotiating.
be
a tum should restricte d to the condition,
of tan 0 or tra nsv ers e slo pe due to sup ere lev ati on sel don p= ON ove fR
(See article 4.1.1). The val ue 7
exceeds 0.07 or about 1/15. 1. Thus the value,
Hence the value of f tan 0 is about 0.0
to 0.9 9 and may be app rox ima ted to 1.0.
(1 — ftan 8) in the above equ ati on is equ al It is possible that at some intersections, a negative superelevation is unavoidable.
“Thus the sup ere lev ati on ‘e’ req uir ed on a hor izo nta l cur ve dep end s on the radi us oft he
‘Therefore, Po s ano+fqetf curve R, speed of the vehicle V and the coefficient of lateral friction or the transverse skid
w
. resistancef. Therefore, in order to assess the superelevation e required, the speed is taken
ae piv as equal to the design speed of the road and the minimum value of transverse skid
ss WwW ar resistance f for design purpose is standardised equal to 0.15.
. Example 4.8
The radius of a horizo nta l cir cul ar cur ve is 100 m. The des ign spe ed is 50 kmp h and
Therefore, Crt aR the design coefficient of lateral friction is 0.15.

(a) calcul ate the sup ere lev ati on req uir ed ifful l late ral frie ’:on is ass ume d to dev elo p.
Here © = rate of superelevation = tan
f = design value of lateral friction coefficient = 0.15 (b) calculate the coeffi cie nt of fri cti on ne ed ed if no sup ere lev ati on is pro vid ed.
(©) calculate the equilibrium supereleva ti on if the pr es su re on inn er an d out er wh ee ls
v = speed of the vehicle, m/sec
should be equal.
R_ = radius of the horizontal curve, m
Solution ,
se
acceleration due to gravity = 9.8 msec”
g =
(a) Superelevation is given by the relati5 on
re pr es en te d as V km ph , the Eq . 4. 8 ma y be
If the speed of the vehicle is
e+f= = anit (Equation 4.7 & 4.8)
follows ; a
ee amv)? _ Vv? ere
98R 127R _ 50
re £ = 0.15; V=S0 kmph or v= 5 misee.
.ie. $f = R = 100m
& 127R
Vv = speed, kmph

R = radius, surfaces
 the centrifugal force developed wall§
muaty be
ww the on
with this ne vation wuld be
velficient on STE IRE +
curves beyond which normat
is provided, ¢ = Q and friction factor developed, is required for curves, are pre
cross slope
0.917
IDR Table 4.9 Radii beyond which Superetevation is sot required
sdre on inner and outer wheels to be equal or for equilibi Design speed {_ Radius (metre) ofhorizontal curve for
centrifugal force fully, f= 0 and
(kmph) 4% 3% | 25% | 2%
20 | 50 6 | 70 | 4
a spt 25 70 90 | 119 140
v= 9 _ x 917 30 100 130 160 | 200
127R_ 127x100
35 140 | 189 | 320) 270
ie.. equilibrium superelevation rate is 1 in 5.1. However this rate of superelevation bei 40 | 180 | 240 | 280 | 350
very high, cannot be provided. 30 280 | 370 | 450 | 550
60 470 620 | 750 950
Maximum superelevation 30 700 | 950_{ 1100 | 1300
As per Equation 4.7 and 4.8, the value of superelevation needed increases w 100 tioo [1800 | 1800 | 2200
incr ease in spee d and with decr ease in radi us of the curv e, for a cons tant val Superelevation Design
coefficient of later al frict ion “f. From the prac tica l view poin t it will be nece s
limit the max imu m allo wabl e supe rele vati on to avoi d very high valu es of Design of superelevation for mixed traffic conditions is complex problem. 2s different
particularly necessary when the road has to cater for mixed traffic, con: vehicles ply on the road with a wide range of speeds. To superelevate the pavement upue
slow traffic. the maximum limit so as to counteract the centrifugal force fully. neglecting the lateral
friction is safer for fact moving vehicles. But for slow moving vehicles this may que
In the case of heavily loaded bullock carts and trucks carrying less dense materials inconvenient. On the contrary to provide lower value of superelevation thus relying more
straw or cotton, the centre of gravity of the loaded vehicle will be relatively high on the lateral friction would be unsafe for fast moving vehicles. As a compromise and
will not be safe for such vehicles to move on a road with a high rate of superele from practical considerations it is suggested that the superelevation should be provided to
Because of the slow speed, the centrifugal force will be negligibly small in the c¢ fully counteract the centrifugal force due to 75 percent of the design speed. (by neglecting
bullock carts. Hence to avoid the danger of toppling of such loaded slow mo lateral friction developed) and limiting the maximum superelevation to 0.07 (except oo
vehicles, it is essential to limit the value of maximum allowable superelevation. Ind hill roads, not bound by snow where the maximum allowable value is 0.1).
Roads Congress had fixed the maximum limit of superelevation in plain and Steps for superelevation design :
terrains and is snow bound areas as 7.0 percent taking such mixed traffic vei atious steps inthe design of superclevation in practice may be summarizedas given
consideration. However, on hill roads not bound by snow a maximum superelevall low :
upto 10 percent has been recommended. On urban road stretches with fre
intersections. it may be necessary to limit the maximum superelevations to 4.0 pel Step (i) The superelevation for 75 percent of design speed (v m’sec or V kmph) is
keeping in view the convenience in construction and that of turning mo}
calculated neglecting the friction
vehicles.
Minimum Superelevation
(0.75War y7* 4, (012.77R509
From drainage considerations it is necessary to have a minimum cross slope '©
off the surface water. If the calculated superelevation from Equation 4.8 worksou ie, Ne (a9)
225R
equal to or less than the camber of the road surface, then the minimum supere! Ff Step (ii) Wf the calculated val ue of *e* is les s th 7%
an oF 0.0 7 the val ue so obt ain ed ss
be provided on horizontal curve may be limited to the camber of the surface. provided, If the val ue of “e* as per equ ati on 4.9 0.07 then provide the
exe ced s
the elimination of the crown a uniform cross slope equal to the camber is m: intaines 0.0 7 and pro cee d wit h ste ps (10 ) oF (iV ).
maximum superelevation equal to
outer to inner edge ofpavement at the circular curve. In very flat curves with laf8¢ T=
 E T R I C D E S I G N
HIGHWAY GEOM DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL A
12 LIGNMENT
of fri cti on de ve lo pe d for the ma xi mu m va lu e of e = 0. 97 M3
Step (iii) Check the coefficient
at the fu ll v a l u e of d e s i g n s p e e d , c= __ a0?
DSR 225x499 °°?
Since this value is less than 0.07, the superelevation of 0.
059 may be adopted.
‘The total width of pavement B = 7.5 m.
Raising of outer edge with respect to centre

of 0.0 7 is”
=f = Be_2 ==752 « 0.059 == 0.22m
If the value of f thus ca lc ul at ed is les s tha n 0.1 5, the su pe re le va ti on
ed. If not , cal cul ate the res tri cte d sp ee d as gi ve n in step
safe for the design spe Example 4.10
(iv).
or Va kmph) ate
Design the rate of superelevation for a horizontal highway curve of radius $00 m and
allowable speed (Va m/sec.
Step (iv) As an alternative to step (iii), the
lateral friction”
speed 100 kmph.
the curve is calculated by considering the design coefficient of
and the maximum superelevation, i.e., Solution r
e+f = 0.07+0.15 For mixed traffic conditions, superelevation is given by Eq. 4.9.
v2
e=
25K
calculate the safe allowable speed, V = 100kmph
va = J022gR = V2.156R msec R 500m

100?
or Va = ¥27.94R kmph 225x500
= 0.089
If the allowable speed, as calculated above is hig)
design is adequate and provides a superelevation of ‘e’ equal to 0.07. If the allowabl
As the value is greater than the maximum superelevation of 0.07, the actual
superelevation to be provided is restricted to 0.07.
speed is less than the design speed, the speed is limited to the allowable speed Va kmj
calculated above. Check for coefficient of lateral friction developed for full speed using Eq. 4.10.
Appropriate warning sign and speed limit regulation sign are instalied to restrict 2
regulate the speed at such curves when the safe speed V, is less than the design speed ov =n) 1007 0.07
For important highways, it is desirable to design the road without speed restrictit 127R 127%500
curves, as far as possible. Hence if site conditions permit, the curve should be re-alig: = 0.157 - 0.07 = 0.087
with a larger radius of curvature so that the design speed could be maintained (5
Art, 4.4.4 and Table 4.10 for radius of horizontal curve). As the value is less than 0.15, the design is safe with a superelevation of 0.07.

Example 4.9 Example 4.11

The design speed of a highway is 80 kmph. There is a horizontal curve of radius 200
A two lane road with design speed 80 kmph has horizontal curve of radius 480 m: needed to maintain this speed. If the
Design the rate of superelevation for mixed traffic. By how much should the outer edges mon a certain locality. Calculate the superelevation
of the pavement be raised with respect to the centre line, if the pavement is rotated maximum superelevation of 0.07 is not to be exceeded, calculate the maximum allowable
curve as it is not possible to increase the radius. Safe limit of
speed on this horizontal
fespect to the centre line and the width of the pavement at the horizontal curve is 7.5 m- transverse coefficient of friction is 0.15. E
Solution
Solution
Fo r mi xe d tr af fi c conditios ns the superelevation should fully counteract the centrif design speed for finding
force for 75% of design The ; problem may be sol5 ved by ¢ ons I force fully using Eq. 4.9.
idering 75 percent
; .
Superelevation or counteract the centrifugal
Hence using Equation 4.9,
 GEOMETRIC DESIGN
HIGHWAY DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
ih 4
5
R2e5eR As this value of 0.024 is considerably lower t
2
han th ame:
0.13 available at the curve, this horizontal curve with rogeal cambercd)sees ree
2 safe for a design speed of 65 kmph,
ees =0.142 mh
ies © * 335x200
=
Attainment of Superelevation

o f e is to be l i m i t e d to 0 . 0 7 . Introducing superelevation on a horizontal curve in the field is an important feature it

Maximu m a l l o w a b l e v a l u e
construction. The road cross section at the straight portion is cambered with palpocs
a l u e of fr ic ti on d e v e l o p e d , the centre of the pavement and sloping down towards the edges. But the cross section in
Check for the v
v2 the circular curve portion of the road is superelevated with a uniform tilt sloping down
« s oy from the outer edge of the pavement up to inner edge. These may be seen from sections
'* IR at A and E of Fig. 4.24. Thus the crowned camber sections at the straight before the start
2 of the transition curve should be changed to a single cross slope equal to the desired
—80_0 _997=0.18 : superelevation at the beginning of the circular curve. This change may be conveniently
127%20 attained at a gradual and uniform rate throughout the transition length of the horizontal
ma xi mu m al lo wa bl e sa fe fr ic ti on co ef fi ci en t of 0. 1 curve. The full superelevation is attained by the end of transition curve or at the
th an th e
As th is va lu e is gr ea te r beginning of the circular curve.
erence

cr ea se d, th e sp ee d ha s to be re st ri ct ed .
‘and also as the radius can not be in
rv e is ob ta in ed by as su mi ng ‘The attainment of superelevation may be split up into two parts :
th e ma xi mu m al lo wa bl e sp ee d (V a km ph ) on thi s cu
He nc e 4. 11 . (a) Elimination of crown of the cambered section
lu e of de si gn fr ic ti on co ef fi ci en t on 0. 15 . Th is is gi ve n by th e Eq .
the ful l va
(b) Rotation of pavement to attain full superelevation
Va = J27.94R =74.75 kmph
Elimination of crown of the cambered section
le ss th an 74 or sa y 70 km ph at th is cu rv e.
Hence the speed may be restricted to This may be done by two methods. In the first method, the outer half of the cross
slope is rotated about the crown at a desired rate such that the surface falls on the same
Example 4.12 plane as the inner half and the elevation of the centre line is not altered. (Ref. Fig. 4.222).
ve me nt su rf ac e in lo w rai nfa ll ar ea h i
‘A major District Road with thin bituminous pa eed is 65 kmph, what should be the: ‘The outer half of the cross slope is brought to level or horizontal (by rotating about the
RS

horizontal curve of radius 1400 m. If the design sp

crown line) at the start of the transition curve or at tangent point T.P. See cross section at
superelevation ? Discuss. B in Fig. 4.24. Subsequently the outer halfis further rotated so as to obtain uniform cross
Solution slope equal to the camber, as shown in Fig. 4.22 (a) and in cross section C of Fig. 4.24.

Using Eq. 4.9,

-0 13 4
2
— © _
2
a -
225R — 225%1400
‘The superelevation value required is only 0.0134 which is even less than the norm
cross slope required to drain off the surface water. The recommended camber for th (®) Crown shifted ourwards (diagonal crown method)
bituminous pavement in low rainfall area (Table 4.1) is 2% or 0.02. The radius b crown
the d
aboutte
(a) Outer edge rota
which no superelevation is required for a speed of65 kmph and 2% camber is 950 m# Fig. 4.22 Eli min ati on of Cro wn of ‘Ca mbe red Sec tio n
per the IRC (See table 4.9), As the radius of the horizontal curve in this case is 1400 ve su pe re le va ti on at the ou te r h a lof f the
1 Thus no point on the curve will ha ve a ne ga ti
there is no necessity of providing superelevation; therefore the normal camber of 2% tio n cur ve. Th is me th od has a dr aw ba ck tha t the
be retained at the horizontal curve. Pavement event at the start of the transi
surface drainage will not be proper at the outer half, duringa short stretch of the road with
However, check for safety against centrifugal force at design speed along with cross slope less than the camber between point A and C in Fig. 4.24.
negative superelevation at the outer half of the pavement due to the normal camber. cr ow n, kn ow n as di ag on al cr ow n me th od , the
In the second method of eliminating the inner half of
Net transverse skid resistance crown is progressivel
i y i inc rea si idt h of
shifted outwards, thus increasing the width of th the
= ~¢ + f=-0.02 + 0.15 = 0.13
Thi s me th od is not usu all y ado pte d a8 x por tio n of the . ia !
cross section pro gre ssi vel y. on on to a por tio n of
2 the pa ve me nt has inc rea sin g val ues of neg ati ve sup ere lev ati
half ofer
Centrifugal ratio = tal 6. = 0.024 the out half, before the crown is eliminated (see Fig. 4.22 6)
27R 1271400”
 HIHAWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL ALIGNME
seid ENR OF iter full superelevanion: NT
de Sawn OF the camber vattion
is eliminated, . the suy Pereleova ay; =
canal. tothe camber. provi le aa
labble
sila
But the superetevat tion to be
tha n the cam ber in De pro vid ed at the beg i mae
n. gaye aay be greater any Cas es Whe n the
NAL NE ES MOT E tha n the min imu m, Hen ce the
WEEN
vee Yoa the r tll the des ire d ban kin g is obt ain ed. n will have Pavement sectio
As an example, if the a specified camber «ini a biittumil
esingn susupepeetvaion
@ex sde ecient ace lt0in.g02iga
0.07. the camber i toi

<uperelevation of 0.02 and then th e cr os s sl op e is fu rt h er rst

inc i cl im in at ed re su
designed supercteva ti on is
If thea a a i it at ta in s th e
superelevation of 0.07.

t+
¢ total width of thy
pavement at 4 the horizontal curve is *B’ = the anki
paveme nt with resp ect to the inne r edg e is Sau at om e
=B.c.King of the oute r edg eto gy
the pav 3
There arei two method: Is of rotatingi
sup ere lev ati on aft er the eli min ati on of the pro si te cross section to attain the fi

fey 77
(i) sitsing the a
Byy rotatingig the pavement it cro: cross section about tt the cent tre line, , depdepresres
edge a each each by y halfhalf the total amount of superelevation,
WE? and witli raising the outer edge ige rs + Te oF.

(ii) 2 eS ml pavement cross section about the inner edge of the pavement
meeusieeosivene

praia selec well as the outer edge of the pavement such that the out
ge is raised amount of superelevation, E with respect tothe inner edge.
The two methods are shown in Fig. 4.23.
wt {\
SE

Te ete E --
| Soh Sel L

Fig. 4.24 Atta i n m e n t of S u p e r e l e v a t i o n

a v e m e n t s e c t i o n Elimination of the crow n of c a m b e r e d se ct io n, . at ta in
a t i me nt of f u n i f o r m sl op e
In the first method as t h e p Fig. 4.24 a. i to atta i in full
hanged;
e m a i n s u n c and theNi two methods ; of rotating 1g the pavement section
profile of the c e n t r e l i n e r r The outer half of the cambered peer aire a
a n t a g e in b a l a n c i n g ieee illustrated in Fig. 4.24b.
depressed resulting in an adv p r e s s i n g t h e in Dorian position between A and B at the sam e rate of int rod uct ion of iie sui cra iee
p r o b l e m d u e t o d e neg ati ve
method is the drainage f i c a n c e in a r e along the transition curve of length L,. Thu s at the tan gen t poin t B ther e
b l e m is reater sig
o f g n i e n t o F a
The drai n a g e p r o e s u b g r a d e is in e m b a n k m superclevation.
e l t e r r a i n . If t h l
subgrade is in c u t t i n g o r in l e v i t h e r e w i l
th e in ne r ed ge , th e le ng th AB is gi ve n by
n i f i c a n t g r a d i e n t t o f a c i l i t a t e l o n g i t u d i n a l d r a i n a g e ,
When the pavement is rotated about
road has a sig
a i n a g e p r o b l e m . f l a t t e s cBN _ cls
dr p' r e f e r a b l y i n v e r y
r o t a t i n g a b o u t t h e i n n e r e d g e is
o r d e r t 0 a v o 2 2e
The second m e t h o ¢ o f
o n e m b a n l m e n t , i n th e wi dt h of pa ve me nt an d
r o a d is n o t t a k e n s h o u l d c a m b e r an d su pe re le va ti on , B is
high r a i n f a l l a r e a s , w h e n t h e
n t w i d t h a n d o u t e r s hh o u l d e r wee ¢ and € are the rates of p a v e m e n t al on g th e tr an si ti on cu rv e of Fe ng th Ly
B u t t h e e n t i r e p a v e m e s c a s e t h e is the rate of raising the outer ed ge of
th e di st an ce
drainage probl e m . t i o n a l e a r t h fi ll . I n t h i
or m cr os s sl op e eq ua l to th e ca mb er an d
i n n e r e d g e b y a d d i
t h e m s At po in t C th e p a v e m e n t at ta in s un if C an d E to at ta in fu ll
raised with r e s p e c t t o t h e
n s i d e r e d a s a d i s a d v a n t a g e o f
v e m e n t is fu rt he r ro ta te d at the same rate between
e n t i s a l s o r a i s e d , w h i c h m a y b e c o BC = AB. The pa
p a v e m i s a l t e r e d . superelevation.
e n t o f t h e r o a d 2 4 T h e
ver t i c a l a l i g n m
i n d e t a i l i n F i g . 4 .
o n hi a s b e e n s h o w n r v e s a
a i n m e n t o f s u p e r e l e v a t i
t i o n a n d c i r c u l a r c u
The a t t
t h e s t r a i g h t , t r a n s i
a l c u r v e i n c l u d i n g
the horiz o n t
 iguwAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
ils ined ra gradually over rte the fulTall len; Tengofth t
pe attained ti ng po in t of th e c j EN T 9
1 should be att ble at th e st ar D E S I G OF
N HO RI ZO NT AL AL IG NM
Jevation 15 ee provided for some Circular
cur
v e ve © C h the st ra‘ i
ig ht po rt j
io o n n bef ore
befo re t h t h e st ar t ofth e th ir v2
he th e c i Rin = ———
at i pi ni ng of th e ci rc ul ar cu rv e, 127(e+f) (4.14)
aes ation BY be
inner ed ge, ce nt re li ne an d ou te r ed ge by th e In the above equations,
ance one” nt re
It ma y be se en th at in th e ce
file of th e pa ve me nt ce nt re mt vand V = ruling design speeds, in m/sec and kmph respectively
V" = minimum design speed, kmph
E = rate of superelevation; the maximum value of ¢ is taken as 0.07 at all
the regions except at hill roads without snow where it is taken as 0.1,
f = design value of transverse skid resistance or coefficient of friction,
taken as 0.15
train as per rec ior
g = ac ce le ra ti on du e to gr av it y = 9.8 mm /s ec ”
transition curve . tee ns of the IRC, the ruling minimum radius of the
tirising Suen ‘According to the earlier specificatio the de si gn
horizontal curve was calculated from a sp ee d val ue, 16 km ph hi gh er tha n
tthe inner ede. speed i.e. (V + 16) kmph.
on the ruling and
However now the calculations are based
rotated minimu m de si gn sp ee ds gi ve n in Ta bl e 4. 8.
C u r v e ii of ho ri zo nt al cu rv e of va ri ou s cl as se s
R a d i u s o f H o r i z o n t a l ‘The ruling and absolute minimum values of rad in Ta bl e 4. 10 .
4 4 5
of roads in different terrains (as per the latest IR C sp ec if ic at io ns ) are gi ve n
e the ce nt ri fu ga l fo
Fora certain speed of vehicl rifugal ratio within a low limit,rc e is de pe nd en t onr a the
d i a g
th e ce nt th e fo r d i f f e r e n t te rr ai n c o n d i t i o n s , m
hori zo nt al cu rv e. To ke ep w h i c h is ‘Table 4.10 Min i m u m ra di i of h o r i z o n t a l c u r v e s
ra
pt c o r r e s p o n d i n g l y hi gh . T h e c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e ‘Mounisinous terain
sh ou ld be ke b y th e re la t [Classifica]
friction is given as per Eq . 4. 7 a n d 4. 8, ‘Snow bound Arca not ‘Snow bound
superelevation and lateral tion Plain terrain | Rolling terrain ipa
ected by areas __ affected by s areas
of rosds
at ing AbsoTute Ruling Absolute RulinlAbiolat
ett «te (ulling]Absolute/
5 | Mini_|Mini.| Mini_| Mini, | Mini_| Mini Min
eR 127K Mini.
WHE SH [360 230 50 90. 60
33_{
50.
30 |
30
1s [33
60
|
33
is
155. 90] s0_[ 30 #

in this equ ati on, the ma xi mu m all owa ble sup ere lev ati on rat e has be en IDR.
DR.
230.
155
155
90 90 60. 30 20 33
a [is
23 20
20 | 1s
14 23 is
[23 [15
0.07 and the design coefficient of lateral fri ction ‘f is take R 90160 | 60 | 45 | 20 | 14
ae ra di i co rr es po nd io th e
ru li ng mi ni mu m an d ab so lu te mi ni mu m
Note: The values of
rt. 4.1.2).
ruling and min i m u m de si gn sp ee d vain Table 4.8.
lu es gi ve n
2 2
Hence, e+f = 0 0 7 + 0 . 1 5 = 0 2 2 = X = Y —
gR 127R Example 4.13 of ho ri zo nt al
of ru i
li n g ng mi min
ni i mu m and 4 al abs olu te lut e mi m
nii n i m u m mu m rad ius iu s of hori z
i t i u s to to! Calculate the valu es
wa y in pl ai n te rr ai n. Assume ruling design speed and minimum
de si gn sp ee d is de ci de d fo r a h i y . s J i cu rv e of a Na ti on al Hi gh
can Ifbethefound from the above relationship, a
a hi ghywa, th en th e m i n i m Fe el
as 10 0 an d 80 km ph re sp ec ti ve ly .
oe design speed values
Thus the ru li ng mi ni mu m r a d i Solution
th e cu rv e fo r ru li ng de si gn sp ee d. of
Vékm isp gihve n by : ra di us of
us in g Eq . 4. 12 or 4: 13 fo r ru li ng de si gn sp ee d
Ru li ng mi ni mu m ra di us is ca lc ul at ed
mu m values o f= 0.
e 07 a n df= 0. 15 .
10 0 km ph wi th th e ma xi
Ruling = 35 79 m sy 36 0
Resin * vt, _100?_ _ 2
ing = Tp7(e+f) 127(0.07+0.15)
e+e
y al ou at ed fr om th e mi ni mu m Ge si eh o f V" = 80
Also, ‘The absolute m i n i m a ‘r ad iu s is
hi = eph) S kmph, using Eq. 4.14. a
Wh
rab en the ie mimin
ni i mum design speed Vv" et Z
v2 80-2 9 9 , m s a y 2 3 0 m
so k p h is ad op te d (s ee Ta bl e 4. 8) in st ®3 8 4
bya Peed V kp, the ab ‘© minimum radius of horizontal curve “8 ~ Fa7(e+h 127(0.07+0.15)
i
 E O M E T R I C D E S I G N DESIGN OF HORIZON
H I G H W A Y G TAL ALIGNMENT
120
a n d a b s o l u t e m i n i m u m r a d i u s g
r u l l i n g m i n i m u m r a d i u s o f 3 6 0 m ‘Thus the required extra widening of the .
There f o r e p r o v i d e
the length of wheel based of the ve 1,
hi mati
cl c eon taiz onta l curv es We dep end on
s
230m.
;
o n H o r i z o n t a l C u r v e s
g o f P a v e m e n t
4.4.6 Widenin a r g e r a d i i , it is c o m m o n to It has been a practice therefore to i i
y w h e n t h e y a r e n o t o f v e r y l curves when the radius is less than Tbe SE ESD a Pavel
e s p e c i a l l , fev
On horizontal curves, h a n t h e n o r m a l w i d t h , T h e o b j e c t o f p r o v i d i n g ex tr
m e n t s l i g h t l y m o r e t
widen the pave ntal curves are due to the f o l l o w i n g r e a s o n s = Analysis of Extra Widening on Curves
horizo
and only the fron t w h e e l s c a n b e tu The extra widening of pavement on horizontal is divided into two pans
(a) jo r i z o n t a l c u r v e wheels do
, t h e r e a r (i) mechanical and (ii) psychological widening. Ts.
when thi:
Mechanical widening
follow the same path up t :
Normally (at low speeds and The : widening required
r to account for the off-ttracking rackit due to the rig
igidilidiofty whel
the inner path on Por edHBis
wheels take place) the rear wheels follow
wheels. This means that if in called mechanic widens (W,,) and may be calculated as given
janicalal widening i below. Refeer
those of the corresponding front at a horizontal curve, inner rear whee!
‘on the inner edge of a pavement
The off-tracking depends on the length of the wi Ry = radius of the path traversed by the outer rear wheel, m
pavement on the inner shoulder. horizontal curve negots
and the turning angle or the radius of the
pve of the vehicle Rz = radius of the path traverse by the outer front wheel, m
This is il lu st ra te d in Fi g. 4. 25 .
Wm =. off-tracking or the mechanical widening,m
1 = length of wheel base,m
emer

Wm = OC-OA=OB-OA=R:-R;
From AOAB,OA? = OB*-BA?
RP = R2-P
But Ri = R2-Wm
Se

(R2- Wn) = RY-P

ie, Ro-2R2Wm+Wm? = Rr-P
Wm)
P = Wm(2R2-
Bp
i" - o
Y TW (4.15)
Fig. 4.25 Mechanical Widening on Horizontal Curve
wh en the sup ere lev ati on and I z 2
(b) At speeds higher ‘th
ped are not ful ly
an
abl
the
e to
des
cou
ign
nte
spe
rac
eds
t the ou tw ar ds thr ust due = a (appraximately)
friction dev elo
centrifugal for ce, som e tra nsv ers e ski ddi ng ma y occ ur and the rea r whe els ma y tak e} cal cul ate d abo ve is
Here R is the mean radius of the cur ve. The mec han ica l wid eni ng
on the outside of those traced by the front wheels on the horizontal curves. Ho’ required for one vehicle negotiating a hor izo nta l cur ve alo ng one traf fic lane . Hen ce in a
occurs only at excessively high speeds. veh icl es can trav el sim ult ane ous ly, the tota l
oa toad having ‘n’ traffic lanes, as ‘n’
(c) The path traced by the wheels of a trailer in the case oftrailer units, is also mechanical widening required is given by ©
to be on either side of the central path of the towing vehicle, depending on the al? (4.16)
rigidity of the universal joints and pavement roughness. ie
mR
(d) In order to take curved path with larger radius and to have greater visibility ®
curve, the drivers have tendency not to follow the central path of the lane, but to Us® Psychological widening
me nt is al so pr ov id ed fo r ps yc ho lo gi ca l re as on s su ch as, o pr ov id e
outer side at the beginning of a curve. Extra width of pa ve e
of st ee ri ng at hi gh er s pe ed s, to al lo w fo r th e ex tr a sp ac
(e) While two vehicles cross or overtake at horizontal curve there is @ psycholog! - for greater maneuverability
tendency to maintain a greater clearance between the vehicles, than on straights ©
increase safety. ,
 G H W A Y G E O M E T R I C D E S I G N
122 H I
a t e r c l e a r a n c e f o r c r o s s i n g
r e
requ i r e m e n t s f o r t h et h e o v e r h a n g s o f v e h i c l e s
y c
a
h
n
o
d
l o
t
g
o
i c
p
a
r
l
o v i
w
d
i
e
d e n
g
i n g is t h e r e f o r e im po rt an t j
g v e h i c l e e a n t h e c u r v e s . P s
na d overtakin e than one Jane. A n e m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a h a s b e e n r e c o m m e n d e d
pavements with mor o g i c a l w i d e n i n g , * W , , ’ w h i c h is d e p e n d e n t o n
IRC for f i n d i n g t h e a d d i t i o n a l p s y c h o l
o f t h e c u r v e . T h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l w i d e n i
s p e e d V o f t h e v e h i c l e a n d t h e r a d i u s R
design
is giv e n b y t h e f o r m u l a :
v 41
Wes = 95dR
re qu ir ed on a ho ri zo nt al cu rv e is gi ve n by :
Hence th e to ta l wi de ni ng We , m
We = Wm+ Wos

We = are +: ¥
ie, 2R 9.5VR
Hencen = number of traffic lanes.
wh ee l ba se of lo ng es t ve hi cl e, m. Th e va lu e of ! ma y no rm al y |
1 = le ng th of ve hi cl es , if no t kn ow n.
be taken as 6.1 m or 6.0 m fo r co mm er ci al
V_ = design speed, kmph
R = ra di us of ho ri zo nt al cu rv e, m
co mm en de d by th e In di an Ro ad s Co ng re ss fo r si ng le an d tw o
‘The extra wi dt h re
pave me nt s ar e gi ve n in Ta bl e 4. 11 . Fig. 4.27 Widening of Pavement on Sharp Curve
Table 4.11 Extra width of pa ve me nt at ho ri zo nt al cu rv es
4 To 60 [61 to 10 0] 10 1 to 30 0 | Ab ov e 30 0 Example 4.14
Radius of cu rv e (m ) | Up to 20] 20 to 40 [# thi F
Extra width (m) Calculate the extra widening required for
0 m if th e lo ng es t wh ee l ta s a W e e i a e s a t e o
0.6 Nil curve of radius 25 IR C re co mm en da ti on s. m
Two-lane 15 15 | 12 0.9
Nil Design speed is 70 kmph. Compar e th e va lu e ob ta in ed wi th
Single-lane 09 | 06 | 06 Nil Nil :
by ad di ng ha lf Solution
ca lc ul at ed
Note: For multi-lane roads, the pavement
s to
wi
ea
de
ch
ni
la
ng
ne
is
of th e mu lt i- la ne ro ad . Rit olddakag alse Wa le = WaWinr+k
extra width of two-lane road Wos
in tr od uc in g ex tr a wi de ni ng
Meth od s of
- (4.18)
‘The widening is introduced gr ad ua ll y, st ar ti ng fr om th e be gi nn in g of th e IR 95K
curve or the tangent point (T-P.) an d pr og re ss iv el y in cr ea se d at un if or m ra te , ti l
ng ‘I ,’ is re ac he d at th e en d of tr an si ti on cu rv e Hencen=, 2 (two lanes for pavement width of 7.0 m)
value of designed wi de ni 1= 70
Values of superelevation is al so pr ov id ed , as sh ow n in Fi g. 4. 26 . Th e fu ll va lu e of
ul ar cu rv e an d th en :
wi dt h IV, is co nt in ue d th ro ug ho ut th e
cu
le ng
rv
th
e.
of
Us ua
th
ll
e
y
ci
th
rc
e wi de ni ng is eq ua ll y d Rech 20m
gradually along the length of tr an si ti on
th e cu rv e, Bu t on sh ar p cu rv es of hi ll r o V = 70kmph
i.e., W/2 each on inner and outer si de s of 70
2x
Pasa ?
extra widening I, may be provided in full on inside of the curve. We 35250 "9.5250
On horizontal circular curves without transition curves, two-thirds the wi = 0,196 + 0.466 = 0.662 m
providedat the end of the straight section, i.e., before the start of the circular th e ra di us of th e cu rv e is 10 1 to
e n d s ex tr a wi de ni ng of 0, 6 m wh en
the remaining one-third widening is provided on the circular curve beyond th The IRC recomm
point as in the case of supere levati on. In such cases, the widen ing is provi ded 300m. (See Table 4.11)
inside of the curve. Refer Fig. 4.27. :
 D E S I G N
124 HIGHW A Y G E O M E T R I C DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
125
Example 4.15 a n e w n a t i o n a l h i g h
a v ‘ e m e n t o n a h o r i z o n t a l c u r v e f o r
Find the total width of a p n i m u m r a d i u s . A s s u m e n e c e s s a r y d a t a
i n g e r r a i n w i t h a r u l i n g m i
be aligned along @ roll t
Solution
‘Ass u m e t h e f o l l o w i n g d a t a :
a i n , r u l i n g d e s i g n s p e e d , V = 8 0 k m p h E ‘
(i) National highway on rolling terr
:
i(i ) Normal pavement width, W = 7.0
(iii), Number of lanes n = 2
(iv) Wheel base ofthe truck /= 6 m
i m u m v a l u e o f s u p e r e l e v a t i o n e = 0.07
(v) Max
and skid resistance f= 0.15
8 0 ? Fig. 4.28 Tr an si ti on Cu rv e in Ho ri zo nt al Al ig nm en t
v 2
= ——
_
* Sm
1 2 7 ( 0 . 0 7 + 0 . 1 5 ) ti on cu rv es in the ho ri zo nt al al ig nm en t of hi gh wa y ma y be
Ruins
ruling ~ 73 7 (e 4f ) “Thu s the fu nc ti on s of tr an si
summed up into the fo ll ow in g po in ts :
229 m, say 230m ad ua ll y th e ce nt ri fu ga l fo rc e be tw ee n th e ta ng en t po in t an d th e
(a) to introd uc e gr
u

of th e ci rc ul ar cu rv e, av oi di ng a su dd en je rk on th e ve hi cl e,
ae, Vv _ 2x6 80 begi nn in g
Extra widening We ng gr ad ua ll y fr hi s ow n co mf or t an d se cu ri ty .
2R =95¥R — 2x230 9.5.V250
(&) to enable th e dr iv er tu r th e st ee ri
of th e de si gn ed su pe re le va ti on an d ex tr a wi de ni ng
= 0,157 +0.555=0.712m (c) to enable gradual in tr od uc ti on
of p a v e m e n t at th e st arrcular curve.
t of th e ci
= W + We=7.0+0.71=7.71 m p e a r a n c e of th e ro ad .
Tota l pa ve me nt wi dt h on cu rv e
(a) to improve the aest he ti c a p
be po ss ib le to ma in ta in th e de si gn sp ee d ev en
Ina good highway alignm e n t it sh ou ld
4.4.7 Horizontal Transition Curve first designed as discus
is se d in ar ti cl e 4 3 . 4 an d th en a
ta ng en t po i on horizo nt al cu rv es . Th e ra di us d . Th e id ea l
a ra di us wh ic h de cr ea se s fr om in fi ni ty at th e
se le ct ed an d it s le ng th is d e s i g n e
on cu rv e ha s on cu rv e is fu ga l
‘A transi ti
is introduced b
When a transition curve suit ab le s h a p e of th e tr an si ti
su ch th at th e ra te of in tr od uc ti on of ce nt ri
de si gn ed ra di us of th e ci rc ul ar cu rv e.
be co me s mi l shape of a tr an si ti on cu rv e sh ou ld be . T h i s m e a n s
cu rv e, th e ra di us of th e tr an si ti on cu rv e de cr ea se s ga l ac ce le ra ti on sh ou ld be co ns is te nt
straig ht an d ci rc ul ar ti on or th e ra te of c h a n g e of ce nt ri fu in fi ni ty at th e
rv e. ‘T he ra te of ch an ge of ra di us of th e tr an si force ‘should consistently decrea se f r o m
th e ci rc ul ar cu cu rv e
at th e be gi nn in g of
on of th e cu rv e or its sh ap e. Bs that the radius of th e tr an si ti on
rc ul ar cu rv e at po in t C, th e en d of
will depend on the eq ua ti tangent poin t B (r ef er Fi g. 4. 28 ) to th e ra di us R of t h e ci
th e le ng th L, sh ou ld be
rv e of le ng th L, . eal transition curve
In an id
the transition cu nt . Th e sp ir al
id in g Tr an si ti on Cu rv es ra di us R ie s, (L s & 1/ R) oF Ls R is a co ns ta
Object of Pr ov
inversely proportional to th e
d a ve hi cl e tr av el s on.
Suppose a curve of radius R takes off fr om st ra ig ht ro ad , an transition fulfils this requirement.
fo rc e wh ic h su dd en ly ac ts on th e ve hi cl e ju st
road; then due to the centrifugal ca us es di Different Ty p e s of T r a n s i t i o n C u r v e s
th e ve hi cl e. Th is no t on ly ar e:
tangent point, a sudden lateral jerk is felt on Fi g. 4 c o m m o n l y ad op te d in ho ri zo nt al a l i g n m e n t
t to st ee r th e ve hi cl e sa fe ly . Re fe r of tr an si ti on cu rv es
to the passengers, but also makes it difficul The types
If a transition curve BC of length L, is in tr od uc ed be tw ee n th e st ra ig ht AB a
wi ll troduced gradi
al so be in (a) Spiral (also called clothoid)
circular cu rv e CD of ra di us R, th e ce nt ri fu ga l fo rc e
the radius of the transition curv e de cr ea se s gr ad ua ll y fr om in fi ni ty . Th e ra te at wh i (b) Lemniscate
ad op ti ng su it ab le sh ap e of th e tr an si ti on Cun
force is introduced can be controlled by 29 , Al l the q th re e cuu rv es
and by designing its length, so th at th e ve hi cl e ca n ha ve a sm oo th en tr y fr om th e str alg ’ shown in Fi g. 4. 29 .
s l g th er e is no
to the circular curve at the design speed. The general shapes of these
nr e h e d e c r e e
three Curves ae
r d s a s
ie h
ofe n
42 h
, an d pr ac ti ca ll y
A transition curve which is int rod uce d bet wee n the str aig ht and a cir cul ar cur ve % :
follow almost the same path
signific an t di ff er en ce ev en up to a e e
help also in gradua lly int rod uci ng the des ign ed sup ere lev ati on and the ext ra wit
necessary.
 DESIGN OF Hoe

Let the fength of war Nh Curve Ye Ly4 meminei

raver 2 this Iransigatilo ce th at wniforin: a,
tnaximust centrinfeue a
jensath Land he

; The maximuumm al wable

allo Ige
ofof centrifuif gal acceleration
value of the rate of change
without producing discomfort or undesirable oscillation, is dependent on the pai aa
varies inversely with the radius. The IRC has recommended the foll :
i¢ following equation fo be
finding the value of C for the design speed V kmph:
Fig. 4.29 Different Types of Transition Curves
wiTst+vy msepa
c’, ils
(0.5<C<0.8} (423
increases. But the rate of change of radius and hence the rate of change of centrifugal
acceleration is not constant in the case of lemniscate and cubic parabola, especially at
deflection angles higher than 4°, In spiral curve the radius is inversely proportional to the i.e., the minimum and maximum values of C are limited to 0.5 and 0.8 respectively.
length and the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is uniform throughout the length, Once the valuofe *C* is decided based on the design speed as given above the length
an idea l tran siti on cur ve.
ofthe curv e. Thu s the spir al fulf ils the con dit ion of of transition curve Ls can be calculated from the Eq. 4.20 which may be rewritten 2s :
The Indi an Roa ds Con gre ss rec omm end s the use of the spira l as tran siti on curv e int
Pal
horizontal alignment of highways due to the following reasons : mo (422)
(i) The spiral curve satisfies the requirements of an ideal transition.
Ifthe design speed is V kmph;
curve in the field is simple and easy. k= =
y

The equation of the spiral may be written as : G6PCR

L.R = Ls. Re =constant v3
:ie,
L ‘ FescR 3
(4.23)
Therefore, L= mo
Here,
Here m is a constant equal to ./2RL, and @ is the tangent deflection angle in radius
L, = length of transition curve, m
Calculation of Length of Transition Curve
C = allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, m/sec’ as given in
The length of transition curve is designed to fulfil three conditions, viz. : (i) rate! Eq. 4.21.
change of centrifugal acceleration to be developed gradually (ii) rate of introduction 0! R = radius of the circular curve, m.
the designed superelevation to be at a reasonable rate (iii) minimum length by”
empirical formula. (ii) Rate of troduction of superelevation : In open country if a high value oF
it is not desirable to raise the outer edge of a
superelevation is to be introduced,
(i) Rate of change of centrifugal acceleration : At the tangent point the centri pavement at a larger rate than | in 150 relative to the grade of the centre line.
acceleration (v’/R) is zero at the radius R is infinity. At the end of the transiti Hence the length of transition curve should be atleast 150 times the total amount by
radius R has the minimum value Ry. Hence the centrifugal acceleratio! Which the outer edge of the pavement is to be raised with respect to the centre line.
distributed over a length L, of the transition curve. The centrifugal accelerat However, the transition curve length may be reduced by pene reir a
should be developed at such a low rate that it will not cause discomfort differential gradient of 1 in 100 in built up areas ané 1 in 60 on hi
passengers of a vehicle traveling at the design speed (v m/sec). It is evident '
larger the length of transition, lower will be the rate at which the centrifi
acceleration is introduced.
 G E O M E T R I C D E S I G N DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL A\ J LIGNMENT
HIG H W A Y i129
128 : h e t o t a l l i f
n o t t h e c e n t r e | f i n e , t h e n t ‘Table 4.12 Minimum transitio, mn length for different s speeds
o u t t h e in t n e r e d g e a n d n g and curve radii
.vement is r o t a t e d a b b e c o n s i d e r e d i n c a l c u l a t i 4
t o i n n e r e d g e h a s t o
e w i t h r e s p e c t
Be out e r e d g
n c u r v e r e q u i r e d . Curve
Jength of transi t i o h i g h w a y c u r Radius R(m)
a s p e r E q 4.9
. f o r a
s u p e r e l e v a t i o n d e s i g n e d ‘Transition length,
Let *e ” b e t h e r a t e o f d e n i n g p r o v i d e d at t h e
e t ‘ W e b e t h e e x t r a w i 5 -[-[-
t w i d t h W . L
having n o r m a l p a v e m e n
w i d t h B o f p a v e m e n t = ( W + W e ) a n d t h e t o t a l r a i s i n g 9 ee e
circ u l a r c u r v e s o t h a t t h e t o t a l
+ W e ) = E - If it is a s s u m e d .. 90. -[ete
pav e m e n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e i n n e r e d g e = ¢. B = e . ( W
i z i n g t h e c a m b e r , ( m a i n t a i n i n g 1o0__|
x. =INA
| - [NA ae 30 [28715] i
e m e n t is r o t a t e d a b o u t c e n t r e l i n e a f t e r n e u t r a l
b y w h i c h t h e o u t e r a ea NAT 25 [30715
the pav x i m u m a m o u n t ts
g n m e n t o f t h e c e n t r e f i n e ) t h e n t h e m a
H e n c e a l l o w i n g a 40T20T 1ST 15]
vertical a l i
u r v e w i t h r e s p e c t 0 t h e centre = E/2.
0 t o 6 0 20 aa 35 [25 [20 _35 =a
d at t h e c i r c u l a r c
v a l u e o f N = 1 5
in N (where minimum
is to be rai s e
of change o f s u p e r e l e v a t i o n o f 1
r a n s i t i o n c u r v e L s is g i v e n b y : 300 [NA| 75 PEGI x a stas HST Tse
discussed ab o v e ) , t h e l e n g t h o f t a0 130] 60 [35 [20 | - 90 as 5 is ist
Ls = EN _ sad (w+Wo) (424aye | Us] 55 [30 [20] - yoo [45 ret
300 | 95] 45 [2s [NR] - 125 IS TSN +
c 600 [so [3s] 20] - |= 150 =
b o u t th e i n n e r e d g e , th e l e n g t h of t r a n s i t i o n 700 [70] 3520] - | - 170 =|
However if th e p a v e m e n t is r o t a t e d a
800 60 [30 [NR] - | = 200 =
is given by + ( 4 . 2 4 0 ) 900 55 [30] - | - | -]- 250 =
L, = EN=eN(W+Wo) tooo
1200
[so{30]- | - | -T-
| 40 NR] - | - | - | -
300 :
al 400 :
F o r m u l a : A c c o r d i n g 10 th e I R C s t a n d la rd s, th e le ng th of ho ri zo nt soo [35] -[-[- | -T- 500. E
(iit) By Empiri c a l h a n t h e va l u e g i v e n b y t h e f o l l o 100 [30{- [=| - {=| - 7
uld not b e l e s s t
transi t i o n c u r v e L s s h o
:
€ 2000 [wR] = [= [= [= T=
a i n c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s
equations for the terr Note : NA — Not applicable; NR - Transition not required
(a) For plain a n d r o l l i n g t e r r a i n : e ther ef
The leng th of tran siti on curv e Ls requ ired on a hori zont al h i g w a y curv
depends upo n the fol low ing fact ors : ee ) =
Ls
(i) Radius of circular curve, R
(b) For mountainous and steep terrains; (ii) Design speed, V
v2 —
ii) Allowable rate of chan ge ge of cent rifu gal gal acc ele
acce rat
lera ion
ti , C (wh ich
i c h is
i also dep end ent on
fn ER E which depends on the maximum rate of
be th e h i g h e s t of th e t h r e e (iv) Maximum amount of superelevation,
r v e fo r th e d e s i g n s h o u l d al wi dt h of th e pa ve me nt , B at the ho ri zo nt al cu rv e
‘The l e n g t h o f t r a n s i t i o n c u
l o w : superelevation, e and the tot
d e s i g n s t e p s ar e g i v e n b e ed ge or the ce nt re
T h e r e f o r e , th e io n is ro ta te d ab ou t the in ne r
mentioned abo v e . (v) Whether the pavement cross sect
on allowable rate of change line, after the elimination of the camber.
the length of transition curve based , wh ic h de pe nd s on the ter rai n,
(a) Find
a l e r a t i o n E q . 4 . 2 1 a n d 4 . 2 2 o r 4 . 2 3 ) . (vi) Allo wa bl e rat e of in tr od uc ti on of su pe re le va ti on
cent r i f u g a c c e l ( of th e sit e.
s u p e r e l location and envi ro nm en ta l co nd it io ns
c u r v e b a s e d on ra te of c h a n g e of
(b) Find the length of tran si ti on
Setting out of transition curve
(Eq, 4.24 or 4.25). e d on bo th e n d s of a ci rc ul ar cu rv e, th e
t r a n s i t i o n c u r v e s ar e to be p r o v i d
i n i m u m re qu ir ed va lu e of Lz as pe r Eq . 4. 25 a or 4. 25 b. When edure may be adopted. Refer Fig. 4. 28 . Le t P C D Q be th e or ig in al ci rc ul ar
(c) Check fo r th e m following proc tr an si ti on c u r v e g i v e n by
a n d Q Q ’ ar e e q u a l to th e sh if t $ of th e
of Ls gi ve n by (a ), (b ) an d (c ) ab ov e as th e de si gn len curve of radius R. PP’
iC) Adopt the highes t va lu e
the formula :
transition curve. (426)
tr an si ti on cu rv es fo r va ri ou s va lu es of ra di us of cu r
‘The mi ni mu m le ng th of
C fo r pl ai n an d ro ll in g te rr ai ns an
design speeds recommended by the IR
mountainous and steep terrains are given in Table 4.12.
 HIGHWAY G E O M E T R I C D E S I G N
130 DESIGN OF HORIZ
ONTAL, ALIGNME
radius of the circular curve, a NT
of transition curve and R is the
where L, is the length yotal width of the pavement at the curve, B= 7 Sm
length Ls and C D is the shifted ¢
and E Q' Dare the two transition curves, each of Total raise of outer edge o
f pavement with respect to
equal to Ly/2, The points B and the centre line
The length of BP’ and P°C are approximately
curve. B PC DQE.
curve
remain as tangent points to the new compound
4
= EL eB _ 007075 “026m
the design details such as the radius of 2 2 2
In order to set out the transition spiral,
curve Ls, total deviation angle A, tangent devig Rate of introduction of superelevation, | in N= 1 in 1 50
circular curve R, length of transition
of circular arc Az, tangent distance, apex dist
angle of the transition 8s, central angle . EN
off-set method or by > =026«150=39m
etc. are determined. The curve may be laid either by
ct io n an gl es
Ly =
. Th e de ta il s of ca lc ul at in g th e of f se ts /d ef le
deflec ti on an gl e me th od s
el d ar e no t gi ve n he re ; th ey ar e av ai la bl e in th e bo ok (©) Minimum value of Ly as per IRC (Eq, 4.25)
settin g ou t th e cu rv e in th e fi
Surveying.
= 2IV? _ 27x63? =519m
Example 4.16 R 220
Calculate the length of tra n s i t i o n c u r v e a n d th e sh if t u s i n g th e f o l l o w i n g da ta : ‘Adopt the highest value of the thre ree ii.e., ;
transition curve. 51.9 or say 52m as the design length of
Design speed = 65 kmph
2 2
Radius of circular curve = 220m shins = b= 252 =0.5Im
Allowable rate of introduction of superele va ti on (p av em en t ro ta te d ab ou t th e ce nt re li ne ) 24R 24x20
= 1in 150 Example 4.17
Pavement width in cl ud in g ex tr a wi de ni ng = 7. 5m h AA national Highway’ passing through rollin, g terrainin init heavy raini fall area has
1 ie ia
: hota curve of radius 500 m. Design the length of transition curve assuming suitable
Solution
wa bl e ra te of ce nt ri fu ga l ac ce le ra ti on (a r
(a) Length of transition curve Ls as per allo Solution

of ce nt ri fu ga l ac ce le ra ti on as pe r Eq . 4. 21 , ia For a ee
National Highway y on rolling 1g terrain, ., the followini g data may be assumed as per
‘Allowable rate of change ag

= (i5+—V)8_~ _658)_ .957, m/sec?

(75+ Design speed, V = 80 kmph
Normal pavement width, W = 7.0m
This va lu e is be tw ee n 0.5 an d 0.8 an d he nc e ac ce pt ed .
Allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, (range of value 0.5 to 0.8)
_= 2 0.0215x65° =47.1m
15 V3 _= =
0.02b 80 _ 80
CR 057x220 (75+V) 75480
(b) Length L; by allowable rate of introduction of superelevation E : As the value of C is between 0.5 and 0.8 it is accepted for design.
Allowable rate of introduction of superelevation = 1 in 150, pavement to be rotated
, e=
v?
——
65?
=—— =0.085 about the inner edge to effect better drainage in heavy rain fall ares.
Superelevation rate
225R 225x220 :
(a) Length of tra nsi tio n cur ve by rate of cha nge of cen tri fug al acc ele rat ion
As this value is grea ter than the max imu m all owa ble rate of 0.07 , limi t the val ue @
¢=0.07. Check the safety against transverse skidding for the design speed of 65 kmpn eee 3 0.0215 V3
3 _ 0.0215x80° 445,
cR CR 0.52x500
2 2
si ti on cu rv e by th e ra te of in tr od uc ti on of su pe re le va ti on :
f= --=_8_
127R 127x220
_907 (b) Length of tran
LV? 2
2
_
8 0 °
2
_ 2 9 . 0 5 7 ( < 0 . 0 7 , 0 K )
= 0.15-0.07=0.08 2 2 5 R 2 2 5 x 5 0 0
le ss th an th e al lo wa bl e at io n ra te ®
As th is va lu e of f is km ph . va lu e of 0. 15 , th e su pe re le v 5
0.07 is safe for the desi gn sp ee d of 65
 G E O M E T R I C D E S I G N
H I G H W A Y
132
i n g t w o l a n e s a n d w h e e l b a s e o f 6 m ) DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
i n g at c u r v e ( a s s u m
e
d e n
e
Extra wi

e©? eoR asuee e

” 9.51500 a
‘Therefore half central angle is given by : "
2x500
d t h o f p a v e m e n t = B=7.0+045=745m
w i
Tot a l
m ‘The distance . from the obstruction tio is
R cos w/2. Therefore the set-back
ty ¥ 7.x405. 0 5 7 x 1 5 0 = 6 3 . 7
distance, m requi red from the centre line ee n
v a l u e of Ls by Eq . 4. 25 a,
(c) Check for minimum m = R=Reos = (4273)
2
2.7V2 2
_ 21x80? _ 346m 2
In thei case of wide roads with two or m jore lanes,
R 500 ifi d is the di stance
exe = In of feos! ad ie Centre line ofthe inside ane bikes po ays
g h e s t of th e a b o v e th re e v a l u e s = 63 .7 sa y, 6 4 m . Therefore, the desj aes middle of iinner side
i lane and the set-back distance,
di m’ . is givene
Adopt the hi
c u r v e is 6 4 m .
length of t r a n s i t i o n 7
crn rear ~~

t a l C u r v e s ; (4276)
4.4.8 Set-back Distanc e on H o r i z o n mis Bo Rnd) cos.5
z o n t a l a l i g n m e n t , th e si gh t di st an ce a l o n g th e in ne r si de @
in the design of hori ed. ‘Where there are sight ‘obstruction like buildings, cut slop ‘gt
.
SISO Si Fe
curves should be consider should be removed or where
of struction
y s 0 2 2n(R-d
or tr ee on th e in ne r si de
lequate si gh t di st an ce . It m a
hould be change in th e n o r m a l h i g h w a y cr os s se ct io n to mi (b) Le<S
‘som e a d j u s t m e n t s
ovide the adequate sj 3
fe. If it is no t po ss ib le to p r
If th e si gh t di st an ce re qu ir ed is gr ea te r th an th e le ng th of c u r v e Le , th en th e a n g l
and cautionary signs should be in st al le d e
= SEIN

t e n d e d at th e ce nt re is d e t e r m i n e d wi th re f re nc e to th e l e n g t h of c i r u l e
‘e design speed and distance fal] ansudb the set-back dicentr stance isis worked out in two parts as given aes See Fie 43. ie
fe

ao _ G_e18n0Le , oe

in Ar t. 4 . 3 , th e ab so l G=L,
apir| le l) . a
As discussed
c e s h o u l d b e a v a i l a b l e at e v e r y m' R-(R-
4) cos 2 2 sin 2 (4.28)
sto p p i n g s i g h t d i s t a n p e c i a l c a r e s h o u l d b e ta ke n
th at in h o r i z o n t a l a l i g n m e n t , s
point. Thus it is e s s e n t i a l d as g i v e n in T a b l i t when the is
n c e , t h e s e v a l u e s m a y b e a d o p t e The cleara i
nce of ‘
obs tru cti on upt o the set -ba ck dis tan ce is imp ort ant
t o p p i n g s i g h t d i s t a eet ock
provide fo r th e s
d i s t a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s ar e g i v e n in T a b l e 4. )
slope on the inn er sid e of the hor izo nta l cur ve. The met hod St ca es ar te
s p e e d . O v e r t a k i n g s i g h t o n t a l ¢
for the de s i g n
u i r e d from the cen t r e li ne o f a h o r i z distance is illustrated in Examples 4.19 and 4.20.
se t b a c k d i s t a n c e r e q
clearance distance or o f th e c u r v e to p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e s i g h t
i n n e r s i d e
to an obstruction on the 4.4.9 Curve Resistance
th e f o l l o w i n g fa ct or s :
depends upon tu rn in g the fro nt wh ee ls , but the rea r wh ee ls do not
The automobiles are steered by
(i) re q u i r e d si gh t di st an ce , S tum. When a vehicle driven by rear wheels mo ve s on & ho ri zo nt al cur ve, the di re ct io n of
, as sh ow n in Fig . 4. 30 and so the re is so me
| h o r i z o n t a l cu rv e, R rotation of rear and front wheels are different
(ii) ra di us of
loss in the tractive force.
ic h ma y be gr ea te r or le ss er th an s.
(iii) length of the curve, Le wh wh ie h Ne hi ga lt wa e ne pe ar al e oD Bo
rv :
e,
of Be weitnt whfe st ib ie si tl
D are e p so as to steer i c l e al on g a ho ri zo nt al cu
fe r Fig . 4. 31 . Le t C be the ob st ru ct io n; to vi si on on the in ne r Sisi dee eels C and He nc e the tra cti ve for ce av ai la bl e in thi s
ni Re
an ue ra : : be the si gh t dis tan ce the tangential direction of which is RS.
ighway curve of radius R, ABC the line of si gh t an d arc AB n the act ual tra cti ve for ce, T app lie d. Ob vi ou sl y
direction = T cos a which wil l be les s tha
ang le wil l be hig h and the va lu e of T cos a
(@) Le>S when the turning radius is sharp, the turning due to tuning, of a vehicle on a horizontal
Would decrease. ‘T hu s the los s of tra cti ve for ce
Let the length of curve Le be greater than th e si gh t di st an ce S. Th e an gl e SYP ”
curve, which is termed as cu rv e re si st an ce wil l be eq ua to (T —T €”s 0) oF Ai ues
by the are length S at th e ce nt re be «. On na rr ow ro ad s su ch as si ng le la ne and will depend on the tuming angle ¢.
lo ng th e ce nt re li ne of th e ro ad an d th e an subten?
gl e
sight distance is measured
centre, o is equal to S/R radians.
 HIGH W A Y G E O M E T R I C D E S I G N
DESIGN OF HORIZ
ONTAL ALIGNMEN
. T 138
Hence provide superelevation rate = 0,058
(ii) Extra widening of pavement, W,

We = a y
2R "95K
3.as the pavement width is 10.5 m
6m
3x6? | 65

fi
é
Fig. 4.30 Curve Resistance for Turning Vehicle ‘ 2x325 9.5325
Turning along the hor izo nta l cur ve is eff ect ed due to the late ral fric tion dev elo ped = 0.166 + 0.380 = 0.546, say, 0.55 m
between the front whe els and the pav eme nt. At sha rp cur ves , if the spe ed is hig h (iii) Length of transition curve, L,
may be even sliding along the tangent direction PQ. Thus while a vehicle driven b
rear wheels tums along a horizontal curve, there is increased resistance and if the (a) By rate of change of centrifugal acceleration :
is to be mai nta ine d, a hig her tra cti ve effo r Allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration C is given by :
speed as on straight
dri vin g whe els , this pro ble m doe s not exis
vehicles with front 10 80
e rear dri vin g whe els and hen ce on sha rp cur ves the add iti on:
commercial vehicles hav = 2 es 3

curve resistance should also be con sid ere d whi le des ign ing the geo met ric feat ures : TEN "Janes
is acu te on hill roa ds as the cur ves are oftey
highways. This problem of curve resistance (As this value is between 0.5 and 0.8, accepted for design)
gra die nts . The com pen sat ion in grad
sharp and in addition, the roads have steep
late r in Art. 4.5. 2.
needed for such a cas e has bee n exp lai ned 0.0215V3 _ 0.021565?
= =.9m
CR 0.57%325
4.4.10 General Examples on Horizontal Alignment
(b) By rate of introduction of superelevation, E : Total superelevation, E = B x .
f
Example 4.18
ov id e a hor izo nt Total pavement width including extra widening on curve,
While aligning a highway in a bui lt up are a, it wa s ne ce ss ar y to pr
De si gn the fo ll ow in g ge om et ri c fe at ur es : A
circular curve of radius 325 metre, B = W+ We= 10.5 +0,55 = 11,05 m

(i) Superelevation ‘Superelevation rate, e = 0,058

(ii) Extra widening of pavement E = 11,05 x 0.058 = 0.64 m

(iii), Length of transition curve Assuming that superelevation is provided by rotating about the centre line, the total
superelevation to be distributed along the length of transition curve = E/2. The rate of
Data available are introduction of superelevation may be taken as | in 100, being built up area.
Design speed = 65 kmp h, Len gth of whe el bas e of larg est tru ck = 6 m, Pav emé
width = 10.5m BS Len thcurve Ls = 2S «100=32m
gition
of trans
Solution (c) By IRC formula, the minimum length
(i) Superelevation rate, e b= 21R 2, 273265 2 2
stm
From practical considerations of mixed traffic conditions, superelevation t
i aie centrifugal force should be designed with 75% of design speed. Here Adopting highest of the above three valu es , le ng th of tr an si ti on cu rv e Ls = 35 m.
=32) m.
Example 4.19
a ho ri zo cu rv e of ra di us
e= —
v? 6s?
=—— = A State Highway pa ss in g th ro ug h a ro ll in g te rr ai n ha s nt al
225R 225x325 O08 equal to th e ru li ng mi ni mu m ra di us.
As this value is less than 0.07, it is safe for the design speed.
 O M E T R I C D E S I G N
HIGHWAY G E DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL AL
136 IGNMENT
th is cu rv e, a s s u m i n g su it ab le da ta . N37.
g e o m e t r i c fe at ur es of
(i) Design all the
set-back distance from th e ce nt re li ne of th e t w o ay (ce sae
75+V
ee
(ii) Specify the minimum up to whi c h th e b u i l d i n g s et c. ob st ru y 75+80 ae
e c u r v e
highway on th e in ne r si de of th
so th at I n t e r m e d i a t e si gh t d i s t a n c e is a v a i l a (as this is within the range 0.5 to 0.8, the value is acceptable for design)
ae nould not be c o n s t r u c t e d ea te r th an th e
‘ A s s u m e th e le ng th of ci rc ul ar c u r v e gr
rcular
throughout the ci cu rv e. Ly = 20215V? _ o.021sx80? _
sight distance. CR 052x230 ™
Solution (ii), Total amount of superelevation E i.e., the raising of the outer edge of the pavement
The vario u s g e o m e t r i c e l e m e n t s to be d e s i g n e d ar e with respectto inner edge = B x e = 7.71
.71 xx 0. 0.07 = 0.54 m. As the t e r a i i
assume the pavement to be rotated about the centre at arate of | in 180. cating
(a) Ruling minimum radius
(b) Superelevation
LE 0.54%150
le = 5 xN= reer =40.5m
(c) Extra widening (iii) Minimum value of L, as per IRC is given by :
(d) Length of transition curve
_ 27V? _ 27x80?
(e) SSD, ISD and set-back distance 4.= = 2X8 5.1m
e fo r ru li ng d e s i g n s p e e d of 80 k m p h : R 230
(a) Ruling minimum radius of curv Adopting the highest ofthe three values, design length of transition curve = 92 m.
fay e n (e) Intermediate Sight Distance = 2 SSD
T27(e+f) 127(0.07+0.15)
Vv 2
= 229m, say 230m 2 0.278 Vt+
2546
(b ) D e s i g n v a l u e of s u p e r e l e v a t i o n :
80 ? 80?
wee —-= v 2 =0.124
2 [saransas 88
2540.35
]-2 * 127.6 =255 m
225R = 225x230
of 0.07, limit the value of e t o (f)h Refer Fig. 4.31. The red
Th length of circular curve is assumed greater than the desired si
As the value is higher than the maximum superelevation
of 80 kmph as the ruling minimum distance SD, The minimum clearance or set-back distance needed m = CD mi wae
0.07. The curve should be safe for the full speed central angle-c’/2 = angle AOD.
has been adopted. However check the transverse skid resistance developed :
radius
2 2
p= Yo e= 8 -007=0,149
:
127R 127%230
(Less than 0.15 and hence safe) LY
(c) Assume nwo lane pavement, i.e. n= 2 and /= 6m. Extra widening of pavement,

@~ 22. Vv
OR 0sdR
2x6 80
= 0.157 + 0,555 =0.712m
2x230 9.5230 Fig, 4.31 Clearance on cu rv e
ce
or
(
Se
E x
t-
a
ba
m p
ck
l
Di
e
st
4.
an
19 )
ce
for Desired Si gh t Di st an
Provide an extra width of 0.71 mand a total width of pavement B = 7.71 m. of th e p a v e m e n t an d th e ce nt re li ne of th e
The distance d between th e ce nt re li ne ng a tw o-
on e- fo ur th th e wi dt h of pa ve me nt at th e cu rv e (b ei
_(d) Length of transition curve is designed by calculating the values based on inside lane ma y be ta ke n as
pice ot coe acceleration C (ii) rate of introduction of the ami lano pavement) = 7.71/4 = 1.93 m.
elevation E and (iii) minimum length formula; the highest lues is ad
at the design length Ls, : papain ae
 T R I C D E S I G N
HIGHWAY GEOME DI ESIGN OF. HORIZONTAL.
138 ALIGNMENT 139
1 s 0 S _ _ 1 8 0 x 2 5 5 32°
aa _ 0S — 2 =.93)
1
2 2n (R-d) 2x (230-1 velen bag

d i s t a n c e m ’ = R - ( R - d ) c o s 7
Se t b a c k
1 . 9 3 ) c o s 3 2 ° = 3 6 . 6 m
230 — (230 —
n c e r e q u i r e d to p r o v i d e a cl ea r
u m s e t - b a c k d i s t a n c e or c l e a r a
Therefore th e m i n i m y
I S D of 2 5 5 m is 3 6 . 6 m .
vision for an

Example 4.20 t h 2 0 0 m o n
y c u r v e o f r a d i u s 4 0 0 m a n d l e n g
is a h o r i z o n t a l h i g h w a n e r
Th
highway.
e r e
Comput e r t h e s e t - b a c k d i s t a n c e s quired from the
r e c e n t r e li ne o n th e i n
4
(Wort: nor To scave)
of the cur v e s o a s to p r o v i d e f o r
o p p i n g s i g h t d i s t a n c e o f 9 0 m Fig. 4.33 Minimum Set-back Distance w! hen SD is
(a) st
n c e o f 3 0 0 m . Greater than Length of Curve (Example 4.206)
(b)_ safe overta k i n g s i g h t d i s t a
r e lit n e s o f t h e r o a d a n d t h e i n n e r l a n e is 1. 9 m . a _ _180L¢ _ 180x200
‘The distance between th e c e n t 2 2x (R-d) 2n(400-1.9) Ma?
Solution
op pi ng si gh t di st an ce (S SD ) of 90 m is les s th an Set-back distance m’ = CF=CG+GF
) Re fe r Fi g. 4. 32 . Th e st
(a
circ ul ar cu rv e le ng th of 20 0 m = R-(R—a)eos 2°© + Soho) 2 gin &2
= 400~ (400 - 1.9) cos 14.39°+ gan) sin 1439°
= 1444+ 124=268
Minimum set-back distance required from the centre line of the roads on the iner si
ofthe pavement to provide an OSD of 300 m= 27 m. eerste
4.5 DESIGN OF VERTICAL ALIGNMNET

4.5.1 General
S e t - b a c k w h e n S D is le ss
Fig. 4.32 Minimum ac es an d
h of C u r v e ( E x a m p l e 4 . 2 0 a ) But the natural gr ou nd ma y be lev el on ly at so me pl
than Lengt profile of the land.
the ve rt ic al pr of il e
otherwise the ground may have slopes of vary in g ma gn it ud es . He nc e
_ _ 1 8 0 x
a _ _1808 __ 22(400-1.9)9 0 _ _ _ go 2 9 of a road would have level stretches as we ll as sl op es or gr ad es . In or de r to ha ve sm oo th
the ch an ge s in the gr ad e sh ou ld be sm oo th en ed out by
2 2n(R-D) Vehi cl e mo ve me nt s on the ro ad s, of
is the el
nm en ev
t at io n or pr of il e of the ce nt re lin e
the vert ic al cu rv es . Th e ve rt ic al al ig
iti
R-(R—d( )cos Maes© the road. Th e ve rt ic al al ig nm en t co ns is ts 0!
the vehicle speed, acceleration, sp ee ds .
comfort in vehi cl e mo ve me nt s at hi gh
= 400 - (400 - 1.9) cos 6° 29° = 4.4m :
pr ov id e SS D of 90 m is 4. 4m . t h e
Required clearance from th e ce nt re lin e to 4.5.2 Gradient
l e n g t h of th e ro ad . wi th r e s p e c t to
t di st an ce of 30 0 m is gr ea te r th an Ci e along the un it s) . S o m e
(b) Refer Fig. 4.33. The overtaking sigh i jit to x h o r i z o n t a l
curve length which is 20 0 m. Th er ef or e th e re qu ir ed se t- ba ck di st an ce is CF =
GF) and is given by Eq. 4.28. 3
S = 300m,L,=200m,R=400m,d =
1.9m EN SEAT ia anaes
 : DESIGN OF VeRricay,
HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
140 AUGNMNET:
When the angle of gradient, a small (Refer Fig. 4.34a) the gradient which is 1 ig q factors such as ype uling gradient for the Pose
‘The selection of r isi
of terrain, the length o
or tan @ is approximately equal to the circular measure or a in radians (a‘). AM angle ehicles and presence of hori f the ge © 4 Cote jab as sever
within the practical range of gradients on roads may be treated as small. Hence gradi zonta dedi a l
which are generally represented as ‘n’ percent, would mean that this is the value Of the Some time not even possible o adm cate me
tangent of the angle made by the gradient with horizontal, Le. n tan a. The levels to be covered in short length ofroad. MMe because of large difference in
ascending gradients are given positive signs and are denoted as + nj, + m2 ete, ang A vehicle which travels with a certai
descending gradients are given negative signs and are denoted as ~ n3, ~ ng ete. The effort put in, would lose speed at nee On a level ground, with the same tractive
angle which measures the change of direction at the intersection of two grades is cal in length of grade. With the maximum
the deviation angle N which is equal to the algebraic difference between the two grades.
In Fig. 4.34b the deviation angle,
N = ZDBC=ZBAC+ ZBCA
= +m —(—n2) =n) + nz
where ny is ascending gradient of AB and — n2 the descending gradient of BC.
nce

eel Thus it is not possible to lay down precise standard

the mixed traffic and for the country as a whole.
Dr i
i
aa
i
rte
¢
The IRC has recommended ruling gradie
nt values of 1 in 30 on plain and rotting
terrain, | in 20 on mountainous terrain and | in 16
Trt

.7 on steep terrain.
Where topography of a place compels adopting stee ents
limiting gr adients are used in view of soars fos cost M i
elons
with gentler gradients. However the length of continuous grad cae
value should be limited. On e lin e st ee pe r th an ru li ng
——

rolling terrain and on hill roads, it may be frequently

Fig. 4.34 Measure of Gradients
While aligning a highway, the gradient is decided for designing the vertical ct
Very steep gradients are avoided as it is not difficult to climb the grade, but also
vehicle operation cost is increased. The engineer has to consider all aspects such
construction costs, practical problems in construction at the site and the vehicle op
cost in such alternative proposals before finalising the gradients.
Gradients are divided into the following categories :
Ruling gradient
Limiting gradient
Exceptional gradient
necessary to exceed ruling gradient and adopt limiting gradient; but care should be
to separate such stretches of steep gradients by Providing cither a
ta ke n
level road or a road
with easier grade.
In some extra ordinary situations it may be unavoidable to provide still steeper
gradients atleast for short stretches and in such cases the Steeper gradient upto
exceptional gradients may be provided. However the exceptional gradient should be
strictly limited only for short stretches not exceeding about 100 m at a stretch.
The maximum length of ascending gradient which a loaded truck can operate without
undue reduction in speed is called critical length of grade for a design. A reduction in
speed of about 25 kmph may be considered reasonable limit. The critical length for
design depends on several factors such as size, power, load and grade ability data of the
truck, its initial speed at the beginning of the ascending grade and the desirable limit of
the minimum speed at the end of the grade so as to avoid unreasonable interference with
the movement of other vehicles. The critical length of ascending gradients should
therefore be limited to lower values at steeper gradients.

Minimum gradient The maximum values of gra die nts re co mm en de d by the IRC at dif fer ent ter rai ns are
given in Table 4.13.
The terms are explained below : er e wi ll be pr ob le ms
The road can be level, with little or no gradient. In su ch ca se s th
Ruling gradient is the maximum gradient within which the designer attempts to des fac e wat er can be dra in ed of f to th e si providing
de dr ai ns by
of draina ge. Th ou gh the sur er s, a certain
the vertical profile of a road. Gradients up to the ruling gradient are adopted as a nora Proper camber on the pavement sul face an d cr os s sl op e on sh ou ld
th e
d r a i n s , d e p e n d i n g o n
course in design of vertical alignment and accordingly the quantities of cut and fil longitudinal slope is essential, to drain ( he w a t e r a l o n g th e si de
balanced. Hence ruling gradient is also known as design gradient. Ho Surface of the drains.
wever.
gr
adients may be preferred where ever practicable.
 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN DESIGN OF VERTICAL
142 ALIGNMNNET 143
fo r R o a d s in Di ff er en t T e r r a i n s
Table 4.13 Gradients solution

f ar Ruling | Limiting ]Experimentay), Ruling gradient = 6g

gradient ient
3.3 per cent | 5 per cent} 6.7 per cent 307% . 30+
Grade compensation ~ = “
44
= or rolling
(Lin 30)_| (Lin20) | (in 15)
terrain, and steep terrain! S percent |6 percent} 7 percent Maximum limit of grade compensation = TSR = 15/6
/Mountainous © 1 25%
|naving elev at io n m o r e th an 3, 00 0 mi (Lin 20) |(1 in 16.7) (1 in 14,3)
Therefore, compensated gradient = 60-128
= 4.75%
labove the mean sea level 8 per cent
m he ig ht ab ov e| 6 pe r ce nt |7 per cent
[Steep terrain up to 3. 00 0
E in 16 .7 ) \(L in 14,3)]_ (1 in 12.5) 4.5.3 Vertical Curves
imean sea level Due to changes in grade in the vertical alignment of highway. i ys mecesury to
in g th ro ug h le ve l la nd an d op en si de dr ai ns
Suppose the road is with zero gradient pass ar y to de ep en th e
D e vertical curve at the intersectionss of different grades to
introduc cxetbeen z
of say | in 300. It ma y th en be ne ce ss vertical profile and thus ease off the changes in gradients for the fast meniee vote
are provided with a gradient le ng th of ro ad . This
-
of th e dr ai n by ab ou t 3. 3 m fo r on e ki lo me te r
downstream en d ha ve The vertical curves used in highway may be classified into two categories
ns id er at io ns . He nc e it is de si ra bl e to
course is not possible from practical co ed topograp
gradient on ro ad s fr om dr ai na ge po in t of vi ew , pr ov id (a) Summit curves or crest curves with convexity upwards.
certain munimum of f, ty pe of so i
th is . Th e mi ni mu m gr ad ie nt wo ul d de pe nd on ra in fal l ru n
favour s (b) Valley or Sag curves with concavity upwards.
topography and other site conditions. Summit curves
t 1 in 50 0 ma y be su ff ic ie nt to dr ai n wa te r in co nc i
A mi ni mu m gr ad ie nt of ab ou Summit curves with convexity upwards are formed in any one of the case iPhustrated it
su rf ac es of dr ai ns a sl op e of I in 20 0 or 0. 5 pe rc en t ma y
drains or gu tt er : bu t on in fe ri or Fig. 4.3535. . |The deviation angle between the two interactin; WE gradients is cqual i to the
op en dr ai ns (s oi l dr ai ns ) st ee pe r sl op es upto } in 100 or 1.0
be needed where as on kutcha algebraic difference between them. Of all the cases, the deviation angle will be
percent niay be needed. maximum when an ascending gradient meets with a descending gradient us. N = ny =
i e n t on Ho ri zo nt al C u r v e s (ng) = (ny + 72).
Compensation in Grad
ng an gl e a of ve hi cl es , th e cu rv e re si s
‘At horizontal curv es , du e to th e tu ni
ai ne d in Ar t. 4. 4. 9. W h e n th er e is a ho ri .
T (1 — co s qa) , as ex pl Bena
developed is equal to st an ce to fr ac ti on du e to bo th
curve in ad di ti on to th e gr ad ie nt ll be increased resi
, th er e wi
ca se s th e to ta l re si st an ce du e to gr ad e an d
ce ss ar y th at in su ch
gradient and curve. It is ne du e to th e m a x i m u m va lu e of the
al ly ex ce ed th e re si st an ce
curve should not norm va lu e m a y be ta ke n as th e ru li ng
gn pu rp os e, th is m a x i m u m
gradient specified. Fer desi ie nt fo r th e te rr ai n. W h e n
in s o m e sp ec ia l ca se s as li mi ti ng gr ad
gradient and ic h ha s al re ad y th e in
is to be in tr od uc ed on a ro ad wh
horizontal curve d to co mp en sa te fo r th e lo ss o f
th e gr ad ie nt sh ou ld be de cr ea se ]neter ena)
permissible gradient, then z A
27
tr ac ti ve ef fo rt du e to th e cu rv e.
ri zo nt al cu rv e is ca ll ed gr ad e co mp en sa ti on , ¥
This reduction in gr ad ie nt at th e ho ()
tr ac ti ve ef fo rt in vo lv ed at th e cu rv e. Th is , is cal
is intended to of f- se t th e ex tr a
from the relation : l fo rc e wi ll
el s along summit cu rv e, th e ce nt ri fu ga
When a fast m o v i n g ve hi cl e tr av an d sp ri ng of
a x i m u m va lu e of 75 /R , e th e ty
@ part of the pressure oa scomfort to ayre s
Grade compensation, percent = pals , Subject to a m upwards, agains t gr av it y an d h e n c
act
e n s i o n s is re li ev ed . So there is no problem of di
the vehicle susp on ro ad s ar e ge ht sm al l an d
R is the radius of the circular curve in metre. c u r v e s , pa rt ic ul ar ly b e c a u s e the deviation angles
‘on summit
a d e q u a t e si gh t di st an ce . th e Te ng th of th e cu rv e
ce ss ar y fo r gr ad ie nt s : if th e s u m m i t c u r v e is d e s i g n e d to h a v e ;
According to the IRC the grade compen sa ti on is no t ne du e to c h a n g e in gr ad ic at s.
o n g e n o u g h to ea se th e s h o c k
than 4.0 percent and theref ore wh en app lyi ng gra de co mp en sa ti on cor rec t would be l e d B e a di st an ce‘ a
s.
g n i n g s u m m i t n e i d e h e a r
gradients need not be eased beyond 4 percent. The only p r o b l e m in d e s i e r e
s e ae
t a n c e or th e ab so lu te mi ni (se ie
The stopping sight dis s y s t e m an d so # ssa 5 ”
provided at all sections of th e ro ad
Example 4.21
While alig ning 2 hill road with a ruli ng grad ient of 6 perc ent, a hori zont al
144 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
DESIGN OF VERTICAL ALI
GNMNET
possible safe overtaking sight distance or at least intermediate sight distance, equal 14s
twice the stoppi ng sig ht dis tan ce sho uld als o be ava ila ble on the se cur ves for im po r. Length of summit curve for stopping sight distance (SSD)
ons to ove rta kin g hav e bee n str ict ly imp ose d at
highways, except when restricti 4 ‘Two cases are to be considered in deciding the length
sections concerned.
(i) When the length ofthe curve is greater than the sight distance (L.> SSD)
Types of summit curves
(ii) When the length ofthe curve is less than the sight distance (L< $$)
As the design of summit curves (except low summit or humps which do not inter
with sight distance) are gov ern ed only by con sid era tio ns of sigh t dist ance , tran g (i) When L > SSD
idea l as the sigh t dist ance avail
curves are not necessary. Circ ular sum mit curv e is The general equation for length L of the parabolic curve is given by :
throughout the length of circular curve is constant. From this view point, transition
e t f
may be said to be even und
hen
esi
ce
rab
the
le
sigh
to
t
be
dist
used
ance
on
wou
sum
ld
mit
vary
curv
from
es.
poin t to
is
poin
bec
t
aus
alon g t f b= NS (4.29)
radius of curvature and (2H +h)?
length of curve. The dev iat ion angl es in vert ical curv es of hig hwa ys are very smal l
so between the same tangent points, a simple parabola is nearlywith a circu congruent length of summit curve, m
are; also a parabola is very easy for arithmetical manipulation for computing ordir stopping sight distance, (SSD), m
The use of simple parabola as summit curve is found to give good riding comfort to
deviati ic di ?
Because of these reasons in
curve instead of the circular arc.
actual practice a simple parabolic curve is used as summ
inemnme Ce
H= height of eye level of driver above roadway surface, m
There may be sit uat ion s whe re the pro ble m of sig ht dis tan ce doe s not ari se as in the ca
when the road goes over a hump. Thi s may be due to the pre sen ce of a cul ver t, the top 9 h= height of subject above the pavement surface, m
roa d by less tha n abo ut a met re thu s cau sin g a s h a
which is above the general level of the e the pro ble m is ¢ The value of H, the height of driver's eye above roadway surface is taken as 1.2 m in
but relatively small summit or hump on the roa d pro fil e. In suc h a cas India as discussed in Art. 4.3.2. The height of object ‘h’ above the pavement surface for
cur ve wou ld be tra nsi tio n cut
discomfort to the passengers and so the most sui tab le
fil e sho uld co the purpose of safe stopping distance is taken as 0.15 m as per the IRC standard.
cither side of this hump. For proper des ign of hum ps, the ver tic al pro Substituting these values in equation 4.29 the length of summit curve is obtained as :
sid e of the hu mp wit h a lev el str ip in bet wee n.
two transition curves on either
Ns? (430)
Length of summit curve ie. L=
44
ra ll y ad op te d, th e eq ua ti on wh ic h is gi ve n by ;
Parabolic summit curves are gene (ii) When L < SSD
=» 2
x, w i t h v a l u e e ofof a a= —
L
N The general equation for the length of the parabolic summit curve, when it is less than
y=ax’, with valu the sight distance is given by :
He re N is de vi at io n an gl e an d L is the le ng th of
n
the
as eq
cu
ua
rv
l
e.
to
Si
its
nc
ho
e
ri
th
zo
e
nt
su
al
mm
pr
it
oj ec
cu
ti
rv
on
e ai
Al 1 = 25- elt (43D
long and flat, the length of the curve *L’ is take
y eq ua l to th e ac tu al le ng th of th e cu rv e.
(Refer Fig, 4.36) as it is practicall h are the sam e as in equa tion 4.29 . By
Here the des cri pti on for L, S, N, H and
substituting the valu es of H = 1.2 and h = 0.15 m the leng th of the curv e is obta ined as :

(432)
N

it cu rv e pr ov id in g, for st op pi ng or ab so lu te
Thus to design the length of vertical summ is found either by
si gh t di st an ce , fir st the sa fe sto ppi ng sight distance
minimum or fr om the re co mm en de d va lu es
ua ti on 4.2
calculation as given in Art. 4.3.2, and eq : an3 4.32) by
Tene OF SUMMIT CURVE, 4. 5, By us in
it g an y of th e tw o4. ap d 0
pr op ri at
i e fo rm ul ae tr ia l (
given ven in Ta
i bl e e is th en ca lc ul at ed . Th e mi ni mu m ra di us of th e
the required le ng th of su mm it cu rv
m a y be c a l c u l a t e d f r o m th e re la ti on R = U N .
Fig. 4.36 Length of Summit Curve parabolic sum m i t c u r v e
si gh t d i s t a n c e ( O S D ) or I n t e r m e d i a t e
s u m m i t c u r v e fo r sa fe o v e r t a k i n g
While designing the length of the pa ra bo li c su mm it cu rv es , it is ne ce ss ar y to 00 Length of
the stopping sight distance (SSD) and overtaking sight distance (OSD) sep Sight Distance (ISD) r e :
e d in d e c i d i n g th e le ng th a
d
mentione ear lie r, it is es se nt ia l to pr ov id e sig ht di st an ce at lea st eq ua l t the st Two cases to be c o n s i d e r
distance at all po in ts on a hi gh wa y so as to av oi d ac ci de nt s du e to in ad eq ua te
distance,
 HIGHWAY G E O M E T R I C D E S I G N
146
és gr ea te r th an th e ov er ta ki ng or Ti te rm ed ia te : DESIGN Oo VERTICAL ALIO
4’) Wh en th e te ng th of cu rv e NMNET
“7
distance (1. > S) and
th an th e ov er ta ki ng or In te rm ed ia te =
(i) When the Jength of the curve ix te ss Design speed | Maximum grade chan, BE <a
dlistanee (LSS) kmph
not equring iGa vercal curve” | mtior
(peri
nay ec ata
prade change
urve__ | mn (for highet
eave
ine paperseene a
vatees)
__anph)_|S
iy When >s
12 rTinmaiiniiases
The same general Eq . 4.2 9 is app lic abl e in this cas e also , But in this cas
e
e,
Bq .
the
4 2 9 10 ‘
of Hand both are taken equal to 1.
*h’ 2 m. Su bs ti tu ti ng h = H in th
simplitying.
L= Ns?
8H The highest point o1 it segs Lin/N from the
3. 3 th e he ig ht of th e ey e le ve l of th e dr iv er as we ll as th e he l the first grade ie eelamat nee fe a summit curve to be a si tangent pomt on
: As di sc us se d in Ar t. 4. of equation : y = a x° and by differenti
of the approaching object are taken as 1. 2 m. ‘S ub st it ut in g th e va lu e of H, th e he ig ht
equating (0 Zero for the highest
titinngg ththe height y with respect todameary
su rf ac e eq ua l to 1.2 m. _ . The summit vertical ci
eye le ve l of dr iv er ab ov e th e pa ve me nt finding the ordinate value Y, ey be plottedby
- for different lengths Xx,
Ns? a3 tangent point, by taking measurements along the tangent lengths. x vos from the
L= or
96 Valley curves
ra bo li c su mm it cu rv e, Val ley cur ves or sa; 8 s curtheves aremaxi formed ini any one of the
Here. L. = the leng th of pa :
Fig. 4.37d. In allul the case e maxi on i strated
cases illu ig
an sa a bi e st ev ia angl e is obt
N=. devi at io n an gl e, ra di an s or ta ng en t of th e de vi at io n an gl e, descending gradient meets with
si gh t di st an ce , ( O S D / I S D )
S = overtaking or intermediate

(ii) When <S si mp

be u s e d . By s u b s t i t u t i n g H = h a n d
u a t i o n 4 . 3 1 m a y
The same general eq
ss t h a n O S D / I S D :
when L is le
Le 25- SH
N
m, th e e q u a t i o n r e d u c e s to :
n s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e v a l u e o f H as 1. 2
Her e a g a i
96
L = 25-——N

a r e a s in E q . 4 . 3 3 .
Here L, S and N o r s a f e
l s u m m i t c u r v e p r o v i d i n g f
i g n t h e l e n g t h o f v e r t i c a ll
Thus to d e s i ig ht d i s t a n c e is ca
t h e v a l u e o f t h e o v
overtaking, E q . 4
e d a t a as g i v e n in A r t .
the availabl a l u e as g i v e n 1
a b l e 4 . 7 or t w i c e t h e S S D v
given in T t e f o r m u l a 4.
y u s i n g a n y of th e t w o a p p r o p r i a
ISD. B n i m u m r a d i u s o}
e is t h e n c a l c u l a t e d . T h e m i
summit curv
the re la ti on R = L / N as be fo re .
th of s u m m i t c u r v e g e n e r a l l y
e d e v i a t i o n an gl e is sm al l, th e le ng
When th a n g l e s , th e le ng th :
a n c e . In n ve ry seviation
m a l l d fo rc e act s do wn wa rd s ad di ng to the pr es su re on the
less than the sight d i s t
th er e is no p r o b l e m of si gh t At the valley curve, the centrifugal vehicle,
v a l u e i n d i c a t i n g th at in ad di ti on to th at du e to we ig ht of th e
times wor k s ou t as a n e g a t i v e prings and the sublspeenrasiteonsof ofchthanege vehiof clcee ntrifugal acceleration should govern the design
at the summit curve. lence the allowa

e f o r d i f f e r e n t s p e e d s a n d f o r t h e
The minimum lengths of ve rt ic al cu rv
ic h do no t re qu ir e v e r t i c a l c u r v e
rade change values (in pe rc en t) wh TE al i UK
148 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN DESIGN OF VERTICAL ALIGNMNET 149)
of the valley curves, Obviously the best shape of valley curve is a transition re N is the deviation angle, v is speed in m/sec and C is the allowabl
Whic h may be take n as 0.6 mse , mieten
gradually introducing and increasing the centrifugal force acting downwards.
As the deviation wet rifgal acceleration
parabola is generally preferred in vertical valley curves.
small, the path traversed by the three types of transition curves, viz. spiral, lemni
mo st the sa me as ex pl ai ne d in Art . 4.4 .7. Vimph = 515 msec
cubic parabola are al
During night drivin g the vis ibi lit y ah ea d is de pe nd en t on the he ad lig ht of the
en pr ov id ed . Th er e is r e s t Ly = nv
when the road lighting is not ad eq ua te or has not be
ad lig ht get s in te rc ep te d th ou gh the b 0.6x3.6
the sight distance at valley curves as the he
jigh t may be slig htly incl ined upw ard s. The ref ore the hea d ligh t sigh t dist ance L, = og¢nv’y!?
aevalley curves sho uld be atle ast equa l to the sto ppi ng sigh t dist ance . How eve r, t h L = 21,-038(Nv?)!” (4.36)
no problem of overtaking sigh t dist ance at vall ey curv es duri ng nigh t as oth er v e t
s ta l le ng th of va ll ey cu rv e is gi ve n by eq ua ti on :
with head lights can be seen fro m a con sid era ble dist ance . ence th e to
Length of valley curve
cu rv e is de si gn ed ba se d on the tw o cri ter ia : (i) L=2 [Sef ase a})!?
The length of valley transition he ad l i g
ntrifugal acce le ra ti on of 0.0 6 nv se c’ an d (ii ) the
allowable rate of change of ce rion |
te d. Usually the second v e ,
sight distance, an d the hi gh er of the tw o va lu es is ad op
Where L. = tota l l e n g t h of v a l l e y c u r
of head light sight distance is higher an d th er ef or e go ve rn s the de si gn .
in r a d i u s or t a n g e n t of t h e d e v i a t i o n a n g l e or th e a l g e b r a i c
l a r t r a n s i t i o n | N= deviat i o n a n g l e
a d e f u l l y t r a n s i t i o n a ! b y p r o v i d i n g t w o s i m i difference in grades.
‘The valley curve is m v e in b e t w e e n ) . R e f e r F i g . 4 . 3 8 . w h e r e A B C is t h e
of equal length (witho u t a c i r c u l a r c u r cu rv es ea ch : V = design speed, kmph
an d AB and BC are tw o eq ua l tr an si ti on gi ve n b y :
valley cu rv e of to ta l le ng th L
tr e) of t h e va ll ey cu rv e fo r cu bi c pa ra bo la is
h a v i n g th e m i n i m u m ra di us R at th e c o m m o n po in t B.
“T he m i n i m u m ra di us (R me
length L, = L/2,
prwicigre he (4 37 )
NOW. the
for
LENGTH OF}+VA-L—LE—Y _C_URVE.
Y2—— ee (2) The le ng th of va ll ey
th
cu
e
rv e
tot al
fo r
le
he
ng
ad
th
li
of
gh
va ll
si
ey
gh t
cu
di
rv
st
e
an
L
ce
is
ma
gr
y
ea
be
te r
de
th
te
an
rm in
the
ed
st op pi ng
two conditions : (i) wh en as gi ve n be lo w.
an d (ii ) wh en L is les s th an SS D,
sieht distance SSD
() L> SSD r t h a n t h e h e a d li gh t s i g h t d i s t a n c e
a l l e y c u r v e L is a s s u m e d to b e g r e a t e t o f t h e h e a d
“The length of v as s h o w n in F i g . 4 . 3 9 . L e t t h e h e i g h
V a l l e y C u r v e which ho be atle a s t e q u a l to S S D , a r d s .
iF g. 4.38 Length o f of li gh t be clined
in at an an gl e a u p w
light be hy a n d th e f o c u s e d p o r t i o n
e
of
m
th
i
e
n i
b
m
e
u
a
m
m
w h e n th e y= hi cl e th e l o w e s t po in t on
iti 1¢ Ly for comfort conditi o n is g i v e n b y e q u a t i o n 4. 22
th e Si gh t d i s t a n c e a v a i l a b l e w i l l b c s h a p e , w i t h e q u a t i o n y= a
con b e ‘o f p a r a b o l i
(1) The length of t r a n s i t i o n c a r e s f o r the s a g c u r v e . If t h e v a l l e y c u r v e is a s s u m e d to
a ca ’x , where a= N/2L.
Hi cR iSs u n a = a2sN S
-= otIN
Value o f R ( a t l e n g t h L s )
n
3 x Norby =~ v
Le WY
Cy
1
_ nv? 2
L, = C
p i s t a n c e w h e n L > S
H e a d L i g h t S i g h t
Fi g . 4 . 3 9
 180 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
DESIGN OF VERTICAL ALIGNM
NET
Le ns* (St
2h, +2S tana) example 4.22
Af the average height of the head light is taken as. hy “0.75 m and the beam a A vertical summit curve is formed at the intersection of ‘(wo gradients, + 3.0
and = 5.0
& = 1°, by substituting these in the above equation, erent. Design the length of summit curve to provid
etiam speed of 80 kph, Assume other data PPINE SEM distance for a
. nN Solution
(5+0.0359) 2
Where, L = total length of valley curve, m(L> Ss) @ SSD = 0278V14 254f
S = SSD,m As there is ascending gradient on one side of the summit and descending gradient on
the oth er sid e, the eff ect of gra die nts on the SSD is ass ume d to
N = deviation angle = (n, + ny), with slopes —n, and +n; hence ignored in the calculations, ae
Gi) L<SSD Assuming t = 2.5 sec and f= 0.35 for V = 80 kmph,
7

Refer Fig. 4.40. Let the vehicle beThere

at the sta rt of the valley curve or at the tanger
ereemee mes

point TP, for mini mum sight dista nce. fore, SSD = 0.278 x80x2.5+
254%0.35
= $5.6+72.0= 127.6, say 128m
(ii) Deviation angle N = 0.03 -(-0.05) = 0.08
Assuming L> SSD (Eq. 4.30),
Le NS? _ 0.08%128?
44 44
eg

Fig. 4.40 Head Light Sight Distance when L<S = 297.9m(> 128m)
h+Stana = (s-§}» ‘Therefore length of summit curve = 298 m_
This value is higher than the minimum specified length of 50 m at 80 mph specd as
per Table 4.14.
PS os. eines
Example 4.23
i
= 0.7
hy t ut
m and
5t a= i whengL<S
1°, n ‘An ascending gra die nt of 1 in 100 mee ts a des cen din g; grad ient of | in 120. A sum mit
Subs
a 3 curve is to be designed for a speed of 80 kmph so as to have an overtaking sight distance
L = 2s- (1.5+0.035S) of 470 m.
4 Solution
e is to de lo ca te
N
d fo r pr ov id in g th e cr os s dr ai na g 1
The lo we st po in t on th e va ll ey cu rv
se ct or of th e an gl e b m= +A Tp
ey cu rv e wi ll be on th e bi
facility. The lowest point on the vall nt s ar e no t eq ua l, th
ie
c
e gr ad
a
h e n th
e
ther side are equa l. W
the grades, if the gradients on ei th is po in t is at a di st an c
side of flatter grade, an d
lowest point lies on the N= 90 (120) 600
gr ad e m. Th is is e a x ” y
X=L n2N from the tangent point of the first IfL>Osp
by th e eq ua ti on ; y = bx ’, wh er e B
assuming the valley curve to be a cubic parabola given
From Eq. 4.33 length of summit curve,
pr ac ti ca ll y co in ci de s wi th th e sp ir al tr an si ti on cu rv e fo r sm al l de fl
= 2N__ this s Le NS96? _ U60ex9A6 7-049°9m
rt ic al di st an ce y is
5
di
‘
ff er
7
en ti at ed wi th re sp ec t 10
3L
angles of valley cu rv es ; th e ve
ze ro to ob ta in th e lo we st po in t on th e cu rv e. ‘ a sL le
s ss
u th
m an OS
e D.
horizontal dist an ce x an d eq ua te d to As this value is le ss th an O S D of 47 0 m,
a y al so be o b t a i n e d f r o m T a b l e 4. 14 .
t h of va ll ey cu rv e, m
The minimum leng
152 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
DESIGN OF VERTICAL ALIGNMNET
153
IfL>OSD
ypL>sD
From equation 4.34 length of summit curve,
L = NS _ 13x3602
i= 8-22N 96 4009.6
= 439m

As this value is greater than the SD of 360 m, the assumption is correct. It is possible
7m to provide the ISD of 439 m to allow limited overtaking operations and the
_
= 2x47 0- " = 4 1 m,
6 sa
. y 41
4 9.6x600
summit curve in this case is less than the maximum available length of 500 m. =p

This value is less than 440 m. Example 4.25

Therefore, the length of summit curve = 417 m. A valley curve is formed by a descending grade of | in 25 meeting an ascending grade
of 1 in 30. Design the length of valley curve to fulfil both ae gears pi head
Example 4.24 light sight distance requirements for a design speed of 80 kmph. Assume allowable rate
of change of centrifugal acceleration C= 0.6 m/sec’.
A vertical summit curve is to be designed when two grades, + 1/50 and — :
a highway. The stopping sight distance and overisking alate distance quel Bae Solution
But due to site conditions the length of vertical curve has to be e peels
and 640 m respectively.
restricted to a max imu m valu e of 500 m if poss ible . Calc ulat e the leng th of summ it curv e Ry ie ey
25° 30 150
needed to fulfi l the requ irem ents of (a) Stop ping sight dist ance (b) Over taki ng si;
distance or atle ast Inte rmed iate sigh t dist ance and disc uss the resul ts. 1 V = 80kmph, v=80/3=.262.2 m/sec

Solution (i) Comfort Condition

From Eq. 4.34,
M = 22d (-z) as 135 1
30 \ 80) 400 1

Re qu ir em en ts of st op pi ng si gh t di st an ce L = 2 [ s h - 2 ( e r P a m
(a) Cc 150 0.6
SSD = 180m t Si gh t Di st an ce Co nd it io n
(ii ) He ad Li gh
Assume L > SSD Neglec ti ng th e as ce nd in g an d de sc en di ng gr ad ie nt s at th e va ll ey cu rv e us in g Eq . 4.
x
1
+ 22 .2 72 x 98
NS. 13*148.04 23393 m = 22 .2 x2 5
2
p= and assu mi ng t = 2. 5 se cs . an d f= 0. 35 , S S D = v t +v id gf
44 400x ti 0.35)= 127.3 m

than SSD the assumption is correct. IfL > SSD, using Eq. 4.38
As this length is greater
m which is less than the prescribed ns? 11x127.3?
summit curve required is 240 199.5 m
The length of i L= a a
5 + 0 . 0 3 5 % 1 2 7 . 3 )
(1.5+0.035S) 1 5 0 ( 1 .
maximum limit of 500 m.
distance the assumption is correct. The valley
of ‘overtaking sight As this value is higher than the SSD of 127.3 m,
(b) Requirement that based on comfort
higher than
based on head light sight distance being
OsD = 400m curve length length of valley curve is 199.5 or say, 200 m.
condition, the design
,
Assume L > OSD m
NS? _ 13x640?
2 _ 1397
L= REFERENCES
9.6 400x9.6
d , H . W . Tr af fi c E n g i n e e r i n g , M c G r a w Hi ll B o o k
obtained is higher than the sight distance,
1 Matson, TM., Smith, W S , H u r
As the length of summit curve
Co. Inc., New Yor k . i s
required is 1387 m.
v e i s r e s t r i c t e d t o @ v a l u e 2 Dhin M.P. and Bhan , A K . I m p r o v i n g th e Ri di ng o u O e eervell
c u r
As suggested in problem if the l I e n g t h o f t h e s u m m i t
D . o f 6 4 0 m . 3 a r 20 ye ar s D e s i g n an d
National Semirnansport and Shipping (Roads Wing), 1968- e r t o f
p r o v i d e t h e r e q u i r e d O . S .
0 0 m , it i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o D i s T
Ministry of
than 5 t a k i n g , I n t e r m e d i a t e a
o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r o v e r
e , t o p r o v i d e l i m i t e d e .
T h e r e f o r m a y b e p r o v i d e d i f p o s s i b l
t h e S S D o f 1 8 0 x 2 = 3 6 0 m
(ISD) equal to tw i c e
154 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN ie ‘
PROBLEMS
3 Specification and Standard Co mm it te e, Wi dt hs of Hi gh wa y Pav eme nts , Joy r 155
: nee Write short notes on ;
Indian Roads Congress, Vol. XI-I and4. 1946-47.
(a) Traffic separators
4 Specifications and Standard Committee, Policy Conceming Maxi
Dimensions, Weights and Speeds of Motor Vehicles in India, Journal, Indian Roads
Re (b) Kerbs
Congress, Vol. XIII-2 and 4, 1949. (c) Roads margins

Specifications and Standard Committee, “Dimension and Weights of Road Des; ign (4) Pavement unevenness
w

Vehicle”, Journal Indian Roads Congress, Vol. XVII-2, 1953-54. iz (e) Shoulders
Geometric of Roads, Indian Roads Congress, 1966 (Reprint from Tran (f) Width of formation (or road way)
a

Communication Monthly Review, May 1966).

(g) Right of way.
Specifications and Standards Committee, “Standards for Sight Distances fj Draw the typical cross sections of the followi indicat 5
ine ons indicating the. width of
=)

Highways”, Journal Indian Roads Congress Vol. XN-I and 4, 1950-51. pavement, roadway and land
AASHO, A policy on Geometric Design of Rural Highway, American Associi
of State Highway Officials; Washington.
i
(a) M.D.R. in embankment
(b) O.D.R. in cutting
Specifications and Standards Committee. Horizontal and Transition Curves f
(©) National highway in embankment in rural area
©

Highways Journal, Indian Roads Congress, Vol. XI-3 and 4, 1946-47.

10 Design Tables for Horizontal Curves for Highways, Indian Roads Congress, _ (d) National highway in cutting
IRC 38-1970, Now 1970. (e) A city road
11 Ives, H.C., Highway Curves, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. (A divided highway in urban area
12 Specifications and Standards Committee, Vertical Cures for highways Journal Explain sight distance and factors causing restrictions to sight distance. Explain
Indian Roads Congress, Vol. XVI-1 and 4, 1951-52. the significance of stopping, intermediateand overtaking sight distances.
13 Indian Roads Congress, Recommended Practice for Sight Distance on Rural What are the factors on which the stopping sight distance depends 2 Explain
Highways, IRC : 66-1976. briefly 2
14 Indian Roads Congress, Recommendations about the Alignment, Survey and | Explain total reaction time of driveandr the factors on which it depends. Explain

et RE
P|
Geometric Design of Hill Roads, IRC : 52-1981. “PIEV" theory.
Design Standards for Rural (Non Urban) Derive an expres sion for finding the stoppin g sight distance at level and at grades.
15 Indian Roads Congress, “Geometric ; Take the
Highways”, IRC : 73-1980 Calculate the stopping sight distanc e for a design speed of 100 kmph.
and Traffic Engineering Hand total reaction time 2.5 second and the coefficient offriction = 0.35.
Institute of Traffic Engineers, “Transportation

ta
16 for a design speed of 65 kmph. Assume suitable
Book”, Prentice Hall. Find the stopping sight distanc e

mreeercnmreesinen te
Urban Roads in Plains”, data. What are sight distance requirements at & gradient of | in 40.
Congress, “Geometric Design Standards for
17. Indian Roads reaction time as 2.5 second and design coeffic ient
IRC : 86-1983. (Hint for Solution : Assume total for level, ascendi ng and
Of friction as 0.36: find the stopping sight distance s
PROBLEMS descending grades).
r i c d e s i g n ? Li st th e v a r i o u s g e o m e t e State factors on which the overtaking sight distance depends. Explain briefs
o b j e c t s of h i g h w a y g e o m e t on a highway.
Wha t ar e th e Derive an ion for calculatin: 1 the overtaking sight distance
: ae 2
elements to be consi d e r e d in h i g h w a y de si gn . aber e aa
s t i c s in h i g h w a y g e o m e t r i c d Why are overtaking zones provide d 2. What is E oer
Explain the role of pa v e m e n t s u r f a c e c h a r a c t e r i
hi cl es ? Draw a neat sketch and show the signs to be installe d posit
m e n t s an d ty re s of ve
v e respect ively
is)

b e t w e e n p a are 80 and 60 hmph

State the factors af f e c t i n g fr ic ti on
a e w h i c ? ? Th ie speeds of overta ‘ overtakg
andkin en ‘ehicle
vehi Jkmph per second, calculate the
m b e r ? D i s c u s s th e fa ct or s
3. E x p l a i n c a m b e r . W h a t ar e th e o b j e
e
c
d
t s of c a
epends. Specify
d th e r e c o m m e n r a n g e s If the acceleration ofthe overtaking vehicle is 2
amount of c a m b e r to be p r o v i d safe passing sight distance for
n t s u r f a c e s . $
camber for differ en t t y p e s of p a v e m e
st ee P e e (8) one-way traffic
ap e of c a m b e r an d th e ef fe ct s of p r o v i d i n g
4. Discuss the effects of sh (b) two-way traffic
ca rr ia ge wa y- St at e
th e fa ct or s g o v e r n i n g th e wi dt h, of
5 E n u m e r a t e
rr ia ge w a y fo r va ri ou s cl as se s o f
specifications for width of ca
156 HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN
zo ne , Sh ow the Po st io n = PROBLEMS
18 In problem 17, what should be the length of ov er ta ki ng
signs by means of a sketch.
of
a mo u n t a i n o u s t e r r a i n , a c i r c u l a r :
f transition k C a l e u t
ul a
atnee co
ex y
tr a t t s
wid 3 0 1m a n d l e n g t h 4 0 my ha s
i t i o n of 20 m o n b o t h e n d s , eni ng i f
19 Find the safe overtaking sight distance for a highway having a desi
100 kmph, Assume all data suitably, BP shed of
3
kph. Suewes suitable method of pr ovtheidwiideninnggon soe ne sonar
36 Wh
eath are theExplobaijen,cts of providing 16 transiIrantisition curves on the horiizontal
{Wine for Solution : Assume speed of overtaken vehicle = (100 ~ 16) kmph; max alignment
acceleration of overtaking vehicle * 1,6 kmph/sec, as given in Table 4.6] ks)
7 List the various types of transition curves used in hi ighways, i l
wi What is an idea
20. Discuss the factors to be considered in deciding the sight distance at intersections,
2 transition curve ? Explain,
21 (a) Enumerate the design elements to be considered at the horizontal alignment, 38 Discuss the factors to be considered while designing the Jength of transition curve.
(b) What are the effects of speed on horizontal alignment design ? What 39 Derive an expression for finding length of transition curve on horizontal alignment
design speeds for different classes of roads specified by the IRC ? F of highways.
22 (a) Explain superelevation, What are the factors on which the design j 40 ‘The radius of a horizontal curve is 400 m, the total pavement width at curve is
superclevation depends ? Bi 4 7.6 m and the superelevation is 0.07. Design the transition curve length for a speed
(b) Explain maximum and minimum superelevations. of 100 kmph, Assume pavement to be rotated about the inner edge.
23. Derive an equation for finding the superelevation required if the design coefficient 41 Calculate the length of transition curve for a design speed of 80 kmph at horizontal
of lateral friction is ‘Pf, i curve of radius 300 m ina rural area. Assume suitable data.
24 Enumerate the steps for practical design of superelevation ? (Hint for Solution : Solve the problem as in Example 4.16),
42. (a) Exp lai n cur ve res ist anc e and com pen sat ion in gra die nt on hor izo nta l cur ves ,
25 Design the superelevation required at a horizontal curve of radius 300 m for speed
of60 kmph. Assume suitable data. (b) There is a hor izo nta l cur ve of radi us 60 m on a stre tch of hill roa d with a
26 Calculate the maximum allowable speed on a horizontal curve of radius 350 m if gradient of 5.0%. Determine the grade compensation.
how sig ht dis tan ce is res tri cte d on hor izo nta l cur ves and
the maximum allowable values of lateral coefficient of friction is 0.15 and rate of — 43. Explain with sketches
superelevation is 0.07. how the desired sight distance could be obtained.
27 A radius of 250 m has to be provided at a locality due to site restrictions in a 44 The stopping sight distance req uir ed for a hi gh wa y is 80 m. Fin d the req uir ed set
fro m cen tre lin e of a cir cul ar cur ve 300 m assuming the
of rad ius
National Highway with design speed 100 kmph. Design the superelevation, Should - back distance
there be restriction in speed 7 length of the curve is greater than the sight distance.
The overtakiing: d
sitght dis
ngsigh i s tan ce req i
uir ed on a i
hi gh wa y i
iss 250 m. . FindFin the required
28 Explain with the aid of neat sketches the methods of eliminating camber a 49
lin e of a cir cul ar cur ve of rad ius 350 m and
clea ra nc e of obs tru cti on fro m cen tre
introduction of superelevation. wit h d= 1.9 m.
length 180 m. As su me two lan e hi gh wa y
29 What is the basis of calculating absolute minimum radius of horizontal curve 2, sin g thr oug h a flat ter raiin has @ horizoi: ntal | curve of radius
What do you understand by ruling minimum radius of curve ? '6 A national highway pas i
des ign spe ed sy 100 e s e t
to the ei ne Ti ci en n rad ius . If the
equal ext ra Wi jen ing an
30 Calculate the absolute minimum and ruling minimum radius of horizontal cur re mi ni mu m sig ht dis tan ce, sup ere lev ati on,
absolute
for a design speed of80 kmph, transition curve. Assume necessary data suitably. "
factors controlling, the i
vertical alignment
i of of
31. Stat e the obje cts of wid eni ng pav eme nt on hori zont al curv es ? Wha t are the fa 47 Enumerate the various design
on which the design of widening depends ? Explain. highways. - ie ify the values
32. Derive an expression for finding the extra widening required on horizontal curve- fe 48 (a ) Ex pl ai n ru li ng , ma xi mu m an d ex ce pt io na l g radi noes
recommended by IRC for plains and hill. w a y .
(a) Why should the psychological widening be added to the mechanical widening ? t e r l i n g g r a d i e n t o f b i g h
33
s i d e r a t i o n s in de ci di n
(b) State the various con be th e c o mpensationin
(b) How is the widening of pavements introduced in the field ?
49 The ruling gradient of a hill road is 1 in 20. WHEE
L
-
a o or radius 80
i it
m after
(c) What is off-tracking ? Explain with sketches. gradient and compensated gradient on a horizo
wheel base 7.0 ™ whi allowing for curve resistance ? th es e ar e f o r m e d
(d) Determine the off-tracking of a vehicle with e various cases w h e n
negotiating a horizontal curve of radius 100 m. 50 Explain summit and valley curves and th
while two different gradients meet.
34 Calculating the extra width of pavement required on a horizontal curve of beara
on a two lane high way, the desig n spee d being 80 kmph . Assu me whee l base /=
 HIGHW A Y G E O M E T R I C D E S I G N

of su mm it cu rv e. Ho w is it de ci de d 9
State the factors that govern the length
‘
52 Discuss th e re qu ir em en t of su mm it cu rv es an d its
for
sh
med
ap e.
due to the pre sen ce of a a =
Chapter 5
Explain how the ver tic al cur ves on @ hu mp er
slightly above the profile may
Explain the factors bas ed on wh ic h
be designed.
the len gth of val ley cur ve is des ign ed,
Traffic Engineering
Discuss the pr ob le ms in hi gh wa y val ley cur ves and the bes t sha pe ofa val ley cur ve,
A vertical summit curve is formed when an ascending gradient of | in 25)
another ascending gradient of 1 in 100. Find the length of the summit curve ;
provide the required stopping sight distance for a design speed of 80 kmph.
. and the overtaking ig Sight
a n angle at a summit curve is 0.05
57 The deviatio si i nce
dista
300 m. Find the length of summit curve required. 1 ii

58
Determine the length of summit curve to provide (a) ISD (b) OSD, for desi; 5,1 INTRODUCTION
of 80 kmph. Assume all other data. sms
A valley curve is formed by a descending gradient of | in 40 which meets n 5.1.1 General
er in g wh ic h de al s wi th the im pr ov em en t of
ascending gradient of | in 30.
‘Traffic engineering is that brarich of engine rminals. This is achieved by systematic
(i) Design the total length of valley curve ifthe design speed is 100 kmph so as to._| traffic pe rf or ma nc e of ro ad ne tw or ks an d te
ap pl ic at io ns . ‘Th e me th od in cl ud es
fulfil both comfort condition and head light sight distance for night driving, after i traffic studies. Scientific analysis and en gi ne er
an
in
d
g
re gu la ti on an d co nt ro l on the ot he r.
calculating the SSD required. planning and geometric design on one hand plication of scientific principles, tools,
Traffic En gi ne er in g th er ef or e de al s wi th the ap
co nv en ie nt an d ec on om ic mo ve me nt of pe op le
(ii) Find the pos iti on of the low est poi nt of the val ley cur ve to loc ate a cul ver t.
techniques and findings for safe, rapid,
and goods.
es of ve hi cu la r tr af fi c an d th e
The road traffic is composed of various categori
fi c ha s tw o co mp on en ts , th e hu ma n
pedestrian traffic. Each category of vehicular traf ha s al so to be
machine as vehicles. ‘T ra ff ic en gi ne er in g
element as the driver and his pr of es si on of tr af fi c
ve rn ed by so ci al an d ph ys ic al sc ie nc e. Th e
advent of motor vehicle. During the
recognized -and go
engineering as kn ow n to da y ha s ev ol ve d wi th th e
ha ve be en ma de in ma ny ph as es of th e pr of es si on .
Isat few decades si gn if ic an t ad va nc es
tr ai ni ng fa ci li ti es ha ve be en ma de av ai la bl e at se ve ra l un iv er si ti es
Advanced st ud y an d no w be en re co gn iz ed as an
y in th e U. S. A. Tr af fi c en gi ne er in g ha s
and institution notabl me tr op ol it an ci ti es li ke Bo mb ay ,
essential to ol in th e im pr ov em en t of tr af fi c operations in
Delhi, Calcutta and Madras.
Definition
“T ra ff ic en gi ne er in g is th at ph as e of
Tr af fi c En gi ne er s, U. S. A. de fi ne s, e
Institute of wi th planning: and geometric de si gn of st re et s. g
engine er in g wh ic h de al s t h e i us
r e 15 re la te d to th e sa fe ,
an d wi th tr af fi c op er at io n th er eo n, as
abutting la nd s,
convenient and economic tr an sp or ta ti on of pe rs on s an d go od s” .
ty ha s P r o p e t ) a e e
Professor Ress Blunden of California Unurivinergsitrafic and (raver Knowledge to the
“Traffic engineering is the science of meas achieve sale
laws relating to traffic flow and generation and APPUCAITTO io
Professional practice of planning, designing and operate
and efficient movement of persons and goods".
159
 T R A F F I C E N G I N E E R I N G
160 TRAFFIC CHARAC RISTICS te)
a f f i c E n g i n e e r i n g
5.1.2 Scope of Tr human
peesbeings affect their ce asa
tls, oop ability to operate We motor vehicle safely or to servi
is to ac hi ev e ef fi ci en t fr ee an d ra pi d fl ow , destrian. Hence it is important to the traffic
engineer to study the characteristics and
The basic object of tr af fi c en gi ne er in g Lt
ci de nt s. Fa ct ua l st ud ie s of tr af fi c op
traffic, with least number of tr af fi c ac in ge ne ra l m a r e
de ve lo pi ng me th od s fo r i m p r o v e m e n t ‘The various factors which affect road user ‘,
ed
provide the fo un da ti on fo r : characteristic s mu y br oa dl y be cl as si fi
solving specific problems. under four heads :
The study of traffic engineer in g ma y be di vi de d in to six ma jo r se ct io ns , viz .: Physical
Mental
(i) Traffic characteristics
Psychological and
(ii) Traffic studies and analysis
Environmental
(iii) Traffic op er at io n- co nt ro l an d re gu la ti on
Physica l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
(iv) Planning and analysis ter ist ics of the roa d user s may be eith er per man ent or tem por ary
‘The physical cha rac
(¥) Geometric design ‘The pavement cha rac ter ist ics are the visi on, hea rin g, str eng th and the gen era l rea cti on to
traffic situations.
(vi) Administration and management of vis ion .
im pr o\ Vision plays the mos t imp ort ant rol e of all the se. The se inc lud e the acu ity
mo st es se nt ia l pr er eq ui si te for an y dep th jud gem ent .
Study of traffic characteristics is th e vis ion , gla re rec ove ry and
e co mp le x wi th va ri ou s ty pe s peripheral vision and eye movement, glare aut hor iti es.
of traffic facilities. The traffic char acteristics ar e qu it
be Minimum standards for acuity of vision are oft en lai d do wn by lic ens ing
th di ff er en t mo ti ve s. The human psychology is to wit hin a con e who se ang le is onl y 3 deg ree s, tho ugh
road users in the ro ad s mo vi ng wi
ac te ri st ic s is an es se nt ia l p Field of clearest and acute vision is
give n pa rt ic ul ar at te nt io n. Th e st ud y of ve hi cu la r ch ar era l and eve n upt o 20° in the hor izo nta l
st ud ie s to be rried out
ca on th e ac tu al tr af fi c in cl ud e sp ee d, | the vision is fairly satisfactory up to 10° in gen be abo ut two thi rds of
Apart fr om th es e th e va ri ou s s; plane. However in the vertical plane the fie ld of cle ar vis ion may
d de st in at io n, tr af fi c fl ow ch ar ac te ri st ic
are par tic ula rly tak en car e of whi le des ign ing
that in the horizontal plane. These factors
volume, capaci ty , tr av el pa tt er ns , or ig in an
of cle ar vis ion is lim ite d, the roa d use rs hav e
parking and accident studies. and ins tal lin g con tro l dev ice s. As the fie ld
vis ion . The tot al tim e
ar e re gu la ti on s, co nt ro l an d wit hin the per iph era l fie ld to obt ain cle ar
traffic operations to often shift the ir eye s
al cha racteristics including the
be in th e fo rm of la ws an d
taken for the eye movement dep end s on som e of the phy sic
sstallation of © The eff ect s of gla re, adoity to changes
pta bil of light i.e., darkness to
response to sti mul i. th ju dg em en t is
ordinances or oth sho uld als o be stu die d. The dep
ke si gn s, si gn al s an t j light and bright lig ht to
in
dar
jud
kne
gin g
ss,
dis tan ce and spe of
ed veh icl es and oth er abj ect s ahe ad.
important for a driver
traffic control devi ce s li ur es , su ch as tr af fi c
of tr af fi c m a n a g e m e n t me as
and control the traffic. ‘Actual adoption
t e n t i o n .

itidenanpesacmseveanemmsraneisiier sont
n e e d a d e q u a t e a t
regulations and control e r i a l no t an im po rt an t fa ct or in ge ne ra l, la ck of st re ng th m a y
s e fo r m a j o r h i g h w a y s li ke e x p r e s s - w a y s , a r t cyclists. Though strength is fo r he av y ve hi cl es . Th e re ac ti on to
p h a
cr os s s e c t i o n a n d p a r k i n g m a n e o u v e r s di ff ic ul t, pa rt ic ul ar ly fi c
facilities. All the aspects s u c h as ma k e th e ti me re qu ir ed to pe rc ei ve an d un de rs ta nd th e tr af
a l i g n m e n t , m a n o e u v r e ar ea s traffic si tu at io ns d e p e n d s on fa ct or s su ch as
horiz o n t a l a n d ve rt ic al
at e ac ti on . Th is d e p e n d s on m a n y
fo r b e t t e r p e r f o r m a n c e . situatio n an d to ta ke th e ap pr op ri t Up , sp ee d an d
be suitably designed ph ys ic al fa ct or s me nt al an d p s y c h o l o g i c a l se
n
th e h e l p | e n t an d ‘ t e m p o r a r y at e ac ti on d e p e n d s o
Jemented w i t h ‘p e r m a n
fa ct or s. Al so th e ti me re qu ir ed to ta ke an ap pr op ri
ti on
n t is u s u a l l y m environmental th e fa mi li ar it y, Th e P I E V th eo ry ex pl ai ni ng th e to ta l re ac
o n or “ f o r c e m e the ty pe of th e p r o b l e m an d
Educati s i b l e b y su ff ic i
ineerit Education may b e p o s i s c u s s e d in Ar t. 43 .2 .
h u m a n fa ct or # time has a l r e a d y b e e n d
us er s af fe ct in g th et ef fi ci en cy are
teh tall
h o o l s a n d t e l e v i s i o n . It a i m s at i m p r o v i n g t h e
ysical ch ar ac te ri st ic s of th e ro ad in cr ea se th e re ac ti on
publicit y a n d t h r o u g h s c t r u c t i v e . t t d e a l s The tem, e re du ce al er tn es s an d
g p h a s e is th e o n e w h i c h is c o n s
oF p s ‘a nd il ln ess. All thes
traf fi c p e r f o r m a n c e . E n g i n e e r i n
d d i t i o n a l r o a d fa ci li ti es a n d in st al la ti fatigue, ‘alcohol it y of j u d g e m e n t in
d g e o m e t r i c s , p r o v i d i n g a
time an d al so af fe ct th e qu al
improvement of roa i c e s .
tr af fi c c o n t r o l d e v
suitably designed Mental characteristics
experience and literacy
5.2. TRAFFIC CH A R A C T E R I S T I C S Kn ow le dg e, ski
Kn ll,
characteristics, owleindgteelligofenvecehicle characterististicicss,, Cs sarei rnc persae is
5.2.1 Roa d U s e r C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s rul es of
Reactions
ro ad s
to an
cedrt ps
ai nyc ho lo
tra gy
ffi c of
si oa
tu d
at io se
ns s uWIaT D T
gru cti onco
annud nctiou s
mely action depends on
t i o n s o f t h e r o a d u s e r s e i t h e r a5
l e m e n t is i n v o l v e d in al l a c
The hu m a n e
p h y s i c a l , m e n t a l a n d e m o t i o n a l c h a r a c Un de rs ta nd in g the tra ffi c re gu la ti on snd spe
d r i v e r or m o t o r i s t . ‘ T h e intelligence and literacy-
cyclist, cart
 162 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS 163
Psychological factors soht affects the head light sight distance at valley curves, 1’ isi
These affect rea cti on to traf fic sit uat ion s of roa d use rs to a gre at ext ent , tp. lie er also depends onthe design of wind ied andthe frm pron ot oeeee
suc h as att ent ive nes s, fear ang er, sup ers tit ion imp ati enc e, hes body. The clearance below the chassis, approach, departure and ramp angles of the
emotional factors
attitude towards traffic and regulations and maturity also come under this. Dis if vehicle affects the design of verticle profile of drive ways, humps and dips. The length of
venicles affects the capacity, overtaking distance and maneuverability of vehicles. The
by non-traffic events and worries reduce attentiveness to traffic situations. Dan; fea of the
minimum wring radius de pe nds on the len gth of whe el bas e and the tur es
actions are likely due to impatience. Some road users do not pay due regard to thes
maine steering system and this affects design of sharp curves for the manoeuvre of vehicles at
regulations and do not have the right attitude towards the traffic. sey speeds. Gross weight, axle and wheel loads of vehicle govern the structural design
Environmental factors of pavements and cross drainage structures,
ect ing roa d de si gn are spe ed, ac ce le ra ti on and
The various environmental conditions affecting the behaviour of road user are Dynamic characteristics of vehicles aff Th e sp ee d and
some aspects of vehicle bo dy des ign .
stream characteristics, facilities to the traffic, atmospheric conditions and the locality. The braking characteristics and anc es to be ov er co me
taffic stream may consist of mixed traffic or heavy traffic whereas the facilities to overtakal eceleration depends upon the power of the en gi ne an d the res ist
for faster vehicles may be limited. The adoptability to different traffic stream and are im po rt an t in all the ge om et ri c ements. The deceleration and braking
de si gn el
The sta bil ity of veh icl e and its saf e
saf e ve hi cl e op er at io n.
characteristics depends on the driver's characteristics as well as the motivation. The characteristics gu id e
wi dt h of wh ee l bas e and the hei ght of
rv es are af fe ct ed by the
purpose of entering the traffic stream can be social, recreational, business, routine move me nt on ho ri zo nt al cu
cu rv es de pe nd s on the design of
entre of gravity. The riding co mf or t on ver tic al
movement or an emergency dash. The time, place and route are fundamentally chosen by.
mera

Th e im pa ct cha rac ter ist ics on col lis ion and the inj uri es
| sy st em of the veh icl e.
the road user based on the needs. Whatever be the motive of movement, once the suspen si on
the bu mp er and bo dy of veh icl e. So me of the
individual enters the traffic stream, the road user, is usually motivated by the desire for 3 to the occupants depends on the design of ail .
ha ve be en di sc us se d be lo w in det
time-distance economy on one hand, and comfort and safety on the other. Together with vehicle characteristics
modifying factors of motivation, there is a great variation among road users and their Vehicle dimensions
may be a shopping centre or a place with — th of
Nepean

behaviour in every traffic stream. The locality id er ed ar e th e ov er al l wi dt h, he ig ht , an d le ng

i o n s to be ma in ly co ns
other distractions to the road users, thus affecting their behaviour. The other environmenta l The dim e n s
ly of th e la rg es t on es . Th e wi dt h of th e ve hi cl e af fe ct s th e
different vehicl es , pa rt ic ul ar la ne s ar e
factors of importance are the weather visibility and other atmospheric conditions. width of the traffi c la ne s, sh ou ld er s an d pa rk in g fa ci li ti es . If th e wi dt h of th e
fro m ve hi cl es us in g th e ro ad s, th e capacity of road will
The total reaction tim e or the “P IE V” tim e of the dri ver s var y con sid era bly not adequate in view of the widest to be provided e un de r st ru ct ur es su ch
ics . But the rea cti on tim e of a decrease. Height of t h e ve hi cl e af fe ct s th e cl ea ra nc
driver to driver based on the above roa d use rs cha rac ter ist
ec tr ic an d ot he r se rv ic e li ne s. Le ng th of t h e ve hi cl e is an
on the typ e of the pro ble m and als o env iro nme nta l as overbridges underb ri dg es , el
particular driver may vary depending si gn of ho ri zo nt al al ig nm en t as it ef fe ct s th e ex tr a wi dt h of
important factor in th e de
and modifying factors.
mp le , re ac ti on ti me , de pt h ju dg em en t, fie ld of
Driver characteristics such as the si ry us in g Dr iv er ~
ui ty , gl ar e re co ve ry etc . ma y be me as ur ed in the la bo ra to
vision, vi su al ac 4 s Co ng re ss
st an da rd iz ed by th e In di an Ro ad
Testing Equipment. vehicles ha ve be en
di ff of transport v«
er en t ty pe s
The conf ig ur at io ns of
Table 5.1 (a).
5.2.2 Vehicular Characteristics arrangement are given in Fig. 5.1.
af fe ct th e - i o n s of R o a d V e h i c l e s
st ud y th e va ri ou s ve hi cu la r ch ar ac te ri st ic s wh ic h Table 5. 1 (a ) M a x i m u m D i m e n s
It is quite im po rt an t to e but . Maximum dim m
po ss ib le to de si gn a ro ad fo r an y ve hi cl
design and traffi c pe rf or ma nc e, be ca us e it is
er in g is to ca te r fo r Dim (excluding front &
ve hi cl e. Th e ba si c cr it er io n of hi gh wa y en gi ne Details
not for an indefinite fe as ib le te ke ep of rose bunpess)
the needs of existing an d an ti ci pa te d tr af fi c. It wi ll no t be ec on om ic al ly Vehicte 330
e ge om et ri c st an da rd s an d th ic kn es s of pa ve me nt s fr om ti me to ti me to Width [All vehicles = if
on increasing th He nc e th e ve hi cl e fo r no rm al app lic ati on
meet the needs of a fe w ve hi cl es wh os e di me ns io ns an d we ig ht ar e in cr ea se d. Height |(a)_ Single-decked ss
vehicle standards sh ou ld be un if or m at le as t wi th in a co un tr y, ke ep in g in vi ew th e la rg e (b) Double-decked vehicle mo re ax le s ( 323 1200
ur ed in th e ne ar fu tu re : engih (a) Single-u ni t ru ck wi th tw o or
percentage of ex is ti ng ve hi cl es an d th os e li ke ly to be ma nu fa ct
wi th tw o oF mo re ax le s (P ES 7 — <7 5-59) 16.00
of ve hi cl es sh ou ld be co ns is te nt wi th (b)_ Single -u ni bus
t 18.00
The standards for th e di me ns io ns an d we ig ht s
(c) Semi-trail er tr ac to r co mb in at io ns a 2 S ERS)
road facilities no w av ai la bl e or co ul d be ma de av ai la bl e in th e ne ar fu tu re . Th e va ri
L__|@) Tractor an d tr aiile r co m bi na ti on s 2 . 3 sa ao ash Sob=oe l
si fi ed as st at ic an d
vehicu la r ch ar ac te ri st ic s af fe ct in g th e ro ad de si gn ma y be cl as
mor e th t re in ex ce ed in g 18 Th e ob
No combination is allowed toto habeveof ap oF base (which affects the minimum mming er
characteristic of the vehicles. —
laden or unladen is allowed
g ro ad de si gn are the di me ns io ns , we ig ht
dimensio ns to be co ns id er ed ar e th e wh ee !
Static characteristics of vehicles affectin e of th e o rh
ve hi cl e af fe ct s th e cl ea ra nc
maximum turing angle. The height of an d th e he ig ht o
es , Th e he ig ht of dr iv er se at af fe ct s th e vi si bi li ty di st an ce
structur
 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS
165
l e

A
c

)
i

ts
h

cl )
e

elTYPE ]-2
power o f v
-the power of the heaviest vehicles and their loaded weights gov
and limiting values of gradient on roads, In this regard pad tlh ln al
TYPE -3 TYPE 2-S) TYPE 2-82 consisting of inertia, rolling Fesistance, air resistance and grade resistance are considered.
From the total hauling capacity and the power required to overcome the total tractive
resistance, it is possible to determine the speed and acceleration of the vehicle which in
turn is useful in traffic regulation, planning, and design,
speed of vehicle
‘The vehicle speed affects, (i) sight dist a n c e s (i i) s u p e r e l e v a t i o n , l e n g t h o f t r a n s i t i o n
TYPE 3-S) TYPE 3-S2 TYPE 3-2
e d
curv an l i m i t i n g r a d i u s o n h o r i z o n t a l c u r v e s (i ii ) l e n g t h o f t r a n s i t i o n c u r ical
v e s o n v e r t
w i d t h o f p a v e m e n t a n d s h o u l d e r s o n s t r a i g h t a n d o n
valley curves and on humps (iv) f i c l a n e (v ii ) d e s i g n a n d c o n t r o l
horiz t
ontal curves (v) design gradien (vi) c a p a c i t y o f t r a f
mea s u r e s O n i n t e r s e c t i o n s .
n e d c o n t r o l s m o s t o f t h e g e o m e t r i c f e a t u r e s o f h i g h w a y s .
‘Thus the desig spe
TYPE 2-2 TYPE 2-3 TYPE 3-3 e r i s t i c s
Bra k i n g c h a r a c t
Fig. 5.1 Types of Road Transport Vehicles i o n
The decelerat and bra k i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f v e h i c l e s d e p e n d o n t h e d e s i g n a n d t y p e
m u c h as m e c h a n i c a l , f l u i d or ai r b r a k e ) a n d it s e f ficiency. The safety
radius heen widening required) the front, rear and centre clearances andl th of braking syste (s o c o n s e c u t i v e
t i o n , s t o p p i n g d i s t a n c e a n d t h e s p a c i n g b e t w e e n th e t w
i c l e o p e r a
Se ta
approach nt
, depar tureaand ramp angles (which affect the desi;sign of vertiical profile ‘ fo of ve h
a f f e c t e d b y t h e b r a k i n g c a p a c i t y . T h u s t he highway
Vehicles in a traffic stream are s irectly get affected.
capacity and ove r t a k i n g s i g h t d i s t a n c e r e q u i f e m e n t also ind
Weight of loaded vehicle
Braking Test
The maximum weight of loaded vehicle affects the design of pavement thickness and s t a n c e o f p a v e m e n t s u r f a c e u n d e r th e p r e v a i l i n g
It is pos s i b l e to m e a s u r e t h e s k i d r e s i
d at t h e d e s i r e d r u n n i n g s p e e d . If th e
gradients. In fact the limiting gradients are governed by both the weight and power of the i o n s b y c o n d u c t i n g b r a k i n g t e s t s o n th e r o a
condi t
i c l e c o m e s to s t o p , it m a y b e a s s u m e d th at w h e e l sar e fu ll y
heavy vehicles. The maximum permissible gross weights and axle weights have bee brakes are app l i e d ti ll t h e v e h l l o w i n g t h r e e
c y 1 0 0 p erce n t . A t l e a s t t w o of th e f o
standardized by IRC as per Table 5.1 (b). locked a n d t h e b r a k e e f f i c i e n is
i n e t h e s k i d
d d u r i n g t h e b r a k i n g te st s in o r d e r to d e t e r m
measureme n t s a r e n e e d e
Table 5.1 (b) Maximum Permissible Gross Weight
resistance of the pavement :
and Axle Weight of Transport Vehicles
Braking distance, L metre
Maximum (i)

4. Gross weight,
tomes FAW ii) Initial speed, u msec.
Vehicle type lic ati on, t sec ond
(iii) Actual dur ati on of bra ke app
[Type 2 (Both axles single tyre)| 12.0 6 | 60 u l a t i n g th e a v e r a g e sk id
i re si
i st an ce of th e pa v re me nt us in g tt vw o of
6 | 102 t h o d of c a l c i
Type2 16.0 The m e
the above three values has been illustrated with the he lp of E x a m p l e s 5. 1, 5. 2 an d 5. 3.
(FA-Single tyre RA-Dual tyre) |_
[Type 3 24.0 | 6 [18 (7A) |
Example 5.1
[Type 2-S1 26.4 6 | 102 | at speed ‘ o f 30 k m p h wa s st op pe d by ap pl yi ng
| traveling sk id
[Type 2-S2 34.2 6 | 102 In a braking test, a vehicle
marks were 5.8 m in Je ng th , D e t e r m i n e th e av er ag e
[Type 3-SI 34.2 9_[18 (TA) brakes fully and the skid
tesistance of the pavement surface.
[Type 3-S2 2.0 6 [18(TA)
[Type 2-2 [366 6 [| 102 | 10.2 Solution
[Type 3-2 444___| 6 |18(TA)| 102 30 78.33 mse Y
—
[Type 2-3 44 6 | 102 | 102 Initial s y=
6 | 18(TA) 2
[Type 3-3 52.2 58m" = 2D
77 ( (see Ba 4)
L =
Braking distance
FAW = Weight on Front Axle; RAW = Weight on Rear Axle
TA = Tandem axle, fitted with 8 tyres.
 166, TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS 167
Average skid f =}
8,337
————__ =0.61 ‘Average skid resistance developed
2x9.8x5.8
Example 5.2 p= Mae
A vehicle travelling at 40 kmph was stopped within 1.8 seconds after the
2el 2x98xi22 °°!
of the brakes. Determine the average skid resistance. appl
Brake efficiency,
i % == 100f
loof _ 100x0.516
7 100x0.516
a _., 3.1%14
Solution j
a _ 40 _ eer Off Tracking
Initial speed u = 37 11.11 m/sec; Braking timet = 1.8 sec. Using the
When a four or six wheeled vehicle, such as car or bus (vehicle other than two and
relation of motion for uniform acceleration/retardation, three wheelers) negotiates a horizontal curve at relatively slow speed, the rear wheels do
not race the same path as the corresponding front wheels, as explained in Art. 4.4.6 under
v=u+at, v=0, retardation a ‘Mechanical Widening’. At relatively slow speeds when the centrifugal force developed
is lesser th an th e co un te ra ct in g fo rc es du e to th e su pe re le va ti on an d tr an sv er se fr ic ti on ,
the rear whee ls fo ll ow pa th s on th e in ne r si de of th e ho ri zo nt al cu rv e as co mp ar ed with
th e pa th fo ll ow ed by th e co rr es po nd in g se t of fr on t wh ee ls . Th is di ff er en ce in di st an ce
From the relation, force F
between the curved wheel paths of a particular set of front and rear wheels (i.e., either the
se t of fr on t an d re ar wh ee ls on th e ou te r si de of th e ho ri zo nt al cu rv e or th e se t on th e
inner side) is call ed of f- tr ac ki ng or th e me ch an ic al wi de ni ng fo r a ve hi cl e wh ic h is eq ua l
Average skid resistance f
to P / R R (s ee Eq . 4. 15 ). Th us th e of f tr ac ki ng de pe nd s on tw o fa ct or s :
(Othe length of whe el bas e or the dis tan ce bet wee n the fron t and real axl es of the
Example 5.3 vehicle and
A vehicle was stopped in 1.4 second by fully jamming the brakes and the skid
(ii) the turning ang le or the me an rad ius of the hor izo nta l cur ve tra ver sed .
measured 7.0 m. Determine the average skid resistance.
Solution Example 5.5
‘A vehicle has a wheel base of 6.5 m. What is the off tracking while negotiating a
Using the fundamental relations of motion for uniform acceleration/retardation
curved path with a mean radius 32 m.
(i) v=u+at, as the final velocity v= 0, u=—at
Solution
Gi) v-w=2as 1 = 65m;R=32m
2 2,2
. P_ 6s “ous
= i si and therefore a= 25 Off tracking = TR 2x2 .6 mi
2a 2a ?
Given braking distance L = 7.0m=s
5.2.3 Traffic Studies
and braking timet = 1.4 sec
Traffic studies or surveys are omcarried out to analyse
etric design feature
hie
a n d control for safe
s and
studies help in d e c i d i n g th e g e da ta ar e al so ca ll ed
tr af fi c s u r v e y s fo r co ll ec ti ng tr af fi c
Average skid resistance f = efficient traffi c m o v e m e n t s . T h e
traffic census.
Example 5.4 The various traffic studies generally carried out are:
at 40 km ph sp ee d wa s st op pe d by ap pl yi ng th e b r a k e
and th e I
‘A vehicl e mo vi ng (a) Traffic volume study
.2 m. If th e av er ag e sk id of the pavement is know?
re si st an ce
of skid mark was 12 (6) Speed studies
0.70, determ in e th e br ak e ef fi ci en cy of th e te st ve hi cl e.
(i) spot speed study
Solution
(ii) speed and delay study
L = 1 2 . 2 m, f = 0 . 7 0
36 = 11.11 m/sec,
 168 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS
{c) Origin aid destination (O & D) study 169
(a) Traffic flow characteristics ments on a pneumatic hose placed across the
ae , * Traffic ‘ count is recorded3 by electricall v rated counters and i
(e) Traffic capacity study y ache gch mend ecorae e
recording the impulses. The impulses caused by vehicles of light ee fad
(f) Ps Ling study om
eh in some cases to actuatth
ee counter,
traffic by this method. Other muetasds Sr it is il il
okaig Becoic pecaned
(g) Accident studies or the traffic flop by photo-electric cells, magnetic detector and radar detectors.
me chanical counter is that it can work throughout the day and ni The main abies Of
Traffic volume study ght for the desired period,
recording the total hourly volume, which may not be practicable in manual jaune. The
Traffic volume is the number of vehicles crossing a section of road main dr awback of the mechanical counter is that it is not possible to get the traffic volumes
Per unit time’at
any selected
¢ period.d Traffic volume is used as a quantity measure of flow
low;; the common of various classes of traffic in the stream and the details of tuning movements.
used units are vehicles per day and vehicles per hour. A complete traffic whan
y Manual counts
may include the classified volume study by recording the volume of vari
ous types and
classes of traffic, the distribution by direction and tuming movements and This method employs a field team to record traffic volume on the prescribed record
the
pgecrat lanes per unit time. The objects and uses of traffic volume st tudies sheets. By this method it is possible to obtain data which can not be collected by
are given
low : mechanical counters, such as vehicle classification, turing movements and counts where
the loading conditions or number of occupants are required. However it is not practicable
(a) Traffic volume is generally accepted as a true measure of the relative importan
roads and in deciding the priority for improvement and expansion.
ce éf to have manual count for all the 24 hours of the day and on all days round the year.
Hence it is necessary to resort to statistical sampling techniques in order to cut down the
(b) Traffic volume study is used in planning, traffic operation and control of existing manual hours involved in taking complete counts, First the fluctuations of traffic volume
facilities and also for planning and designing the new facilities, during the hours of the day and the daily variations are observed. Then by selecting
typical short count periods, the traffic volume study is made by manual counting. Then
(c This study is used in the analysis of traffic patterns and trends. by statistical analysis the peak hourly traffic volumes as well as the average daily traffic
di) Cc lassified volume study is useful in structural design of pavements, in geometric volumes are calculated. This method is very commonly adopted due to the specific
design and in computing roadway capacity. advantages over other methods.

(e) Volume distribution study is used in planning one-way streets and other regulatory Presentation of traffic volume data
measures. The data colleted during the traffic volume studies are sorted out and are presented in
(f) Turning movement study is used in the design of intersections, in planning signal any of the following forms depending upon the requirements.
timings, channelization and other control devices. (a) Annual average daily traffic (AADT or ADT) of the total traffic as well as
classified traffic are calculated. This helps in deciding the relative importance of a route
(g) Pedestrian traffic volume study is used for planning side walks, cross walks In order to convert the different
and in phasing the road development programme.
subways and pedestrian signals. vehicle classes to one class such as passenger car, conversion factors known as Passenger
There are variations in traf fic flo w fro m tim e to time . Hou rly traf fic vol ume vari es _ Car Units (PCU) are used. (see Tables 5.2 and 5.3).
, the pea k hou rly vol ume may be muc h hig her tha n ave rag e ~ lu me tre nds ove r per iod of yea rs are pre par ed. The se
considerably during a day (b) Trend charts showing vo
hourly volume. Daily traffic vol ume s var y con sid era bly in a wee k and the re are | data are useful for planning future expansion, design and regulation.
variations with season. Hence if a tru e pic tur e is to be obt ain ed, the hou rly tra ffi c vo lu me ~
ly , dai ly an d se as on al va ri at io ns are
(©) Variation charts showing hour regulation needed during peak traffic periods. al so pr ep ar ed .
s. In
These help in deciding the facilities and
along wit h the pat ter ns of hou rly , dai ly and sea son al var iat ion
should be known
cla ssi fie d and the vo lu me of eac h cla ss of ,
classified traffic volume study, the traffic is (4) Traffic fl ow ma ps al on g th e ro ut es , (t he th ic kn es s of th e i
li nes representiingng the
rs , oth er lig ht veh icl es, ric ksh aws , ton gas , bul loc k
traffic viz., buses, truck, passenger-ca traffic volume to any desired scale), are drawn. tr
These help to find the volu affic me
fo un d sep ara tel y. Th e dir ect ion of eac h cla ss of tra ffi c”
carts, cycles and pedestrians is distribution ata glance.
tra ffi c flo w in eac h dir ect ion of flo w inc lud ing : Soles
flow is also noted. At intersections the to 2 ce rt ai
i n sc sca le or in di ca ti ng
di ag at in te
Volaluneme asflhoween tvramFigs 5.2 0 Pe
(€) vo
tats rs ec ti on s ei th er dr aw n n
turning movements are recorded. 4. thus showing the details of crossing and

Counting of traffic volume tuming traffic. These data are needed for intersection design. aes
% . ‘
Traffic volume counts ma y be do ne by me ch an ic al co un te rs or ma nu al ly . (©) Th ir tc th hi gh es t ho ur ly vo lu me or th e de
tween hourly volume and the number of hours in ae hourly
si gn ho ur ly e l u 1 O E
lot

volume that will be

Mechanical counters exceeded, ‘See Fig, $3, The 30° highest hourly volume is he TOUTE OT will be less
Th e me ch an ic al col i a
These ma y be ei th er fi xe d (p er ma ne nt ) ty pe or po rt ab le ty pe . exceeded only 29 times in a year and all other hourly vol
can automatically record the total number of ve hi cl es cr os si ng a se ct io n of th e roa d :
y be by th e ef fe ct of im pu ls es or st im ul i ca us ed by
desired period. The working ma
 170 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTIC
S
71
Travel time is the reciprocal of speed and is
network is operating. 4 simple measure of how all well a road
Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a Specified section or location.
ion,
Av er ag e
onthe highway.spe ed is the ave rag e of the spo t 5 peeds of all vehicles passing a given point

‘There are two definitions for the average of a seri .

ed and tim e-m ean spe ed. : viz:
2 tells pokes reatssageie Hin
space- mea n spe obtaion! fom the e sec
time. se Ti
of pe ina pane road length at any
observ e
TRAFFIC GOING OUT « 200 +590+370+709, time of the vehicles over a relatively
ly
long stretch
long stretch of the road . Spa ce- mea n spe ed is
#1930 calculated from :
TRAFFIC COMING IN«180+600*370+@00
v, =. 36dn
s
i=l
HOURLY TRAFFIC VOLUME -PERCENT OF ADT

where Vs = space-mean speed, kmph

d = length of road, considered, m
n = number of individual vehicle observations
t) = observed travel time (sec) for ith vehicle to travel distance d, m_

‘The average travel time of all the vehicles is obtained from the reciprocal of space-
mean Speed.
Time-mean speed represents the speed distribution of vehicles at a point on the
roadway and it is the average of instantaneous speeds of observed vehicles at the spot.
Time-mean speed is calculated from :
oo
t i
do 030100 80180 TS Tae
NUMBERS OF HOURS IN ONE YEAR
VOLUME EXCEEDING THAT SHOWN
Snot
WITH TPAFFIC
Jt

us
ay
Fig. 5.3 Hourly Traffic Volumes
n
pe ak hou rly vo lu me of the yea r wil l be too hig h t h e where V,; = time-mean speed, kmph
than this value. The hig hes t or
fac ili tie s ac co rd in g to thi s vo lu me . Th e @ ith vehicle s, kmph
will not be economical to design the Vj = observed instantaneous speed of
(AAHV) found from AADT \
will not be sufficient
average hourly volume
hig h fac ili tie s de si gn ed wit h cap aci ty for 30° n = number of vehicles observed
considerable period of an year. The under typical speed
yea r is fou nd to be sat isf act ory fro m bot h f a c is slightl y lower than time-m ean speed
hourly traffic volume in the assumed
be les s wh en co mp ar ed The space-mean speed
and economic considerations. This is becaus e the cos t wil l conditions on rural highways.
ab le . Th er e wil l be co ng es ti on onl y d u r . eres i icular stretch
peak hourly volume and hence reason en Running speed is the average speed maintained by @ WKS or 8 distance covered
hou rly vo lu me is gen era lly tak
hours in the year. Thus the thirtieth highest be dec id of road, while the vehicle is in motion; this is obtained by dividing the
des ign hou rly vo lu me ma y in motion.
hourly volume for design. However the act ual
by the time during which the vehicle is actually
di ag ra m as sh ow n in Fig . 5.3 , aft er car ryi ng out tra ffi c vo lu me stu die s
: , ith wh ic h a ve hi cl e tr av er se s a
dr aw in g the
rly vo lu me thu s arr ive d at n e Ov er al l s p e d or tr av el sp ee
ted rmis
in the
al s; e f
thi sf e
is c t
sp
ob iee
ia vd
lo e
ed wi h
by diVv
vi di ng tot al d i st an ce
paren seed OF travel
desired location of the road. The design hou
vo lu me in all the cas es. 3
necessarily be the thirtieth highest hourly
enroute.
travelled by the total time taken including all delays and SoPPASS* ake aeee
se

Speed studies
ats e widely 4 Speed studies caried out occasionally give the gene ee
The actual speed of vehicles over a pa rt ic ul ar ro ut e ma y flu ctu types of speed studies carried out,
c features, traffic cond it io ns , tim e, place, em
on several factors such as geometri
and driver.
172 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING ‘TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS +

(i) Spot speed study, and ot sp ee d me as ur em en ts i ;

Other equipm en t us
me
ed
te
for
r,
sp
ra da r, sp ee d me te r an d by svi goat electronic
(ii) Speed and delay study sneer, photo electric
te r me th od se em s to be the mo st c e oa
Spot speed study these methods, the radar speed me as nis

in an y of th e fo ll ow in g as pe ct s of tr af fi c en gi ne er in g 3
caputpablthies ofequimepmasenurtingis cothestlysp, ot sp ee ds in st an ta ne ou sl y an d al so re co rd th em aut ‘omatically.
Spot speed study may be us ef ul

(a) to use in planning traffic control and in traffic regulations. presenta t i o n o f s p o t s p e e d d a t a

(b) to use in geometric design-for redesigning existing highways or for deciding desigg (a) Average speed of vehicles : From the spot speed data of the selected samples,
speed for new facil . frequency distribution tables are prepared by arranging the data in groups covering
various speed ranges and the number of vehicles in such range. The arithmetic mean is
(c) to use in accident studies
taken as the average speed. The table gives the general information of the speeds
(d) to study the traffic capacity maintained on the section, and also regarding the speed distribution pattern.
(e) to decide the speed trends (b) Cumulative spee d s : A graph is plotted with the average values of each
of vehicle
speed group on the X-axis and the cumulative percent of vehicles travelled at or below
to compare diverse types of drivers and vehicles under specified conditions. the different speeds on the Y-axis. From this graph, the 85" percentile speed is found out
which gives that speed at or below 85 percen t of the vehicl es are passin g the point on the
The spot speeds are affected by physical features of the road like pavement width, curve,
sight distance, gradient, pavement unevenness intersections and road side developments, highway or only 15 per cent of the vehicles exceed the speed at that spot. See Fig. 5.5.
Other factors affecting spot speeds are environmental conditions (like weather, visibility), The drivers exceeding 85th percentile speed are usually considered to drive faster than
the safe speed under existi ng condit ions and hence this speed is adopte d for the safe
enforcement, traffic conditions, driver, vehicle and motive of travel. design , the 98°
speed limit at this zone. Howev er for the purpos e of highw ay geomet ric
There are a number of methods to measure spot speed. The spot speed may be percentile speed is taken.
obtained either by finding the running speed of vehicles over a short distance of less than
50 metre or by finding the instantaneous speed while crossing a section, depending on the
method used. The spot speeds ofa few typical sample of vehicles are found during the

(PERCENT VEMELES AT GR BELOW KOEED (SHOWN) 3

5 3 8 s
sampling periods of the day, days of the week and months ofthe year.
One of the simplest methods of finding spot speed is by using enoscope which is just a

38 $3
mirror box supported on a tripod stand, In its simplest principle, the observer is stationed

astm vencenrwe speeo

‘on one side of the road and starts a stopwatch when a vehicle crosses that section. An
enoscope is placed at a convenient distance of say 30 m in such a way that the image of
the vehicle is seen by the obser ver when the vehic le cross es the secti on where the
enoscope is fixed (see Fig. 5.4) and at this instan t the stop watch is stopp ed. Thus the —
time required for the vehic le to cross the know n lengt h is found and is conve rted to the

a,
speed in kmph. The main advan tage of this meth od is that it is a simpl e and chea p
equipment and is easy to use. The great est disad vanta ge is that the progr ess is so slow as
will be less. al
typic al vehic les and the numb er of sampl es obser ved ee
itis difficult to spot out seco, «n/m
There is also a possibility of human error. t i v e S p e e d D i s t r i b u t i o n
Fig. 5.5 Cumula
ta

ee d re pr es en ts th e lo we r sp ee d li mi t if it is o e m p
The 15" perc en ti le sp
slow moving vehicles to decrease delay and congestion, as kala alk aang
the stream travel at speeds higher than this value and there
a

portunities. seueates
eecds speeds is
(©) Moda l aver age : A freq uenc b cuve of5.6.t ThisTegraphSca
y dsspeed nd the
tcl

speed of vehicles or average values of each ae Fi is called the

Percentage of vehicles in that group on the Y-axiSp s. 9-0’ . em arrrayel speed across
9 TnWn speed dist ribu tion curv e. This cane vil have or n ce pn en en at y
ai

as m 2 ion of vehic les move , give n

this spee d is denote d
wisn SOURCE OF LIGHT I section and
rmin ing the spee d at whic h the great est prop orti
oR FoR NIGHT helpful in dete
POF ‘STUDIES by the model speed.
Fig. 5.4 Spot Speed by Enoscope
 174. TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS
175
Table 5.2 Frequency Distribution of Spot Speed Data (Example 5.6)
‘Speed range, | Mid speed, | Frequency, Frequency,
t
gz ,, Peemph
1
kmph ral ieee Leoni
¥ ' 2 3 4 Ei
8 |' li 0-10 5 12 14l LAL
* 1
10-20 15 ie |22 35:
s 20)
2 si 20-30 25
FS ral
: a: 30-40 35
:= vt) [_ 40-50 45
Si
FA Fa) 30=60 55
Hi H' 60-70 65
bs 70 80 7s |
v © 2 30 ac SO 60 70 80 40 80-90 85
SPEED, Km/h 90-100 95
_ Total :
Fig. 5.6 Frequency Distribution Curve ofthe Spot Speeds
Using the val ues of mid -sp eed and cum ula tiv e fre que ncy % col umn 2 and $ of
All vehicles do not travel at the same speed at a location along a road. The amount of.
Table 5.2, cum ula tiv e spe ed dis tri but ion cur ve is plot ted (see Fig. 5.5) ; from this gra ph
speed dispersion or the spread from the average speed affects both capacity and safety.
For free flow of vehicles, the speed distribution follows a normal distribution curve. The the following results are obtained :
quality of flow of vehicles in a stream therefore depends on the speed dispersion. This (i) Upper speed limit for regulation = 85" percentile speed
may be judged by several methods such as (85" minus 15" percentile speeds); Standard = 60kmph
deviation of speeds, or the coefficient of variation in speed.
(ii) Lower speed limit for regulation= 15" percentile speed
Example 5.6 = 30kmph
(iii) Speed to check design elements = 98" percentile speed
consolidated data collected are given below,
= 84kmph
Speed range, | No. of vehicles | Speed range, ] No. of vehicles
Kmph observed kmph observed Example 5.7
Oto 10 12 50 to 60 255 ns ol id at ed dat a of spo t sp ee d stu die s on 3 sec tio n of a
The table below gives the co op or ti on of ve hi cl es
18 [_ 60 to70 119 road, Determine the mo st pr ef er re d sp ee d at wh ic h ma xi mu m pr
10 to 20
2010 30 68 [_ 70 to 80 4B travels.
301040 | 89 80 to 90 33 | No. of speed
40 t0 50 204 90 to 100 9
Determine (i) the uppe r and lowe r valu es or spee d limit s for regu lati on of mixe d tra ffi c
flow and (ii) the desi gn spee d for chec king the geom etri c desi gn elem ents of the
highway.

Solution ue
ved in thr ee sta ges . Firs t a fre que ncy dis tri but ion tab le Solution s
The problem may be sol
o r t i o n o f n e i c e n e e s a i
- m a x i m u m p r o p
prepared, next the cumulative frequency distribution curve is drawn and finally Th e m o s t p r e f e r r e d s p e e d at w h i c h
t i n g t h e f e q u e t t t s p r s r y T e
er tab le 5.2. Co lu mn no. 2 rep res ent s
e d w h i c h c a n tained by
b e o b p l o u r p o s ®m u a
appropriate values are obtain ed fro m the cur ve. Ref
oda l s p e
b u t i o n t a b l e of s p o t s p e e d s p r e p a r e d fo r t h i s p
the average values of the dif fer ent spe ed ran ges . The num ber of veh icl es ob!
frequency dis t r i s p e e d
ed as the fre que ncy f in col umn no. 3. The per cen t
t i o n c u r v e is p l o t t e d ( s e F i g . 5 . 6 ) 5
eac h spe ed ran ge is rep res ent
Th e f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u
b l e $ 3 . T H T O W T ty k m h ,
frequency values given in Column no. 4 are based on the total number of vehi f r e q u e n c y v
Pmearxceinmtum value of percentagea l u e s of the Ta
frequency in Fig. 5.6 an mph.
observed in all the speed ranges. The cumulative values of percentage frequency
given in column no.5.
 176 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTIC
Table 5.3 Frequency Distribution of Spot Speed Data (Example 5.7) S
n o t
17
e c t i o n i n e a c h t r i p is
Speed range, kmph | Mean speed. kmph | Frequency, f | Percent frequ opposi t e d i r
0-10 5 0
e r o fo b s e r v e r s w i l l b e r e q u i r e d t o c o u n
10-20 15 u i flow , m o r e n u m b
20-30 25 30 44
30-40 35 105 153 The average joupede
rney time t (minute) for all the v ehicles in a traffi
40-50 45 233 i
33.9 direction of flow q is given by : peiatreain isthe
30-60 35 216 31.4
60-70 65 _| 68 99
T= tw-nylq (5.1)
70-80 35: 24 3.5 n,+n,
80-90 85 ) 0.0 at, (5.2)
Total : 687 105.0
Speed and delay study where
The speed and delay studies give the running speeds, overall speeds, fluctuat q_ = flow of vehicles (volume per min), in one direction of the stream
speeds and the delay between two stations of a road spaced far apart. They also gi ng = average number of vehicles counted in the direction of the stream when the
information such as the amount, location, duration frequency and causes of the del test vehicle travels in the opposite direction
the traffic stream: The results of the speed and delay studies are useful in detecti
spots of congestion, the causes and in arriving at a suitable remedial measure: ny = the average number of vehicles overtaking the test vehicle minus the
studies are also utilised in finding the travel time and in benefit-cost analysis. In ge number of vehicles overtaken when the test is in the direction ofq
the efficiency of the roadway be judged from the travel time.
tw = average journey time, in minute when the test vehicle is travelling with the
The delay or the time lost by traffic during the travel period may be either due to stream q
delays or operational delays. Fixed delay occurs primarily at intersections due to traf
signals and at level crossings. Operational delays are caused by the interference of tra! ta = average journey time, in minute when test vehicle is running against the
movements, such as turning vehicles, parking and imparking vehicles, pedestrians e streamq
and by internal friction in the traffic stream due to high traffic volume, insufficic In the license plate or vehicle number method, synchronized stop watches or voice
capacity and by accidents. Therefore the overall travel speed between the origin recording equipment are used. Observers are stationed at the entrance and exit of a test
destination points of travel is invariably lower than the desired running speed. section where information of travel time is required. The timings and the vehicle
numbers are noted by the observers of the selected sample. From the
There are various methods of carrying out speed and delay study, namely : computations, travel time of each vehicles could be found. But the method does not give
office

Floating car or riding check method important details such as causes of delays and the duration and number of delays within
the test section.
License plate or vehicle number method
In the interview technique, the work can be completed in a short time by interviewing
Interview technique and ¢ollecting details ftom the road users on the spot. However the data collected may
not provide with all the details correctly.
Elevated observations, and
Elevated observation and photographic technique are useful for studying short test
Photographic technique Sections like intersection etc.
In the floating car method a test vehicle is driven over a given course of trat Intersection delays studies need special attention as this poses a major problem to the
approximately the average speed of the stream, thus trying to float with the traffic traffic engineer. Such studies at each intersection will help in evaluating the efficiency
A number of test runs are mad e alon g the stud y stre tch and a grou p of obse rver s i and effectiveness of the control device like signal system, the remedial measures for
the various details. One observer is seated in the floating car with two stop watches. accidents etc.
of the stop watc hes is used to reco rd the t i m e at vari ous cont rol poin ts like int
bridges or any other fixed points in each trip. The other stop wate! used to Example 5.8
duration of individual delays. The time, location and cause of these delays are The consolidated data collected from es anain
d de la y st ud ie s by fl oa ti ng ca r me th od
by the seco nd obse rver eith er on suit able tabu lar form s or by voic e reco rdin g equ!
On a stretch of urban road of length 3.5 North-South are given below.
km, i peed of the traffic
The number of vehicle overtaking the test vehicle and that overtaken by the < termine the average values of volume, journey speed and ne
are note d in each trip by a third obse rver . The num ber of vehi cles trav elli ng, Stream along either direction.
 —T
———Fatal stopped | No.of te
srctio
ee n | Journ ey |" vehicles : : TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS 179
Dire See,
‘Average stopped delay = 1.5 min
Average running time = Average Journey time - average ‘stopped delay
= 6.621 ~ 1,50 5.12 min
35x60
Average running speed = 41.0 kmph
5.12

(ii) South-North direction

ny = 30-2010
Solution tw = 7.6min
mean values of journey time, stopped delay, number of Vehicles eS tal
n s i t e dir e c t i o n f o r N o r t h - S o u t h a n d S o u t h - N o r t h F bo :
orceit ‘and in oppo ny = (from N~S strips) = 272
obtained from Table 5.4.
b l e . 4 M e a n v a l u e s o f s p e e d a n d D e l a y D a t a ( E x a m p l e 58) ie a 272410 _ (936 vetiinta
Ta 5
6.5+7.6
——_—_iTon) Journey time | Stopped delay Number of vehicles
a

Direct " Min. Sec. Min, Sec. P= Jee Lo. aire [eA
ne

N-S 19.36 Sa Ta
ano

x6—0
3.—5—
J journey sp eed = — 755 =27.8 kmppth

Total : Average stopped delay = 1,8 min

Mean: Average running time = 7.55 - 1,80 = 5.75 min
S-N
Average running speed = 35°52 = 36,5 mph
Origin and Destination Studies

Total : The origin and destination (O & D) study is carried out mainly to (i) plan the ronatd
Mean : network and other facilities for vehicular traffic and (ii) plan the schedule of differe
modes of transportation for the trip demand of commuters.
(i) North-South direction
studies of veh icu lar tra ffi c det erm ine s the ir num ber , the ir ori gin and
The O & D
The data may also be supplemented by the number
ny = average no. of vehicles overtaking minus overtaken = 3.5 - 5.0 destination in each zone under study.
ma de and rea son s
of passengers in each vehicle, pur pos e of eac h trip , int erm edi ate sto ps
inf orm ati ons lik e the act ual dir ect ion ofit e
My = average no. of vehicles during trips in opposite direction (from su ete. Origin and destination study gives
selection of routes and length of the trip. These studies are most ire in pl bd
in im pr ov in g so me of the exi sti ng st an af an Sa te
average journey time = 6 min. 30 sec. = 6.5 min new highway fac ili tie s and
si ve ne ” no vi pi ty
can be a hig h pe rc en ta ge of thr oug h tra ffi c whi ch ma y be
y ng ps ai ns t the st re am = 7 i
min n . . 36°° © there
by-pass and thus considerable saving in distance and time za igo ere
average jo
j ur ne tim e du ri tri ag
g the des ire d cir ect ion s of ‘e al al ea s ee
Provides the basic data for determinin e )
ort ant tra ffi c si p e a s
q= average volume = =a = This is considered to be one of the imp a
Problems in a zone and the most important study to plan the highway <9
tatty 7.6+6.5 . .d mas transitneefac
sic ds ties byin cit
ilimay et iesnatsho
ed uld
GF
Scientific planning of transportation sys tem a nas
= average Journ
ey time be based on O & D data of passenger trips. Also TWN TN cconomic studies. (See
extrapolating the data from O & D study. toget!
Art, 5.2.5 for estimation of future traffic).

Average joumey speed

180 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTiCs

s m a y be s u m m e d up as fo ll ow s ; an d qu ic k 181
The various appl ic at io ns of O & D st ud ie
or k
‘Thiis meth o d i a
is qu it e ea sy
d ) , the field work is ee
th e ad eq ua cy of ex is ti ng ro ut es an d to us e in pl an ni ng ne w ne tw organisation ca n al so be tr ai ne d o u
(i) to ju dg e
a ne t wo rk
cneotmpwoutrkatioofns stinatiotrnsacintog tathkee trof ips throiougns h along tse Ko of ten
o v”
n s inV O
l N
s E S &
er lo
e t of
h a of
l vfi
e ce
t fac ili tie s in cit ies inc lud ing rou tes cl es the Vehicle, itis not pinta
(ji) to plan transportation system and mas s tra nsi get the information of t h e ro ut es fo ll ow ed by th e ve hi
schedules of operation. Hence a la rg e n u m b e r of t e a m s ar e re qu ir ed to .
(iii) to locate expr es sw ay or ma jo r rou tes al on g the des ire lin es.
is to be su rv ey ed . Ho we ve r, th is me th od i n a servations when a
la rg e ar ea
under consideration is small, like a large i a ixa small busis when the area
(iv) to establ is h pr ef er en ti al rou tes for va ri ou s ca te go ri es of ve hi cl e in cl ud in g by- pas s,
Return post card method ingens
(¥) to locate terminals and to plan terminal facilities. :
Pre-paid business reply post cards with retum add: s
(vi) to locate new bridge as per traffic demands. ax somque ed points alofillnged thein rout
e selectair e or the car ds are mai led so fe a see
The stionn e to be by the road user is pri ia Go
(vii) to locate intermediate stops of public transport. : me vie a
request for co-operation and purpose of the study. The distributi
(viii)to establish design standards for the road, bridges and culverts along the route, may be sel ect ed whe re veh icl es hav e to stop as in case of a toll boo th. tati ons for the card s

There are a number of methods for collecting the O & D data. Some of the methods, ‘The method is suitable where the traffic is heaavy.part Theof thepersonroadnel userneesd a be sei
commonly adopted are : or tra ine d just for dis tri but ing the card s. Onl y
cards promptly after filling in the desired details properly and corey, If ‘cocon ch
Road-side interview method, License plate method suc h cas es, it is like ly that the se may not give a true pi nclusions
are drawn in
Return post card method, Tag-on-car method and Tag on car method
Home interview method. In this method a pre-coded card is stuck on the vehicle as it enters the arca under
study. When the car leaves the cordon area the other observations are recorded on the
tag. This method is usefuul where the traffic is heavy and moves continuously. But the
Road side interview method = method gives only information regarding the points of entry and exit and the time taken
to traverse the area.
The vehicles are stopped at previously decided interview stations, by a group of
persons and the answers to prescribed questionnaire are collected on the spot. The Home interview method
information collected include the place and time of origin and destination, route, — ‘A random sample of 0.5 to 10 perceofntthe population it seland ect ed s
the residence
locations of stoppages, the purpose of the trip, type of vehicle and numbers of passengers are visited by the trained personal who collect the travel data from each member of the
in each vehicle. The traffic may be filtered through a prescribed lane by previous
warning signs and with the help of police so that each driver of the selected sample of house hold. Detailed information regarding the trips made by the members is obtained on
the spot. The data collecte d may be useful either for planning the road net work and
vehicles is interviewed. The percentage of sample interviewed out of the total traffic i other roadway facilities for the vehicular traffic or for planning the mass transportation
each selected period should also be noted from appropriate traffic volume study taken Tequirements of the passengers. The problem of stopping vehicle and Soret
simultaneously. difficulties are avoided altogether. The present travel needs are clearly aa ing
In this method the data is collected quickly in short duration and the field organisation analysis is also simple. Additional data including socio-economic and other — ay
is simple and the team can be trained quickly. The main drawback of the method is be collected so as to be useful for forecasting traffic and hers ops dot
the vehicles are stopped for interview, and there is delay to the vehicular movement. have complete coverage of the entire cross section of the population is very x
Also resentment is likely from the road users. Further, unless there is enough spaces and D studies a place, itis nece to
ssar decide He
y ©
gered
undue congestion may result due to stopped vehicles. ‘ While plannin g for © t on the object s ee iad be
study. ‘The selection of the method is dependen
License plate method influence of year and dates of study onthe ype and amefel Tua collection
The entire area under study is cordoned out and the observers are simultaneously ‘own. Care is needed in selecting the method of SAmPINB ID and
stationed at all points of entry and exit on all the routes leading to and out of the area. sample size should be decided keeping in viewthe
Each party at the observation station is given synchronized time pizces and they note the Work Spot interview method i n g the O & D da
e ts at
license plate numbers (registration numbers) of the vehicles entering and leaving the saned by collecting the
The transportation needs of work edu trips can be atPlt ions ee. by bs in it g
cordoned area and the time. Separate recording sheets are maintained for each direction
‘Work spo ts like the off ice s, fac tor ies , cat ion al inst
of movement for a specified time interval. After collecting the field data major W
remains of the office computations and analysis, by tracking each vehicle number and its Presentation of © and D data
time of entering and leaving the cordoned area. The data are presented in the following forms * i
 RAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS
182 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
ta bl es are pr ep ar ed sh ow in g number of trips between along the existing rom
ut i
es
(i) Origin an d de st in at io n
tracing sheets. by mposiing one over the other with the hel ip
Superisupmperios of
different zones. *
in al mo st all ©. (iii) The relaI tive magnitude of the generated
ep ar ed
(ii) Desire lines ar e pl ot te d wh ie
ne
h
s
is
ar e
a gr
st
ap
ra
hi
ig
ca
ht
l re
li ne
pr
s
es
co
en
nn
ta
ec
ti
ti
on
ng
pr
th e or ig in po in ts w i t h zo! mes involved may be represented by pie shots Semel reltionshigs ofthe
and D surveys. Desire li groups (See Fig. 5. 7) . Th e wi dt h of — diameter being proportional to the number of trips jn which circles are drawn, the
iz ed in to di ff er en t ar ea
destinations, summar ns , ot te d si mi ta r .
. Th e sh ap e of th e
th e nu mb er of tr ip s in bo th di re ct io t o u r li ne s m a y be pl e ge ne ra l a k e H i e r n co nt on ss
such desire lines is drawn proportional to th e ac tu al de si re of th e ro ad jy)
(iv) C
c o
o n
n t o u r s w o u l d i n d i c a t e th
The desire line density map easily enable to decide io n, a by -p as s area,
fi nd th e ne ce ss it y of a ne w ro ad li nk , a di ve rs
users and thus helps to wi th th e ex is ti ng fl ow pa tt em ‘traffic flow characteristics and studies
ora new bridge. These desire lines may be compared
Traffic stream generally has flow and counter flow ‘common unless
stream is separated into pair of one-way flows by Belasa
or pa a
‘The basic traffic manoeuvres are diverging. mergi
Fig 58. Ofall these, diverging onthe left is he cater reveae cas lent tien
tee traffic conflicts. This is because the traffic is regulated onthe left eee
oii the left side also does not cause much of conflict. But diverg ra
also merging from the right create conflicts and hazard to pipie' has ange
ateight path. ‘Transfer ofa vehicle from one traffic lan to the next adj oie
sc called lane change and this involves diverging and merging. ciliata

as
LEFT —
RIGHT
DIVERGING

LEFT RIGHT
MERGIFG

LerT RIGHT
; CROSSING

cert wont
WE DYING

v r e s
Fig. 5 . 8 T r a f f i c M a n o e u
ions
—--- CENTRE LINE OF
The crossing traffic isthe greatest problem i 6 Og gram of weit
EXISTING ROAD ne vehicles on one road have to stOp 088
——_ DESIRE LINES Ps
ross their path, “Thus the traffic capaciy TOC
- ret if
og, whena vehi
Sty one ofthe erossing roads or even es uae dian, 3 ea
mately across the path of another vehicle movind IDO sioyeavng Noe
termed *2
7 all angle of crossing, the action iss termed per RBn
M0 be consid ered to consist of merging and vets
Fig. 5.7 Desire Lines
 isa TRAFFIC ENGINEERING TRAFFIC C
HARACTER
IStiCg
In twoway mov ent ent s ther e may be cro ssi ng and ove r tak ing man oeu vre s, The ‘
Traffic volume is the number Of Vehicles 185
ist ics are atl ect ed by the wid e ran ge of veh icl es and road , User s, Moving in a »
qraffic stream character that pass a piv
geometric feature of the road and intersections and other regulatory measures, Further
jane OF road way
as y ,
C0 point oF cr
hip lon Pecified direction on » given
tra tti c st re am flo w,
yrattic volume is expressed
" hicles per hour or vehicle persed Mal of tne
the enviro nm en ta l co nd it io ns als o aff ect the
The points to be puuticularly studied in tmaffic flow are the transverse and longitud given st Comes
Tile instant, af veiches
expressed as vehi Occupyi ng a2 unit length
‘Neth of lane of roadw:
distribution of vehicles on the various routes. The gaps ahead of each vehicle determing the 8 uct of the trafic density and ati speed? Pet Kilometre Trae volume tee
Jongintinal distribu on of vehicles in one-way stream, See Fig. 5.9. The time interval
‘The highest traffic density will occur when
denween the passage of successive vehicles moving in the same lane and measured from
head to head as they puss a point on the road is known as the time headway, The dis cna approachare2eF0practically
given route, and in this case tram '¢ Volume thewill vehicles . at a and til
benveen successive vehicles moving in the same line measured from head at any instance jg Traffic capacity is the ability of a roadw
the gnav Aeodvuy or the spacing of the vehicles in the stream. The variations in expressed a8 the maximum number of vehiclien ane eas, "aE volume, is
show the longitudinal distribution of the stream. ‘The number of headways per unit timeig gi
oint in unit time, usually an hour, i, vehicles per hour per | that can pass a ven
Gependent on the rate of traffic flow and is therefore a direct measure of traffic volume, and volume are measures of traffic flow and have the yolisvue ribs Capacity
With increase in speed of the traffic stream, the minimum space headway increases where actual rate of flow and responds to variations in traffic demand, while c emt eriavengd
as the minimum time headway first decreases and after reaching a minimum value at Capability or maximum rate of flow with a certain level of seni See iees
optimum speed on the stream, increases as shown in Fig. 5.9. Maximum flow or capacity’ i the roadway.
be carriedby the roa en Th ne. SPacitit y OF & roadway depends on a number of prevailing
flow is attained at this speed when the time headway is minimuyn. roadway and traffic condi
Basic capacity is the maximum number of er a .
hour under the ma porcl evieg rade ip in
TWOLANE HIGHWAY on a lane or roadway during one
conditions which can possibly be attained. Two roads having the same physical features

see
will have the same basic capacity irrespective of traffic conditions, ‘as they are assumed to
be ideal. Thus basic capacity is the theoretical capacity.

MINIMUM HEADWAY
MINIMUM SPACING

Possible capacity is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a given point on 3
a

lane or roadway during one hour under prevailing roadway and traffic conditions. The
possible capacity of a road is generally much lower than the basic capacity as the
prevailing roadway and traffic conditions are seldom ideal. In a worst case when the
prevailing traffic condition is so bad that due to traffic congestion, the traffic may come
toa stand still, the possible capacity of the road may approach zero.
OBSERVED SPEED OF PAIRS OF VEHICLES When the prevailing roadway and traffic conditions approach the ideal conditions, the
Fig. 5.9 Variation of Minimum Space and Time Headways with Speed possible capacity would also approach the basic capacity, Thus the value of possible
capacity varies from zero to basic capacity. For the purpose of design, neither basic
Another important factor to be studied in traffic flow characteristics is lane change in the capacity nor possible capacity can be adopted as they represent two extreme cases of
traffic stream. When the headway of the lane changing vehicle rapidly decreases to almost Toadway and traffic conditions.
zero, the lane change is forced; in all other cases the lane change may be optional. The Practical capacity is the maximum number of vehicle that can pass a given point on 8
frequency of demand for lane change will be high when the speed range of vehicles in the
waffic stream is high. The lane change manoeuvres and characteristics would very much © or roadway during one hour, without traffic density being pe int
Unreasonable delay, hazard or restriction tothe drivers feedom to managers e
depend on the number of lanes and whether it is one-way or two-way movement. The
merging, diverging, weaving and overtaking operations, all come under lane changes. Pre vai lin g ro ad wa y an d tra ffi c co nd it
interest to the designers who strive to provide io ns . It ist he pra cti cal cap aci ty whi ch is o f p o m
Study of traffic flow characteristics includes both transverse and longitudinal 'Salso called design capacity.
ad eq ua te hi gh wa y fa ci li ti es and hence i.
distribution of vehicles in the traffic stream and this is useful in geometric design features Determination of theoretical maximum eapacity
such as traffic capacity, volume, number of lanes and width of carriageway. The study is ingle lane may be made
also very much needed to decide traffic regulatory measure like one-way movements and
for the design of traffic control methods. Traffic flow study is particularly essential for fon”, the<striemlaattieon of: theoretical maximum or base api? ios
large intersections. 1 0 0
=e 0 V e 3
Traffic capacity studies
Before studying details of traffic capacity, it may be worth while to define some of the ~ Mere, © 4 capacity of a single lane, vehicle pet oor
related terms which are often used.
V = speed, kmph
 TRAFF I C E N G I N E E R I N G
; TRAFFIC CHAR
186 ACTERIStics
gara ge cee
the other as aque!
ce nt re s p a c i
ue or space headway,
n g of ve hi
m
cl es , w h e n they follow
‘ O ne bing
ae c= 3600
: jon the speed V and spacing S. The avera, athe Hy
Thus the capacity ee
cules is caval to the average length of wees y spere C is the capacity, vehicles Per ‘
between pipe cere the vehicles in the stream. The minimum clear spacing hour (3600 s
econd), and Hy i
clear Pe ion ed for safe stopping of the rear vehicle in case the Vehicle s the minimum t
ime
peat ae It is always found that drivers follow the vehicle ahead relationship between speed ang maxi
7 ie. The
an
suddenly stop. 5 eased inst in ct iv el y at hi gh
at a closer of
er sp ee ds .
Figs peak value of the theoretical ical maximum
peo °% capac he le
‘a lower speeds an d th e cl ea r sp ac in g is in cr as the speed is increased
further, the: maximum
traffic stream (Fig. 5.9). decreasing due to increase in headway at th
e s peed range. Capacity Of the fane starts
we d by th e dr iv er of a fo ll ow ed ve hi cl e de pe nd s on
Thus the space gap allo
factors such as

MAXIMUM CAPACITY OF ONE

(i). speeds of le ad in g an d fo ll ow in g ve hi cl es

CANE vehicles/ hour

(ii) type and characteristics of the two vehicles
(iii) driver characteristics of the following vehicle
(iv) traffic volume to capacity ratio of the road section at the instant or the
service
(v) The proportion of vehicle classes in the stream

vi) road geometrics and SPEED kmpn

(vii) environmental factors
Fig. 5.10 Speed and Capacity
The assumption that space gap increases in direct proportion with the speed of t Factor affecting practical capacity
vehicle or that of the traffic stream is therefore a very much simplified one and gives.
an approximate average value of the space gap between vehicles in the traffic Some of the important factors that affect the practical capacity of a tra
ffic lane are
The space gap allowed by the following vehicle in a traffic stream is some time ssumed listed below :
to be equal to the distance travelled during the reaction time of the driver, assuming ¢ : i (i) Lane width : As the lane width decreases, the capacity also decreases. The practical
the braking distances of the lead and the following vehicles are approximately equal. If capacity of 3.0 m wide lane in a two-lane rural road may decrease to 76 percentof
the reaction time is t sec., the minimum space gap Sg is given by : the capacity of'a 3.5 m lane.
Sg = vt=0278Vtm (ii) Lateral clearance ; Vertical obstructions such as retaining wals, or parked vehicles
where v and V are average speeds in m/sec and kmph near the traffic lane reduce the effective width of a lane and thus result in reduction
in the capacity of lane, Further, restricted lateral clearance effects driving comfort
The minimum space headway S in a traffic stream is therefore equal to the mi and increases rates. A minimum clearance of 1.85 m from the pavement edge to the
space gap plus average length ofvehicle L in the stream obstruction is considered desirable so that capacity is not affected adversely. When
the distance from Pavement edge to an obstruction decreases 100.75 ‘mon one =
S = Sp+L=0278Vt+L only, the capacity decreases to 96% and when this obstruction is on both sides,
In a stream flow, as the driver of the following vehicle is quite alert, the aver Percentage further decreases to 80% of the standard design capacity.
Feaction time is found to be low; this value is often assumed to be 0.70 to 0.75 set:
this analysis of overtaking sight distance (Art. 4.3.3) the value of reaction time has ") Width of shoulders : Narrow shoulders reduce te efetive withsiadigistreit
assumed as 0.7 sec. in the empirical relation for spacing, ie., the Vehicles travel towards the centre of the ave) bas to park nthe
* Smer genc y (like that of a tyre punc ture or other break down ) MS 6 Te e
S = @.7v+L)=(2V+L),m Shoulder of insufficient width, thre is reduction in effective
ThuIs a suitable value of S may “great reduction in the capacity of the lane.
be adopted in Eq. |. 5.53.3 to es
i timate the
capacity of a traffic lane with homog (i , setts w u c k i o n t
eneous traffic flow."
Ut has beenc observed (as explained earlier) that it witwith h i a ") Commercial veces : Large comme stiles ee
stream, the time headway decreases a
nd aft
i ncrease ini speed of fethe | ae alog. | SPAce and influence the other trafic in peony vehicles may
speed, starts increasing (See Fi ig. 5.9). Thei mr ir init lat lowe the adjoining lanes. Also these heavy
a xai m e
u m t h ee
orete z
‘may therefore be obtained if th ical capae
c i t
e y o f 8 = * Speeds especially on grades.
e minimum t ime headway Hy; is paneer
 TRA F F I C E N G I N E E R I N G
188 TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTiCg
: jg nm en t and ge om et ri cs are not up to the des ire q
(v) Alignment Ak Particularly, restrictions to sight distance the 189
(i) the ratio of service volume to capacity g/gg and
lo ng gr ad es aff ect the cap aci ty, v i e le
ropa
ca l ty
eci ty. Ste ep and
ionlengthin caphasaci sub-standard OSD, the capacity decreases to 65% i ) the operating or travel speed,
-
s i g n c a p a c i t y . a
standard de fre flow of
i
sa Fig. 5-11. Level of services A is consi levels ofservices A, B,C, D,
c e , T h e c a p a c i t y o f a
srsections at grade : n
I i
n n
t t
e e
r r
s s
e e
c c
t t
i i
o o
n n
s
o
r f
e a
s t
t a
r i c t
«i fr s e n e 5
B y a e o r e n Jow that most of the individual vehic}
l y l e s s er capacity of thes
t h a n t h e r o a d w i t h l o w
o n s i n g a t g r a d e w i l l b e s l i g h t t e l y t o a l l o w :
cq h i c l e s h a v e t o s t o p a l t e r n a
‘At signalized inte rsections as the ve r a
o n l e f u r t h e r d e c r e a s e d . I n o r d e r o d
p a c i t y o f t h e i n t e r s e c t i w i l b n t h i g h w a y s , H s P r o v i
traffic, the ca x i m u m c a p a c i t y o n i m p o r t a
i n i e c e < 5
raffi c f l o w a n d m a arat e d i n t e r s e c t
consistent t d a c c e s s h i g h w a y s w i t h g r a d e s e p
p l a n t h e m a s c o n t r o l l e
to
th e ca pacity ar e th e st re am sp ee d, o n eor tw o wa y
i ) Ot he r fa ct or s wh ic h af fe ct
(vii) movement, number of traffic lanes, vehicular and driver characteristics, compat
of traffic and the traffic volume.
While designing the roadway facilities, care should be taken to adopt an appropriate
Design capacity and level of service value of design capacity, keeping in view the desire
desired d | level ofservice. While plerning
The capa city flow or the max imu m poss ible flow on a roa dwa y or a traff ic lan eis and designing higher categories of highways, it is necessary to adopt design capacity
attained at particular opt imu m spee d, the flow dec rea ses at high er as well as lowe r spe values corresponding to high levels of service.
values as shown in Fig. 5.11 and Fig. 5.18. all the
Capacity flow is reached when Passenger car unit (PCU)
vehicles flow as a stream at this optimum speed with no opportunity for overtaking; Different classes of vehicles such as cars, vans, buses, trucks, auto rickshaw, motor
this speed the level of service is considered to be fairly low when the volume of the road cycles, pedal cycles, bullock carts, etc. are found to use the common roadway facilities
reaches the capacity or the volume to capacity ratio approaches a maximum. i
without segregation on most of the roads in developing countries like India. The flow of
value of 1.0.
traffic with unrestricted mixing of different vehicle classes on the roadways forms the
VOLUME TO CAPACITY RATIO, Va — heterogeneous traffic flow or the mixed traffic flow. The different vehicle classes have a
oo or oe oe wide range of static characteristics such as length, width etc. and dynamic characteristics
such as speed, acceleration, etc. Apart from these, the driver behaviour of the different
vehicle classes is also found to vary considerably. Therefore the mixed traffic flow
characteristics are very much complex when compared to homogeneous traffic consisting
of passenger cars only, It is rather difficult to estimate the traffic volume and capacity of
roadway facilities under mixed traffic flow, unless the different vehicle classes are
converted to one common standard vehicle unit. It is a common practice to consider the
Passenger car as the standard vehicle unit to convert the other vehicle classes and this unit
is called Passenger Car Unit or PCU. Thus in mixed traffic flow, the traffic volume and
as PCU per hour or PCUMlane/hour and the waffic
OPERATING SPEED,

Capacity are generally expressed

density as PCU per kilometre length of lane.
LEVEL OF SERVICE The PCU may be considered as a measure of the relative space eR
Vehicle class compared to that of a passenger car under @ sect 2 fant pe wfc
and other conditions. If the addition of one vehicleof @ rae ar, then that
am produces the same effect as that due to the aditioncar WNaf nePEN
Fer TT tag
uci 19,
of a
+ Tos nies \ehicle class is considered equivalent tothe pasenger
TRAFFIC VOLUME PCU/HOUR —e tog CU value of a vehicle class may be considered as ifthe same when
Fig. 5.11 General concept of level of service
nidway when there are passenger cars only 0 the cap#©i)
. “© ate vehicles of that class only.
Factors to be considered for the evaluation of level of service of a roadway, F
comprehensive manner include the operating speed, travel time, traffic interruP “tors affecting PCU values several factors. Someof
freedom of manoeuvre, driving comfort, safety, economy etc, However The PCU values of different ve hi cl e cl as se s de pe nd 19 "
simplify the level of service concept, two ‘ i 2 SS are listed below :
Manual (HCM) are : vere cts cored by hes
 C E N G I N E E R I N G
TRAFFI
TRATHIC CHARACTERS
i m e nsio n s , P o w e r , s p e e d , a c c e l e r a t i o n e s Tics
s d
c h a ro a t a c t e r i s t i c s e u
SUcS h a
7 Table $6 Toentative FAUivalency fact
se ha ct es s ors sopzested by the IRC *
e
h i c l e ; S
a
V e nie
M
{iy ;

ven
i)
characteristh
Transverse
jepends u p e a
ss

. t h erte
s po
3S
eenedos
n
7?
,
s driver cl teristics
Vehicle el
nie
rc

. rtem,
care
Passeng
Vehitlectss
ng SPs Bus, truck, agricul
afc stream characterises such as composition of different vehicle classes Motor cycle, scooter and pedai
, v o l u m e to ca pa ci ty ra ti g, e e
tii) Trafte
e e d an d of the
spenardactedirismstbuictts onsuch mixed traffic stream Cycle rickshaw
¥ dway ch 35 road geometrics including gradient, cove
of in te rs ec ti on s an d th e tyes | Small bullock cart and hand can
“ e ess
aoce Scoaentrols rural or ur ba n ro ad , pr es en ce
7, | Large bullock can —
.
intersections.
sp ee d li mi t, on e w a y tr af fi c, pr a c t i c a l C a p a c i t y V a l u e s
on an d co nt ro l of t
tr af fi c su ch as
is) Re gu la ti
di f f e r e n t tol devices, etc.
r a f f i c c o n t r 4 The practical capacity values suggested by the IRC f sigee of
of odes
Purp
m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s . different types of roads in rural areas are given in Table §.7 ote
(v i ) E n v i r o n m e n t a l a n d c l i
cl as s ma y no t re ma in a eo Tentative capacity values of urban roads (mid-block sections, between
. i e .
fi f
—_ a v nia aa
Cc icular ve hi cl e
factors taken into account for a single alae suggested by the Indian Road Congress are given in Table $8. es
as se s ar e = Big
PCU values of differ en t ve hi cl e cl Table 5.7 Capacity of different types of roads in rural areas
e cl as s un de r th e pr ev ai li ng ro ad wa y an d
(a) average sp ee d of th e ve hi cl Types of road ico eee pray)
condit io ns wi th in th e de si re d sp ee d ra ng e. {both directions)!
Single lane with 3.75 m wide carriageway and] =
(b) averag e le ng th an d wi dt h of th e ve hi cl e cl as s. normal earthen shoulders | it
Me
i
i
{e) average transverse gap and longitudin al ga p al lo we d be tw ee n th e ve hi cl es © Single lane roads with 3.75 m wide carriageway | rT {
same class in the speed ra ng e un de r co ns id er at io n, du ri ng co mp ac t st re am flo w. and 1.0 m wide hard shoulders
ee dif fer ent set s of PC U va lu es ha ve be en Roads with intermediate lanes of width $.5 m and a
Based on the above factors, thr normal earthen shoulders \
for: 10.000 ;
Two lane roads with 7.0 m wide carriageway and
(i) urban roads, mid block sections earthen shoulders.
Four lanes divided highway (depending on traffic. 20,000to 30.000
(ii) signalized intersections and
access control, etc.)
(iii) kerb parking.
These are presented in Table 5.5 (See Ref. 24). Table 5.8 Capacity of Urban Roads
PCU per how tor ratte conden :
Table 5.5 Suggested PCU value for urban roads Pry‘a yz a
;
Is. | PCU values of vehicle classes at : = Taf lanes and width aps panera a ok 8
ie Vehicles class |(i) Urban roads, (ii) Signalised | (iii) Kerb parking.
Nes| mid-block sections | _intersection| __(parallel& an ‘Twa tane (7.0 - 7.5) LJ
‘a . {Car 1.0 [a 1.0
Ta lane (7.0- 7.5)
f 2. [Bus and truck 22 28 lane e
Th 110.5 m)
3 {rE eal 05 04
4. |Two wheeler
ae eee me | os
[ 5. [Pedal eyele 07 04 mec
(6. | Bullock cart 46 ia 32 Example 5.9
|_7. | Hand cart 4.6 3.2 spestimate the theoretical capacity of awrafic lane ith oe oo fiw he retain
weed of 40 kmph. Assume the average space gap the dverage ection time = 0,7
The Indian Roads Congress has given set of tentative PCU values oF
Factors for rural road in even sections of plain terrain (Ref, 22) and these are P se .0278 Vt where V is the stream speed in kamph. 18
Table 5.6. However the IRC has suggested the set ., A *Ssume average length of vehicles ~ 5.0m,
on urban roads also (Ref. 23, Na ‘set same of tentative Equivalency
for use
 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
192
TRAFFIC CHARACTERIStics
Solution Ane :
oe v= 40 kmph; = 0.7 sec; L= 5.0m the various objectives of the Accident Audis maybe ed a: 193
$= O21 V1+L=0278 400.74 5419 (i) 0 study the causes of accidents ang pede :
location, ve treatment at potentiat
1000V _ 1000x40 _ . (ii) to evaluate existing designs,
Theoretical capacity C = 5 12.78 3130 vehicle
(iii) to SUPPOTt Proposed designs,
Parking Studies ; : ; (iv) 0 carry out before and after studi
The demand by automobile users of parking space is one of the major p
highway transportation, especially in metropolitan cities. In industrial, (y) to make computations of financial Joss, and
residential places with multi-storeyed buildings, parking demand is p a ive economic justificatic
Parking studies are useful to evaluate the facilities available. rs wi) realtor F
Justification for the im provements Suggested by the traffic
Various aspects to be investigated during parking studies are :
Causes of accidents
(i) Parking demand : The parking demand may be evaluate by different met There are four basic elements in a traffic accident:
of the methods is by making cordon counts of the selected area and
accumulation of vehicles during the peak hours by subtracting the outeo (i) the road users
from the traffic volume entering the cordoned area.
reermanic

(ii) the vehicles

One other method is by counting the number of vehicles parked (iii) the road and its condition, and
in the
study during different periods of the day; this method is useful when the
demand is less than the space available for parking.
(iv) environmental factors-traffic, weather etc.
By noting the
number of each parked vehicle at any desired time interval (such as 30 minu The road user responsible for the accident may be the driver of one or more vehicles
hour, etc.) it ispossible to estimate the duration of parking of each vehicle. involved, pedestrians or the passengers. Vehicles involved in the accident may also
be
Parking area. Another useful method of field study is by intervie defective. The condition of the road surface or other existing geometric
features or any
parked vehicles, wi ng the of the environmental conditions of the road may not be upto the expectation causing an
shop owners and other vehicle owners in the locality. This
is very useful when the parking demand in the study area is hi accident. To sum up, an accident may be caused due to a combination of several reason
space available. gher than the p and seldom due to one particular reason. Hence it is often not possible to pin point as
gaa

(ii) Parking characteristics : The study is dire

particular single cause ofan accident.
cted to note the present parking | Various causes of accidents may hence be listedas given below :
Prevalent in the area under consideration and the ge
neral problems in parking. In
(@) Drivers : Excessive speed and rash driving, carelessness, violation of rules and
regulations, failure to see or understand the traffic situation, sign or signal,
(ili) Parking space inventory : temporary effects due to fatigue, sleep or alcohol.
() Pedestrians : Violating regulations, carelessness in usingthe carriageway meant for
vehicular traffic.
(©) Passengers: Alighting from or getting into moving vehicles. =
Accident Studies ital ae
() Vehicle defects : Failure of brakes, steering system, or lighting system, ty
The problem of accident is very acute in hi and any other defect in the vehicles.
Patterns of vehicular traffic presence i to complex fl (©) Road condition : Slippery or skid344ding road surface, pot holes, ruts and other
of m i n e d a t he nat en o e
may involve property damages,
objectives of traffic engineering is
Pe
r s o n a l i n j u ries or even casualities. One
a e ; damaged conditions of the road surface. Sey one
cannot be totally Prevented to p r o v i d e safe traffic movements. of th e! (9 Road design : Defective geometric design like aur and improper traffic
, but by Suitable traffic en
gineering and
R o a d Width of shoulders, improper curve design, imprope
maf Control devices,
mist, fog, snow, dust, smoke or
®) Weather : Unfavourable weather cnt ani
avy rainfall which restrict normal visibility
{) Animals: Stray animals on the road
 T18 pach
cent
Matte vibes sot
eaan
Shes rot edi F45
e athe
dent studies are Colle .
:
ction of Pla. 5.12 Legends fur
ms, and application of
the cy Condition diagram S p a t Med
important physical cond<8 condition 1 4
itioonf san xecitere locatunGtewing wo y
features generally to be shown in » dizgram: with: a r e n
ent data is the first step in the accident there in an roadway limits, curves, Kert line,
prepared, as suggested by the IRC of roadway conditions, obstruction to vision progeny sigue ste:
(see There are 1standard symbols used in showing varie Sia nts
< to be collected are briefly mentioned here. collision diagrams may be combined tnpether in 4 si ceme
é He Sheth of mecmisery.
(d) Collision diagram : These are diagrams showing the Approximete path of wet
ime. persons involved in the accident and their Beate and pedestrians involved in the accidents. Cullis vicked
like fatal, serious, minor etc. ion diagrams are must exefal tes
compare the accident pattem before and after the remedial meas
urry have bees
() Location > Description and details of the location of accident. taken.
(c) Details of vehicles involved : Registration number make and description A typical collision diagram and symbols are shownin Fig. 5.13.
vehicles, loading details, vehicular defects.
(d) Nature of accident : Condition of vehicles involved, details
of collis
e

pedestrians or objects involved, damages, injuries casuality etc. i

{e) Road and traffic conditions : Details of road geometrics,
whether
straight or curved, surface characteristics such as dry, wet or sl
a

ippery etc,
condition — type of traffic, traffic density, ete.
(f) Primary causes of accident : Various possible causes
and the primary ¢
accident.
(g) Accident costs : The total cost of the accide
nt computed in terms of,
ike soe
various involvements like property damages, pe
(ii) Accident report :
rsonal injuries and casual
vo ae
Fig. 5. 13 Co ll is io n Di ag ra m an d S y a t e l
Accident investigations and stud ie s th er ef or e ma y be ca rr ie d ou t scientifically
in the
following three stages :
(iii) Accident records :
Accident Investigations
The acccident records are maintained Bivin
otherer detaildetais. The records giv; g all partii culars of the accidents, !
a Analysis of Individual Accidents
may be maintai me:
collision diagrams and con
dition diagrams, location fil Jes, spot Statistical Analysis of Accidents
nefale’ dis. affection
Accident investigations su gg es te d by the om ho rs
d e n t : tv es ti gt io ns 2°
The scientific approach for accident ee ry muy be KER HdyN in e¥8)
Summarized below. It is suggested that @ mon e a s u r the of pa ve re nt su rf ac e.
city. “A bus equipped with essential inharastrUmeh 4 pxistanc Of a r y
breath, reaction time and other driver ch cter isti cs,
pe n the pro ps i g
Sle, and a traffic engineer and his assists ysl after a seni ba.
Which should reach the accident spot 3s nals ‘of the accident
'Nvestigations mav be carried out {0 €
Sais .. le
 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
196 -
merc Observations .
(y Recording - + of length of skid marks due to partial and full skidding TRAFFIC CHARACTERIST
ics
(a) Measure posi itons of f vehicles and objects involved in the statistical analysis of accidents
197
lative
p l e m e n t e d w i t tographs.
h p h o ‘The statistical analysis of road accidents hel
s u p p
y Roo!eni to
measures to decrease the accident ‘me thus the analyassisess the effectiveness of vari
.
, i n j u r i e s a n d d a m a g e s s e s t imates the relative safety
© Details o f a c c i d e n t road stretches or zones, of
de rs an d ¢other surface
(8) Condit volved in the accident have moved; environmental pean
ition of pavement surface, shoul
q

(e) Conditions diagram of ac ci de nt lo ca ti on s wi th re le va nt

dimensions.
ing, enfor
and cede
ucatm
ionael n
meastures
(ii) Driver Tests Be jee in the annual accident rates, rather the tots!
in the acc ide nt cont ent number.
i
‘Analysis of breath of i
driv v e r s ers invo
i lved i i for alc oho l
The accident rate aa either be expressed in terms of the n
8 suitable breathalyzer; if alcohol consumption is indicated above a presey ylation or the vel
um of b
vehie
cl es
r an d
collection of blood sample for further analysis ina forensic laboratory), In Movements (in vehicle-km) and the Population. Relati
driver is dead, tests may be conducted on the spinal fluid for estimating thes prrident rate may also be ‘expressed in terms of various factors of the roadway and trafh.
Accident-prone stretches of different Toads may be assessed by finding the accident
content, if any, ae density per unit length of road. By statistical study of accident occurrenc
e at a particular
(b) Tests on driver characteristics such as reaction time, distance judgement, q road oF location or a zone of study for a ong period of time, itis possible to predict with
clear vision etc. If the accident has occurred during night, glare vision reasonable accuracy the probability of accident occurence per day or the relative safety
recovery tests are to be conducted on the driver in addition to the above tests, of different classes of road users in that location,
(iii) Skid Resistance of Pavement Surface The reliability ofthe statistical analysis Of accidents depends mainly on the reliability
of the accident data, obtained from the accident records,
The average skid resistance of the road surface along the skid marks
‘measured under the prevailing condition of the surface soon after the accident, Analysis of individual traffic accidents
portable pendulum type skid resistance tester or any other suitable equipment. Each of the road accidents is analysed by the traffic engineer to draw sound
(iv) Vehicle Tests conclusions. It is necessary to compute the original speeds of the vehicles involved in
vari
types ou
of accide
snts. Somofethe typical modes of vehicular accidents are :
(a) Tests on the condition of brakes and steering of
the vehicles involved. ui) A moving vehicle collides with a parked vehicle
(b) is on essential accessories and general condit
cident.
ion of the vehicles involved
i (ii) Two vehicles approaching from different directions collideat an intersection
(©) Characteristics and details of dents on (iii) Head-on collision of two vehicles approaching from opposite directions
the cross section details of the collap th e v e h i c les and other objects involved (iv) A moving vehicle collides with a stationary object like an electric pole, tree or a
sed members, rigid structure.
(») Probable Causes ofthe Accident
Assessment of the probable causes (pri 2 The method of analysis for accident type ({) and (ii) mentioned above have been given
the accident, its type, site conditi primary, secondary and contributing et ‘ below, as these are quite common type of accidents.
and other existing conditions,” Position of the vehicles and other ob In order to simplify the analysis, some assumptions are made as discussed co
i) Cost Analysis @ When skid marks are present, the skid distances we measured 10 Fe a
Estimation braking distances and it is assumed that 100 veep pbc be the brake
of , 5
items: "£98 of acident by working out the cost involved forthe fll narks are not at all visible, it may be assumed as @
without the brakes
being applied.
(a) Injuries and fatalities
Of persons involved j collide, if itis
(b) Damages to the Vehi
i) When two vehicles of masses m, and myn sect Keone with the
cles assumed that both are perfectly plastic bodies, givenby
(©) Property damages same speed v’ after impact and the relationship is
(d) Other ‘consequences
includin, 8 traffic delay (ma Vat mp vo) = (ma+ m0) cof estiwll
utbeio
unitynand
(e) Investigatio
ns and legal proc ceding Tf both the bodies are perfecty elastic, the eve
te lationship is given by :
 PRATEEc;

(wv efore coll isio n the web ict e

& 6
spp ox brake s, Skids SHO N 4 Gite s
wn Feam Equation 5.6 the reine Honk ip
2 ;
“Li y+ 29g,
direct or oblique, ata known (b) At collision with stationary vehicle B ng
s eed 3 mvsec.
the pavement surface under the prevaili Here a perfectly ptastic tempact is
Bey,
Jd test or be suitably assumed, Howe. 2 asmumed with « = 4 The peter
5. petween ¥2 and v3 is given by the momentum equatien
rm throughout the skid. ‘4 Wa
3 Wa +W; w,
SB Ae ary Mace,
Analysis ofspeed from skid distance : g Wy
‘The basic equation for finding the braking distance or skid distances § for a Substituting in Eq. 5.82
weight W to slow down from speed vi to v2 mv/sec is obtained by equatit
in kinetic energy withethwork done against the fictional force ve = (Pa) vil eapesl
2
Hey
A

(c) After collision vehicles A and B skid through distance S; before ing to 0
to v4 = 0). The relation of v3 in terms of Sp is
(velocity v3 reducing obtaz aie
£q.5.9: antes:
vy = 2gfS)
i
Substituting v3 in Eq. 5.8b,
Substinning
the values ofg = 9.8 msec andthe speed in V) and vail
22 2
s- M-¥ Sie"
254f
If the skid
tabiited roe distancests§ i ‘measured from the skidj marks, cia speed
Se :
the initial
ES - oH
Inkmph units,
In kmph units,
Mi=
(519)
vy =
equation,
If the vehicle 8 op ater the skid distance
.
S, then vp would be eid where Wa = weight of moving vehicle, kg
ae ai
Case (i) Wa = weight of parked vehicle,kg
Collisi £ = average friction coefficient
Siision of moving vehicle with Parked vehicle 5
Suppose a vehic! fees S1_ = initial skid distance before collision, panne
@pplication of the lint i together
Ss skids through a distance Si # Sz = skid distance of both the vehicles
together througha ed vehicle B and the two vehicl before collision,
di
When the vehicle A does not apply brakes and does rot ski ‘
initial speed of ing
aie
to a s t o p ,
vehicle A, yy m/
sec or V; Stop. The problem is i ein
S} = 0 in Equation 5.9 and 5.10
 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
20 W
Exacnple pre $S10 se i throughgh aat distance equal equat to 40 m pe RARE CHARACTERISTICS 201
waieht 2.0 tonne skids vm 286
Avehickt of ayer of weight 1.0 tonne, After collision both the, i ts
_ mee qual to 12 before stopping mae Original speed Vi = 3.625.6=922 kph
ieomnput re the initial speed of the moving vehicle, Assume coefficient op ! areas (a) By wi Equatio n 5.10
‘ 7
os ‘i
Sotutio
s n ‘ Mes ufo aa2 } |
Ha
Method(i By Steps:
‘This problem maybe solved easily in three steps without using the Eq, $9 gp . 3y
pstcod (2 ~«| = 92.2 kmph
Let the original speed of the vehicle be vi mi/sec., reduce d to v2 msec by
brakes and skidding through s} = 40 m; just after the collision, let both Case (ii)
start moving together with speed v3 nvsec and finally stop, v4 = 0, after
distance sy = 12 m, f= 0.5. ‘qwo vehicles approaching from right angles collide
Rarer ene:

two vehiclA es
and B on approaching an intersection are assumed to skid
(2) After collision application of brakes; they collide with each other and skid funher in different deesioed
Loss in kinetic energy of both vehicles together = work done agcinst frictional f srillustrated in Fig. 5.14 (a), (b) and (c). The direction of the skidding vehicles after
“oP ao

OWE ) collision in this case depends on the initial speeds ofthe two vehicl their weights.
and es
ie Z
WD 2
(3 =vs) = (Wat Wo) £82
1
t A
‘
05x12 1
or v3 = ¥2x98x05x12 = VII76 msec
(8) Atcollision
Momentum before impact = momentum after impact
“
ie, Wevr 2 Wa+Wy)v3
8 g
= 24t 3
A 2

«) Jf
from Right Angles
Veo, Opty Fig. 5.14 Collision
of Two Vehicles appros callision
(Fig: 5.14) the
ten 2 698 50.5 140 te Spa and SppB2 areare the skid distance ofthe5 eis HeOg:
= 6566 "Feds
of vehicles Vag and Vas just afer alison
m8
 TRAFF I C E N G I N E E R I N G
20?
varay = 2540S
(STS TRAFFIC CHARACTER IStiCg
6 i g and 20 m respectively before collision
The ad
Vaxey ae EB (6FE "so m respectively. IF the
galeulate the original speeds OF theweighs of vente ht Sites ser euision ae 15
vehicles, The avergsiat* ME 69 tnd 4:4 tonnes
The reve im tof andthe 5.12
vehicles just alter
and these collision
resolved in the may be found Usin, = ‘ found 10 be apa
original direction ar. $8 solution ia Of he paver
vee wehicles. “As per the assumption, the momentum before collision ig taken an of oe (i) By Steps
the 190 llision, For the7 three cases of right angle collision ele
omentum after col res ethos
Es Le speeds of the vehicles just before collision, but after skidding Let the ini
inititial spec dswth of vehicles A and B before brake apli
distances Say and Spy ie. Vaz or Vp2 are obtained by the relations given below fore gees ust before collision, ater skidding through $)4 = ate De vat and va. the
the sp ee ds jus t at er col lis ion , be va3 and vs an dt he fin a s s S r e e a e
three cases : vee to a StOP Pais 2er0; after skiiddiddi, ng through
2s

Case (a) £0.55 (Refer Fig. 5.14 a).

fur the r dis tan ce Sez 15 and Sp82 *= 3636 m;
Va = a2 V3 sin B— Va3 cos A (a) After collision
Wi Loss in kinetic energy of each vehicle = work done against skid resistance
_ Wa .
Vp2 = Wy, VA3sit-A + Vas cos B
for vehicle A, Wa
— Vas? =
WafSa
Case (b)
NAR = V2efSq .
Va2 S= Wa
Va3cosA+ Wa Vp3 cos B Bro a
= ¥2x9.8% 0.55x15 = 12.7 m/sec
x Similarly,
Vero‘BZ = —A Va3sin A+
Wa ‘a3 sin A + Vp3 sini B /2x9Bx 055x36
Ves = V2x98x0.55x3 6 = 19.7 msec
Case (o)
(6) At collision
Vaz = Va3cos A+ S Vp3 cos B From Fig. 5.14a, equating momentums before and after impacts after resolving the
(5.17) momentums along West-East direction,
A

Wa ji Wa xvot0 = “2 sapeve- WA cos AxVA3

Va2 = <7 Vas sin
A~ Vis sinB 6.18) 8 8 id
B

The origi nal speed s of

usi ing Eq. 5.10 to slow down
vehic les Vai and Vig befor e skid ding may now be calcu lated Van WB sin B vay —vas c08 A
a vehicle from speed Vj to V2 in dist Wa
ance S.
m / s e c
ie vi = ypsars;ev3 5:19) af 4 | sin 60 x 19.7 - 12 .7 x co s 50 = 17 .4

Solution of Eq. 5.10 and 5.13 to 5.19 to

b
Vuiilhoave beeen d Presented
f i n d t h e v a l ues of original speeds Vai a! Resolving the momentums along South-North direction,
inji the form of nomog rams for f = 0.4, by Kha
nna
Sa a -g ee
Example pl 5.11 te
sevpy = NA. vas sin A+ vps e088
cl wih e each oeer. AfteAnr thetecollision,anvehgliclese ,A Askid. foms in Wesa dirt ectandion 8 50°mNorSth ,
Ti i a
s o u t h
West and vehick " ‘
be = 16.4 misee
‘chicle B, 60° East of North. The initial skid distances ofthe vehicles
A" = 4 giz7xsin5o+197 cos60
6
 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING TRAFFIC CHARA
CTERISTICS
by both the methods th 205
, e Original
3wa therKinceotlilcisieonne
ngy die £0 brake applicati. o = wor d 4 Thus oy of brakes are 96 and 79
n k one against brake ADplicg sey
Lae r application ol
“~~ irates
A
. jeastires for the reduction in accident elieneas eters
Wa gvgh—var) = Wa-f-Sat N ‘The various measures
ie. to decrease the Accident rates may be divided int
it 0 three groups :
2 fn) Engineering
vay = 2g fSartva2
(id Enforeeme! nt
== i!
2x98x0.59x38+174°=712.4 PA Education

YosreL OE SS EAT Se as kmph These three measures are generally termed “3-E,", The details of these measures are
Similarly: given belo w.
Voi? = 2efS pr + vez" =2* 9.8 x 0.55 x 20+ 164 Engineering Measures
= 484.6 (a) Road design : ‘Theh geometric design features of the road such as sight di
widt h of pavement, horizontal and vertical alignment desi
gn details pa ginennti
design elements are checked and corrected if necessary. The pavement su
vai = 22 nvsec, Vii = 22 x 3.6 = 79.2 kmph rface
ch
steparsacta
teri n ictos brininclgudin
kest g th e sk id re si st an ce va lu es ar e ch ec ke
them upto the design standfds, Where necessary by-pas d an d su it ab le ma in te na nc e
Method (ii) By using the equations ses may be
constructed to separate through traffic from local traffic. To
Using Eq. 5.1] and 5.12, speeds of vehicles just after collision, minimise delay and conflicts
at the intersections, it may be essential to design and ‘construct grade separated
Vas 2354S = ¥254x0.55x15 intersections or fly overs.
=45.8kmph
(b)Preventive maintenance of vehicles : The braking system, steering end lighting
Vp3 = ¥254x0.55x36 = 70.9 kmph aangements of vehicles plying on the roads may be checked at suitable intervals and |
heavy penalties levied on defective vehicles. These measures are particularly necessary
Using Eq. 5.13 and 5.14, speeds of vehicles just before collision, for public carriers.
Vo = Sa . (c) Before and after studies : The record of accidents and their pattems for different
a2 = yy, Yassin B- Vas cos A locations are maintained by means of collision and condition diagrams, After making the
a necessary improvements in design and enforcing regulation, it is again necessary to
6 collect and maintain the record of accidents “before and after” the introduction of
3g * 70.9 x sin 60 ~ 45.8 cos $0 = 92.1-29.4; 7 preventive measures to study their efficiency. A typical example of before and after
study at an intersection is shown in Fig. 5.15.
= 62.7 kmph Pai rs nae ng can dec rea se the ra teof acc t
idee a s nts don s
duri ng
(4) Road lighting : Pro per roa d lig hti
Wa : Lig hti ng is par tic ula rly des ira ble at int ers ect ion s, bri dge
night, due to poor visibility.
Ws Va3 sin A + Vg3 cos B sites and at places where there are restrictions to traffic movements.
4 P Enforcement Measures x
§ *45:8sin 50 + 70.9 cos 60 The various measures of enforcement that may be useful to Ne ie
= 23.4+35.5 = 58.9 kmph Brone to accidents are enumerated here, The motor vehicle rules are
‘ime to make them more comprehensive.
Original speeds of vehicles before application ofb correct habits
rakes are obtained using Eq. 5 aaa on
(9) Speed control : To enable drivers of busts to develen © 1
Vat = W254 S42 hometers may be fitted so as to give the record of PERS ons and timings
‘ot speed of all fast moving vehicles should be So el ibe taken.
= ¥25840.55x38 06072 Tegal actions on those who violate the speed limits ioe or sal system BE
= 96 kmph
inn, Traffic control devices : Signals may be NEE like signs, markingsoF
Vai = V2546 Sp, Vpg? cated if necessary, Similarly proper sale esa
clizing islands maybe installed wherever fe
= ¥254x0.55x20s5952
=79 kmph
 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
206
TRAFFIC CHAR
Observance ACTERISti¢
of law a
nd regulati
on: pis
enforcement fo extent
r p
study &FOUPS bl drreavention of acej a
ther the traic r ed Petsonne, assis ‘fe or ee iste
in rn
the essential regul z l e g u lation: are being fa ar t oie
s i t y o f r e v i s iations. The st c repaiog MF p
o n o f c e r t a i n t a d a t a ef o r c a smt e eees
> neces u res s s t e r
od
Edu c a t i o n a l M e a s
(a) Before
Stody
Education of road users : 1 is very essen
was precautionary measures to use the rad wy eg the road users forthe
ROAD A Za. oh R0aD 8 and pedestrians should be taught the rules ofthe rags tC. The passengers
This may be possible by introducing instruction ac ony sosiog ac
posters exhibiting the serious
results due 10 carelessness of road
Uncontrolled movements of vehicles and pedestrians ‘The Indian ee! ae rod Heri prepared HighwayUser Susey raCaen faege
s
Accidents : Twelve in a period of two months t on Roai scho l chi
pees is under preparation. and an Instruction Manual on Road Safery
(0) Safety-drive : Imposing traffic safe
directed by the help of tr ty week when the roa
affic police and tr d users
ansport stafifs a common m
public these days. Roads users should be impress eans of tafe
be done, with the help of films ed on what should and what should not
and document
for drivers. The IRC has been org aries. Training courses may be cond
ainsing Highway Safety Workshop in d ucted
of the country. ifferent regions
5.2.4 Relationship Between Speed, Travel Ti
me, Volume, Density and Capacity
In the operation and planning of traffic faciliti
es the relationship between the
fundamental stream flow variables is important,
The ‘ravel time per unit length of road is inversely proportional to the speed. If T
travel time and V is is
the speed (kmph).

T (mim) = > 60
(5.20a)
jest or T(seckm) = = (5.206)
Figure 5.16 shows the relationship between travel tia me and speed. It iis seen that at
hi igher speeds, the rate of saving in travel tim d
Fig. 5.15 Typical Case of Before e ecreases.
and After Study ; ai
The fundamental relationship between traffic volume, density and speed may be given
(©) Training and supervision :
issuing license to by the general equation of traffic flow :
(82D
q = KVs
Where
«nt ring a spec4 ie perinid odo of:
(d) : Medical check : Th
ie d r i v e r s
4 = the average volume of vehicles passi2 npogint during
Prescribed intervals, S should time; (vehicles per hour)
ay, once in three year isi . upying 2 unit length of
s,
(©) Special precautio
ns Sor commercial the average density o + number7 of vehicles ore
conhdu,ctor or attendant to help an ‘
w yeh It ma y be in si sted on hal roadway at a given instant (vehicl les/km)
d give Prop Seredidreaction to driv
ers of heavy. p e
of v e
e h i c d
l e s in @ unt cot ay kent ime )
sV = space-mean s
 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

TRAFFIC
CHARACT
ER ISTie
.
in limit a5 the timi e head-v4ayng
g
209

STRAVEL TIME. tf min sem

aes between the vehicles becom 35. Bit asthe
a eles also increases and thus the volume qpo- STB that the tine ticreates,
30 vee of traffic for & hypotheticcaalse

a Ey 40 30 be 100
SPEEU.v kmpn
Fig. 5.16 Travel Time and Speed speeds, the density also a
flow in road correspond pproaches zero as shown in Fir si
ing to some optimum n ‘Thus ee sane =
With increase in speed of vehicles in @ unit roadway length the average Values of speed and densi
ty. .
decreases, This is because the spacing between the vehicles increases with i In Eq, 5.21 if any two ofthe thee steam variables, volume, ‘"
seed ;
speed, as discussed in Art. 5.2.3. Field observations. of speed and know n, the thir d may be dete rmin e. The traff ic vol
the ue adensity. ou
ta se my Pp a cd
simultaneously, have indicated that approximately straight line relationship easily in the field, whereas
vol ume and
it is
spee
diff
d,
icul
itis
t to
pos sib le wo easu red
and density could be obtained for a good range of speeds, Particularly values of traf fic sible to computhete density. When
when the speed
high. As the speed approaches zero i.e., towards stand-still maximum density relations given in Fig. 5.17, 5.18 and 5.19 are combined and pi ne g ve e” we t ee
Figure 5.17
is perpendicular axes, the surface obtained may be visualized
illustrates a hypothetical case based on the simple model
relationship between speed and density. The dash of str equation as illustrated in Fig. 5.20.
ed line shows the actual
observations at higher speeds and the extension by the dotted lines
is the hypothetical

Vv umpn
SPEED. v kmpn

SPEED
° a ee ad
VOLUME .@ vebictes/ howe

Iris
Fig. 5.18 Speed and Volume
The above flow relationships have been established he relationsh . homogeneous traffic flow. In
volume, density and
speed (Eq. 5.5) is
case of mixed traffic flow with heterogeneous traffic, ip s are lik ely to
obtained by rewriting Eq, 5.5, quite complex,
K (vehicles/km) = (vehiclestury “apacity flow ; ani
v (kiwhr) , means speed Vsr
-
The maximum speed value in Fig, 5.17 and 5.18 og Seach flow qmax OF
It is obvious that at ve
indicates zero
ry low speeds, the tra
ffi “maxim um density at zero speed is called jam densi ‘ Yt an desyis “2 and
flow or volume. With increa
sing paler toa pg
oi eto :
"e eapacity flow ge (se e Fig , 5.1 1) occ urs w h he
e se
n ed “>
'etefore from Eq. 5.21.
s
 NERS Yeon evroe —
210

TRAFFIC C
HARACTER
ISq, ICs

fa ;
xi mu m fl ow ma x = 80 x1 45 S
M Imax a ,
= 2900 Vehiclesthour (per jini

52.5 Future Traffic

The exissttii ng tra iffic operation may bebe measured by traffi

An. 52 3. It is necessary to know the future tafe doe hobs foal :in
facilities adequately. There are different methods for projects Gatics date way
may be broadly classified as : (i) mechanical and Gi) analytical ice ds,
These
In the mech< anical methods, the pai st trendsos ofof tr
forward, making‘ usite haofs a bepenercentage increase affic growth are si Projected
estimated that thein trvaafrifiou
c sis cad tegories * of a
In some countries it fs do ub le d in a pe ne
f d or 2 re gigon
e .
resulting in the annual growth rate of 7 to 8 percent. In mechanical methods any ae
principles such as a correlation index, ratio, analogy composite trend or a grow
in
may be used. Correlation dex ma y in cl ude gr os s p iy , d a l i c e d th fo rm ul a
30 consumption. A straight line, geometric progression, compound i Fa
DENSITY. K vehicle/em growth rate may be considered in the growth formulae, sepa
Fig. 5.19 Volume and Densit The analytical methods consider the short term as well as long term policies in
y
estimating the further travel requirements of urban area. It develops analytical
expressions to predict travel requirements by relating the social and economic status of
* the area with the demand for transport. The first comprehensive tra
ffic and transportation
plan based on such concept has been prepared for Bombay City to solve urban
problems, and subsequently studies have been extended to other metropolitan cit
ies of
Calcutta, Delhi, Bangalore and Madras.

5.3 TRAFFIC OPERATIONS

In order to have safe traffic operations on roads, itis essential to impose adequate traffic
regulations and traffic control devices. It is necessary to impress on the public that these
regulations and controls are imposed on the public interestto ensure safety in general.

53.1 Traffic Regulations

The traffic regulations
i should cover all aspects of control of vehicle
veh s, driver and all
other road users. The regulations should be rational. The following are some of the
Fig. 5.20 Volume-Speed-Density Surfac Tegulations that are enforced from the point of view of safe traffic operations.
e
imple regulations and laws give legal coverage fr sit enf Fict enforcement. The traffic laws
max = Vsr-Kj implemented by legislative laws are obligatory o r t m e n t . Th e t T v s
Ewample 5.12
4 \mniform and clear. Traffic regulations and lawons alcolveroad allowing four phases.
() Driver Controls : These include driving li
im r th e an d he av y m o t o r ve hi cl es,
' The free meanf speed on
ine average spacing a road, Way is found
to be 0 km Griver tests and minimum requ ce ns es w
i
ee andi itil. i »
betwee Vehicles j 0 kmph. Under stop} ped irements, financial contro ls on vehicles are vehicle
Solution “$156.9 m. Determine the capacity flow. Gi) Vehicte Controls : The various regulations
o e an d
Tpeistation, requirements of vehicles, equPm i, accessories, mavimum
Free mean Speed V5; = 80 kmph I. mensions and weight and fitn. ess and inspe ave been laid down sucha5
(iii) Flow Regulations : Regulations of a
control of vehicle ood ion iniin
ahi
Jam density Kj 106090 ~ !45 vehicle
directions, turing and overtaking, etc. In
traffic stream are made using appr si gn s li ke on e- ¥3 ); ,
s‘ (per lane) opriate eel
Prohibitory signs, pedestrian controls, et
 TR A F F I C E N G I N E E R I N G
TRAFFIC OPER
32 ATIONS
is i 213
So me ot he r ge ne ra l re gu la ti on s an d Pr ov
C o n t r o l s = ; THO war
(iy) General r di ng an d di sp os in g trraf fi c vi ol at io n ca se s,
report ace! den t s
a n d r eco!
a n c e s ay ‘ Fs
Laced a tory measures in India. The various T,eme st ctBine the
c l e A c t o f 1 9 3 9 a n d t h e s e v e r a l o1 i n
“p i

Le
a n s f e r o f o w n e r s h i p s d i
of de
e w e vei n
v Mublic
e rveeghiisctlreast,io traonfsport authorities and inter-state commision
n v e h i c l e s , t r
u r a n c e f e e s , s i g n s , s i g n a l s
g a n d h a l t i n g p l a c e s , i n s
s d offences.
pe a wei g h t , p a r k i n
<TSson for pun i s h m e n t o f v i o l a t i o n a n
One-way streets
In conge s t e d st re et s o n e of th e m e t h o d s to r e d u c e a c c i d e n t s and to ensure
g fi c a l o n g o n e - w a y s t r e e t s . T h e t r a f f i c is allo
of traffic is by regulat i n tr af
a t i o n s a r e p o s s i b l e o n l y when Fig. 5.22 Conflicts with One-way Regulation on One Road
only in one sp e c i f i e d d i r e c t i o n , S u c h r e g u l
d s o n n e c t i n g t w o b i g g e r r o a d s s o t h a t a d d i t i o n a l d i s t a n c e to be

is) eee
r k
wo of r o a c
s o m e v e h i c l e s t h r o u g h t h e s e o n e - w a y s t r e e t s is n o t e x c e s s i v e .
The main advantages of one-way streets may be greater capacity, increased
speed, improved pedestrian movement, and reduction in accident. The various
conflicts at an intersection are +;
Crossing Conflicts
Merging Conflicts
Diverging Conflicts
On a right angled road intersection with two-way traffic the total number 0
points are 24. This consists of 16 crossing conflicts which are the major confli Fig. 5.23 Conflicts with One-way Regulation on Both Roads
The merging and diverging conflicts are considered as minor conflicts, num
cach in this case, as shown in Fig. 5.21. If one of the roads is declared Number of lanes* Numb rial conflicts
potent
of e
as
conflict Points decreases to a total of 11, consisting of seven crossing conflicts 0 Road | Road Both roads | A- One-way | Both-roads
merging conflicts as shown in Fig. 5.22. When both roads are declared r e d a s B B- Two-way
‘ 0 as one- Way,
i t a 2

plus}rajro|r[>
l
areed on ‘aad crossing conflicts and two merging conflicts, totaling six as $n0
a
3 24 nH}
4
two way 3
Se
wa y st re et ha s on e- la ne fo re ac h di re ct io n
+3 — lane road when operated as two-
532 Traffic Control Devices
twe war The various aids and devices used to cont
s rol, regu late and guid e traf ic may io be called
Bt
‘control devices are : attention,
traffic control devices. The general requirements oct ‘most common among these
Meaning, time for res pon se and resp ect of road users : | T i g h t s are usef ul
Ae (a) Signs (b) Signals (c) Mar kin gs and (@) Isla nds. n adi
in
ton ae s
'" guiding traffic during night.
os Fig. 5.21 Conflicts w Traffic signs ‘useful and effective.
us the chief advant
ith Two-way traffi
c The traffic signs should be backed by I jaw in or e 1 ia t d a n Mo or Ve hi cs
Potential points of vehi
age of One-way stre
cle conflicts at
‘ , et enforcement is reduction of
Tic sig ns ha ve be en div ide d int o thr ee cat
ACl. These are i) Regulatory signs (ii) Warming signs
eE° r and (i) Inf orm ati on se ns
The potential conflicts ¢ uncontrolled intersection as exPlaines
t]
the following table : an
eration and varying number of lanes ®%
ee
 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
214
h that they could be seen and recgon:
The signs eae ee eis location of the signs may be such that TRAFFIC OPERATIONS
users easily and ine Hi edge ofthe sign adjacent to the road is not ies thas i 215
frosts
from the ede oF
we the kerb; on roads without kerbs (as on rural highways With g
.0 m to 3.0 m from the edge of the car
peng bec oa sign posts painted alternately with 25 cm black
festa
should be Mowmsolour eade andthe symbols used and the location of the i
Tepaled water each category. The reverse side of all the sign plates should j
gray. : stor
Regulatory signs 1VE way
Regulatory or mandatory i
signs are meant to inform t the 0
road users of
f : b—toomm
regulations es: prohibitions; the violation of these signs is a legal of
regulatory signs are classified under the following sub-heads :
(i) Stop and Give-way signs
(ii) Prohibitory signs
STR ANON PACITED ONE WAY Signs
(iii) No Parking and No Stopping signs
—

(iy) Speed Limit and Vehicle Control signs

(v) Restriction Ends sign
(vi) Compulsory Direction Control and other signs
The stop sign is intended to stop the vehicles on a roadway; it is octagonal SPECHES ROMBTED ONT TURK PR-TBEED” U-TURN PROWBTED
and red in
i
colour with a white border. This sign may be used in combin

downwards and white in colour

with a red border; this sign may also be
combination with a definition plate. ‘These signs are
shown in Fig. 5.24. OVER TAKING PROWIBITED NO PARKING =O STOPP
OR ISTN
ANG
DING
Prohibitory signs are meant to prohibit certain tr
entry of certain vehicle class. af fi c movements, use of

‘SPEED MT WIDTY LUMIT RESTRICTION EXOS SIGH

plate may indicate the
parking
Speed Limit signs are meant to
a particular stretch of a road presi!rest t
+ Th es e
round, red border and black numerals siingndis caaretingd of alcirulal orin
Fig. 5.24 Regulatory Signs 2
iSings are also similar to Speed LiBmaiyt signs witeli h black symbols iinstTeaadd of tLhiek naunmderaAlle
+ Hetoh Lim i
€ common controls are Width Limit, Height Limit, Length LiLimit t,
Load Limit. The definition plate may be used in combination to give ive more details,
symbolically or by words. ich all prohibitions notified by
Restriction Ends sign indicates the point at wre sige we a0 circular with a
Prohibitory signs for moving vehicles case to nae 45 de pres.
‘hite back ground and a broad diagonal black band at ie
ompulsory Direction Control signs indicate BY TET cis in which they ae
i n c l a s s e
ich the vehicles are obliged to proceed, of tH Tt in 9 blue back ground oe
h e s p e e
cesrhapetain canlas es d hasve©: Pemitted to proceed,
White direction arrows!
These signs are circular in ‘Direction Controls are Compal
the ot Tima. ‘The Vehicle ‘Some of the Compulsory
 re tor

wn in Median, St
+ Work, Ferry. Cross Road sia
Round About, Dangerses ,
auiway Crossing, Guarded Rashw. mY Crossing a ” harrier sawn < seapuasrtat
Signe are shown tn Fig $28 s t P e tia Bach. cane az
ee Sam
COMPULSORY Informatory sings
These signs are used to Buide the
road users slang rontes, infoest tare
and distance and provide with infortommaa wf Srvtrsines
bettne
ivetoncaine « te cwant 7
information signs are grouped under the fo
llowing sub-heads = gis
[> } { 4) Ee (i) Direction and Place Identification signy
?

NS
(tee soe
SMUD ORION MMT mad
AMEAD CATURNGLFT ‘CoMPuLsoRY
KEEP LEFT |
(ii) Facility Information signs
(ii) Other Useful Information signs
(iv) Parking sings
(Compusory Direction Control Signs)
(s) Flood Gauge
Fig. $25 Regulatory Signs The Direction and Place Identification signs are rectangulse with white hac
k exnoeut
Slack border and black arrows and fetters. The inscr
shoi
uldpbetisiEng
oiadnesand
other languages as necessary. The signs of this group include Destinugion sags,

LS FS
Direction signs, Re-assurance signs, Route Marker and Place Ide
ntificatine sg
Figure $27 shows some of the Informatory signs,

TOMCaS CAUtiOMARE Siow BewT WAND

CURVE CET Hang
cuRvE

nA Fe SteEEse Bese $8038 20a0 S10€ ROAD :

Vo Py”
THM TENSECHION
—uxson p049 ane ‘40 MARROW BRIOGE
Fig. 5.26 Warning
Signs
 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
218
ion si tangular with blue back groun TRAFFIC OPERATIO
The Fay Ifans indicate Public Telephone, Petol ras t NS
letters/symbols. oo af Place and Resting Place, Other useful information a The various terms use
d in traff;
219

i No Th ro ug h Sid e Roa d, etc . Pa rk in g sig ns are set op time required for one complete
Fi id es
No Through Roa : sign board with blue black ound
the signal cycle allocated to
a traffic mor
rood vot defntion plate may be used to indicate category gr and white cok
of vehicle for whi Of f thethe signal cycle durin
The engineer fig
eee! direction of parking space etc.
= “ at all I cau se way s and sub mer i
sib b l e le ha
s
¢ gni shou ld be inst alle d
acouinieuets the road users the height of the flood above road level,
Traffic signals ;
At intersection where there are a large number of crossing and right-tum
is possibility of several accidents as there cannot be orderly movements, The
practice has been to control the traffic by means of traffic police by showing st
alternately at the cross roads so that one of the traffic streams may
be allowed
while the cross traffic is stopped. Thus the crossing streams of traffic
flow are
by time, seggregation. Traffic signals are control devices Which could
alt
the traffic to stop and proceed at intersections using red ‘Type of traffic signals
and green traffic light
automatically, The main requirements of traffic signal are to draw attention,
meaning and time to respond and to have minimum
The signals are classified into the following types :
waste of time.
(i) Traffic control signals
Advantages of traffic signals
Properly designed traffic signals have the following uses (a) Fixed-time signal
: (b) Manually operated signal
(i) They provide orderly movement of traffic and increase the traffic
capacity of most of the intersections at hand (c) Traffic actuated (automatic) signal
grade,
(ii) They reduce certain types of
accidents, notably the right angled collisions. (ii) Pedestrian signal
(iii) Pedestrians can cross the roads (iii) Special traffic signal
safely at the signalised intersection.
(iv) The signals allow crossing ofthe heavy The traffic control signals have three coloured light glows facing
traffic flow with safety. i i f each direction of
(v) When the signal system is Properly co traffic flow. The red light is meant for Stop, the green | light indicates Go and the amber
- o r d i n a t e d , t h e re is a reasonable speed or yellow light allows the clearance time for te ai me bord Lear
the major road traffic. eg
area by the end of green time, to clear off. A typical si ml z
(vi) Signals provide a chance to Additional signals showing green lights for separate movements of turning traffic may
Continuous flow of traffic s re Cr os si ng tr af fic of minor road to cross the patt
am at reasonable intervals of
time.
also be provided where necessary.
(vii) Automatic traffic si igna
l may workout to be economical wh
control. en compared 0,

stop
Disadvantages of traffic signals
(i) The rear-end collisions ma CLEARANCE
y increase.
(i) Improper design and location TIME
o f s i g n a m a y l e a d t o v i o l a t i o n s o f
(iii) Failure of the
confusion tothe road us
s i g n a l d u e t o el ec tr i 4
t h e c o n t r o sy caysust e
ers °C Power failure or any other defect may
The decision to inst
all an automatic tra
analysis of the existing traffic
s
so f ffi
So en
emphasis in ththee critex eria for signal lacotant and it ol "
siagni
al emust be base, d The
on
ray isthe var yeneineering judgment
and its crossing mo vements, ‘he volume of traffic entering thei
 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
220
simed signals are set to repeat regularly a cycle of ee:
Fed oyorf each pase of the cycle is predetermined based’af
. n
TRAFFIC OPE
simplest type of automatic traffic signals which ae RATIONS
ain draw back of the signal is that some times the traffic flowon, Flexible Progressive System pat)

muy be almost | and traffic on the cross road may’ be quite heavy . Yet as the g i
In this system it is possible to automat vary the
eral shpvalices ten
with fined timings the tac in the heavy stream will have to stop at red phase,
sal
and the time schedule at each
se
zffieic acactuared 0signtral s ar e mathndos.e in which the timings of the phase and cy the most efficient system of all the four ype
affic de In semi-actuated traffic signals Pedestrian signal are meant to give the right of
the ‘normal
Ilo during the ‘walk period’ when the vehicular tra Way (0 pedest to rcri
owa
s n
@ s
toad
sn the traffic signals ofthe road, hg shall be stopped by red oe siop signal
Flashing beacons are meant to wam the traffic. At
flashing red signals, the drivers
assigns the right of way for various traffic movements on the basis of demand a vehicles shall stop before entering the ear croe
ss s
w a l kt ac of
determined programming. But these are very costly to be installed at all inters, line, when mark ed Flash ing yello w si a n intersection of af sap
cauti on,
'g na ls ar e ca ut io n si gn al s me ant to signify thot
drivers may proc eed with
In some cities in India the traffic police are assigned the duty to watch |
demand from suitable observation point during the peak hours on various aj Warrants for traffic control signal installation
Traffic control signals should not be installed unless one or mo
signal warrants are met. The necess
ary data should be collect ted by mean
rofeth e fo ll ow in g
When there are series of siznals on a city road at each intersection with cross
engineering studies : s af traffic.
signal system may be operated with only one controller. But it is desirable that
moving along @ main road at normal speed should not have to a stop at every: (i) Minimum vehicular volume warrant specifies that the
a erage traffic volume for
intersection till getting the “go” signal. Hence there should be proper Co-ordi eight hours on both approaches should be atleast 650 motor vehicles per hour on major
the signal system to provide a through band. streets with single lane and 800 vehicles on the streets with tw:
0 oF more lanes Further
the number of motor vehicles approaching the inters
Type of traffic signal system direction only) is atleast 200 vehicles per
ection on minor street (on one
hour on si ingle lane street and 250 vehicles per
There are four general types of co-ordination of signals for road network, as hour when there are two or more lanes. However when the average approach speed or
below : the 85th percentile speed on major street exceeds 60 kmph or when the intersection lies
£ within built-up area, the vehicular volume warrant may be decreased to 70 percent ofthe
Simultaneous system above requirement.
Alternate system (ii) Interruption of continuous traffic flow on the major street with 1000 to 1200
vehicles per hourthat there is undue delay or hazard to traffic on minor road. with a traffic
Simple progressive system, and fF 100 to 150 vehicles per hour in one direction only during
any eight hours of n average
Flexible progressive system day y.
Simultaneous System (ii) Minimum pedestrian volume warrant of 150 or more pedestrians per hour cross 3
Major street with over 600 vehicles per hour on both approaches, (1000 vehicles per hour
In this system all the signals along a gi
(green, red ete.) at the same time, As the ve n ro ad always show the same in the case of main street with raised median). However when the average approach
imtersections, this system does di vi si on of cycle is also the same Speed or the 85th percentile speed exceed 60 kmph, 70 percentof the above requirements
not wor! k satisfactorily. may be adopted,
Alternate System
(iv) Accident experience warrant showing that other measures have failed to decrease
In this system, altemate signals or : ra: tarliea GEE the accident frequency or when five or more accid ents (invover olRs.vi 2000ng
due to
Toute at the same ethtime. This system Broups greeny wow OPPOSE ite indications j
is also of signal: injury and damage) have occurred within 12 months period. Howsign ealvinst rtion
ealla
reversing the red and green indi should not seriously disrupt the
traffic flow.
system generally is considered to be () Combination of warrants when no single warran t is satisfi ed but indica ting two or
He Warranofts(i), (ii) or (iii) ab ed to the extent of 80 percent cr more of
Simple Progressive System ove are satish
e Stated volume.
A time schedule is made to permit, as nearl
Feta y as p o s s i b l
oe stone the tain iad st a teaspeabi e, a continuous operation. Design of isolated fixed time signal
spuroling "Go" indications along ths r e Rect ie elpeal i te
lime schedule. The phases and intervals oatad is schedule vores at we predeterml can the design of a sig nal ise d int ers ect ion , the anj ect ive sho ul e f sh ou d ai at
each signal unit works as cach signal installa tion may be differents mij ‘Pa cit y for the vo lu me of tra ffi c app roa c hin g the ne rs ahigh
fixed time signal, with equ
al signal cycle iengih 'nimising toy tal delay, building short queues,
Per TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

intersection on the first given period for most users. Signal timin, TRAFFIC OPERATIONS
ST Traffic flow on intersection. The cycle lengths are normaly ou 3 Example 5.13 23
ae for two phase signal. Longer cycle lengths are in use for complex trafic
and for more than two phases. f
General Principles of Signal Design
(i) Stop time or red phase RI of a signal is the sum of go and clearance ji
green and amber phases for the cross flow i.e., G2 + A> at a two phase
During this interval, the pedestrian crossing time may also be incorporated fo the Solution
road, if turning movements are not permitted. Me Trial ()
(ii) Towards the end of red phase, there may be a short duration when the amber li Assume atrial cycle C) = $0 secs,
are put-on along with red light signal in order to indica
te “get set’ to go. This phe
is the last part of red phase itself and may be called ‘red-amber’ or ‘in
‘The vehicles are not supposed to cross the stop line during the red iti al amb er’ , Numofbcycl
er es in 15 mins = = =18
amber period,
(iii) Clearance time or clearance amber phase is provided just Green time for road 1, allowing an average time he
after the green phase
before the red phase, to fulfil wo Tequirements : adwaof y25 secs. per vehicle
=
(a) Stopping time for approaching vehicle to Stop at stopli
ne after the signal changes - Gy = TRS 67s
78x 2.
from green to amber and not to cross the line by the ti
me the signal changes
red phase.
(b) Clearance time for the vehicle which is approaching the Green time for road 2,G2 = eS 107 cs
st
while the signal changes from green to amber, allowing suffop li ne at legal sped 1
vehicle to cross the intersection area as it may not be icient time fe Amber times Ay and Az are 3 and2 secs. (given)
stop before the stop line at that stage. Usually po ss ib le fo r the vehicleto
suitable for the am 2.0 to 4.0 seconds would Total cycle length = 24.7+ 19.743.0+2.0= 49.4 secs.
ber phase.
(iv) Go time or green time is decided based on the - As this is lower than the assumed trial cycle of 50 secs., another lower cycle length
and to enable the queued vehi ap pr oa ch vo lu me during peak hour ma be ytried.
Two approximately design procedures (viz., " Trial (ii)
method) and one rational approach (Webster's mettrhiaold) cyfoclre thme ethod and approximate Assume trial cycle Cz = 40 secs.
design of traffic signal
signals at cross roads. In addition the signal
Number of ¢ycles in 15 minutes = “ =225:

Green time for road 1,G, = Sues 178x2.5 _

42x25 = 158500.
Green time for road 2, G2. = Mees
Total cycle length = 19.8 + 15.8+3+2=406
secs
Trial (iiiy

Assume trial cycle C3 = 45 secs.

amber of eyctes in 15 min peiod = 202
900 _
=20
178x2.5 97.25 sees.
Green time for road 1, G1 = —39
 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
ns
TRAFFIC OPERA
, r road 29, G i Haas 17.75 sees, TIONS
Green time fo j) The values 80 obtained are calcu 25
(00) lated on,
in per cent of oyce, Percentage basis if the controtier settings
Tota
Potall cy eyele length = 22.25 +17.75+3+2= 45.0 gece.
wii) ‘The timings so obtained are installed in the
C o n t r o l l e r and the operatiatoe ntshen
observed at the site during peak traffic hours,
carr ie d ou t if needed, + Corrections of modifications
are
‘The design of a simple two-phase si
gnal is illustrated by an example below.
example 5.14
Aare 3
bg erecen ste a fpr, «0 An isolated signal with pedestrians indication is to be in:
imtersection with road A 18 m wide and road B,
int 12 m wide,
PHASE— 1
(——— ee aso secs 8.

ae
be rere ost 2
SE og re oa
Solution
¥
The layout of traffic and pedestrian signals is shown in Fig. 5.30,
Gd te. T3,-TRAFFIC SIGNAL ON ROAD-1
AMBER, A TS)-TRAFFIC SIGNAL ON,ROAD-2
© sreen.c PS PEDESTRIAN SIONALS
BEM ReD-amoen,ea
Fig. 5.29 Phase Diagram and Details of Signal Setting (Examp
le 5
(2) Simple design of pedestrian and traffic signals by
approximate method
The following design procedure is Sugge
signal unit at cross roads, along s t e d for the simple design of a feog
with pedestrian signals :
(i) Based on approach speeds of the vehicles, 7
the suitable, clearance tne
Sreen an d red period i.e., clearance amber period
tay be taken as 2, 3 and 4 seconds for s ar e selected. The aml
low, medium and fast approach speeds:
(i) Based on pedestrian walking sp
time is also calculated, e e d o f 1 .2 ™m per second, the clearance for
pedesii#
(iii) Minimum red time of TS. TRAFFIC SIGMAL
t r a f f i c S a
i g ne
a l PS.PEDESTRIAN SIGNAL
Plus initial interval for ped is t a k .
en as pedestrian clearance aime e for’
‘minimum green time plus e s t r ians to start crossing. This red time
a mber time for the cross road. i Fig. 5.30 Placement of Signals (Example 5.14)
(iv) The minimum gree Design of traffic signals
:
Pedestria n time
n clearane> time foisr ccraolscsulattoed bplaussed a on pedestrian criterion,
may start 10 cross minus ad n initial interval when Pe Based on the approach speed; amber periods :
minus . amber period forthe amber Period. This is equal to red t re For road A with $5 kmph, amber periiod, AA =
. Cross road, ime for 4 secs.
(2) with pedestrian signal
.

less than seven, t h e i n i t i a l interval is the WALK p a al te

id nat For road B with 40 kmph, amber period, Ap ih ae
Jearance time is
secon ids, eriod; this (ii) Based on t!
pedestrian
(b) ini
whertiael no pedestrian ssiienat he ped est ria n wal kin g spe ed of 1.2
interval, ‘an
s nf
gnal is used, a minimum period of five‘ 4s is calculated,

(v) 18 15
Road A = 75 715s seconds;
Slim: fr the heav iest t lat
?

i n t , t h
8

e n
z

i n c r e
ume rer ahseede biaesed on
H

i
ined is adjusted foe s t t r a f f i c v o l the ratio
r the next h lane. The 22 2 10 seconds
igher S-second int
e r v a l .
oF ime Road BoP. 19%
in proportion to the approaching voThlue mes Of
 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
lk -p er io d, mi ni mu m red ti me
ini
(i.ii) Adding 7 sees. for dB is tia l wa for roag A TRAFFIC OPER
(10 + 7) secs. ATIONS
os and that for roa . — 27
(iv _
Minimum gt ee n ti me s ba se d on pe de st ri an cr it er io n :
; RoadB = 15+7-3=19secs, te teen
134
pty
RoadA —
= 10+7-4=1se3cs, Fae) apace vs]
— iI
eer 4 R
) Based on approach volume, the green time calculated is increased for be rere
4 ciate omits LT
: higher traffic volume.
Pnase1
mano
Use relation GA = BA veer Coreen
Gp np So =
rs —-—,, =
Ga and Gg are green times and ng and ng are approach
=e reste
volume per lane
Gg is taken as 19 seconds as in (iv) above.
PSa
ae = eee
. +m:
PHASE-2
4
Green time for Road A,
Fig. 5.31 Traffic and Pedestrian Signal Setting
s
Ga = os Ga= = x 19 =23.2 secs, Table 5.9 Details of Design Timings (Ex. 5.13)
Road A RoadB | Time ‘Actual ime wierval seconds ]
(vi) Total cycle length icra] abil Peden | Vai Pein ier Ronibe Tae |
= GatAa+Ra=Ga +Aa+G TS, | PSe a —
pt Ap wine 3 s
" Teasea| 2764 1 7 . = 2 5 } h a e *27s
= 23.2+4+19+3=49.2 secs, W e F a y |
Hence adopt cycle length 2 110.00 |R27.64}DW 12 [PWar275
of 50 secs, < —
3 | Asco 8 cl, 0uAel,
The additional Period
Propestion to approach traffic v
of 50 — 49.2 = 0.8
secs, is distributed t
olume. o green 4
119.36
Rel
00] Nad
24 [DWe=225 W a 1 2 0 , G y ~ 195}Rq~ 225)
$ |R22.36) DW 22.36 cus. cl, Borg |
Ga = 23.2+0.44= 23.64 s
ecs,
s A300 6 i Oa
Gp = 190+ 0.36 = 19.36 s Foal [50.0 | 50.0 | $0.0 [100% ‘S00 0 sees
ecs,
Ra = Gpt AB = 19.36 + Traffic signal Pedestrian siga: al
3.0 = 22.36 secs. Reed (stop) ; a
Wewalis ey be neacti g o f w a o p
R= Ga +Aq=23.0444.0= Avamiber (clearance) Cl-clearance for pedestrians ly
Design of pedestrian 27164 secs. G-green (go) DW-do not walk
signal ' al however be provided in the trai sinsaf in between red and rere
sigDno hnot w. Walk (OW)
periiod of pedestriaian n Sig eas te rea rapestceot
sj nal at road A (PSq) is ) Webster's method
Fe or PSs,
r e d p eriod : of
DWa = Rg=27.64 'n this method, the optimum signal cycle svorked o 1g to least total delayzi to the
For PPSs;p, secs, Yhicles at the signalized intersectio w Ths is et oad
DW,
n has tee
The field work consists of finding (i) th ie flow S per nit time 0 <> gn hour
Pedestrian cle,
= Ra = 22.36
secs. i the water section and (i) the e s e t each ieee Ge’ osm
arance i
for crossing from (iy sbnotyeertvalsac( y ate of 15 and 3 normal flow q he ratio yr = aS?
For PS 10 secs. respectively, for roads A cd on the higher value of normal flow, t wT exoal:
© Wa lk time (W) is calculated from total cycle ! meted onthe approach roads | and2. he ease of nixed wali.
aCe
OF PSa,
WA = 50~07.644 15) =7,36 secs. aoe all the normal flow and a
e
In th E T of
ee 'sh should be determined separately. ; eo wk ober

De ta il s of de si on ti
W a = 50 ~ 2 2 . 3 6 The Saturation flow is to be obtaiinened 1d st ud ie
from careful Geb phstasudeies ss 9
Oy ponding
m;
may be drawn, 8S“sigsnhowtin mings are + 10)= 17.64 secs,
in Fig. 5ta3b 1,"4 ‘in Table 5.9, : ’ TVe hictes in the stream of compact ‘ing the ,
Alternatively a phase die flow during he 2
28 TRAF FIC ENGINEERING
dat a the app app rox ima te Val ue of TRAFFIC OPERATIONS
i i i i
jge ly. In the abs enc e of ne
‘animated anise 60 pcu per 0.3 met re wid th of the app roa ch,
. Sketch a ph as e di ag ra m as sh ow n i n Fi
the traffic is also determined on the app roa ch roa ds fro m the fie ld stu die s weienal phases as given in Table5,9 'n Fig, 5.29 of 5.31 ot prepare a table to show
ak ho ur s as th e ca se m a y be ).
period (during the peak or off-pe (5) Design Method as per IRC Guideline
si gn al c y c l e is g i v e n b y :
‘The optimum (i) The pedestriwankaninggreen time requi
1.2
red
msec for
and the major
intia l and
peminor
p roads pall aes
_ LSL+S based on speod of
Tequired for the vehic ular s e c . These a
1-¥ the minimum green traffic on the minor and major
u m b e r
o f roads respectively.
pe r cy cl e, se cs . = 2n + R (n is th e n
where L = to ta l lo st ti me
i) The gre en tim e req uir ed for the veh icu lar traf fic on the m a j et
all red-time) (@ roportion to the trafic onthe two approach rade. nu Tou i ineeasedin
Y = yity2 ii) The cycle time is calculated after allowing amber time of 2.0 secs. each.
Note: The steps mentioned above are similar to the Approximate Method explained
Then, Gi 2 ( C o - a=
L y a
22 (
n +d1 ) * oe under Method (2) and Example 5.14. ie
(iv) The minimum green time required for clearing vehicles arriving during a cycle is
determined for each lane of the approach road assuming that the first vehicle will
take 6.0 secs. And the subsequent vehicles (PCU) of the queue will be cleared at a
Example 5.15 rate of 2.0 secs. The minimum green time required for the vehicular traffic on any
of the approach is limited to es 16 secs.
The average normal flow of traffic on cross roads A and B during design pe
400 and 250 pcu per hour; the saturations flow values on th
ese roads are (v) The optimum signal cycle time is calculated using Webster's formula (explained in
1250and 1000 peu per hour respectively. The all-red time required method 3). The saturation flow values may be assumed as 1850, 1890, 1950, 2250,
Grossing is 12 secs. Design two phase traffic signal by Webster's for
method. 2550 and 2990 PCU per hour for the approach roadway widths (kerb to median or
centre line) of 3.0, 3.5, 4.0, 4.5, 5.0 and 5.5 m; for widths above 5.5 m, the
Solution hour per metre width. The lost
k saturation flow may be assumed as $25 PCU per
time is calculated from the amber time, inter-green time and the initial delay of
= G a
S S g_e
eo 400 4.0 secs. for the first vehicle, on each leg.
rasp 7052 the pha ses may be rev ise d kee pin g in vie w the gre en tim e
(vi) The signal cycle time and m cyc le len gth det erm ine d it ste ps
— a _ 250 required for clearing the veh icl es and the op ti mu
Yo = = (iv) and (v) above.
S, 0100000 ~ 95
Y = yat+yo=032+025=0.5 ‘The design method is illustrated in Example 5.16.
7 tia
L= Example 5.16
2n+R=2x2+12=1
6 secs. -right 7
-intersection of two spire Neem 1 has four lane s
Tie wit h a tota l wid
of th
Gs
Ata angled
l a n e s wi th a to ta l w i f a i
o
12.0 m and Road int2 erhsaesctitwon during design hour are 900 = ans PCUTour on he two
approaching the a n d 2 7 8 a n d 18 0 P C U / h o u r on a p p r o a c h e s
approaches of Ro a d 1
ay as pe r I R C gu id el in es .
7874 say, 67.5 secs
. ign the signal timings
Solution
= Y2e C12 e (w o ap pr oa ch vo lu me pet la ne = 90 0/ 2
9 3 2 Design traffic on Ro ad 1 = hi gh er of th
)= <= (67.5 — 16) =29
057 secs. *450 PCUMhr.
Gas
8%
Wy Conby= TF (675 ~
Je 0.2: Design traffic on road 2 = 278 PCUMr
1 6 ) = 2 2 5 ses i( Pedegrseet r n
Road ! 12 2 = 17 ses.
5 700
Allred time for pedestrian n tirme ifoa
crossing ™4t=2 12 secs,
Providing Amber tj = 6812 p79 12555
67 8s o0 0, 2.0 sec s. ea ch for cl ea ra nc e, to ta l Pedestgrreein atinme for Road 2
“29+2254 1244
 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

o a d 2 , G 2 = 1 7 . 0 s e c s .
h i c l e s o n R
Green time for ve TRAFFIC OPERATIONS 21
= 17x
450 _ ,.
==
8 2755 sees, s e , oad marking
(ii) Green time r
for Road 1,.Gy= 17x
ae pavement,i Kerb, sides of islands eaor onthe feed jects
objetwiths
feectors on
iii ing 2.0 secs. each towards clearance amber and 2.0 secs, inter-green raffic markings may be called special signs intended to conatl, arawilse seed
oe ae total cycle time required = (2 +17 +2) +(2 +2754 2s Contrast with colour and brightness of
Signal cycle time may be conveniently set in multiples of five Sees. and ¢
time = 55 secs.
jn such a way that they are visible at sufficien
adequate time to respond.
The various types of markings may be classified as,
(iv) Vehicle arrivals per lane cycle on Road |
(a) Pavement markings
450/55 = 8.2PCU
(b) Kerb markings
Minimum green time for clearing vehicles on Road 1 (c) Object markings and
= 6+(8.2-1.0)2=20.4 secs,
(d) Reflector unit markings
Vehicle arrivals per cycle on Road 2 Pavement Markings
= 278/55 =5.1 PCU Pavement or carriageway markings may generally be of white Paint, Yellow colour
Minimum green time for clearing vehicles on markings are used to indicate parking restrictions and for the continuous centre line end
Road 2 barrier line markings, Longitudinal solid lines are used as guidingor regulating tines and
= 6+(5.1 ~ 1.0) 2= 14.2 secs, are not meant to be crossed by the driver, Transverse solid lines indicate the position of
As the green time provided for the two road stop lines for vehicular traffic.
s by pedestrian crossing
above are higher than these values, the above design values are alright. Some of the common types of pavement markings are given below :
(¥) Lost time per eyele = (amber time + inter-gr (a) jing streams of traffic oa
Centre Lines : These are meant to separate the opposing
ee n ti me + stream o
first vehicle) for two phases= (2 +2 + 4) ti me lost for initial diced «vo-way roads. On rural highway wih rw or tes lnes singe token nes
x 2= 16 sec. i of width 0.1 m and length 4.5 segments and 7.5 m gaps may bepainted on Susi
Satur ation flow for Road 1 = 525 x 6=3150 PCU/hr stretches of NH and SH, these may be decreased to 3.0 and 60m at horizons eun length
approaches to intersection. On other roads at straights bit seg
prmen
ec ein ts datertection),
Saturation flow for Road2 = 1859 + 4 and gaps 6.0 m (which are reduced to 3.0 m at curves
9%3 1874 PCU/hr On four or six lane undivided roads two solid continuous para!
lel fines of O.1 m width

with 0.05 to 0.10

m space in between
are painted. ;
of white broken
y=
900
1874 20,148;
—— =02 '86 andy> = 238
278 N On urbani roads with
om less than four traffic lanes the cobain
centre line consists
3150 tines of width 0,10 to 0.15 m, length of segment 3:0 m and lengof th
Ss ST
Feduced to 3.0 m at curves and approaches to ee the centre line marking shall
. Y = 0.286 + 0.148 = 0,434 atleast two traffic lanes for each direction of traffic flow.
Optimum cycle time Consist of two solid continuous lines. sede are used to guide the
(b) Lane
traffic and
Line Line s are draw n to desig nate trafi c lanes
to properly utilize the carriageway: ‘
indicate that overtaki#8 ngnot
(©) No Passing Zone Markings : These are marked
earlier is acceptable. The Permitted, cline on ignate proper tateral
be shown in the form of F
lar form as in Table 5.9. (@) Turn Markings: These are ell real directions. “ vy
Placement of vehicles before turning tothe di to stp oes he peveuian rots
| Red
| @2+2) jal) Stop Lines : These are meant for vei stp posed: ;
“‘shalized intersection etc. where the veh
 232 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

Y val k Lin es ; Th e pa rt ic ul ar pl ac es wh er e pe de st ri R TRAFFIC OPERATIONS

() Cross W t anti .d by the pavement markings, The a ate ty,
s s i f i e d b a s e d o n t h e f u n t i o n x
l a n d s m a y b e c l a
sive afi is
t 4
poner been 2.0 and 4.0 m depending on local requirements,
ns . Th es e m a y be in di ca te d by a p p r o p r i a t e a l i s l a n d s
(g) Approa c h to Ob st ru ct io (i) Division
li ty , es Gi) C h a n n e l i z i n g i s l a n d s
ut il iz at io n of p a r k i n g fa ci
(h) Parking Space Limits: For proper
«id pedestrian loading islands
(i) Border or edge lines indicate carriageway edges of rural roads which
stones along the edges. ¢ (iv) Rotary
Separate opposing flow of traffic on a highway with
Divisional islands are intended to
(@ Route direction arrows are marked by one or more arrows to Buide the head:
ff four or more lanes. By thus dividing the highway into two one-way roadways,
traffic into correct lanes.
on collisions are eliminated and in general other accidents are also reduced. The width of
(k) Parking space limits on urban roads are marked to promote efficient the divisional islands should be large ifthe head light glare isto be reduced during night
parking spaces in a systematic manner. 5 driving. The kerb should be high enough to prevent vehicles from entering into the
islands. ;
(A) Bus Stops : The length of kerb which is reserved for buses to stop are n the
Channelizing islands are used to guide the traffic into proper channel through
continuous yellow line on the kerb indicating ‘parking prohibited’. The paver: : islands are very useful as traffic control devices for
meant for bus stop is also marked by the word ‘BUS’. intersection area. Channelizing shape of the
particularly when the area is large. The size and
intersection at grade,
Kerb Markings thannelizing islands will very much depend upon the layout and dimensions of the
Considerable professional experience and skill for the
is required
‘These may indicate certain regulations like parking regugulalatitic ons, Also the ma intersections.
h islands. If the islands are not properly designed and
the kerb and edges of islands with alternate black and successful design of channelizing
white line i 1 placed, there is a possibility, of violation of rules be the trafic resulting in greater
from a long distance. eae oe hazards. The various uses of properly designed channelizing istands are listed below -
Object Markings i
il conflicts between
i) The area of possible traffic stream i
iss reduced.
reduce This is illustrated
istands both the major and minor conflict
Physical obstruction n on or near the
road lway are hazardous and hence iy in Fig. 5.32. By introducing channelizing
Properly mar ked. Typical obstructions are supports for bridge areas are reduced.
Crossing gates, traffic islands, , si gn s and sig
narrow bridges, culver head walls ete. i (ii) They establish the desired angles of crossing and merging of traffic streams.
Reflector Unit Markings the direction of the flow is to be changed.
(iii) They are useful when
for other traffic control devices.
(iv) They serve as convenient locations
(v) They serve as re fu ge is la nd s fo r pe de st ri an s.

Markers and Objet Markers 1 {st MAY be used are Roadway Indeso
night. Three types of

}
non ny

| mm son contest
Oy cuanncuirnt send sacketeng odd
Traffic islands are ish pt (reo conf =!
channels through whi Taised areasi constructed withit in the roadway to establish PY. (2) Area of conflict without channeling ison ae
More than one fineton. the vehicular traffic nay be auided, Trafic islands of Fig. 532 Conic
 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
2324
nd s, ha s be en di sc us se d in de ta DESIGN OF INTERSECTI
The design and functions of rota ry is la ON
under traffic rotary.
235
;)_ Intersection at grade : These include all i
Pedestrian loading islands are provided at regular bus stops and similar ® ie! The traffic manoeuv
ti on s at gr ad e. r e s l i k e m e r ; a mae craing
protection of passengers. A pedestrian island at or near a cross walk to aid the intersec eeioe
pedestrian crossing the carria geway may be termed as pedest rian refuge jg
i) Grade separated intersection: The intersecting roads are
crossing multilane highways, pedestrian refuge island after two or three al Jevel, thus eliminating the crossing manoeuvres. ered by cians fa
desirable. The area in the roadway adjacent to the kerb which is kept Feserveq
stopped bus may be called a bus kerb loading zone.
so me of thear tra
ea s.ffi c fa ct or s to be co ns id er ed in in te rs ec ti on de si gn ate rel ati ve sp ee d
and maneuver
Rotary island is the large central island of a rotary intersection; this island.
larger than the central island of channelized intersection. The crossing Relative speed is an important factor in traffic Nlow at grade. Relative speed is the
é
converted to weaving by providing sufficient weaving length. Further detai vector difference in the velocities of two vehicles in the same flow and js the sum af the
under Rotary Intersection in Art. 5.4.2. . speeds of approaching vehicles from opposite direction. It is the speed of convergence of
vehicles in separate traffic flows as they approach a point of potential collision. Relative
speed is dependent on the absolute speeds of the intersecting vehicles and the angles
§.3.3 Control of Access on Highways
between them. When the angle of merging is small, the relative speed will also be low.
if there is a collision between two vehicles at small angle at about the same speed or at
If effective access control is not affected along a highway
facility, ribbon devel jow relative speed, the impact would be much less than when vehicle collideat high
and encroachments follow, resulting in increase in th relative speed. As the relative speed increases, the judgement of drivers regarding time
ITE

e number tof acci

considerable reduction in level of service for vehicle
operation. The controlof and distance is likely to be more inaccurat e, thus increasin g the possibilit y and severity of
either be full or partial. Full control of access on to keep the relative speed low.
a NATROL

accidents. Thus in intersect ion design care has to be taken

highways means that the autho
control the access isexercised to give preference to through traffic by providing. thos e area s wher e, in actua l mano euvr e, poten tial
connections with selected public roads only and by prohib Manoeuvre areas are ir
wher
there
e the
is a
mano euvr e
ial
is
it in g crossings at gr collision and also those like chan nels of appr oach and depa rtur e
direct private drive way connection. When there may be re area s are thos e form ed by only two singl e one- way
connections and some crossings at grade, this is called pa so me private influenced. Elemental manouv cro ss, the se be in g the s p t of these
rtial control of access. ©! lanes of flows when they di ve rg e, me rg e or
more ‘than two one-! ine coe sy
manoeuvres. But in multiple manoeuvre areas where be avo ide d
op er at io ns are mu ch mo re co mp le x and he nc e are to
fl ‘es ent , tra ffi c ect e is
e poin t wh er e* th e po ss ib le pat h of tw
t w o o ve hi
veh cl
icl es
e int ers
e r s a d de /si gn . Th
in P int t i o n
co nt ai ni ng all po ss ib le co nf li ct p o s is te col
called cboflict folate aad ears ar ea , es pe ci al ly th e si l cn et
nf li ct
area, In intersection design the co lict simultaneously, shoul
ve hi cl e is su bj ec te d to co nf
more than one

Grade ion a iohwav: - i . ae 5.4.2 Intersection at Grade

highwa ADE
ifthe ys, ay ehNays may be provide d at intersec tions of divided Al road intersections which meet at abou the same Ite
jing traffic manocuvres
These
exce. of fast : vehicles only on the cross road within next five like merging, diverging, crossing, and weaving ae callet Minne and rotary
coos he an separation should be provided across existing railway, le" intersections may be further classified as_unchanne!
exceeds 50.000 wih ot SADT of fast road vehicles and the number of trains Pe intersections.
passes, » even evenifif thiswithin the next five years; in the case of new
figure exceeds 25,000 the grade separation may constr uction like5)
be justified. The basic requirements of intersection at grade - s eee
5.4 DESIGN OF IN flicti shoul id be as.veh icl e sou ld be sll
TERSECTION (i) At the intersection the area of con! sagas
5.4.1 General (i) The relative speed and particularly the ee said Jing the intersection.
(iii) Adequate Visibility should be available for
movements may be handled (je oushs tuming and crossing. traffic and these (iv) Sudden change ofpath should be avoided: sath of pavement should DF adequately
ils design,
(©) Geometric features like turning radius an@ Y «erection warn the
Provided, ad approoing nese
(i) Proper signs should be provided 0” ue x
drivers,
(ii) Goo d ti gh ti ng at ni gh t is de si ra bl e:
 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
26 3 DESIGN OF INT ERSECT
nal are B
larg e , e, sep ara te Pro vis
rovi siiog f ION
er of pedestrians and eyelists of Ha
(viii) I the ane i passage in intersections with high volume :

eas
fe is
made for
ratte,
of inte rsec t on s ar e sh ow n in Fi g. 5. 33 .
The var iou s for ms
-
fy ee
PT r
Tae cota Fe Ceaoey
TTmee cross, STACCERED

as CS es
Ae
*
seneee SHEWED CROSS SKEWED, STACCERED

Ss
oss vite coon (FuaaND ow oe ends

we MULTIPLE
Fig. 533 Forms of Intersections ext (ram
Unchannelized intersections Fig. 5.34 U n c h a n n e l i z e d In te rs ec ti on s

lowest class of intersection, easiest in

in traffic operations resultin;

O N me C e a m e s a r t c o e r o a
g
(coamyia C, A M M E L I T A T I

Channelized Intersections
Channelized intersection is achieved by introducing islands into the in 3
area, thus reducing the total conf tersectiondl
lict area available in the unchannelized inte
jus of the entrance and exi rs ec ti on .
rd
speed and angle
area at the intersection. Some of the typical
shown in Fig. 5.35. Chani
directional islands and
hOnE (COMPLETE CHANMENITATION ”
Fig. £35 Channelized Inte!
 238 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
DESIGN OF INTERS
The advantages of channelized intersections may be summed up as follows: ECTION
239
(i) By canalization vehicles can be confined to definite paths.

(ii) Angle of merging streams can be forced to be at flat angles so as to Cause mi.
disruption.
(iii) Both the major and minor conflict areas within the intersection can cons;
d, in Fig. 5.32.
as shown
decrease
(iv) Angle between intersecting streams of traffic may be kept as desired in a fay
way.
W Speed control can be established over vehicles entering the intersection.
(vi) Refuse islands can be provided for pedestrians within the cenrpat
intersection area, 151210
(vii) Points of conflicts can be separated.
twin.) 4)
(viii) The channelizing islands provide Proper place fo
r installation of si
traffic control devices.
Rotary intersection y t ~
e
A rotary intersection or traffic rotary is an
enlarged road intersection 4
EutBANCE CURVE oF
SMALLER PADS

Design Factors of Rotary

Various design factors to be considered
island, radius of rotary roadway, weavin in a traffic rotary are speed, shape of
roadway, radius of entrance and exit 18 angle, weaving distance, width of ro
superelevation, grade, lighting and si igns. cu rves, channel

These are briefly explained here.

m4 py

(ii) Shape
and the layout
curves of large radii, without
conditions are circular, ellipt
advantages and limitations (: tangent shapes, each having ‘at
roughly right angles iie., al I ). When two equally important roads cross #t
the four radiatingroads placed symmetrically, 2 i elas
 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
240
DESIGN OF INTERSECTI
F y be often elongated to accommodate jn th, ON
stapes ha, TH za o ‘i for the greater traffic flow along te mm
or more pgs ae elongation and tangent shape
are also Not desirable
bab ae traffic in this direction to move much faster. Turbine shape f
tanseadsof vehicles entering the rotary and enables speeding up of vehilee
poner ‘at n i g h t , the head light glare is a limi tati on of the desi gn,
ain = |(t+e)
Radius of rotary roadway " vay: : The one -
-wa y rot ary roa id rou nd thel e c cent ral i Ws [eee +35] m (526)
‘Sigets radii at different points depending on the shape of the central island,
Adequate superelevation cannot be provided on the rotary toads and hence it jg
(vii) Entrance and exit curves : The curve traced by the inner rear wheel
of vehicles
determines the radius and shapes to which the kerb line is to be set. A vehicle entering @
to neglect the superelevation and to take friction only into consideration in the rotary has to slow down to the design speed of the rotary and therefore the radius of the
and 4.9 to arrive at the allowable radius of the curve, entrance curve should be the same as the miniium recommended radius of the central
v2 island. For the design speed of 40 kmph the suggested radius at entry curves is 20 to 35
and for30 kmph, 15 to 25 m. Ithas been seen that the buses and trucks can take right
127f = gied turn easily at these curves at the design speeds, Where practicable three centred
gniry curves may be provided instead of simple circular cuve.
The values of the design coefficient of friction ‘f are taken as 0.43 and 0.47
speeds 40 and 30 kmph respectively, after allowing a factor of safety of 1.5. The IR Vehicles leaving the rotary would accelerate to the speed of the radiating roads and
suggested the radius of entry curve to be 20 to 35 m and 15 to 25 m for rotary hence the exit curves should be of a larger radius than entry curves; one and a half to two
speeds of40 and 30 kmph. The recommended minimum radii of central island are times radius of entry is considered reasonable.
times the radius of entry curves. Though these radii are for the rotary i
The normal pavement width equivalent to two lanes in
at entrance and exitit should iid be equivalent
practice it is convenient to design the central island to conform to the
above radi order to prevent clustering of mixed traffic at the approaches, Extra widening has to be
(iv) Weaving angle and weaving distance : The angle between the path of a provided at the entrance and exit curve.
entering the rotary and that of another vehicle leaving
the rotary at adjacent road The pavement width at entrance curve will be higher than at exit curveas the radius <of
crossing the path of the former is termed as the weaving angle (See Fig. 5.36).
Vé the former is less than the latter.
entering the rotary from a road and leaving towards another radiating : The p r a c t i i t y of the rotar
otaryy is depe nden t on
merge into the one-way traffic flow in the rotary roadway roa d have iil Capacity i of the rota ry : The’ prac tica l capac ity of
ity is calcu lated from the
aro und the cen tral islan ine cooly of the indi vidu al weav ing secti on. The capac
then weave out to diverge from this flow to the
operation including
req uir ed roa d outlet. The formula :
merging and diverging can take place
islands of the adjacent between the two cl
intersecting legs, and this length of the rotary roadway 280 W( 1+ eW )( 1- p3 ) 62
weaving length. is kno oP (+ WL)
For smooth flow of traffic the weaving angle should be sm Qp = practical capacity of the weav ing secti on of a rotar y in pcu Per
the diameter of central i: island required all but not less than 15 where
freedom of movement on a rotary depends will be too la
rge. For any design sect ion (6 to 18 m)
on the size ofte weaving area, The W = widt h of weav ing
length shouldbe atleast fourti me s th e wi dt h v i n g s e c t€2i o
fo r nth e
of
va of weaving length are 45 to 90 m for 40 kmp weaving section.” The reco e = average widt h of e n t r y €) a n d w i d t h of n o n - w e a
speeds. h and 30 to 60 m for 30 kmph ran e/W g 0.4 to 1.0
=e
c t i o n b e t w e e n S e e n of if channelizing islands in
l e n g t h o f w e a v i n g s e i
L_ =
range of W / L = 0 . 1 2 t0 0 :
The carriageway width at the ent metre for the
traffic entering the rotary from the a v i n g t r a f f i c g i v e n b y
P = proportion of w e

__D+e__ in the range 0.4101.0

B* atb+c+d
entr: need al on s te n e n t i
(i) Width of rotary roadway : All the trafic a= lefttuming tr af fi c m o v i n g
be 8 )
ound the one-way rotary roadway for atleast ir ent et ie talhe beth hae m o v i n g i t e ri gh t a e u r e
follow the c entrance ‘and exit-sides of roads, d= right turning tr af fi c
the actual wi n g OE p r
fom seton to ectionT,he minimum ae af fi c a n i t nea ai t v i
land and adjoining kerb is the effec width ofthe pes daaee fir crossing/weaving tr
b =
t i v e width of bel v i n g tr af fi c tu ri ng (0
section and this by and larg e determines the cepaciy © = c r o s s i n g / w e a
ote eli
 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
242

rections have been suggested in the calculated capacity Values q DESIGN OF INTERSECTION
th en,ext and intemal angles athe pedestriaforn tra
fin
fic
din g
int
the
he rota
cap
ry
aci ty ing 243
rec
IRC has omm end ed the fol low ing PCU val ues Of the from the general traffic utilizing the . In India the
th re e wh ee le rs = 1.0 rotaries are needed in urban areas where number of Ritson ee Port Siicrsto
Cars, light commer ci al ve hi cl es an d
high, making the problem complex. If the number of cyclists are less than $0 per hour,
= 2,8 they may be permitted to mix up with the other traffic using the rotary : if they are more.
Buses, medium and heavy commercial vehicles a separate cycle track to segregate cyclists will be desirable. If there are a large number
Motor cycles, scooters = 0.75 of pedestrians, separate foot path with guard rails should be provided around the rotary
‘on the outer side to prohibit them from entering the rotary. However, if they are allowed
Pedal cycles = 0,50 to cross along the pedestrian Crossing near the channelising islands, there would be
Ani vehl
wn a
dram icles = 4 to6 problems of stopping the stream of fast vehicles entering and leaving the rotary.
Provision of crossing facilities to pedestrian by subway or over bridge is possible
(ix) Channelizing islands : Channelizing islands should be Provided
at the solution, but the proposal would however be costly.
and exit of the rotary to prevent undesirable weaving, and turning and to
conflict. Further these channelizing islands help in forcing the vehi
Conditions when traffic rotary is justified
cle to reduce Construction of a traffic rotary needs large area which may be available in rural areas
speed to the design speed of the rotary and to serve as
convenient place for at reasonable cost. But in India generally the volume of fast moving traffic is very low in
waffic signs and as a pedestrian refuge. The shape
and size of channelizin, is rural areas. There are various other points to be considered before the construction of «
governed by the radius of the rotary the radii
angles and
of the entrance and exit evel
layout of the radial road and rotary. Thi aac traffic rotary can be justified.
provided with kerbs 15 to 21 em high, tary. The channelizing islands are ger The American Association of State Highway Officials, now A4SHTO have suggested
(x) Camber and superelevation : A vehic that the lowest limit of traffic volume when a traffic rotary is justified is bout $00 vehicles
curve while changii per hour on all intersecting roads put together and the maximum limit beyond which rotary
may not efficiently function is about 5000 vehicles per hour. However, if a large proportion
of traffic is turning traffic, provision of rotary even outside these limits is justified.
However the IRC suggests that the maximum volume of traffic that a rotary can
efficiently handle is 3000 vehicles per hour entering from all the legs of the intersection.
Keeping in view the mixed traffic conditions, it is recommended by the Indian Roads
(xi) Sight distance, Congress that traffic rotaries may be provided where the intersecting motor traffic is
Possible and in no case about 50 percent or more of the total traffic on all intersecting roads or where the fast
traffic tuning right is as least as 30 percent of the total traffic.
Advantages and limitations of traffic rotary
Various Advantages of Rotary and diveting
; : ‘ ‘ 5 merging
s o
(i) Crossing manoeuvre is converted into weaving or
Lig operations. Hence there is no necessity of any of the vehicles, even a ste
Hisland
facin, have to go in cross directions, to stop and proceed within a traffic send a ae
consistent and comfortable when compared wi y
journey is more
intersection at grade. re Re
nat or going straight across the rotary
(ii) All traffic including those ing
7
(warning) Sign: equal opportunity as those tuning left. at88a
installed at all
operation of automobile is les atx wafic ary Te
Gili) The variable cost of
vile is than
At night a red T
eflector ‘a ea pdr
Though
vehicles have 10 Lode eee
mn the nos e of eac} signalized intersection where the Leb ert rotary
of creasing
distance to be traversed by vehicles which are ane
across is higher, still the fuel consumed in iia j o n at 3
atx uniform
intersection is likely to be less. This is kapanc pg about 278 metre
cyclists and pedestrians : signal is likely to consume fuel required for
ent joumey is lost, if per, 5 45
Speed without stopping. fitracffic
the traasfthe
Signals. Also the r
enforcement.
and vehicles are controlled by ©" Liv) There is no necessity of traffic police or sight co nt anthedsiimples
Constant problem for traffic control as a traffic
rotary could function by itself stnost il
Strians and even cyclists should be is0! fall controls. The maintenance cost #$ hence:
 244 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

acc ide nts and the sev eri ty of acc i den ts

(v) The possible number of erg i DESIGN OF INTERSECTION
because of low relative spe ed. Fur the r we av in g, me rg in g and div 245
are easier and les s da ng er ou s op er at io n tha n cro ssi ng. Ch ec k on sp ee d n
per des ign . *
automatically enforced by pro

a
(vi) Rotaries can be constructed with advantage when the number of inte;
is between four and seven.
(vii) The capacity of the rotary intersection is the highest of all other inter.
grade. The rotary can accommodate a total traffic upto about 3000 a
hour and enable radial streets to cary traffic almost to their full capacity,
Various Limitations of Rotary Fig. 5.38 Interchange Ramps
(i) Rotary requires comparatively a large area of land and so
wher “The grade separated inters ect ion s hav e the fol low ing adv ant age s and limi tati ons.
is li
costly as in built up areas, the total cost may be very high.
ies) Advantages of Grade Separation
(ii) Where pedestrian traffic is largeas in urb
areaa cr os si ng tr af fi c. As th e ro ad s ar e se pa ra te , th is
the traffic and hence has to be supplemented
s thne ro iitst elf cann:ot (i) Maximum facility is given to the
il e cr os si ng .
avoids necessity of st op pi ng an d av oi ds ac ci de nt s wh
by traffic ae dea
have to stop to allow pedestrian to cross, the in g tr af fi c an d by in di re ct in te rc ha ng e ra mp ev en
main purpose of rotary is defe ii is increased safety for turn g to lef t
peers quite oF ‘a nd sa fe by co nv er ti ng in to di ve rg in
ere

(iii) In places where there is mixed traffi

c and large number of cyclists and p © piece ‘
o
th e desie
gn of rotary becomes t '00 elaborat
e and operatioi n and control of t and merging from left.
mf or t an d co nv en ie nc e to th e mo to ri st s an d sa vi ng in
(iii) There is overall increase in co
(iv) Where the angle of intersect ion travel time and vehicle operation cost.
of two roads is too acute or when th th at of th e
than seven intersecting roads, To
taries are unsuitable.
(v) When the distance betwee n intersections on
ere (iv) The capacity of the grade operated inters
two cross
ec ti on ca n pr ac ti ca ll y ap pr oa ch
ex pr es sw ay
||
an i mportant highway is less, rota is an es se nt ia l pa rt of co nt ro le d ac ce ss hi gh wa y li ke
(¥) Gr ad e se pa ra ti on
|
= ———

become troublesome. : ;
and freeway.
(vi) Where there are a large number of ll li ke ly an gl es an d la yo ut of in te rs ec ti ng
|
to be traversed by crossing and Riet sturn e i t mal drawn vehicles, the extra lef (vi). Itis possible to adopt grade separation fora
tr
is a tendency to violate the tra ffic regulati afefi c is considered troublesome and roads.
on of cl mp s ar e po ss ib le af te r th e gr ad e se pa ra ti on
central island. ock wise movement (viiy Stage construction of additional ratructed,
structure between main roads are cons
constuction ofa rotary camaro note gs Ht most of the
(vii) When the traffic volume is :
ii Disadvantages of Grade Separation
“
rural areas
pr ov id e co mp le te gr ad e se pa ra ti on an d in te rc ha ng e fa ci li ti es .
(i) Itis ve ry co st ly to
5.4.3 Grade Separated Intersections th er e is li mi te d ri
i gh t of wa y li
i ke bu ili t up or ur ba u
n r b a n ara r ea or wh er ; e th e
i) Where i s lim it
on of gr ad e se pa ra ti on is co st ly , di ff ic ul t
a peices is no t fa vo ur ab le , co ns tr uc ti
: it
Grade separated intersection design
ign isi the hi i : i: 4
nee of intersection causes least
de la y
i i treatment. and undesirable.
uc e un de si ra bl e cr es ts and sa gs
an
mich superior to intersections at g d fang iphoto (iii) In flat or pl ai n te rr ai n, gr ad e se pa ra ti on ma y in tr od
rade from the Point of view ap m ing the vertical alignment.
if oO! ame aR . an
Grade separation structures ~
us ed to i g o r a b a p a
e
st ru ct ur es
The various types of bridge ‘b ri dg e, Fiel d p o p l i e s
T- be am br id ge ar ch
intersecting highway may be sh ld be vertical Geonpeates
ou ees te onal
br id ge s. ‘T he re
peice concrete le b 2 rosie sod oe.
‘ked vehicles are anticipated, up on th e de si gn ,
should be selected de pe nd in g
Peper ae st he ti cs . e ‘
S e r c r
considerations like site conditions and
i pi si ac tl es h e n s o (ve)
ti on s ar e cl as si fi ed
The grade separated intersec raising its pro
the majo r hi gh wa y is ta ke n ab ov e by
 246 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

dan overbridge h
idg across another highw ay, it is called AN OVer-pasy, DESIGN OF INTERSECTION 2A
Soy the high is taken by depressing it below the ground leve} 10 cross
road by means of an under- bridge , it is known as under -pass , n
i of the over-pass or under-pass
hoice | depen idsd on toy ography,
phy Vertical afi
-
pitts gaseeta aesthetic features and preferential aspects for on '¢ Of the hi
‘The advantages and disadvantages of over-pass and under-pass are bri iefly l
isted be!
Advantages of an Over-pass
Troublesome drainage problems may be reduced by taking the maj
o r h
the cross road. For the same type of structure when the wider toad is ta
i g h w a y
ken
span of the bridge being small, the cost of the bridge struc
ture will be less, In an
pass of major highway, there is an aesthetic prefere
nce to the main through
less feeling of restriction or confinement when co
mpared with the under-pass,
expansion or lateral expansion or construction of
Separate bridge structure for d
highway is possible,
Disadvantages of an Over-pass
eee

In rolling terrain if the major road is to

be taken above, the vertical profil
have rolling grade line. If the major hi e will
ghway is to be take n Over by constructi
embankments and by Providing st
eep gradients, the increas ed grade re
ng h
speed reduction on heavy vehicles. sistance may
Also there will be restri ictions to
long vertical curves are provided. sight distance u
Advantages of an Under-pass
—————

the main highway is taken along

the existing grade
alignment and cross road is depres
sed and taken undernea th.
Disadvantages of an Under-pass
There may be troublesome drainag
e
ground water level rises high during
rair
depressed as much as 5 m to

ce) PARTIAL C L O W ! cm Lear

Some of the types of interchanges
are shown n t e r c h a n g e s ( C o n t d . )
Jeaf fulfils all the requirements of tumii Fig. 5.39 (a) (b) & (©) Types of
 248
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
DESIGN OF PARKING FACILITY 249
ee
an ae

ras coven Lear

Fig. 5.39 (d) Types of Interchanges
5.5 DESIGN OF PARKING FACILITY

Parking facilities may be broadly divided into two ty

pes :
(i) On-street or kerb parking, (ii) Oftstreet park
ing
5.5.1 On-Street or Kerb Parking
In this type of parking,
parking. Kerb parking is N- N U M B E R OF S H A L E S
park their vehicles near the 1 CURB LENGTH, METRES
MS -MANOEUVERING eee.
AL DIMENSIONS
90" ANGLE PARKING wore: A aeraes Parking
Patterns of Kerb ers

S o n a r a e
is with an

s
_. Fig. 5.40 Various mum vehicles tha 29 be parked
more vehi it of kerb and
also is more with angle parking and it increase
at 99°
maxi
WT)
‘Angle parking is more convenient hough
p e
motorists
r a
and unparking manocuvre
than the paral
(0 tr af ic resulking
ised in ae parkinx g,nas
Angle parking or parallel parking may be allo bat i rodies ‘much more obstruction
Parking,
Angle parking may be at angles 30, 60 or 90 ‘wed in the kerb parking. See Fig. 5.40- Sccidents than the parallel parking. Ou! of Yr ‘ations discussed a
degrees. Angle parking accommodates degree angle is considered the best from al
250
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
par kin g g
i
‘kinn g g i
is gen era lly pre fer red w hen the wid th of ker b parki HIGHWAY LIGHTING 251
wi Haprgee are limite d, But the par kin g and unp ark ing Ope rat ion s aa
for war d and rev ers e mo ve me nt s bef ore par kin g Pro per ly op roads where the density of population is also high, road lighting has other ad
difficult needin g a few
dir ect ion fecling of security and protection, Thus even though head ligh vantages like
taking out. Par all el par kin g may be wit h equ al spa cin g, fac ing the sam e ts of vehicles may be
be two cars placed closely with open intervals between two-car Units, as sufficient for safe night driving, still road lighting may be considered as an added facility
to the road users.
Fig. 5.40.
During night driving the manner in which objects are visible varies with both the
5.5.2 Off-Street Parking absolute level of brightness and the relative brightness of the road surface and the object.
‘When the brightness of the object is less than that of the background, that is when the
When parking facility is provided at a separate place away from the kerb, it is object appears darker than the road surface, discernment is principally by sithowerte. If
as off-street parking. The main advantage of this method is that there is no und the brightness of the pavement is uniformly increased, discernment by silhouette is
congestion and delay on the road as in kerb parking. But the main draw back Is so enhanced. Hence it is obvious that night visibility on concrete and other light coloured
the owners will have to walk a greater distance after parking the vehicle. It js pavements are better than on black top surfaces. A light coloured, rough textured
possible to provide the off-street parking facility at very close intervals especia pavement surface that can reflect light back is considered most desirable, Surface that
business centers of a city. Two basic types of off-street parking facilities are sy becomes mirror like or shiny when wet (such as smoothened black top road surface)
parking lots and multi-floor parking garages, 3 should be avoided as practically no light reflects back from them.
Parking lots may be convenient where sufficient space is available at comparatiy When the brightness of an object is more than that of the immediate background,
low cost. The parking of vehicles may be done by owners‘or drivers of the cars and discernment is by. reverse silhouette. The objects adjacent to the roadway, projections
this is called self parking system. Mf the vehicle is left by the driver at the entrance
t above the pavement surface such as island or vehicles may be seen by this process of
§ reverse silhouette, When the pavement surface is very dark like black top surface, the
and again collected from there, the parking and delivering operations being carrled 0
attendants, itis called attendant parking system. Most important advantage of object which are relatively brighter in colour are seen by this process,
parking is less space required to store and manocuvre the same number ‘Thus the various factors that influence night visibility are :
of cars,
Multi-storeyed parking garages are restored to when the floor space ava (a) amount and distribution of light flux from the lamps.
ilable fi
parking garage is less and is very costly. It is possible to construct mult: (b) size of object.
kitrages to park a large number of cars at atime. [tis necessary to provide the Int
travel facility for the vehicles, which may be either by elevators or by (c) brightness of object.
mechanized garages the ram ps.
clevator may be designed to move both in vertical and | (d)_ brightness of the background,
horizontal ditections to carry and place the vehicle in the appropriate parking stall
deliver it back, [Cramps ate pr ovided for driving the vehicles to and from the p (c) reflecting characteristics of the pavement surface,
Mall, the space requirement will be Increased considerably, On the other hand, If (1) glare on the eyes of the driver, and
A mechanical break down or a power failure, the functionin
g of the clevator system (eg tine available to see an object.
come to a st and still
Design factors of highway lighting
Various factors to be considered in the design of road lighting are :
is required in
and exit operations. Lhe
() Lamps
Vehiclon to be parked during peak hott @ (iD. Luminaire distribution of light
storage-operatlony AF andl the number of attendants employed (i) Spacing of lighting units
(WV) Height and over hang of mounting
5.6 HIGHWAY LIGHTING
(¥) Lateral placement
‘The ie that occur during night delving Is
rate of highway acetdents and fitatit (VI) Lighting Iayouts
Aimer higher in terme oF vebicle-kilomette, than that during day delving, One
Varlous causes of increased aceldent rite bumpy t i o n s i n
during night may bo attributed to poot M several co n s i d e r a
visibility, Highway Hghting is particularly more tinportant at intersections, bridge: ‘Tho choles of the lamp, its type, size depends on n o ! t o u s e the
i i s e c o
Hevel crossings ond In places where there Ie vestictlon of traffic to movement be Addition to distribution of Hight flux on te_ cau ideeeauticlent unifornity OF pavernect
‘on rural roads haw Hot yet become common, evidently due to the cost consideration Iiwoxt timp size in a luminaire whieh
Jeen umber of pedestelany and other stow trattle using the fvcitity at mil
ght, OM
 252 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
8 typ es op HIGHWAY LIGHTING
« but thisi depend s on the e spa spaci
cin g ng o of the lam ps als o. ‘Th e‘ var io ‘ 253
q
fil ame nt, flu ore sce nt and so di um OF mer euy
ee ar taiiay Thing are
lamps The cheape st amo ngs t the se, is the fil ame nt lam p. So di um -v ap ou r
lamps
preferred at large intersections,
Luminaire Distribution of Light
To have the best utility of the luminaire or source of light, it is necessary to have pr
distribution of light. The distribution should be downward so that high Percentage of
light is utilized for illuminating the pavement and adjacent area. The light distrib
selected should be the one which would produce maximum uniformity of pavem
brightness, The distribution from the luminaire should cover the pavement between
kerbs and provide adequate lighting on adjacent area i.e. 3 m to 5 m beyond the paveme
edge. The illumination is necessary for traffic signs and other objects on the road,
There are five typical luminaire distributions (see Fig. 5.41) which meet most of t
highway lighting requirements.
It is suggested that the average level of illumination on'road side may be 20 to 30 tu
on important urban roads carrying fast traffic and about 15 lux for other main
Leute tintin

carrying mixed traffic and in arterial roads. In secondary road it may be 4 to 8

depending on traffic. However the actual intensity of illumination in most of the exi
roads may be lower than the above values.
The Indian Standards Institution recommends an average level of illumination of :
lux on important roads carrying fast traffic and 15 lux on other main roads, the ratio of.
minimum to average illumination being 0.4.
Spacing of Lighting Units
The spacing of lighting units is often influenced by the electrical distribution p
Property lines, road layout and type of side features and their illumination.
with high mountings and wide spa
Lar ge l a
cings should be preferred from economy point of view:
Height and Overhang of Mounting
The distribution of light, shadow and the glare effect from street lamps depend
the mounting height. Th
als o ve
e glare on eyes from the mounted lights increases with the po
of the lamp directed towards the eye and decreases with increase di st ri bu ti on (f or na rr ow ro ad s)
in he ig ht of mo 1 Two-way lateral
Usual mounting heights range from 6 m to 10 m, higher values l ai st ri bu ti on (f or na rr ow ro ad s)
be in g pr
possible at least for important urban roads. ‘The minimum vertical cleara eferred wher TL Narrow asymmetric latera
nc e required | tr ic la te ra l di st ri bu ti on
electric power lines upto 650 volts has been specified as 6 m
above the pavement sul Tt Medium width asymme
by the Indian Roads Congress. (for roads with medium width) = hacaleane n re
m e t r i c l a t e r a l d i sor
t r i b u t i o n (f
IV W i d e a s y m
Over hangs on the lighting poles would kee P the poles away from the pavement s y m m e t r i c a l d i s t r i b u t i o n (f or m o u n t
but still allow the lamp to be held above the kerb or towards the pavement. This enab! A VNormal at i n t e r s e c t i o n s )
ighways a n d
better distribution of light on the pavement and less glare on eyes of road users, | T® © e D i s t r i b u t i o n aad
effect of mounting height and over hang on the length of shadow is shown in Fig. 5:42 Fig. 5.41 T y p e s ‘o f L u m i n a i r
m
m a n d d e s i r a 0
b 6
l e m t r o
is desirable to have higher mounting heights and necessary overhang projections. ifi ni 0 3 aa
Lateral Placement raiissed ed k kerb. :
The street lighting poles should not be installed close to the pavement edge. If they =
p o w e r a n d t e l e c o m m u n i c
i,
a t i o n
are too close to the carriageway, free movement of traffic is obstructed, decreasing f j i n g el e c t r i c
the
e c i f i e d a p p l y t 0 p o l e s c a r r y i in g
capacity of the roadway. Indian Roads Congress has specified the horizontal cle: T h e c l e a r a n c e s p
lines also,
required for lighting poles as given below :
254
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

HIGHWAY LIGHTING 255

TENGTH OF SHADOW
Fig. 5.42 Effect of Mounting Height of Overhang on Length of Shadow
Lighting Layouts
On straight roads the lighting layout may be of the following types :
(a) Single side yo ut on Ho ri zo nt al Cu rv es
Fig. 5.44 Li gh ti ng La
(b) Staggered (both sides) of ve hi cu la r and ped est ria n tra ffi c, mo re
At intersections, due to potential con fli cts
mp le int ers ect ion s, in ur ba n are a, ion should
the ill umi nat
(c) Central illumination is required. For si fo rm the
il lu mi na ti on val ues for tw o roa ds wh ic h
Single side lighting is economical to install; but it is suitable only for narrow ro be atleast equal to the sum of sh ou ld be ma de
ffi c vo lu me and fl ow stu dy
intersection, See Figure 5.45. A detailed tra of lig hts . Th e lighting
Due to cost considerat ns even on two lane roads often single side a ne is adop' be fo re de ci di ng the lay
in the cases of compound intersections crossing, channelizing islands and signs. out
For wider roads with three or more lanes the staggered system or the central light unit should be located near the pedestrian
The
system may be adopted. These systems of lighting have illustrated in Fig. 5.43. lighting layout for tra ffi c rot ari es has be en sh ow n in Fig , 5.4 6.
spacing of the lights in each of these systems is decided based on various consider:
including location, lamp size, height of mounting and lighting requirements.

day Prensa
Fig. 5.45 Lighting L a y o u t fo r I n t e r s e c t i o n s
‘tracine 9010 4am
cer cawraasy,
u t i l i z a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t c h a r t s ar e
istr ib ut io n, th e
Fig. 5.43 Lighting Layouts ; i the roadway surface where
s
peasants t w e e n l i g h t i n g p o l e
Special care2 should be taken while locating the lights ts on curves i nd spacing be
The oe tre loos ed onthe outer aa
; mounting e n in F i g . 5 . 4 6 .
at closer spacings on curve s than on strai ghts. lamp I
estas! ical utilizat i o n c o e f f i c i e n t c h a r t is g i v
the curves to provide better visibility. The layout of light at horizontal curves is show
Figur Sa
Figure. 5.44. At verti ical summit curve lights
i should be installed
; at closer intervals!
 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
256
TRAFFIC AND TRANSPORTATION PLANNING 257

STREET 5.7 TRAFFIC AlvD TRANSPORTATION PLANNING

SIDE 5.7.1 Traffic Pla5nning . ‘

COEFFICIENT OF UTILIZATION
growth
Rising trends in growth of population and traffic around cities and the steaindy hig
dem and for imp rov eme nts hwa y
of national productivity create a continuing
facilities.
The problem of traffic accidents and congestion in urban roads is being viewed with
grave concern in the recent years. The main causes for this problem are improper
planning of road net-work and other roadway facilities and poor traffic planning. Hence
HOUSE SIDE traffic functions now occupy a good position in Corporation and Municipalities. The
01 functions and duties of traffic engineering units were initially limited to traffic surveys
and control devices. But now this branch of engineering has developed considerably and
+ z 3 o include many other activities like design, regulation, planning and administrative
functions. In municipal organizations a full fledged traffic engineering unit can be
WIOTH OF AREA entrusted to look after public safety. Such a traffic engineering unit may have several
MOUNTING HEIGHT
sane:
division such as :
Fig. 5.46 Coefficient of Utilization (a) Field studies
(b) Accident analysis
Lamp lumen x Coefficient of utilization x Maintenance
Spacings = (c) Traffic control devices
Average Lux x Width of road
(a) Design and planning
c
‘The coeffi cient of utilization is obtained from the appropri:
priate chart, asas in (©) Special investigations
The maintenance factor takes into account the decrease in efficiency of lamy
and an average value of about 80% may be assumed. (Economic analysis and decision theory in engineering design, and
a
(g) Administration
Example 3.16 Traffic engineering unit s shou ld have a prop er plac e in hig hwa y dep art men ts or Publ ic
Design a street lighting system for the following conditions Works Depart men t of the Stat es, The fina ncin g for traf fic eng ine eri ng acti viti es is
© another problem. Obviously, the trav elli ng publ ic is more con cer ned abou t thei r safe and
Street width — 15m quick movements and hen ce a pro vis ion can be mad e to div ert part of the inc ome
obtained from the road users in the for m of tax es, par kin g cha rge s, toll s etc. tow ard s the se
Mounting height — 7.5m’ activities.
Lamp size" 6000 lumen
5.7.2. Urban Transportation Planning Process
Luminaire type — 11 planning process is developed in a series of stages :
__The transportation
Calculate the spacing between lighting units
to produce average Lux = 6.0 (i) _ Inventories
Solution Trip generation
maa Pavement width _ 15 (iii) Trip distribution
Mountingheight (iv) Model split
7.5 ~2
From Fig. 5.46, coefficient of utilization (¥) Traffic assignment
= 0.44 (vi). Plan preparation and evaluation
Assume a maintenance factor = 0.8 . te é
Spacing = Inventories h a r a c t e r i sti cs
Lamp lumen x Coefficient ti vi ty , po pu la ti on , tr av el c
of utilization x Mainten: i to land use, e c o n o m i c
h
ac
a se ri es of su rv eys. Fo r th is pu rp os e th e
AV erage Lux x Widt- h of road anes reba th ro ug
ies sre collectedvided into a numberof smaller zones as shown in
les on f a c IN S fy is su b- di
and tran
P sp or ta ti f o l l o w e d f o r z o n i n g :
= [Seeeee o l l o w i n g r u l e s a r e n o r m a l l y
6x15 x08] -252 Fe opa l f
 TRAFFI C E N G I N E E R I N G
258
P O R T A T I O N P L A N N I N G 259
u s in l a n d u s e . TRAFFIC AND T R A N S
Zones should be hom o g e n e o
(i) tr ip
e r i s t i c s , eh ol d tr ip m a k i n g is co ns id er ed ra th er th an zo na l
Zone s s h o u l d b e ‘ o f h o m o g e n e o u s t r a f f i c g e n e r a t i n g c h a r a c t
In the category analysis, th e ho us es an d to
(ii) the households into a st of ca te go ri
o n di st ri ct s, na tu ra l an d p h y s i c a l ba ry j making, The procedure is to divide 108 different categories
(iii) Zones should conf o r m to e n u m e r a t i s to ea ch ca te go ry . In England
ers. determine the base ye ar tr ip ra te
le ve ls , an d 6 ho us e ho ld
fr om the a cl as se s, 3 ca r ow ne rs hi p
no t be la rg e en ou gh to pr od uc e er ro rs re su lt in g ‘are no rm al ly us ed ba se d on 6 in co me
n u m b e r of ho us eh ol ds in
(iv) Zones sh ou ld whe neration, the ‘expec
tr ip ge te d
ac ti vi ti es oc cu r at zo na l ce nt ro id , structures. To pr ed ic t th e fu tu re
th e co rr es po nd in g tr ip ra te an d
that all at th e de si gn ye ar ar e to be mu lt ip li ed by
Such category
(x) Zones shou ld pr ef er ab ly ha ve a ge om et ri ca l st fe detengs su m m e d up ov er th e zo ne .
ma e: Foss ey
centroids. Trip Distribution
Detailed surveys are than organised to assess the existii a
transportation facilities. Normally Home interviews surveys, Population Rha
trends. Socio-economic characteristics of the population, Land use pai
activities, Traffic volume census; Travel time studies and a Physical ij
neth
hig work ay
ware carried out. Some of the surveys art'explained ih ARG kj
i sepa r a t i o n b e t w e e n th e z o n e s .
The 5, information0 collected are analysed with res tt trends’ angie
expeniations forming the basi for furher uavel demand analysis. “ ‘The model is as follows =
(5.30)
Trip Generation
This is tthe first stage
stage of the travel d lemand forecasti ing, process. ij
<oncers withthe estimation of numberof ips produced sierepeece I
Wipf defined us the “One-way movement having skiple prposy ant Wie Oe He re Ty = n u m b e r of tr ip s f r o m z o n e i to z o n e j
cu
between cu rie and a point
a point of origin it of destinat
ination”,
ion”. Two popular methods
‘Trips generated in zone i
Multiple Regression Analysis Trips attracted to zone j
‘f ri ct io n fa ct or ’ ca lc ul at ed on ar ea wi se ba si s
Category Analysis Empirically de ri ve d
number of zo ne s in th e ur ba n ar ea .
In Multiple Regression Analysis a functional relationship is ex;
th e m o d e p a r a m e t e r s Fy t h r o u g h a c o m p u t e r
zone and variot i
zone. It i
ic
usua ly
activi ll y to ca li br at e
per s
trip
tips Per zone and various socioeconomic activ ity level s in that Existing data is used init ia
e r s to be s a m e at a fu tu re da te , th e f u n n ’ m p
p r o g r a m . ‘ A s s u m i n g th es e p a r a m e t
th e fu tu re tr ip g e n e r a t e d va lu es in th e mo de l.
fnterchanges are computed by su bs ti tu ti ng
¥ = b o t b i x + . . . . + E Xk
a . Model Split
ere
¥ = dependent variable-trips produced or attracted in a zone.span
=
y tw o zo ne s th at ca n be sh ar ed between the
of to ta l tr ip s be tw ee n an e. The
‘The proportion is de te rm in ed in th is st ag
XIy X2eere one Xk = independent vari lables that cause ger . 2
Brivate ve hi cl es an d th e pu blic transportation system this proportion between car
:
Epneration ofp) de ve lo pe d ha ve be en de si gn ed to de te rm in e th e
ri v e so far this pr ob le m. Ty pi ca ll y
bo, bg, soe ane be = regression coefficients which ret bu s mo de s. Se ve ra l ap pr oa ch es ar e av ai la bl e to so lv
ar
e
e assess ed be tw ee n tw o O- D
av el by ca r mo de an d bu s mo de
data obtained in inventory wii tesalinatel Sr times and co st s of tr
of di ve rs io n cu rv es th e ‘n um be r of bus trips likely to be made
example iiin one of the Indiian cities, the following relationsh points. Wi th th e he lp
Asan
ip was estab within the O-D pa ir is th en d e t e r m i n e d .
y = 1197.32 + 0.0957 x2 Traffic Assignment
is : a
where x; = t r a n s p o r t a t i o n p l a n n i n g as
number of workers in the zone The next stage in t h e
y r o u t e s . A t y p i c a l m e t h o d js k n o w n
y t w o O - D p a i n different highwa
r s o e n t h e g i v er is
n 0 - 0 p a i
between a n
t h i s betwe
2 = number of vehicles in the zone “All-or-Nothing” p r o c e d u r e . I n
pa ir
Al l th e tr ip s be s b e t w e e n an y’ t w o O - D
identified. to th is p a t h . S i m i l a r l y th e tr ip
t h e n a s s i g n e d
io comnin ae Produced for work purposes in a zone these two zones are or e s t rou t e s . A n u m b e r o f o t h e r
to r e s p e c t i v e s hsho r t
gener can big bel Sme e Stable over time, the future numbe r of pairs are assigned t r a f f i c a s s i g n m e n t s .
likely 10 be ated of the * also available and g i v e m o r e r e a l i s t i c
“++ s+ My the independent variables in ph en ting the future estim ates
 x0 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

a n d E v a l u a t i o n REFERENCES 261
Plan Preparanort r a t e g i e s
b l e t h e v a r i o u s l a n d u s e s t
e p s d e s c r i b e d a b o v e w i l l e n a
The s t r fo rm fo r co mp ut at io ns
l o r e d . I n v e r y g e n e r a l t e r m s , a s e t of objectivess piarse 5 It is convenie nt to pr ep ar e a ta bu la
demands w be exp The benefit ¥
Narious land us e a n d . t r a n s p o r t a t ion pla n s o r e d e v e l o p e d .
[Zone[ x y y rd
e t u r n s w i t h t h e e s t i m a t e d i n 312__| 676 is
be c a u s e d b y a n y a l t e m a t i v e a n d t h e n e t r 1 26 12
e d . o n o m i c c r i t e r i o n is u s e d t o c h o o s e t h e b e s t a l t e m a t i v e b y 2 28 u 308 784 12
compa r An e c 289
3 31 17 527 961
E 1s 495 t 1089 ns |
4 3
3 2 12 26 4 rr r
30 15__| 45 0 90 0 r 2s—|
Ee 0 40 0 31
7 20 9 18
25 | (13 32 5 62 5 1
{Traffic zone | Population in the zone | Total trips generated 8 [S y = 1398)
(in hundreds) [m=8 | Sx = 21 5 [ y = 10 4] S a = y 28 61 T x= 59 19
number (thousands)
1 12 ‘Substituting th es e va lu es in th e fo rm ul ae gi ve n ea rl ie r
2
3 31
u
17
py = 82 2861=21#1508 9 469
4 33, 15 8x5919—(215)
5 22 2 bo = (104 - 0.469 x 215)'8 = 0.396
6 30 15
IN

7 20 9 ‘Thethertriep f geonerar tione, model is

& 25 13 y = 0396 +0.469x
Develop a linear regression model for estimating the trips generated from a zon ‘The correlation coefficient for this model is
ne i t ie s
i ge

po
fo pur ti on in a
lat ae parti part icul ar zo increases to 40 ,0 00 , pr ed ic t the expected trip
oe T

Solution
Pi (a) edIn this
scasae c
therk
e is one —
ind — variab
i le populatioi n and the ‘The linear regression model is given by :
y = 0396 +0.469 x, r=0.82
¥ = bo+bixy (b) The future population of a zone = 40,000
Here y = Total number of trips in hundreds per zone, being the dependent x = 40 for use in model
‘The total trips generated, y = 0. 39 6 + 0. 46 9 x 40 = 19 .1 6 in hu nd re ds = 19 16
x=
bo = Regression constant or intercept term.
REFERENCE
by = Regression coefficient
1. Matson, T. M, Smith, W. S. and Hurd, F. W., Traffic Engineering.
The equation is calibrated for bo and by by the following formulae McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York.
: En gi ne er s.
En gi ne er in g Ha nd Bo ok , in st it ut e of Tr af fi c
2. Evans, H. K., Tr af fi c
by = BExy-Exdy Connecticut USA.
A nlx? -(E xy? e, Tr af fi c Ro ta ri es , Jo ur na l, In di an Ro ad s
. 3. Specifications an d St an da rd Co mm it te
SK Iso the correlation
i coefficient r, which tells about the goodness of fit is oP Congress, Vol. XIX-3, 1954-55. y
E. an d Ra nk in , W. W.. An In tr od uc ti on to Hi gh wa
4. Capelle, D. G., Cl ev el an d, D. US B.
c En gi ne cr s,
r= by [22x =x? bs Transportation En gi ne er in g, In st it ut e of Tr af fi
Am er ic an As so ci at io n
ri c De si gn of Ru ra l Hi gh wa ys .
nLy?-~(Ly)? 5. AASHO, A policy on Ge om et
Here on = total number of observations of State Highways Officials’ Washington. (Now AASHTO)
a e z
mmation of the variable over all the
observations
 Y R A E F I C E N G I N E E R I N G
1; PROBLEMS ont
P a n d A g g a r w a l , A. L, A S t u d y of
Bolan, HOU, Sita & 197
Indian Roads C o n g r e s s , Vo l. X X 1 V . 3 ,
Tr af fi c En gi ne er in g: An In uo sa ct ie n, G r i t L e o n ,
Wa ll ed Ci ty of De lh i, Jo um al ,
a c i t y 27. Wells, GR ,
i n a r y D i s c u s s i o n o n H i g h w a y C a p e Gu nt el in e on C o p s c e 0h
e eRessi n os Ra wa t Ar e.
S e h g a l T & , A P r e l i m a 28. Indian Rows Congre ss , Te nt at iv
n g r e s s , Vo l. N X X -2, 1967 IRC : 64-1976
~
Roads Co re es TR E e t
Geimnaian NS and Gupta JD, Parking Demand of Different ng re ss , R e c o m m e n d e d Pr ac ti ce fo r Re ta
20. Indian Rowds Co 2 6 5 - 1
Case Study, Journal Indian Roads Congress, Vol. XXXIV-I, 1971. In si tu ti on s, Lu mi na ri es fo r St re et L i g h t i n g 1S
.
30, Indian Standarite of P a t e P r o e o a g h
th od s for Es ti ma ti ng Fu tu re Roa d: it ut io ns , 1 S . C o d e of Pr ac ti ce fo r L i g h t i n g
Kahonsraman S & an d Se kg al TR , Me
31. Indian St an da rd s In st
Journal Indi an Ro ad s Co ng re ss , Vol . XX X- 3, 19 68 , ¥
Fare, 1S. 5 19 44 Pa rt 1 & 11 , 19 70
Srinwasan, NS and Swyanarayana, Y., Forecasting Methods in Ty PROBLEMS
Planning, National Seminar, 20-years Design and Construction of, n g ? E x p l a m n br ie fl y
Bridges, Ministry of Transport, Govt. of India, 1968. je ct s an d sc op e of tr af fi c e n g i n e e r i
1. What are the ob ie e n g i n e e r i e g 7 r e c u s e
ff
Kennedy, N. Kell JH. and Homburger W. S., Fundamentals 2. Wh is
a tth e s i g n i f i c a n c e of ro ad us er ch ar ac te ri
ro
st
ad
ic s i
wer ch
ta
a r a c t e r i t c s an d t i f i s t
Calif fe ct th e
Engineering, Institute of Transportation and Traffic Engg., University of et the variou s fa ct or s w h i c h af

Wok! M and Martin B. V., Traffic System Analysi: igineers

wh ic h af fe ct th e ra nd de si gn 7 B e x t l y
ve hi cu la r ch ar ac te ri st ic s
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. » ness eae 3. What are different
Drew, D. R., Traffic Flow Theory and Control, McGraw-Hill Book Co., d i m e n s i o n s an d we ig ht of vehi cl es al lo we d i= Hs ia , +
4 Indicate the maximum ve hi cl es an th e ro ad .
ae
HRB, Highway
ewes Capacity Manual Special pecial Report 87 Highway
i Research
2 spec if ie d by LR .C . Di sc us s th e ef fe ct of wi de r

fi c st ud ie s an d th ei r im po rt an ce ,
Ss. Discuss the various traf
s of ca rr yi ng ou t tr af fi c y o k a n e
. HRB, Channelization, The Design of Highway Intersection at Grade, Special Ex pl ai n th e te rm tr af fi c vo lu me , What are the object
6
74, Highway Research Board, Washington, 1962. studies ?
tr af fi c vo lu me st ud ie s Ne ch ec at e te e
. Burrage, RH. and Morgen, E G., Parking, The Eno Foundation for Hi 1. Enumerate the differ en t me th od s of ca rr yi ng ou t
Traffic Control, Connecticut, USA. princiofpleaech. t a f e
ar e pr es en te d an d th e re su lt s us ed is
. Khanna, S. K., Jitender Kumar and Agarwal, G. K., Analysis of Vehicle % Indicate how the tr af fi c vo lu me da ta
for Highway
igh Safety, S y m p o
Safety. Symposium, Modem s i Trends i
inn Civi
Civil Eng Uni engineering.
a e o n s
sp ee d, sp ac e- me an sp ee d ti me -m ea n sp an s su l
9 Explain sp ot sp ee d, ru nn in g
speed. How ar e sp ot sp ee d st ud ie s ca rr ie d ou t?
. Carmichael T J., Motor Vehicle Performance and Highway Safety, st ud ie s 7
ar e th e va ri ou s ob je ct s an d ap pl ic at io ns of sp ot sp ee d
Highwa y Research Board, Washington Vol. 33, 1953. 10. Wh at S3s69
ca rr ie d ou t Wh at ar e th e v a r i a t e
LH low to Plan Modem Street Liigghhttii ng, General Electric New York (USA). 11. Explain how the sp ee d an d de la y st ud ie s ar e
. 5Specifsh ications and Standard Committee, Dimensions and Weights of Road of speed and delay studies ? ,
th e va ri ou s us es of O & D st at es
hicle, Jounal, Indian Roads Congress, XVII-2, 1953-54. 12 Explain orig in an d de st in at io n st ud y. ‘W ha t ar e
c m a n o e u v r
an d e s
th ei r ap pl ic at io ns ,
« Indian Roads
Roads Congress,Congres, Recommendations abo 13. Explain the traffi
Geometric De sign of Hill Road, IRC : 52-1981 (First nonin ligament, S , ba si c ea pa ci ty , po ss ib le ca pa ci ty an d pr ac ts ! C a n t y
é 14. Explain traffic ca pa ci ty
ea ps ct y of ro ad
. Indian Roads Congress, AS. Discuss briefl y th e va ri ou s fa ct or s af fe ct in g th e pr ac ti ca l
HighwaysiRC 73.1980, met Desion Si alae of tr af fi c la ne at 3 sp ee d of 62 ki ne s Ap sc at e Bh at at t
16. Estimate the basic capacity 6 m.
. Indian Roads Congress, Geometric Design Standard for Urban Roads the vehicles ar e of av er ag e le ng th
IRC : 86-1983,
17. Write short notes on ©
24. JuJ sto, C E.G, anand Tuladh ar, S. B. B., Passen, al ue s (a) Thirteenth highest ho ur ly tr af fi c vo lu me
at of the indian Roads Congsess, Vol aS eae re i
25. Indian Roads Ci‘ongress, Road Accidej nt Forms A-a1 raned IRC :53- (b) Desire lines

Indian Roads
Congress, Code ofPractice for Road Signs, IRC : 67-1977:
 264 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

(ce) Trattic signal system PROBLEMS 205

(a) Before and after studies an d th e ba si c pr in ci pl es in vo lv ed .
32. En um er at e th e va ri ou s ty pe s of in te rs ec ti on s
(e) PCU fe w ty pi ca l pa tt er ns of un ch an ne li ze d an d ch an ne li ze d
33. Wi th ne at sk et ch es sh ow
(f) Level of service intersections. What are the advantages and li mitations of unchannelized and
channe li ze d in te rs ec ti on s ?
18. cantly,
(a) Expla in the relationship ip between 5] peed, travel time,
i volume, density li mi ta ti on s, in pa rt ic ul ar
tr af fi c ro ta ry ? Wh at ar e its ad va nt ag es an d
4. What is a
e to tr af fi c co nd it io ns in In di a?
(b) What are the factors on which PCU values depend ? referenc
tu al cr os si ng ma no eu vr e of tr af fi c is av oi de d in a tr af fi c
(©) Explain the level of service concept while deciding 35. Explain clearly ho w th e ac ti ng ro as ts
road. the design capacity istry th ou gh th e tr af fi c ma y ha ve rwise
to ot he zo in cr os s di re ct io ns of ra
ns id er ed in ro ta ry
i o u s ar e to be co
36. Explai n b r i e f l y t h e v a r design factors that
Gaiain
19, Expl n brief
By ty te yarn
ly the various asj pects inve
i stig
i ated durii ng parking studies: intersection design. o n s .
e c t i o n s , th e a d v a n t a g e s a n d l i m i t a t i
e p a r a t e d i n t e r s
P20. What . 37. Explain gr a d e s
p a s s ”
are the different causes of traffic accidents ?. Discuss briefly. d v a n t a g e s a n d d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f o v e r - p a s s a n d u n d e r -
38. Whatare the relat i v e a
221. What are the applications of location r l e aafn d s h o w t h e m o v e m e n t of tr af fi c.
condition diagrams ?
file, spot, maps,
collision diagrams and 39. Draw a ne a t s k e t c h o f
e
fu
s o
ll
f
c
p
l
a
o
r
v
k
e
i n g f a c i l i t i e s d e s i g n e d fo r tr af fi c n e e d s 7
40. What are the various t y p
22. Exppllain var‘ar
i ious measures that may be taken to prevent acc Compare kerb park i n g w i t h o f f - s t r e eg.
t p a r k i n
idents. (b ) p a r k i n g lo ts a n d g a r a g e s
23. What are the varirious ous types of traffic aci i 41. Compare (a) angle p a r k i n g w i t h p a r a l l e l p a r k i n g
the sped of vehicle involved in the aceident Sus ® method ofa (c) ramp type and el e v a t o r t y p e p a r k i n g
i n g
g a
?
r a g
E
e
x
s
p
.
l a i n s i l h o u t t e a n d r e v e r s e s i l h o u t t e ,
42, What are the objec t s of h i g h w a y l i g h t
24. A vehicle sskids throu: ighh a dii stance e qual to 40 m be
40 fore collidingiding with g n f a c t o r s in r o a d l i g h t i n g .
parked vehicles, the weight of which is 75 per
cent of the former. After col li 43. Explain the various desi i o n .
moving vehicles Assume co sr e s of l i g h t s a n d l u m i n a i r e d i s t r i b u t
both ; the vehi e n d e d t y p
Sea compute the nl
h cles skid thr rough 14 m Illustrate with sk e t c h e s r e c o m m
i 44.
r h i g h w a y a n d i n t e r s e c t i o n s .
e a n o t e o n l i g h t i n g l a y o u t s fo
45. Wri t
l i g h t i n g u n i t s to p r o d u c e a lu x ‘e qu al to 7 . 0 f r o m
25. Two vehick
nies A and B of equal weight, approac hing from cross roads (at righ 46. Calculate the spacing bet w e e n t h e
angles
a ) co ll id e wi th ea ch ot he r. Th ey thr o " 4 the following data :
collisi ion and 20 m and 35 m respecti skid
vely ine calls atie ag
skidding ig vehiclvehi es A and B after collision are 45° an Width of road = 14 m
respectively, calculate the origi
d 13 0° wi th original Mounting height = 8m
of brakes. Assume fe O55 oom Speeds of the two vehicles before the appl Lamp size = 7000 lumen
26. roa
Witrs,
h neat sketch ies show variou
i s types of
traffic signs., classifying them Luminaire type I. o n .
l a i n th e o b j e c t i v e s of tr af fi c p l a n n i n g an d a d m i n i s t r a t i
47. Brief l y e x p p h
27. What are the advant tages g a si gn al iz ed in te rs ec ti on at a s p e e d of 40 k m
and : disad\ ffic si p r o : a c h i n
48, The driver of a vehicle ap signal changing from green © amber and the vehicle
‘ se ei ng th e
28. Explain the various ‘ypes of t e
traffic signals and
c t
their fun
; ap p l i e d b r a k e s
to
on
to p on th e p r e s c r i b e d st op li ne du ri ng th e a m b e r ti me of 4 se
a
co
v e
nd
r a
s.
g e
timings decided ? ctions. How are the Tr b r o u g h t er is a s s u m e d as 1. 0 se co nd , c o m p u t e th e
Trane reac ti on ti me of th e dr iv
29. Design the timi ings of an iiss olated si friction co ef fi ci en t d e v e l o p e d . m e n t , th e
when roads P and Q cross. ‘The. ch vailab to lebe installed at a righ
ii t angled inlinterse 4 r e s i s t a n c e u s i n g s k i d r e s i s t a n c e e q u i p
are
49, I n a r o a d te st fo r m e a s u r i n g sk i t i o n a n d th e b r a k i n g . d i s t a n c e
i n g 4 . 2 5 s e c o n d s of r a k e a p p l i c a th e v e h i c l e w a s
timer i n d i c a t a s m e a s u e d as 3 2 . 3 m e t r e b e f o r e
l o u r s p r a y
indicated by the co t isthe average skid resistance of the surface ? w
Width, metre
broug h t to s t o p . W h a to p a s s it a n d a c c e l e r a t e
Peak hour traffic vol i
k m p h b e h i n d a n o t h e r c a r d i e l o e s
50. A dr i v e r t r a v e l l i n g at 5 0 0 . 0 1 5 v p w h e r e
‘Approach speed np see ‘ a ’ is g i v e n b y t h e r e l a t i o n A S P
Y . ( 1 . 2 -
30. What are the vari Ifthe ra t e o f a c c e l e r a t i o n
feat Pert m / s e c . a n d t i s t i m e in s e c o n d s , f i n d
vis the speed
 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

r $ s e c o n d s PROBLEMS: 267
(a) the rate of accele r a t i o n af te
ta in a s p e e d of 10 0 k m p h . 57. Two trucks A and B of gross weight 7 T and 12 T approaching from right angles
(b) time taken to at
applied brakes and skid through distances 3.2 m and 1.9 m respectively before
St. ‘The driver of a vehicle travelling at 80 kmph up a grade required 9 m les collision. After collision truck A was thrown back making an angle of 50° with its
after he applies the brakes than the driver travelling at the same initia} psc original direction and skid through a distance of 2.8 m Truck B skid along a
the same grade. If the coefficient of friction between tyre and pavement ig 0. tance of3.8 m deviating at an angle of 60° from the original path. Estimate the
is the percent grade and what is the braking distance down the grade 2 ial speeds of approach of the two trucks.
58, The following Tab le pro vid es the lan d use and trip data . Dev elo p # mod el for trip
. The follo‘wing data were obtai ned from the spot speed studies carried Out at g
peas Suggest (a) speed limit for regu} attraction : Compute the correlation coefficient.
road during a certain period of time.
(b) Speed to check geometric design elements (c) Lower speed group Zone No. | Total Employment | Trips Attracted _|
congestion (d) Median speed (e) Dispersion, 1 9482 9428
2 2010 2192
Speed group kmph | No. of vehicles | Speed group kmy h 3 374 330
<5 4 127 153
5-10 230 35-40 “ i. 3836 + 3948
10-15 375 40-50 6 953 1188,
15-26 500 50-60 7 223 240
20-25 680 8 36 55.
60-70
25-30 9 2223 2064
525 >70
10 272 joa" gas,
53. The relationship between the hourly traffic volume as percentage of AADT a the fo ll ow in g dat a :
ae of hours in a year when the traffic volume exceeds is as given below 59. De ve lo p a mo de l for
road. x Education Trips to | 12 ca 16 [| 18 | 20 |
20 24 28 32, 36 | 39
No. of hrs. ‘School Population
exceeding 1 5 10 20 30 60 | 90 150
% AADT 24 20 18 16 156 15 14 13
If the AADT projected for the design period is 8,500 estimate the design hou
volume just ifying your results. :
. Show the conflict points at the intersection of the following types :
(a) Cross-roads, both two-way
(b) Cross-roads, one-way
(c) T-intersection both two-way

(d) Y-intersection, one one-way

55.

timings.
(a) By trial method
(b) By simple method with pedestrian
signals,
56.
 SUBGRADE SOIL. 269
(7) Chapter 6 (iv) Minimum changes in volume and stability ly undes t adverse conditions of weather and
ground water

Highway M a t e r i a l s (v) Good drainagean,d

(vi) Ease of compaction.
The soil should possess adequate stability or resistance to permanent deformation
under loads, and should possess resistance to weathering. thus retaining the desired
subgrade support. Minimum variation in volume will ensure minimum variation in
differential expansion and differential strength values, Good drainage is essential to
avoid excessive moisture retention and to reduce the potential frost action Ease of
compaction ensures higher dry density and strength under particular type and amount of
compaction.

6.1.4 Index Properties of Soil

6.1 SUBGRADE SOIL
‘The wide rang e of soil type s avai labl e as hig hwa y cons truc tion mate rial s have mad e it
obligatory on the part of the highway engineer to identify and classify the different souls
6.1.1 Significance of Subgrade Soil The soil prop erti es on whic h thei r iden tifi cati on and clas sifi cati on are base d are kno wn as
Subgrade soil is an integral part of the road index properti es. The inde x prop erti es whic h are usua lly used are grai n size dist ribu tion .
pavement stru i fides the x. Furt her the prop erti es whic h are some time s used are
Support to the pavement from beneath. The abeie soil and itspropetiee pay liquid limit and plas tici ty inde
shrinkage limit , fiel d mois ture equi vale nt cent rifu ge mois ture equi vale nt end com pac ted
in the design of pavement structure. The main function of the subgrade is to
adequate Support to the pavement and for this the subgrade should possess dry density.
suf
stability under adverse climate and loading conditions. Grain Size Analysis
The formation of waves, corrugations, 7 rutin; ig and shovining g init black top pavements: ‘The grain size dis tri but ion is fou nd by mec han ica l ana lys is. The com pon ent s of soil s
the phenomena of pumping, blowing and consequent cracking of se concrete Which are coa rse gra ine d may be ana lys ed by sie ve ana lys is and the soil fine s by
pavements are generally attributed due to the poor subgrade conditions. sedimentation ana lys is. ‘Th e gra in siz e ana lys is or the mec han ica l ana lys is is hen ce
carried out to det erm ine the per cen tag e of ind ivi dua l gra in size pre sen t in a soil sam ple .
; When soil is is used ini embankmet nt construction i , iin addition to stabi the
insompeessilisy is also important as differential settlement may cause fail The sieve ana lys is is a sim ple test con sis tin g of sie vin g a mea sur ed qua nti ty of
‘ompacted soil and stabilized soil are often used in sub-base or base course of his material thraugh successively sma lle r sie ves ; the wei ght ret ain ed on eac h sie ve is
expressed as a percentage of the tota l wei ght of sam ple . The sed ime nta tio n pri nci ple , that
Pavements. The soil is therefore considered as one of the principal highway materials. is use d for fin din g the gra in size dis tri but ion
the larger grains in a suspen sio n sett le fast er.
of fine soil fraction pas sin g 75 mic ron sie ve. Two met hod s of test viz. : Hyd rom ete r
6.1.2 Characteristics of Soil
method and Pipett e met hod are use d bas ed on sed ime nta tio n pri nci ple . The det ail s ofthe
grain size analysis tests as well as all test s on hig hwa y mat eri als hav e bee n giv en by the
o ma in ly of mi ne ra l ma tt er fo rm ed by th e di si nt eg ra ti on of ro ck s, by authors in their book. Highway Material Testing.
sc ie n c t
by plant or animal life. Based on
individeal weit ee oeof soemilperapaturtreicle, s,prsoesilsusrehaveor been classified as gravel, sand
Uicivdi ea! ieraincharacsitezeristics of soil grains depend on the size, shape, surface Consistency Limits and Indices
chemical composition and electri soi ls, es pe ci al ly of cl ay s di ff er ve ry mu ch at
ity i The physical properties of fine grained a li qu id sta te, or it ma y sh ow pl as ti c
the engineering behaviour of selmi different water contents. A clay may be al mo st in
CE “MS = de pe nd in g on the mo is tu re co nt en t. Pl as ti ci ty is a pr op er y of
behaviou r or ma y be sti ff y to un de rg e
cl ay ey soi ls, wh ic h ma y be ex pl ai ne d as ab il it
6.1.3 Desirable Properties outstanding im po rt an ce for
in 19 11 pr op os ed # se ri es of tests, mostly
At te rb er g
changes of shape without rupture. s.
Fix TheSudeansirable properties of soi il ns is te nc y an d pl as ti c pr op er ti es of fin e so il
the co
as a i ighway highway materii alare empirical, for th e de te rm in
er
at
g
io n
li mi
of
ts an d in di ce s.
These are known as At te rb
cont en t at wh ic h th e so il wi ll fl ow
de fi ne d as the mi ni mu m wa te r
(ii) Incompressibility Liquid limit may be fo rc e. Th e li qu id li mi t is us ua ll y d e t e r m ined
n of ve ry sm al l sh ea ri ng
under the applicatio
(iii) Permanency of strength in the laboratory us in g a me ch an ic al de vi ce .

268
 This fower Hivit is abiteacly: dating
ocodure roxtural Classification
The t e x t u r a l ¢ fic ati on sys tem is b
cal difference beween the I
eh lpful in classify ng a suil whif ch co ch
lay. A t y p i c a l t e x t u r a l c l a s s i
size ( s u g g e s t e d b y ( 8 ) B u r e a u of Pu bl ic }
noi content at which further reduction ih ig
volume. [tis the lowest water content that
y saturated
lasticity index vary for different soil types and the
in the identification and classification of
1g high Values of liquid limit and plasticity index are poor
engineering materials Both liquid limit and plastic limit depend on the type and
of ciay in soils. The plasticity index_generally depends only on the amount of
g an indication of clay content in soil. In soil having same values of Ii
. but with different values of plasticity index: it is generally found that rate
volume change and dry strength increases and permeability decreases with increase Nara /

ENT IRA,
plasticity index.” In soils having same values of plasticity index but different 2 [snr cote /\
liquid limit, it is seen that compressibility and permeability increase and dry %
decreases with increase in liquid limit. Thus the values of liquid limit and pla
index help in classifying the cohesive soils.
°
% SUT
In addition to the above tests certain other properties have also been some time u Fig. 6. 1 Te xt ur al Cl as si fi ca ti on ‘C ha rt
identifying and classifying soils. These include shrinkage limit, field .
equivalent, centrifuge moisture equivalent and compaction characteristics of the soi 6.1.6 Soil Classification Systems
us e in th e fi el d of hi gh wa y en gi ne er in ar
g e
“The various soil classification systems in
absorbed water are fully satisfied. The centrifuge moisture equivalent of a soil
moisture content retained against a force of 1000 times gravity for one hour. These Burmister descriptive ciassification
are seldom carried out now-a-days. In most of the soil classifications systems that Casagrande soil classification
commonly in use, the classifications are based on the grain size distribution (by cl as si fi ca ti on of Re vi se d Ca sa gr an de soi l cl as si fi ca ti on an d 1. S. sa i
Un if ie d so il j
analysis), liquid limit and plasticity index of the soils. 2 classification system s.
Pu bl ic Ro ad s Ad mi ni st ra ti on (P RA ) cl as si fi ca ti on a e
(iv) U. S.
6.1.5 Soil Classification Based on Grain Size
se ar ch Bo ar d (H RB ) or Am er ic i an As so ci at
jatiio
on n o! o f St at e ray
Hi gh wa y Re cl as si fi ca ti on.
There are several classification systems for soil grains based on grain size of = oho (AASHO) cl as si fi ca ti on or Re vi se d PR A
according to which soils have been classified as gravel, sand, silt and clay, ‘The ex (vi) Fe de ra l Av ia ti on Ag en cy (F AA ) cl as si fi ca ti on .
limits of grain size for each of these components are not same in all these classificatio (C AA ) cl as si fi ca ti on .
The most widely accepted grain size classification system is the M.LT. classific vil Aeronautic Ad mi ni st ra ti on
system. The Indian Standards Institution (1.S.1.) has also adopted the same limits (viii) Compaction classification.
M.L-T. system for the /ndian Standard Classification System of soil grains. The limi so il cl as si fi ca ti on sy st em ha s be en ve ry w a e l y s a e d
Of these systems, th e Un if ie d e o e
the grain size for each component as per this system are shown below : of so il s fo r civil erag e a t
in general for th e cl as si fi ca ti on e s
sy st em is ad op te d fo r th e ¢} ic at io n o b e
classification or th e re vi se d P R A
Sand Silt Clay
g. Hence thes e tw o cl as si fi ca ti on sy st em s ar e gi
Gravel coarse| Medium| Fine Coarse | Medium] Fine Corse | Medium [hl in Highway Engineerin
;
Unified soil classification system
|
r= “The Ca sa gr an de cl as if ic at io n sy st em
te d
wh
by
ic h
bo th
wa s
th e
de ve
U.
lo
S:
pe d
Cr
in
op s
19
of
°
E n g i
c
n e
h
e r
s
Oe
i
2.0"
06 02
0.06
0.02 0.006 | 0.0006 0.0002 Me an d ad op
waned, modified d was re-named as Liniied Soil Classification
0.002 US. B u r e a uof Re cl am at io n an
“Values are in mm.
 272 HIGHWAY MATERIALS,

The soils are divided into two board groups, coarse grained and fine graineg, SUBGRADE SOIL 273
grain size. The coarse grained soils include gravels (groups symbol G) and 3
symbol S). Each of these component have been subdivided as well graded (symber
Well graded with clay binder (symbol C), poorly graded (symbol P) ang
containing considerable proportion of silt (symbol M). Thus a well graded Bravel ig
well graded sand SW, poorly graded gravel GP and so on,
The fine grained soil with more than half passing 200-mesh 1. S. sieve (0.074, :
size) have been divide into two gro ups : B
(i) Soils with liquid limit less than $0 percent or soils with
compressibility (group symbol L.). low to
Gi) Soils with liquid limit greater than 50 percent or soils with hi;
(group symbol H).
igh compressi
Symbols M, C and O have been assigned to inorganic silts including very fine 20 40
inorganic clay and organic soils (silt and clay) respectively. Thus inorganic silt
plasticity is ML, wit h *1QUID LIMIT
inorga nic silt with high plasticity is MH and so on.
Fig. 6.2 Plasticity Chart
Unified soil classification groups, symbols and limits of
test properties are g
Table 6.1 This soil classification system makes use of the result Table 6.2 I. S. Soil Classification
s of sieve
liquid limit and plastic limit tests. The classification group of the fine grained Desergtion i
found by making use of plasticity chart given in Fig, 6.2. Waligraded gravel o gravel sand mirtres, wit lay Ber

ie

| ele| olelolo| rlclelalalalslelelalelf|

i
i
iH
gravels ox gravel sand mixtures with ite of no fines

Coarse grained soll (more then

Table 6.1 Unified Soil Classification |
Rigor Davao Sybol] — Bret esenpofivso otynpes | — Labora i
ase Clean gravel wnh | GW et wraded grav
[T ri fo rm ay Well graded sand or gravely sands. with cay binder
<a * smitures andel
gras
vels |Cu=Dy/Dia > 6
bSiers ' 1on coefficient,
[Wellgraded sand or gravelly sands with itle or na fines
talf of [Clayey sand pool graded sand cay mentures
coarse Footy waded gavel and No t m e e tthe
i n Ca gan d [Sity sands o poriy graded sand sit mutures
Couse | ftacuon GP erwvel-sand: mutes IC re [Poorly graded sands or gravelly sands with tle ono fines T

Ll
|~Giavel wilt ca , Si t qu ir em en
of t
GW .
raed sons, | tanger | apprecuble | OM [0,2 “pa nel and ala Sit and very fine sand: rock flow; sity to clayey fine sands wath
moce than sO%e | than 76 | —pacporenor llow plasticity
materval lar
ger | mm sieve
than No 200
fines* Ge |Clavey wravels and pravel-sand- Gravelly clays. sandy clays, sity clays lean clays of low
sieve size | Sande, "S"] Clean sand wah
{more than 12%)
[W el
silt metres
t gr ad ed
san Fa
‘of medium plasticity
en aes an Ta
1.074 mm) | more than | titor tno lfine
nees® |S |eands Mand us
-araneliyiCg= Cu11s 03
halfof | (Less than $%) sp |Pootly graded sands and gravelly|Not meetthi
Clays ot bigh plasticity
coarse sand e nCa gand
fraction | Sands with
smaller | appreciable [SM [Sity san] and sana maine {Ce requirements of SW. [Sity and Sit-clays of law plasticity
Clays of medium to high plasticity very compressible
than proport ofifi
onens | gc [Clsey sand and
476 men | (more than 12)
hms
sand clay [Peat end other highly organic swamp sol
fa, [pera SS very fine rock
Find grated Sits and clays wath oor. clayeysill or fine sand, Highway Research Board (HRB) classification of soils
sonls, more than | Mati lant fess than SO —-L~ | cy, |Inorsann clays. gravelly sandy or| Classificatibyon p
: shy led American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO)
poorer chart (Fig. 6.2) (PRA ) soil class ifica tion ere
Ol. _{Otganie ait and sihy clays * classifi aa eel Publi c Road s Adminis tration
20{00.078sievemn)size | Mu [inorganic silt” elastic and] The origi nal soil class ifica tion was deve lope d by Burea u of Publi c Road s in es Per
Siandtsclays with quid Micaceousiss modif icati ons were oe ape
fn greater han $0—"Ht~ [CH Toor a ays res me one about 15 years of exper ience , certa in revis ions and
smalicr than No. 20 , HRB classification system was devel oped, In fact by these reod ific nton s i t a me
Thehly organic wks fi ore it tage size or 0.07mun4 sie possible to have subg roup s for prope rly class ifyin g diffe rent soil types " cee aa
Peat and other highly organic soi classification tests were decre ased from six to three, thus enabl ing classi ston
LS. soil classification by three simple laboratory tests namel y, sieve analy sis liqui d limit and plasti c lim
The Indian Standard Institute (ISI) has also ad ‘ Sie} is Soils are divided into seven group s A-1 to A-7. A-1, A-2 and A-3 soils are Lee eni arn
the Unified Soil Classification System There Baa oy Cesare” based percentage fines passing 0.074 mm sieve being less than 35. A-4, A-5, A-6 and A-7,
fine grain ed or silt-c lay soils, passi ng 0.074 mm sieve being greater than 35 percent.
24 HIGHWAY MATERIALS
gr ad ed mix tur e of sto ne fr ag me nt s, gra vel ¢,
AcI soils are well SUBGRADE SOIL 275
and non -pl ast ic or sli ght ly pla sti c soi l bin der . Th e soi ls of thi s gr ou p are ia
sis tin g pr ed om in an tl y of sto ne fr ag me nt s or pa ss 0 10 4, A-4 group
‘The sub-groups A-2-6 and A-2-7 soils of A-2 group have Gl values
two subgroups, A-1-a, con
tl y of coa rse san d. i of soil have GI values up to 8; A-5 soil up to 12, A-6 soil up to 16 and A-7 soil up to 20.
consisting predominan
The group index value is indicated as suffix to the soil group within brackets, such as A-6
A-2 group of soils include a wide range of granular soils ranging from 4. (4) of A-6 (16). In this example an A-6 soil with group index value 4 is considered as
groups, consisting of granular soils and upto 35% fines of A-4, A-5, A.6 or Ag superior subgrade material than the A-6 soil with group index value 16.
Based on the fines content, the soils of A-2 groups are subdivided into subgroup
The soil groups showing the classification limits of various properties is given in Table
A-2-5, A-2-6 and A-2-7. =
63. In eis classifya soil, the values of test results are attempted to be fitted in from
A-3 soils consist mainly, uniformly graded medium or fine sand similar to {eft column towards right side of Table 6.3 and the correct group is found by the process of
or desert blown sand. Stream-deposited mixtures of poorly graded fine sand with eliminat ion. The first group from the left to which the test data fits in gives the
coarse sand and gravel are also included in this group. classification group. Figure 6.3 gives the chart for finding the group index value form the
values of percent passing 0.074 mm sieve, liquid limit and plasticity index, instead of using
A-4t soils are generally silty soils, non-plastic or moderately plastic in the Eq. 6.1 for group index. Here the group index value is the sum of the values obtained
liquid limit and plasticity index values less than 40 and 10 respectively, con vertical axes from both the charts based on the values of percent passing (0.074 mm
sieve, LL and PL Fig. 6.4 gives the chart for classifyi ng fine grained soil from the liquid
A-5 soils are also silty soils with plasticity index less than 10%, but with liquid index values. GI values have been made use of in the design of flexible
limit and plasticity
values exceeding 40%. These include highly elastic or compressil ble, soils, us pavement thicknes s in one of the empirica l design methods as given in An. 7.3.2.
diatomaceous of micaceous character.
A-6 group of soils are plastic clays, having high values of plasticity ind PERCENT PASSING NO 200 SIEVE
ex ex
10% and low values of liquid limit below 40%; they have high volume
change or less or more
with variation in moisture content. 1S 2535 as 5,
A-7 soils are also clayey soils as A-6 soils, but with high values of both liquid
and plasticit y index, (LL greater than 40% and PI greater than 10%).. These soils h
low permeability and high volume change Properties with changes in moisture
Groups Index of Soil
Fine grained soils of each classification group exhibit a wide rang
e of prop
subgrade material,
In order to classify the fine grained soils within one group and for ji
suitability as subgrade material, an indexing system has been iritroducedi

LQ
classification which is termed as Group Index. Soils are thus assigned
numerical numbers known as group index (Gl). Group index is function of
material passing 200 mesh sieve (0.074 mm), liquid limit and plasticity index of
is given by the equation: *
GI = 0.2a+0.005ac+0.01 bd Gag. ct
Porites 35

Here, a = that portion of material passing 0.074 mm sieve, greater than 35 PERCENT PASSING NO. 200 SIEVE
exceeding 75 percent (expressed as a whole number from 0 to 40) Fig. 6.3 Group Index Chart
that portion of material passing 0.074 mm sieve greater than 15 Characteristics of Soil Classification Groups
3
exceeding 35 percent (expressed as a whole number from 0 to 40). ined import an ce in su bs eq ue nt ye ar s. as t h
ie d La se r) a st ab il it y
that value of liquid limit in excess of 40 and less th ea groups are qu al if
ch an ge
n
whole number an 60 (e xp ! po te nt iai l fro st ac tii on a n d vo! ju me
from 0 to 20) : i i t y , dr ai na ge ch ar ac te ri st ic s,
te ri al co ul d als o be ju dg ed by kn ow in g
re ai s ‘as su bg ra de ma
that value of plasticity index exceeding 10 and not more wvoneriee The sata ‘lity In Ta bl e 6. 4, so me of o e e s r i o f el b
if ieed e r
so il
as a whole number from 0 to th an 30 (@ the soil classification gr ou p.
e 6. 5 gi me ot Ihe
ve s so Pr op er e S fa l
20) classification groups ar e gi ve n. Ta bl
According to this formula, the minim ‘ Th us so il cl as si fi ca ti on is usel some
classification groups.
maximum possible value is 20, when th characteristic s fr om si mp le ph ys ic al te st s.
liquid limit and plasticity index are
Higher the value of group index, poore
 HIGHWAY MATERIALS
SUBGRADE SOIL 277
Solution

INDEX~PERCENT
(a) Soil classification
(i) By Unified System

“Hore H
Refer Table 6.1. As more than half (6%) is finer than 4.76 men sieve and there are 00
fines the soil is sand or SW or SP groups.

PLASTICITY
sa bal, fetZ1 Ned ext Uniformity coefficient Cy

ee Gradation coefficient
&
(
a
D F
Dy Dy,
29°
4.76795
=17

6
10 30 50 70 As Cy is greater than 4 and Cy is between | and 3, the classification group of the sans
90 100
LIGUID LIMIT ~ PERCENT is SW.
Fig. 6.4 Chart for Classifying Fine Grained Soil (HRB. system) (i) By HRB System
Table 6.3 Highway Research Board or AASHO or Revised P.R.A. Soil From Table 6.3, it is found that the classification group is A-1-2. *

(b). Suitability as Subgrade Material

|| Sema Cusstcacen | pansSreungnie Ns.sas200 lessSeve than 35 perce
se 0.078 me} Refer Tables 6.4 and 6.5
[ DasstestenGros 1 AT | AS | 42
aSbcasterm (bak
ae R24 [RD5IR:R25] ADTi Drainage excellent
almost none
Ise ese y |_|
Volume change
Potential frost action i none to very sli
ea
‘Ne
se
(is. 10 seve
l eOD) lsl
Ey T Stability
["Wasasublgrau
i
deematserial | very good
40 cere st if
(9.42 mem size) frat.jrat.| min.
[aise { 2) 0]; S| s,s]
Example 6.2,
et
0.578 men
[Characteristics of fraction
ras |max.| max} mar.
{i
“The properties of subgrade soil are given below :
i
|Fas
ne. og
40 sieve
a ion Co
~ passing 0.074 mm sieve = 55%
pe [ a at a Liquid limit = 50%
mas. | min_|mat.| min.
[Pesca tes 6) e[ma| | w)ny Plastic limit = 41%
ia srax.|patic| max. |max.| min} si fy the soi l by re vi se d PR AV HR B sy st em
rin. (a) Cl as
(b) Discuss the sui tab ili ty of the soi l as 2 su bg ra de ma te ri al .
eco ofo;oloto D
max.| max. Solution
Example6.1 (a) Soil Classification ne
, as pe rc en ta ge pa ss in g 0. 07 4 mm si ev e is mo re th an 35, the soi l is fi
The results of sieve analysis of a soil From Table 6.3
are given below :
grained.
LL = 50%
Pl = LL—PL= 50-41=9

Using the chart (Fig. 64) the el as if ic at io n gr ou p is A-S .

[10 ac + 0.0 1 bd
a Group Index, GI = 0.2 + 0 . 0 0 8
(a) Sanity the soil by (i) Unified and
(ii) HRB soil classification systems-
(b) Discuss the suitability of the soil as a <sho-.4,
 " HIGHWAY MATERIALS
21 Sod Clean
istics of unifie assification Gro, SUBGRADE SOIL 279
Table6.4 Some Characteristics
Tat ary = ‘UPS ‘i
euandsation | aight 1S. es Jslikls |: T :
‘Soi |fo oF] Gant CBR “ salfe
Salt | cep | hae | cng toler?
Sas ele eo Zz
ee
8
= sn 0-90 | > 8.33 BEale 2
Tore | Ow | Br : 4
; f +
vGaeenlt | are | WEE | BHO | > Bw FE &
3
d Bi)
5
34
2
a ] te] =H | > BS af |e] gs |e s |3?
i? i
=n — ] 3
5 g 3
GE] o d 2 4
Go | 182-2 | 20-80 | 555-8. 3
lz in 5
ow | Good [176-208 | 20-60 ]555-8.33 : % aj i 2i =F
Comse a
arsoilse:s [SP s t a r | T S B s T T ] TO | BEB ze2 H i
| Go o d
go2a \2 i 5 a) 3
ee
Sand Good | 182-216 | 10-40 | 555-899 = ‘e7"a T r |
Sr [Far ton 1682 | 1580 [S55-80
| 8 22\| 3 z z z
= g
Es tr 8
3 in 3 3
j ae F
[Fee gamed] | Forte Poor | 160-200 | 5-20 |270-5!
sontary- [GL] FartsPow | VEOEOO] SoS
géaa| les 2 P| o | a
: &
| D I O B E S =e z 2 a 8
ae oes) BasB 23%
( 3 | 3 :
8 “ 2 2
ze ee nN a b3a
Fae gamed | WH | Poor | 128-160] a
3-8 | 276-556 = cs Be
ul reube T e
lpaes l
ieee: TH | Poortovey | 148-176] 336 i|s 2:
3-5 |1G8-278 & §< a “
son, 33 EA 2| 3 “
OH [Pooirtovey | 128-168 | 2-4 1[739-278
$4
ba fr, .
=
fat BE \ze | 3
2 g s §
a= $5-35=20 Acea |let aa)| 8a
£
,g
pai
a
ace|8 f 2
2
aa |
b = 55-15=40 = al
B2e5 ||ge ” L
e+ s0-45e30 i
&SGI == 09.-21%0 20+0¢0,n005 x 20 x 10 1 re
a

22\F
=| =

le iy
UHi: W E uy Hah HEHE
2

B
3

= 4.0+ 1 . 0 + 0 = 5 . 0 + 0,0 x
yaad E al
gg8 ij is i
EfEs gLE E E
e e a
Alternatively GI may also be found using harts ‘eur re 63) and is found a: g Staa i 3
GI= 5 . 0 + 0 = 5 0 . c ( F i g u 6. é aeea aa 2 g* \ s e e e i s =
c bs
Soil classification is A ~5 (5). ate
(6) Suitabilityas subgrade material Pad t e
= |= slfeaetect I
&
From Table 6.5, iy 2
Drainage oor
ly g 2 |: .
Volume change _
| Potential frost action medium to high -_| |
higtohvery hit
| Stability ues _[ poor
Valas subgrade material p|oor 4
 280
e S o i l S t r e n g t h
6.1.7 Subgrad ai
e s t r e n g t h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s o i l d e p e n d n d e SUBGRADE SOI.
The fa ctor o n w h i c h t h
(i) Shear tests,
(i) soil type
moisture content
(ii) Bearing tests, and
(ii)
(iii), Penetration tests
(iii) dry density
‘There are number of test methods in each group.
(iv) inte r n a l s t r u c t u r a l o f t h e so il , a n d
Shear tests are usually carried out on relatively small soil samples in the laboratory.
n d m o d e o f s t r e s s a p p l i c a t i o n
(v) the typ e a In order to find the strength properties of a soil, a number of representative samples from
different locations are tested. Some of the commonly known shear tests are direct shear
The problem of predicting the stress-strain relationship of soil is di ifficu test, triaxial compression test and unconfined compression test. Vane shear tests may be ”
and the non- homo gene ous natur e a l
the diversity in the soil types Soil carried out either on a soil sample or in-situ soil in the field.
engin eer is inter ested in fe
foundations. Generally the highway
resistance to deformation of the soil under the stress appli catio ns. 1 Stal Bearing tests are loading tests carried out on subgrade soils in situ with a load bearing
area. The resu lts of the bea rin g test s are inf lue nce d by the vari atio ns in the soil prop erti es
In a soil mass, the deformation is largely due to slij within the stre ssed soil mas s und eme ath and hen ce the over all stab ilit y of the part ofthe
Hence the shearing resistance in soil represents the ate tie ie soil mass stressed could be studied.
mis is somite? as the shear deformation cause reorientation of nis : n
Penetratio tes ts ma y be co ns id er ed as sm al l sca le be ar in g tes ts in wh ic h the siz e of
changes in volume, valence bond between parti i sm al le r and rat io of the pe ne tr at io n to siz e of lo ad ed
se the loaded area is relati vel y mu ch
adsorbed layer of water. Particles, thickness and other po area is much greater tha n the rat ios in be ar in g tes ts. Th e pe ne tr
o
at
tes
io
t
n
an
tes
d
ts
co
are
ne pe
car
ne
rie
tr
d
at
out
io n
in the field or in the laboratory. Th e Ca li fo rn ia Be ar in g Ra ti
Though many 1theories of failures of materials are kno 's theory t tests are commonly known penetration tests.
useful one for soils. The basis of his theory is that a abril as me nt io ne d
suess on the failure pine is definite function of the normal stress acti
vie os There are number of factors which aff ect the res ult s of the str eng th tes ts
ng on ta below: *
t ilure occu
r rs by sli
slip ppage only. Shearin; ig resitistance init il is the act ual tes ts su ch as siz e an d sh ap e
sree to internal JSriction and cohesion parameters of the soils Fa (i). Factors which are primarily associated wi th
;pearls resistance is madeup of both friction and cohesion. For these soils me th od of lo ad in g, rat e of lo ad in ge conditions.
g an d dr ai na
the ‘ of the specimen,
ice on any plane is given by Coulomb's empirical law : th the soi l su ch as soi l ty pe dry den sit y, mo is tu re
“a Gi) Factors which are associated wi the soi l
content, permeability st ru ct ur e an d ot he r pr op er ti es of
S, = Ctotang r ev al ua ti ng soi l si re ng th ch ar ac te ri st ic s are
i aii
Hpere eeC p 7 . Some of the commonly adopted tests for
Per unit area, $ is the angle of internal friction and o is the briefly discussed here.
y de ns it y of th e so
Shape and re ate of 6 depends on the dr depends on the value of 6 and the nom il , gr ai n si ze d s t
Direct shear test
pr es su re on sl id in BS so il st re ng th he nc e of sh ea r tes ts. ‘T he di re ct sh ea r ap pa ra tu s co ns is ts es se nt ia ll y
By bond eects is the resistance of soil grains to disp
Plane, ©. Cohesion C This is on e of th e ol de st
. On e ha lf is ke pt fi xe d an d the ot he r ha lf is
He the surfac e of co nt ac t by ve ry fi ne gr ai ne d so il s as r e of'a box divided horizontally into two haadlvesis applied and the horizontal pull is caused to
intermolecular ma
o h e s i o n m a y be sa id to i free to mo ve ho ri zo nt al ly . A ve rt ic al lo nt s
in simple terms, papel forces of at tr ac ti on . C a ce rt ai n ra te of ho ri zo nt al di sp la ce me nt . Th e ve rt ic al an d ho ri zo nt al mo ve me
wh ic h is du e to in te rm ol ec ul ar at tr ac ti on a n d produce ho ri zo nt al fo rc e is no te d fr om the pr ov in g ri ng dia l,
‘app ar en t co he si on whi ch i s da co he si on are measured by di al ga ug es an d th e no rm al lo ad . |T he
ion which is due to surface tension effects ofthe held water. The
zo nt al fo rc e is me as ur ed fo r di ff er en t va lu es of
C depends on the ‘ *
por tio n The maximum hori ap pl ie d fo r th e di ff er en t ve rt ic al st re ss es ar e co mp ut ed
clay and the water minera l, its siz e, the sur fac e cha rge s, the pro values of m a x i m u m sh ea r st re ss (C ) an d an gl e of in te rn al
The values of co he si on
r sh ea r st re ss (E qu at io n 6. 2) .
deformation af 2 S0i l oF its str eng th pro per ty is oft en det erm ine d fr om i 's equation fo

intensity and rate of seu ss, Thi s dep end s ver y muc h on the typ e of str ess app lic s
and the intensofitee y Om In case of sta tic str ess es the per iod ofstr ess 2
viscoelastic behaviour. i. app lic ati on hav e sig nif ica nt eff ect on soi ls whi
loading cycle, the ‘agnit ot and
tude of stress
magniude ationrepeti
lic-of
“ePeattheed numappber esses,
strns
of tio the
have influe nc® M T easi ly c o n t r o l l e d or m e a s u r e d .
e d u r i n g th e te st . C a r r y i n g 01
measure por e w a t e r p r e s s u r
6.1.8 Evaluation of r a t h e r i m p r a c t i c a b l e e shear box.
in th
Soil Strength sandy soil is
 HIG H W A Y M A T E R I A L S

SUBGRADE SOIL, 283

Fig. 6.7. A common line tangential to the circles is drawn, representing the Metir
envelope. ‘The intercept of this line with Y-axis represents the "eahinsoa, © sod te
inclination with X-axis represents the angle of internat friction ¢ of the seat

oman eres t—
oe

Fig. 6.5 Direct Shear Test Results

kos
Triaxial compression test
ssi on test is to det erm ine the she ar str eng th of soil y
The object of triaxial compre
is mad e to sim ula te the con fin ing pre ssu re obs erv ed Fig. 6.7 Triaxial Test Results
lateral confinement. An attempt
In the test set up, i t is pos sib le to pro vid e uni for m flu id- co
loaded soil mass. Correction for Area of Cross Section
pressure only. Cylindrical specimen of height to diameter ratio 2 is inserted in In is necessary to cor rec t the str ess val ue for the inc rea sed are a of cr os s sec tio n due tc
and the req uir ed lat era l pre ssu re is app lie d. 7}
membrane, placed in a triaxial cell loading. The corrected value of dev iat or str ess is fou nd wit h the ass ump tio n tha t the
normal loa d is app lie d thr oug h ver tic al pis ton by mea ns of a str ain con tro lle d: a are a ‘of cro ss sec tio n of the spe cim en is
volume of the specimen rem ain s con sta nt and the
and the maximum vertical load at failure is recorded. The* specimens are usu uniformly increa sed fro m the ori gin al val ue of Ag to° Ay “du e to loa d Py. Volume
subjected to a constant strain rate of 1.25 mm per minute. Usually the lateral pressur ‘Ao lo= Att = At (lo ~ A). In tha t cas e the dev iat or str ess og is gi ve by
n =
is maintained constant and the vertical pressure; o) is increased until the specinien
In some studies the volume of the specimen is maintained constant by adjusting n= BR. B.(ho8)
;
ie. os = h-8) (63)
stress, oj and hence deviator stress, Og Corresponding to the different values of |
Here A = total deformation of the specimen = (lo —/1)
pressure 63 are obtained from the triaxial tests. s
6 = unitstrain= A//o
cross section
Ao = original arofea
P, = applied load
setae stmesy, 3 epsen?

oy = deviator stress.
from the relation.
\

calculating the corrected value of og, 91 is calculated

After
8} = 04 + 63.

Basic Types of Triaxial Tests

by the con dit ion of
bee

of the soi l sp ec im en dur ing tes tin g is inf lue nce d

‘The behaviour
drainage allowed during the test.
ch the dra ina ge of sp ec im en is per mit ted
slo w tes ts are tho se in whi
Drained tests or
Fig. 6.6 Stresses in Triaxial Test 2 app lic ati on of bot h str ess es, 03 and og. The is allowed to fully
spe cim en,
during the
ics - are carried out at different lateral pressures ssu re, 03 and the n the dev iat or str ess , og is ap pl ie d
preferably with alee consolidate under the con fin ing pre
bui lt up whi le the sp ec im en is.
ee ne as (hae the Pavement design, latera so slo wly tha t no sig nif ica nt por e pre ssu re is
l pressure of 0, 0.75 and 1.5 and increa sed
failure are plotted and semicneres Pacreessoinmginithnrog ughpresthsure and total vertical Pi
under the test.
ese points are draw? be
 584 HIGHWAY MATERIALS

In consolidated-undeained test oF consolidated-quick test, Complete con,

J under the continng pressure ay before applying deviator sires, Nee SUBGKADE. Son.
al l o w e d 2a
vi at or st re ss is a p p l i e d .
permitted when the de
Stage, The deformation and load readings are noted until the specimen fails The area of cross
In undrained or quick fest, no drainage is allowed at anyduri ng th e z d section of specimen for various strains may be corrected assuming that the volume of the
re applying the confinin g pr es su re , oj an d
prevented befo specimen remains constant and that the specimen retains cylindrical cross tectionnt areas
en fa il s, ess po re pr es su re c o m m o n l y o x i f
deviator st re ss un ti l th e sp ec im as explained under triaxial test. The maximum axial strain is noted. tn cles when
the test. plastic failure takes place, no definite value of maximum or peak stress cond he netced,
in such cases the stress at 20 percent strain is some time adopted.
In pavements the load applied are mostly (ransient and during the load
drainage can not take place in the subgrade soil. In order to simulate ¢ onside ‘The Mohr circle of rupture for an unconfined compression test praises threaigh the
: origin, It is not possible to draw the Mohr rupture envelope from a single circle, end so
subgrade under the pavement, it may be desirable to consolidate the sam
equivalent confining pressure before the application of the load and thus the c he
the values of C and > cannot be determined as such. In case of quick or undrained test
quick test is justified for the pavement design.
carried out on saturated clays, the value of @ may be assumed as zero and herce the Mote
If the pavement is designed fon
loading conditions as for the parked or stationary vehicle, then the Possibility of, ;
envelope will be a horizontal line touching the circle with the unconfined compressive
in the subgrade during the loaded period may be considered. y strength qy 2s diameter as shown in Fig. 6.%(a). Hence cohesion is half the unconfined
compressive strengtirin this case i.e., C = qu/2
Interpretation of Results of Triaxial Test
Besides values of C and @ the behaviour of the soil tinder the loading conditig
judged from the stress-strain relationship of the soil as shown in Figure 6.8, These |
seldom indicate a straight portion even at the initial stages of stressing. Hence it isn
possible to interpret the strength of soil in terms of modulus of elasticity as done
case of various structural materials. In flexible pavement design the
deformation of the soil is used. The modulus of deformation is the ratio of stressto strai
at an arbitrary point on the stress-strain curve. This point is decided based on th
anticipated stress in the subgrade under the pavement or an allowable’ value __ ync onn ane s —-
deformation. As an example, if the anticipated stress under a flexible pz eoeetestne
p kg/cm”, then the modulus of deformation is equal to p/é where 6 is defo (a) For saturated clay {b) For cohesive soil
corresponding to a stress of p kg/em?, in the triaxial test.. Now the value of the where ¢ = 0
of deformation at any stress level will depend-on the confining pressure 03 aj Fig. 6.9 Unconfined Compression Test Results
-Hence it becomes necessary to decide the value of confining pressure for-the triaxi an unc onf ine d ‘co mpr ess ion or tria xial spe cim en (wh en a defi nite
‘The failure plan e of
However the term modulus of elasticity is also used instead of modulus of deform + 4/2) with maj or prin cipa l plan e. Hen ce if
failure plane exis ts) mak es an angl e O¢= (45
for usual computations. i al, 0. is note d, >
the angle made by the failure plan e in the spe cim en with the hori zont
may be calculat ed. The valu e of C also can be calc ulat ed from the geo met ric al
relationship of the Mohr diagram. The values of C and may be very easily found
yraphically as shown in Fig. 6.9 (b).
sim ple com pre ssi on is suit able to test coh esi ve
‘The unconfined compression or the
high valu es of coh esi on or bon d stre ngth such as soii -
soils and all materials having
cement etc.
Plate bearing test
the su pp or ti ng po we r of: su bg ra de for us e in
The plate bearing tests is used to evaluate
la rg e di am et er pl at es . Th e pl at e c h i te st ha r
Pre s de si gn yy us in g re la ti ve ly
sean lu s of “s ub gr ad e re ac ti on in the We st er ga ar d’ s ana l
orig in al ly de vi se d to fi nd th e mo du
Fig. 6.8 Stress-Strain Relationship of soils for whee l lo ad st re ss in ce me nt co nc re te pa ve me nt s.
es of di am et er 75 , 60 , 48 an d 30 Pi ty x e
Unconfined compression test The test set up co ns is ts of a set of pl at
ri ng ar ra ng em en t an d « ce ae io g re ae
device consisting of ja ck an d pr ov in g
The uInnconfined compression test mat y be at e. A da tu m fr am e ae ja h ha t e e lo ad ed
co ns i
id speciai l case 3 which the jack can give a th ru st to the pl To ad ed
Compression test when the confining pressure is ab. se fr om thi s fr am e ar e us ed to me as ur e t h e s
e s a com ar¢a an d dia l ga ug es
is s h o w n in Fi g. 6.10
only is applied to the cylindrical
Specimen. The stress may plate, The loading ar r a n g e m e n t
be app
 286

SUBGRADE Som,
ar
practicable always to carry out the test at such a condition. In such cases the value of
modulus of subgrade reaction K is found for the Prevailing moisture
content and the
value so obtained may be modified for soaked condition,
After the plate bearing test, two consolidation test Specimens are prepared
One
Fig. 6.10 Plate Bearing Test Set Up specimen is tested as such without soaking by applying increments of pressure and the
pressure deformation curve is plotted as shown in Fig. 6.12, The deformation & of a
g r a d e R e a c t i o n
Modulus o f S u b sample corresponding to a pressure p kg/cm? required in the plate bearing test to cause a
b e d e f i n e d as t h e p r e s s u r e s u s t a i n e d
Modulus of s u b g r a d e r e a c t i o n K m a y deformation of 0.125 cm is noted. Then the other specimen is soaked and consolidation
def o r m a t i o n o f s u b g r a d e at s p e c i f i e d d e f o r m a t i o n o r p r e s s u r e l e v e l , u s i n g spe cig n, test is carried out; the pressure ps required to produce the same deformation & is noted, in
size. The standar plat si d e z e fo r f i n d i n g K - v a l u e is 7 5 c m d i a m e t e r . B u t in s o m e the soaked test. (Refer Fig. 6,12). The modulus of subgrade reaction K, for the saaked
smaller pl a t e o f 3 0 c m d i a m e t e r is a l s o u s e d . condition is then calculated from the relation
The test site is levelled and the plate is properly seated on the prepared surf, Ky = and (65)
stiffening plates of decreasing diameters are placed and the jack and Pro
assembly are fitted to provide reaction against the frame. »-Three or four dial p
fixed on the periphery of the plate, from the independent datum frame for
settlements. A seating load of 0.07 kg/m? (320 kg for 75 cm diameter plate) is
and released after a few seconds. A load sufficient to cause approximately 0,25
settlement is applied and when there is no perceptible increase in settlement or when!
rate of settlement is less than 0.025 mm per minute (in the case of clayey soils 0 3
soils), the readings of the settlement dial gauges are noted and the average set F
found, and the load is noted from the proving ring dial reading. The load is
increased till settlement increases to a further amount of about 0.25 mm and the ave
settlement and load are found. The procedure is repeated till the settlement reaches oF 7.
cm. A graph is plotted with mean settlement versus mean bearing pressure as OeFommATioW OF SPECmenam
Fig. 6.11, The pressure p corresponding to a settlement of 0.125 cm is read Fig. 6.12 Correction for Soaking in Plate Bearing Test
K-value is calculated by the reaction,
Correction for Small Plate Size
K = Fos kg/em?/em (or kg/cm?) In some cases the load capacity may not be adequate to cause 75 cm diameter plate to
settle 0.175 cm. In such case, a plate of smaller diameter (say 30 cm) may be used. Then
K-value should be found by applying a suitable correction for plate size.
Assuming the subgrade to be an clastic medium with modulus of elasticity E (kg/cm*)
the theoretical relationship of deformation, A (cm) under a rigid plate of radius a (cm) is
given by :
?i pa
4 = 1,18 — (6.6)
z E
Fi
3
:
7 If the value of E is taken as constant for a soil then K is inversely proportional to « or
Ka is constant i.e, Ka = Kyay or K = Kyaj/a. Hence if the test is carried out with a
f ean sevrutment, eo smaller plate of radius a) and the modulus of subgrade reaction Ky is found, then the
Fig. 6.11 Load-Deformation Curve fr corrected value of modulus of subgrade reaction K for standard plate of radius a, is
om Plate Bearing Test
Allowance for Worst Subgrade Mo obtained from the relationship
isture
The moisture content
at : ? , , may K= Ki rs (67
Tepresent the worst idles
condition likeein
de ly to occoutur plate
s at the beari
test ngsiteeri
. 1¢e™
 HIGHWAY MATERIALS
288

Example 6.3 SUBGRADE SolL, 289

t e s t w a s Co t induct ed on a soake d subgr ade during Monso o, =
A plate load spond ing to the meant Season
plate diameter of 30 e m . The load values corre
r e a d i n g s a r e g i v e n b e l o w . Deter mine the modul us of subgr ade react) jon fora
plate.
fMfean settlement values, mm [0.0 0.2410.52]0.76 [1.02 123]
Load values ky [0.0 [460 [900 [1180/1360 ee
Solution
The load-settlement curve is plotted on a graph paper (similar to the one
Fig. 6.11) and the load value p; corresponding mean settlement value of, A=019
determined = 1490 kg.
Unit toad py = 4 Kgjem?
nis*

Modulus of subgrade reaction K; for 30 cm diameter plate

Modulus of subgrade reaction K for standard plate of dia. 70 cm.

Kya, _ 16.86%30
a 18
= 6.75 kg/em?
(Note : As the plate load test was conducted under soaked condition during
season, there is no need to apply correction for subsequent soaking). 273MM
NER OIAMETER
OF MOULO 150 Mie
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test
This is a penetration test developed by the California Division of Highways,
method for evaluating the stability of soil subgrade and other flexible pa\
materials. The test results have been correlated with flexible pavement
requir ements for highways and t
ir fields. The CBR test may be conducted if PEDESTAL OF TESTING MACHINE
laboratory on a prepared specimen in a mould or in-situ in the
field.
‘The laboratory CBR apparatus consists of a mould 150 mm diameter with a base Fig. 6.13 CBR Test Set up
and a collar, a loading frame with the cylindrical plunger of 50 mm diameter the mou ld and the ass emb ly is plac ed unde r the plun ger of the load ing fram e
sabes he measuring the expansion on soaking and the penetration valves, specimen in
ig. 6.13. as shown in Fig. 6.13. The load values are noted corresponding to penetration values of
0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 15, 2.0, 2.5, 4.0, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0 and 12.5 mm. The load penetration
diet the Penetration test consists of causing a cylindrical plunger oA graph is plotted as show n in 6.14. Alte rnat ivel y the load value s may be conv erte d to
ameter to penetrate a pavement component material at 1.25 mm/minute. pressure values and plotted against the penetration values.
values to cause 2.5 mm
: and 5.i0 mm Penetratioi n
are recorded. These loa‘ ds are s Two typical types of curves may be obtai ined as shown in Fig, 6.14. The normal curve
le of standard load values at respective deformation levels t0 is with convexity upwards as for Specimen no,| and the loads corresponding to 2.5 and
Value. The standard load values obtained from 5.0 mm penetration values are noted. Some ti imes a curve with initia l upwa rd conc avit y
the average of a large number © Spe cim no.
en 2. In this case the
arta
crush ed stones are 1370 and 2055 kg (70 and 105 kg/cm?)
2. . respectively at 2.5 : is obtained, indicating the necessity of correcti ionas for
t AC from the steep est point A on the
corrected origin is established by drawing a tangen tration values from the
pene
curve, The load values corresponding to 2.5 and 5.0 mm
corrected origin C are noted.
 HIGHWAY MATERIALS

SUBGRADE sini, Prt

The test 15 mean for soils and ts aise carried aoa can wat-bane
nul Baadas tae course
materials The CHK test values see made use of ist an evigneical menteat of fariie

LOAD OAL WEAUiNUS, OSIONS

pavement design as given in Chapter 7
Example 64
The load penetration values of CBK tests conducted on two sgecincws of a anit
sample are given below. Determine the CBR vaiue of the wait if 108 diviaist of the Saat
dial represents 190 kg load in the calibration chart of the pecving reg
Penetrationof | th <
lunger. mm _|

PENETRATION, MM
Fig. 6.14 Load-Penetration Curves in C.B.R.
Test (Example 6.4)
The causes for the initial concavi

Solution
The penetration values are plotted against the load dial reading as shows in Fig. 6.54
(Instead, the load dial readings may also be converted erther to load values a: gor lewd
Per unit area of cross section of the plunger in ky/cm” and plottedon the Y-axn.+
Specimenno. 1
Load (or pressure) sustained by the
The load penetration curve for specimen no.) is consistently conves throughout ard
specimen at 2.5 or 5.0mm penetrati
on needs no correction,
Load (or pressure) sustained by standard aggr
egates Load dial reading at 2.5 mm penetration ~ 34 divisions (Fig 6 14)
at the Corresponding penetration le
vel 190
Load at 2.5 mm penetration ~ 34+ (> = 68 6g
64.6% 100
CBR value at 2.5 mm penetration * -4a™
1370

CBR value at 5.0 mm penetration =

481907100 aay
100 «2085
©. CBR value of Specimen no.) = am
Specimen no.2
The CBR ee ee AC ode
evaluate the soil pro; As the curve has an initial concavity, correction i Ly adert
from the steepest portion A of the curve to intersect the > ™ ard ves
Corrected origin for this specimen. The penetration voters ave tmeauarnd
obtained. Presence o} corrected origin C, as shown in Fig. 6.14
re
sults. Material
Passing 20 mm
carried out usin si
g
in-situ Penetrati
on test.
 HIGHWAY MATERIALS

32.5%190x100
mm penetration
CBR value at 1001370

0
STONE AGGREGATES 293
4.5%
6.2.2 Desirable Properties of Road Aggregates
47x 190
CBR value at 5.0 mm penetration =43% Strength

t!
2055
The aggregates to be used in road construction should be sufficiently strong to
CBR value of Specimen no.2 = 4.5% withstand the stresses due to traffic wheel load. The aggregates which are to be used in
top layers of the pavements, particularly in the wearing course have to be capable of
4
= . 7445 withstanding high stresses in addition to wear and tear, hence they should possess
Therefore mean CBR value of the soil sample
sufficient strength resistance to crushing.
4.6% Hardness

i
Stabilometer Test
The aggregates
used in the surface course are subjected to constant rubbing or abrasion
due to moving traffic. They should be hard enough to resist the wear due to abrasive action
Hyeem’s Stabilometer test is conducted on subgrade soil at various moistur of traffic. Abrasive action may be increased due to the presence of abrasive material like
The stabilometer R-value is determined using Eq. 6.17 as explained at es y sand between the tyres of moving vehicles and the aggregates exposed at the top surface.
chapter. The result of this test are used in the Stabilometer method of This section may be severe in the case of steel tyred vehicles. Heavy wheel loads can also
paver cause deformations on some types of pavement resulting in relative movement of
See Art. 7.3.4).
aggregates and rubbing of aggregates with each other within the pavement layer. The
mutual rubbing of stones is called attrition, which also may cause a little wear in the
6.2 STONE AGGREGATES aggregates; however attrition will be negligible or absent in most ofthe pavement layers
6.2.1 Introduction Toughness
Aggregates form the major portion of pavement structure an Aggregates in the pavements are also subjected to impact due to moving wheel loads.
materials used in pavement construction. Aggregates
d they form the Sever impact like hammering is quite common when heavily loaded steel tyred vehicles
have to bear stresses o
to the wheel loads on the pavement and on the surface move on water bound macadam roads where stones protrude out especially after the
course they also
wear due to abrasive action of traffic. These are used in paveme
monsoons. Jumping of the steel tyred wheels from one stone to another at different levels
Concrete. bituminous concrete and other bituminous construction
nt construction causes severe impact on the stones, The magnitude of impact would increase with the
s an d als o’a roughness of the load surface, the speed of the vehicle and other vehicular characteristics.
base course underlying the superior pavement laye The resistance to impact or toughness is hence another desirable property of aggregates.
rs. Therefore the proper
aggregates are of considerable significance to the hi
ghway engineers. Durability
Most of the road agg
small rounded stones of The stone used in pavement construction should be durable and should resist
disintegration due to the action of weather, The property of the stones to withstand the
adverse action of weather may be called soundness. The aggregates are subjected to the
physical and chemical action of rain and ground water, the impurities there-in and that of
em. Based on the origin, natural rocks are ¢ atmosphere. Hence it is desirable that the road stones used in the construction should be
i i , sound enough to withstand the weathering action.
Property ofthe rock and the fragme nts,
‘o rp hi c.
U e an important factor
&S Shape of Aggregates
Agate te cautes ate specified based on their grain size, shape, texture and its The size of the aggregates is first qualified by the size of square sieve opening throagh
through square sieves of successively which an aggregate may pass, and not by the shape. Aggregates which happen to fall in a
sizeBe s. a, egateby sieving
ascertained
The Theerequired si: $5 have rounded, cubical, angular flaky or elongated shape of
gradings for different me de ahaa are chosen to fulfil the desired Particular size range may
be ASTM,
Particles, It is evident that the flaky and elongated particles will have less strength and
BS.L., durability when compared with cubical, angular or rounded particles of the same stone.
Hence too flaky and too much elongated aggregates should be avoided as far as possible.
Btyer egates and sof aggroghrce
Based on the strey n
gth proper the coarse aggregates may be divides”
erallyy for the bearari
ing ng co! course off super" 5
Rounded aggregates may be
area and better workability
preferred in cement concrete mux due to low specific surface
for the same proportion of cement paste and same water
pes, hard aggregates
traffic loads and to
are preferred t cement ratio, whereas rounded particles are nol prefered due
in gratonulintarerlbasockeingcourse ,
a tnd
WB M
Constr
fesist adverse Construction and bituminous construction as the stability
uction for u: ise in lower layers of
used. The soft aggregate fiinclude me Pavement
ave structures, soft aggreg#"
cf
ites a
Particles is less. In such constructions angular particles are bree. iiss ie
in a compacted mix of coarse, aggregates depends on the shape fact roors,
un de d High
ag ly
gr eg atangul
es ,
different set of tia orum, kankar, laterit ick egates Or ag gr eg at es ha ve mo re vo id s in co mp ar is on wi th
‘St specifications are adopted for soft rae ae flaky and elongated
204 HIGHWAY MATERIALS

Adhesion with Bitumen STONE AGGREGATES

The aggregates used in bituminous pavements 28
should have less Dry aggregate passing 12.5 mm IS sieve
when compared with bituminous materials; otherwise the bitumin affinity With
'OUS coating cylindrical measure in three equal layers, pesrronng blued plea Pa
aggregate will be stripped offin presence of water. | tamper. The test sample is weighed (equal 10 W; g) and placed in the tes cylinder in
three equal layers, tamping each layer 25 times. The Plunger is placed on the top of
6.2.3 Tests for Road Aggregate specimen and a load of 40 tonnes is applied at a rate of 4 tonnes per minute by
the
In order to decide the suitability of the road stones for use in cons compression machine. The crushed aggregate is removed and sieved on 234 men 1S
truc sieve. The crushed material which passes this sieve is weighed equal to W; g The
following tests are carried out :
aggregate crushing value is the percentage of the crushed material passing 2.36 mm sieve
(a) Crushing test in terms of original weight of the specimen,
(b) Abrasion test
Aggregate crushing value: = ae Percent
(c)_ Impact test A
(d) Soundness Strong aggregates give low aggregate crushing value. The aggregate crushing value
(e) Shape test
for good quality aggregate to be used in base course shall not exceed 45 percent and the
value for surface course shall be less than 30 percent.
(f) Specific gravity and water absorption test
Abrasion tests
(g) Bitumen adhesion test Due to the movements of traffic the road stones used in the surface course are
The essential features of these tests are discussed below. Separa subjected to wearing action at the top. Hence road stones should be hard enough to resist
te tests are the abrasion due to the traffic. Abrasion tests are carried out to test the hardness property
for testing cylindrical stone specimens and coarse aggregates for cr
ushing, abrasi of stones and to decide whether they are, suitable for the different road construction
impact tests. But due to the difficulties of preparing cylindrica
l stone ‘Specimen | The abrasion test on aggregate may be carried out using any one of the following
need costly core drilling, cutting and polishing equipment, the use of such tests works.
limited. Testing of aggregates is easy and simulate the field condition better, three tests :
these are generally preferred, (i) Los Angeles abrasion test
Aggregate crushing test (ii) Deval abrasion test
The strength 5 of coarse aggreg (iii), Dorry abrasion test
¢ ate may be assessed b y aggregate crushiing
aggregate crushing value provides a relative measure of resistance to
crushing However Los Angeles abrasion test is preferred as the test results have been correlated
gradually applied compressive load. To achieve a high quality of pavement, with pavement performance.
Possessing high resistance to crushing or low aggregate crushing value are
p Los Angeles Abrasion Test
The apparatus for the standard test consists of a steel cylinder 15.2 em di Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to the
base plate and a plunger, compression testing The principle of
machines, cylindrical measure of relative rubbing action between the aggregate and steel balls used as charge.
abrasive
11.5 cm and height 18 cm, tamping rod and sieves. The sketch of the test cyli Pounding action of these balls also exists during the test and hence the resistance to wear
accessories is shown in Fig. 6.15. and impact is evaluated by this test. The Los Angeles machine consists of a hollow
z having inside diameter 70 $0 cm and
cm and length
cylinder closed at both ends,
as to rotate about its horizontal axis. The machine is shown in Fig. 6.16. The
mounted so
abrasive charge consists of cast iron spheres of approximate diameter 4.8 cm and cach of
weight 390 to 445 g. The number of spheres to be used as abrasive charge and their total
weight have been specified based on grading of the aggregate sample. ‘The test has been
standardised by the ISI.
(5 to 10 kg, depe ndin g on grad a.no n) 1s
The ified weight of aj ile specimen,
sive char ge. ‘The mac hin e is rota ted at 2 me d
placed inthe pec san the abra
the spec ifie d num ber of revo luti ons (500 to wy pelpenocmery
of 30 to 33 rpm for aoe e t
is then sie n ten 1
grading of the specimen). The abraded aggregate 's found. py pees nie ee
the weight of pow der ed aggr egat e pass ing this siev e
or the perc enta ge pass ing | , pre sse d
testexpressed as the percentage wear

Fig. 6.15 Aggregate Crushing Test Apparatu

s
 296 HIGHWAY MATERIALS

STONE AGGREGA’

Fig, 6.17 Deval Abrasion Testing Machine

about 4.8 cm diameter and total weight 2500 g is placed. Two tests may be carried out
simultaneous ly using both the cylin ders. The mach ine is rotat ed at a speed of30 to 33
rpm. After 10,000 revolutions the material is sieved on 1.7 mm IS sieve. The material
passing this sieve is expressed as the percentage of the original weight of the sample and
is reported as the abrasion value.
When the test is carr ied out by Dev al mac hin e wit hou t usin g abra sive char ges, the test
nen

is known as Deval attr itio n test. How eve r this test is not com mon ly carr ied out.

Dorry Abrasion Test

The abrasion value of agg reg ate is also det erm ine d usi ng Dor ry abr asi on tes tin g
machine. This is a British method. The mac hin e con sis ts of a flat cir cul ar iron disc of 60
cm diameter which is rotate d in a hor izo nta l pla ne at 28 to 30 rpm. Two rec tan gul ar tray s
am Namen

are kept 26 cm from the cen tre of the disc to hol d the agg reg ate sam ple in a spe cif ied
manner, Abrasive sand is fed thr oug h the fun nel and the disc is sub jec ted to 500
revolutions, The abrasion val ue is exp res sed as the per cen t loss in wei ght due to abr asi on.
Impact test
‘A test designed to evaluate the toughn es s of sto ne or the re si st an ce of the ag gr eg at es
to fracture under repeated impacts is cal led im pa ct tes t. Th e ag er eg at e im pa ct tes t is
an ce to im pa ct of ag gr eg at es an d has be en
commonly carried out to evaluate the resist
CROSS SECTION standardised by ISI.
Fig. 6.16 Los Angeles Abrasion Testing Machine ti ve me as ur e of re si st an ce of ag ur ea te to
The aggregate impact value indicates a rela re si st an ce to gr ad ua ll y in cr ea si ng
impact, which has a different effect th an the
in terms of the original weight of the sample. The Los Angeles abrasion value of gf te st in g ma ch in e co ns is ts of a me ta l ba se an d a
aioebaal acceptable for cement concrete, bituminous concrete and other high 4 compressive stress. The aggregate impact an d de pt h 5 cm in wh ic h the ag gr eg at e
cylindrical steel cup of internal diameter 10. 2 em
ve rent materials should be less than 30 percent. Values up to 50 percent are A me ta l ha mm er of we ig ht of 13 .5 -1 4. 0 kg ha vi ng a fre e fal l fr om 3
sp ec im en is pl ac ed . ag gr eg at e im pa ct ma ch in e
ise courses like water bound and bituminous macadam. This test is more dep height 38 cm is arranged to drop through ve rt ic al gu id es . Th e
ula te the B e Ne e :
thi
an oth er abr
i
asi on test s as rub bin g and
a
pou ndi ng act ion in the test sim is shown in Fig. 6.18.
e an d re ta in ed on 10 mm si ev e is fil led in
conditions better. Also correlati ion of Los Angeles abrasi ith field perfo ‘Aggre ga te sp ec im en pa ss in g 12. 5 mm si ev
Th e sa mp le is
ification. as ur e in 3 la ye rs by ta mp in g ea ch lay er by 25 bl ow s.
and specifications of the test values have been established. omic the cylindrical me the cu p of the ag gr eg at e im pa ct te st in g ma ch in e an d
. transtetred from the me as ur e to 38 cm ab ov e the
Deval Abrasion Test 25 ti me s. Th e ha mm er is ra is ed to a he ig ht of
compacted by tamping the cu p an d is al lo we d to fal fr ee ly on the sp ec im en .
The principle of the test is b Upper surface of the ag gr eg at e in e © si ev ed on 2, 36
specimen tt ; tes t sp ec im en to 15 bl ow s, the cr us he d ag er ez al
over in a rattler in the consists of After subjecting the is expresse d as the pe rc en ta ge of the fin e fo rm ed
hollow cylinder of diai mm si ev e. Th e ag gr eg at e im pa ct va lu e
such a Way bee’ in terms of th e to ta l we ig ht of th e sa mp le .
cylinder rotate about a
jers make 30° o r m a l l y e x c e e d 30 p e r c e n t fo r a g g r r
e e g a t e to be
c t v a l u e s h o u l d no t n
l e va lu e is 3 5 % fo r
The maximum permissib
. 6 . 1 7 : The a g g r e g a t e i
it m p a
ih borizontat ¢ is s h o w n in F i g r s e of p a v e m e n t s .
igereg‘agtate specii men (4 to 5.5 kg), of any one of the spec fied used in weari n g c o u u n d m a c a d a m ba se co ur se s.
a d a m a n d 4 0 % fo r w a t e r b o
laced i =
iron of steel bituminous mac
Placed inva cylinder. “The abras ive charg e consi sting of 6 cast
 HIGHWAY MATERIALS

STONE AGGREGATES. 200

The gee to sizes fey
Metest is ie applicable i 6S a Standard thickness gauge is used 10 gauges
h ‘kness m sample of aggregates 10 be tested 15 sieved thecnigh a set of
size ranges. Now to sequrate the flaky material, the
sieves and separated into specified
ay roxas which pass through the appropriate elongated slut of the thicknews
yaueue are fourad
“The width of the appropriate slot would be 0.6 of the average of the sue range If the size
range of aggregate in a group is 16-20 mm, the width of the slot to be selected in thickness
gauge would be 18 * 0.6 = 10.8 mm. The flaky material passing the appropente slot from
each size range of test aggregates are added up and let this weight be w. Ifthe total weightof
sample taken from the different size ranges is W. the flakiness index « grven by 1G w'W
percent, or in other words itis the percentage of flaky materials, the wicths of which are less
than 0.6 of the mean dimensions. I t is desirable that the flakiness index of aggreyates wed «8
road construction is fess than the 15 percent and normally does not exceed 25 peroest
Elongation Index
The elongation index of an ag gr eg at e i the pe rc en ta ge by wei ght of pat ici es wh os e
greatest dimension or length is greate r tha n one and fou r fit h of 1.8 tim es the ir me an
dimension. The elongati on tes t is not app lic abl e for siz es sma lle r tha n 6.3 mm
=

is si ev ed th ro ug h a set f si ev e an d se pa ra te d st o
‘The sample of aggregate to be tested e siz e ra ng e is th en in di vi du al ly
specified size ranges. The aggregates fr om ea ch of th
pr op ri at e ga ug e of th e le ng th ga ug e wi th the lo ng es t sid e n or de r to
pa ss ed th ro ug h the ap me s the me an sz e of
the el on ga te d pa rt ic le s. Th e ga ug e le ng th wo ul d be 1.8 ti
Separa te ag gr eg at e ha vi ng le ng th gr ea te r th an the
the aggregate. The portion of the elonga te d
ra ng e is we ig he d an d the tot al we ig ht of the el on ga te d st on es
specified ga ug e fr om ea ch the el on ga ti on ind ex.
the tot al we ig ht of the sa mp le , to get
Fig. 6.18 Aggregate Impact Testing Machi is expresse d as a pe rc en ta ge of
y ag gr eg at es ar e le ss wo rk ab le ; th ey ar e al so li ke ly to br ea k un de r
Soundness test El on ga te d an d fl ak cu bi ca l. Fl ak in es s in de x an d
smaller loads th an th e ag gr eg at e wh ic h ar e sp he ri ca l or
in ex ce ss of 15 pe rc en t ar e ge ne ra ll y co ns id er ed un de si ra bl e:
Soundness test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to weather
tlongation in de x va lu es el on ga ti on in de x.
conducting accelerated weathering test cycle. In order, to quicken the effects however no recognised limits have be en la id do wn fo r
due to alternate wet-dry and/or freeze-thaw cycles in the laboratory, the
disintegration of ageregate is determined by using saturated solution of sodium
Angularity Number un de d,
e ag gr eg at e pa rt ic le s, th ey ma y be cl as si fi ed as ro
magnesium sulphate. Clean, dry aggregate specimen of specified size range Based on the shape of th ic le s po ss es s we ll de fi ne d
un de d, an gu la r an d fl ak y. ‘A ng ul ar pa rt
counted. It is immersed in the saturated solution of sodium sulphate or ma irregular or partly ro of ro ug hl y pl an e fa ce s ‘a nd ar e co mm on ly fo un d in
edges formed at the inters ec ti on gr eg at es ma y be cr us he d
for 16 to 18 hours. Then the specimen is dried in an oven at 105-1 10°toC a co cr us hi ng of ro ck s. Si nc e we ak er ag
thus making one cycle of immersion and drying. The number of such
aggregates prepared by nu mb er do es no t ap pl y to an y ag gr eg at e wh ic h be ca ks
during compaction, the an gu la ri ty th e p a r t i c l of
e san ag gr eg at e
prior agreement and then the specimens are tested. After completing the fin st . An gu la ri ty or ab se nc e of ro un di ng of
d o w n du ri ng th is te
it af fe ct s th e ea se of ha nd li ng a mi xt ur e of
sample is dried and each fraction of the aggregate is examined visually 10 see er ty wh ic h is of im po rt an ce be ca us e
is a prop of angulari ty nu mb er of an ag gr eg at e
evidence of excessive splitting, crumbling or disintegration of the grains. aggregate and binder. Th e de te rm in at io n
co mp ar in g th e pr op er ti es of di ff er en t
a la bo ra to ry me th od in te nd ed fo r
carried out to note the variation in gradation from the original. The coarse essentiall y
ofeach size range is sieved on specified sieve sizes. The average loss in weight
to| be used in pavement construction after 10 cycles should not exceed 12p 7
:
with sodium sulphate and 18 percent when tested with magnesium sulphate. angula r i t y o f t h e a g g r e g a t e . Hence the angu!
a t e c o m p a c t e d in @ a a s i r o t tm a n n e r w e e t
Shape tests o f v o i d s in a s a m p l e o f a g g r e g
T h e s o l i d v o l u m e of th e s x e r c e a t e
properties
6 7 - pcent solid
e r v o l u m e . ‘
umber is def i n e d as p e e e l 3 wel
‘The particlee shape of aj geregate mass iis determine by the percentaBe : a ve ss el in a sp ec if ie d ma nn er . In th e e x
by filing it in percent st
sorte Particles contained in it and by its semua, The evaluation © m e o f s o l i d s (i n t b t
value 6 7 r e p r e s e n t s t h e vo l u
n t h i c Thus thee c
uld then have 3 3 p e r c e
les made in terms of flakiness index, elongation index and angularity compacted s t a t e w h i c h w o
o f 3 3 p e r c e n t T h e i g h ines a
measures th e v o i d s in e x c e s s r e g a t es ‘construct!
Flakiness Index n u m b e r f o r a g g
a t e . T h e r a n f angularity
g e o
aggreg
, The flakineses s indeindex x ofof a aggregate iis the percenta; weight of a
whose least dimensionthckness's less than ince Ratsoe 0.6 ofthe
300 HIGHWAY MATERIALS,
The appara tu s for te st in g the an gu la ri ty nu mb er co ns is ts of a
{
¢ STONE AGGREGATES
g rod and a metal scoop. Th e tes t sa mp le is si ev es aah
capacity 3 Titre, tampin .5 ~ 16 mm , ete . ir e e a wh ic h
of the agg reg ate , su ch as 16 — 20 mm , 12 little po la r ac ti vi ty . Th es e ag gr ep at es are el ec tr on eg at iv e are wa te
size ranges gr eg at es lik e l i r- li nk in g and are
A scoop full of this single size aggregate is pl ac ed in th e cy li nd er ‘an dl ea e fo r. called hy drophillic. Basic ag im e- st on es ha ve a dis lik e for wa te r and greater
i T as th ey ha ve po si ti ve
by the rod. Second and third layers are pl ac ed an d ta mp ed si mi la rl y attraction to bitumen, surface charge, These aggregates are calied
the to p su rf ac e of th e cy li nd er . Th e we ig ht or t th e hydrophobic.
aggregate is stru ck of f lev el to
the cylinder is foun d to be Wg . Th en the cy li nd er is fo un d = Cg, te ar : It is important to know the type of charge of aggregates used in bituminous
of the aggregat e is al so de te rm in ed . Th e an gu la ri ty nu is found from he
mb er construction. Now bitumen is also available as cationic or positive and anionic or
negative and hence a suitable selection may be made depending on aggregates available
100 W Cationic (+) bitumen may be selected for electronegative aggregate and anionic (-)
Angularity number = 67—
CGa bitumen for electropositive aggregates.
This value is expressed as the nearest whole number. Several laboratory tests have been developed to arbitrarily determine the adhesion of
bituminous binder to an aggregate in presence of water. These tests may be classified
Specific gravity and water absorption tests into six types.
The specific gravity of an aggregate is considered to a measure of the (i) Static immersion test
strength of the material, Stones having low specific gravity values are generally
than those having higher values. The specific gravity test also helps identifying the
(ii), Dynamic immersion test
specimen. Stones having higher water absorption value are porous and thus weak. Tj (iii) Chemical immersion test
are generally unsuitable unless found acceptable based on crushing and hardness tes ‘ (iv) Immersion mechanical test
About 2 kg of dry aggregate sample is placed in wire basket and immersedin (v)_ Immersion trafficking test and
for 24 hours. The sample is weighed in water and the buoyant weight is founc (vi) Coating test
aggregates are then taken out weighed after drying the surface. Then the a
dried in an oven for 24 hours at a temperature ‘The static immersion test is very commonly used as it is quite easy and simple. The
100 - 110°C, and then the dry
determined, The specific gravity is calculated by dividing the dryweight of agereg principle of this type of test is by immersing aggregate fully coated with the binder in
weight of equal volume of water. The water absorption is expressed as the percent Wal water maintained at specified temperature and by estimating the degree of stripping. The
result is reported as the percentage of stone surface that is stripped off after the specified
absorbed in terms of over dried weight of the aggregates. : time periods. IRC has specified that stripping value of aggregates should not exceed 25
The specific gravity of rocks very from 2.6 to 2.9. Rock specimens having mo percent for use in bituminous surface dressing, penetration macadam, bituminous
macadam and carpet constructions, when aggregate coated with bitumen is immersed in
0.6 percent water absorption are considered unsatisfactory unless found acceptable t
on strength tests. However slightly higher value of porosity may be acceptab water bath ag 40°C for 24 hours.
aggregates used in bituminous pavement construction, if the aggregates are
6.3 BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
otherwise suitable.
d
Bitumen adhesion test 6.3.1 Introduction

Bitumen and tar adhere well to all normal types of road aggregates providedth Bituminous binders used in pa ve me nt con str uct ion wo rk s inc lud e bot h bi
pe
tu
tr
me
ol
n and
eu m cru de
dry and are free from is a petroleum pro duc t obt ain ed by the dis til lat ion of
dust. The process of initial binding is controlled largely tar. Bitumen h
the des tru cti ve dis til lat ion of coa l or wo od . Bot
viscosity of the binder. In the absence of water there is practically no adhesion where-as road tar is obtained by y have different
the
in bituminous construction. The problems are observed due to the presence of bitumen and tar have sim ila r ap pe ar an ce , bla ck in col our th ou gh
Bo th the se mat eri als can be use d pavement works.
for
First if aggregate is wet and cold, it is normally not possible to coat with a bit characterist ics .
in
ei th er na tu ra l or Py ro ge no us or ig in , fo un d
binder. This problem can be dealt-with by removing the water film on the ag Bitumen is hy dr oc ar bo n ma te ri al of
bl e in . o r e le sy es tn d
drying, and by increasing the mixing temperature. Second problem is stripping gaseous, liquid, se mi so li d or so li d fo rm an d is co mp le te ly so lu
from coated aggregate due to presence of water. This problem ofstripping is men is a complex or ganic betel fog paar
and in carbon tetra chloride. ri ng th e di st il la ti on of pe t e e p e o n c e i e e e n
experienced only with bituminous mixtures which are permeable to water. The naturally or ma y be ob ta in ed ar ti fi ci al
hi
ly
gh
du
wa y co ns tr uc ti on be ca us e
is due to the fact that some aggregates have greater affinity towards mate ri al s ar e ve ry co mm on ly us ed in
water their water proofing properties.
placement depends on the physico-chemical forces in er t L e g e n d
i or c a p a t e n g it i L e n s t i m e in
s es ca ll ed
on the system. When th e bi tu me n co nt ai ns s o m e ph i
in the form of na tu ra l as ph al as
d as de po si ts
Most road stones have surfaces that are electrically charged, As an example il asphalt. Asphal t is fo un
al Constituent of igneous rocks possess a weak #1 63
ve greater attraction with the polar liquid water than with
negative charge and
bituminous binders
 2 HIGHWAY MATERIALS
302
io n wo rk of ro ad s an d «i
i me n us ed fc
fo r pa ve me nt co ns t st ru ct
grades of bitu and ing Airfig BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
ed fo r wa te r pr oo fi ng of st ru ct ur es 303
alll ania gr ad es an d th os e us
cal Pelled industri al gr ad es . Th e pa vi ng bi tu me n av e in India
ai la bl are chan
two categories :
(i) paving bitumen fro m ‘As sam pet rol eum , den ote d as A-t ype and des ign ate g a
a
A35, A 90. etc.
rce s den ote d as S-t ype and des ign ate d as p r a q .
(ii) paving bitumen from other sou Brades
$90, etc.
6.3.2 Ty pe s of Bi tu mi no us Ma te ri al s

Bituminous material used in highway construction may be broadly divided as

(i) Bitumen and
;
(ii) Tar
Bitumen may be further divided as petroleum asphalt or-bitumen and native a
There are different forms in which native asphalts are available. Native asp
those which occur in a pure or nearly pure state in nature. Native asphalts whi
associated with a large proportion of mineral matter are called rock asphalts.”
viscosity of bitumen is reduced sume times by a volatile diluent; this material is
cutback. When bitumen is suspended in a finely divided condition in an aqueous
and stabilized with an emulsifier, the material is known as emulsion. Tar is the
liquid obtained when natural organic materials such as wood and coal are carboni
destructively distiiled in the absence of air. Processing of bitumen and bitumi a
products is diagrammatically represented in Fig, 6.19. d Seton sere
+ SPEC Amo oeousTIAL ene
6.3.3 Bitumen Fig. 6.19 Processing of Bituminous Products
(ii) attainment of desired stability of the mix
Crude petroleum obtained from different places are quite different in
composition, The portion of bituminous material present in the petroleums may (iii) to maintain the stability under adverse weather conditions
differ depending on the source. Almost all the crude petroleums contain cons! (iv) to maintain sufficient flex ibil ity and thus avoi d crac king of bit umi nou s surf ace and
amounts of water along with crude oil. Hence the petroleum should be dehy‘
(v) to have suf fic ien t adh esi on wit h the agg reg ate s in the mix in pre sen ce of wat er.
before carrying out the distillation. General types of distillation processes are i"
distillation and destructive distillation. In fractional distillation the various \ me n sho uld pos ses s the fol low ing des ira ble
constituents are separated at successively higher temperatures without In view of the above problems, the bi tu
Properties :
chemical change. The successive fractions obtained yield gasoli be
the tim e of mi xi ng and co mp ac ti on sho uld
lubricating oil: the residue would be petroleum bitumen. In des! (i) The viscosity of the bitumen at prior to mixing or
material undergoes chemical change under the application of extreme heat and adequate. This is ac hi ev ed by hea tin g the bi tu me n and agg reg ate
The process is usually applied for the manufacture of tar. Steam distillation of| by use of cu tb ac ks or em ul si on s of sui tab le gra de.
is employed to produce steam refine petroleum bitumen in order to remove high) sh ou ld no t be hi gh ly te mp er at ur e su sc ep ti bl e. a i g ie s
(ii) The bitumino us ma te ri al t b e s t e n ee i
point constituents such as heavy lubricating oils without causing chemical of th e re gi on th e bi tu mi no us mi x sh ou ld no
hottest weat he r no t Se sa me to o ha rd and bri ttl e,
When the residue is distilled to a definite consistency without further tre unstable. Du ri ng co ld we at he r th e mi x sh ou ld
bitumen obtained as residue is called straightrun bitumen. ng of su rf ac e. Th e ma te ri al sh ou ld be du ra bl e,
caus in g cr ac ki e e t a
d no t st ri p o f f f r o m h i t a g e r e g a t .
Requirements of Bitumen (iii) o f w a t e r t h e b i t u m e n s h o u l g
In presence s i o n b e t w e e n th e b i t u m e n an d a g e r e
e a d e q u a t e a f f i n i t y a n d a d h e
The desirable properties of bitumen depend on the mix type and the construc to b
mix.
general problems while using bitumen in paving mixes are :
(i) mixing
 304 HIGHWAY MATERIALS

6.3.4 Tests on Bitumen

BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
Bitumen is available in a variety of types and grades. To judge 305
binders various physical tests have been specified by ugencieg iL =
the ISI. These tests ‘tans
Institute, British Standards Institution and
ductility tests, softening point test and viscosity test. For ck ude
studying the performance of bituminous pavements, the penetrates
38
essential, The other tests like softening point and flash and fire and
important to guide the paving techno! ts during field Operations, |
been recognized that the above tests are not sufficient to defin
susceptibility of the bituminous materials. The bitumen. fan"® tte
possessing same penetration value at a. specified temperatnne se Ris
different viscous characteristics at the application or service
tem te
therefore may need intensive correlation with fundamental Property like vis
The various tests on bituminous materials are :
(a) Penetration tests (b) Ductility tests (c) Viscosity:
(d) Float test (e) Specific gravity test (Softening
(g) Flash and Fire point test (h) Solubility test (i) Spotetst
(i) Loss on heating test (k) Water content test
Penetration test

: ts penetration test determines the hard

ness or softness of bitumen by
Fig. 6.21 Penetrometer
¢ a in tenths of a millimetre to which a st
andard loaded needle will penetrate taken and the needle is released for 5 seconds. The final reading is taken on dial gauge.
in five seconds, The sample is maintained at a temperature of ve
At least three penetration tests are made on this sample by testing at distances of atleast
Penetration test is shown in Fig, 6.20. 25 °C . Th e ca nd 10 mm apart. After each test the needle is disengaged and wiped with benzene and dried.
qulpment and tat precetine ig. i . Indian Standard Institituuttiion has st The depth of penetration is reported in one-tenth millimeter units. The mean value of
three measurements is reported as a penetration value, It may be noted that the
penetration value is largely influenced by any inaccuracy as regards pouring temperature,
size of needle, weight placed on the needle and the test temperature.
‘The bitumen gra de is spe cif ied in ter ms of pen etr ati on valu e. 80- 100 or 80/ 100 gra de
bitumen means that the penetration value of the bitumen is in the range 80 iobit100 at
standard test con dit ion s. The pen etr ati on test is app lie d alm ost exc lus ive ly to ume n.
As road tars are soft , the pen etr ati on test can not be carr ied out on thes e mat eri als . Oth er
sirumen.
consistency tests are used for tars, cutbacks and emulsions.
The penetration values of var iou s typ es of bit ume n use d in pav eme nt con str uct ion in
this country range between 20 and 225 , 30/ 40 and 80/ 100 gra de bit ume n are. mor e
svart AFTER $ SEC commonly used, depending on con str uct ion typ e and cli mat ic con dit ion s. In hot cli mat es
a lower penetration gra de bit ume n like 30/ 40 bit ume n is pre fer red .
Fig. 6.20 Penetration Test Concept
The penetrometer Consists of a needle assembly with a total weight of Ductility test
it is b o n e
device for releasing an d lo ck in g in an y position, There is-a graduat co
In the flexible pavement nstructions wh er e bi tu me n bin der s are use d,
Penetration values to
'/10th of a millimeter. Refer Figure 6.21. that the binders form ductile thin films around the aggregates. This somesOO
The bitumen is softened satisfactory binder in improving the physical imerlockinlayger ofis thesub,jecHEtedGTEE10™ repered
mixes, Under traffic loads the bituminous pavement
co
ntainers to a depth at
leas deformation and recoveries. The binder material which doesTee PTS aris
containers are then ductility would crack and thus provide pervious Pa ;
 306 HIGHWAY MATERIALS
carried out on bitumen to test this property of the binder. The test is her :
the adhesive property of bitumen and its abili ty to stret ch. ‘The r T BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
the ducti lity requ irem ents . pr wi
penetration value, but may fail to satisfy
howe ver want that both test requ irem ents are Satis fied j itume n The degree of Muidity of the binder at the application temperature greatly snfloeeces
engineer would
in any case repl ace each other , in the the strength characteristics of the resulting paving mixes High of low vreconty daring
Penetration and ductility tests cann ot
mixing or compaction has been observed to result in tower stubility values There x an
optimum value of viscosity for each aggregate gradation of the mix and brumen grate
The ductility is expressed as the distance in centimeters to which a stan, ‘At low viscosity, the bituminous binder simply /ubricates the aggregate particles instead
of bitumen can be stretched before the thread breaks. The test is co; inducted at of providing a uniform film for binding action Similarly high viscosity alse resists the
ata rate of pull of S0 mm per minute. The test set up is shown in compactive effort and the resulting mix is heterogencous in character exivteting low
Fig. 6.22, The stability values.
section at minimum width of the specimen is 10 mm x 10 mm.
Orifice type viscometer may be used to indirectly find the viscosity of Iequid bunders
like cutback bitumen, emulsion and liquid tar. According to this method. vascosty 1
measured by determining the time taken by 30 mi of the material to flow from a cup
through a specified orifice under standard test conditions and specified temperature
Higher the viscosity of the binder, higher will be the time required. This t illustrated =
Fig. 6.23. Furol viscosity is a specific test which is used only to measure the viscosity of
liquid bituminous materia ls. It is the numbe r of second s requir ed for $0 mi of materia l to
flow through an orifice of specif ied size at specifi ed temper atures . Equipm ent like
sliding plate microv iscome ter, and Brookf ield viscom eter are howeve r in use for defirsn g
the viscous characteristics of the bitumen of all grades irrespective of testing temperature.

Fig. 6.22 Ductility Test

4
The ductility machine functions as a constant temperature water bath with a
device at a pre-calibrated rate. Two clips are thus pulled a horizontally at a
speed of50 mm per minute. a 4 “ -
The bitumen sample is heated and poured in the mould assembly placed on
The samples along with the moulds are cooled in air and then in water bath maint
27°C. The excess bitumen material is cut and the surface is leveled using a hot
The mould assembly containing sample is replaced in water bath of the ductility
machine for 85 to 95 minute. The sides of the mould are removed, the clips ho Fig. 6.23 Viscosity Test set-up
the machine and the pointer is adjusted to zero. The distance upto the point of b i ta ke n i
in se co n ids for 50
ositt y of tar isi determini ed as the time viscometer atthe specified temperansre mi of the sa mp le
of thread is reported in centimeters as ductility value. The ductility value gets The viiscscosi da rd tar
to flow th ro ug h 10 mm ori fic e of th e st an
affectzd by factors such as pouring temperature, dimensi i or 55 °C . Th e vi sc os it y of cu bitumen is determined as the time taker
tb ac k
‘of 35, 40, 45 or if ic e at 22 °C o¢ 10
ml of th e sa mp le to fl ow th ro ug h ei th er 4. 0 mm
in se co nd s fo r $0 ry an d
temperature and rate of pul or if ic e vi sc om et er is su it ab le to te st ta
mm orif ic e at 25 or 40 °C Th us th e
The ductility values of bitumen vary from 5 to over 100 for cutbacks.
A minimum ductility value of75 cm has been specified by the ISI for bitumens nie
45 and above, obtained from sources other than Assam Petroleum (i.€., $ 45. 8% Float test
fo r wh ic h ne it he r an
the minimum duc tility value may be 50 cm for bitumens of grades S 35, There is a range cons is te nc y of th e bi tu mi no us ma te ri al s
de fi ne th e co ns is te nc y of th e
us ed to
these sources. However, as the bitumen produced from Assam Petroleum in In viscometer test nor a penetratio n t es t co ul d be
ured by fl oa t te st @
much lower ductility values, the minimum ductility value specified is only 15 material, The consistency of material Is of this group is meas
i t o s a c c L y c i a n p
wi l
th a n
bitumen yrades A 65 to 200 for use in certain regions. The appa ra tu s co ns is ts o f a fl oa t ma de of a l e n t
te st ed , wh ic h is s e r e n e 2
specimen materials to be te mp er at ur e of SC ns ee me he
Viscosity test in the collar (mould), co ol ed to
is fl oa te
Fiig. 624. The float assembly Noued int Td in a waatenr
_ Viscve osity is deifinedas inverse of fluidity. ty. ViscVisoscosityi thus defines the fuidMu"
bitumi nous material. Viscosity is the general term for consistency and its seconds for water to force its way
value. The higher the float test value, the stiffer is the mazertah,
resistance to flow. _Many Tesearchers believe that grading of bitumen
absolute viscosity units instead of the conventional penetration units.
308 HIGHWAY MATERIALS

BITUMINOUS MATERIALS. 309

[ BITUMINOUS MATERIAL
Generally higher softening point indicates lower
prefered in warm climates. A brass ing containing tessa
t mp le of u m n te so pe nt ed
fe Ni is
in liquid like water or glycerine at a given temperat A steel ball is plac up the ure. ed on
bitumen sample and the liquid medium is then heated at a rate of S°C per minute, The
temperature at which the softened bitumen touches the metal placed at a specified
distance below the ring is recorded as the softening point of a bitumen. Hard grade
bitumen possess higher softening point than soft grade bitumens.
WATER AT SO°C WATER AT SOc ‘The softening point of various bitumen grades used in paving jobs vary between 35°
10 70°C.
Fig. 6.24 Float Test Set-up Flash and fire point test
Specific gravity test Bitumen materials leave out volatiles at temperatures depending upon their grade
These volatiles catch fire causing a flash. This condition is very hazardous and i is
‘The density of a bitumen binder is a fundamental property frequently used as therefore essential to qualify this temperature for each bitumen grade, so thst paving
classify the binders for use in paving jobs. In most applications, the bitumen is y engineers may restrict the mixing and application temperatures. As mentioned above,
but finally when used with aggregate system, the bitumen content is convertedon yok this test gives an indicatio n of the critical temperat ure at and above which suitable
basis using density values. The specific gravity value of bitumen is also usefil precaution should be taken to eliminate fire hazards during heating of bitumen. The
bituminous mix design, The density of bitumen
definition of flash and fire poinas ts given by the ISI are as follows :
is greatly influenced by its ef
composition. Increased amounts of aromatic type compounds or mineral Flash point “Th e flas h poin t of a mate rial is the low est tem per atu re at whi ch the
cause an increase in specific gravity. vapour of a substa nce mom ent ari ly take s fire in the for m of a flas h und er spec ifie d
condition of test”.
. The specific gravity of bituminous materials is defined as the ratio of the ma whi ch the mate rial gets igni ted
Fire point “The fire poin t is the low est tem per atu re at
given volume of the substance to the same of an equal volume of water, the tem
and bums under specified con dit ion s of test ”. Ref er Fig, 6.26 for the test set up.
of both being 27°C. The specific gravity is determined either by using a pycnon
by preparing a cube shape specimen in semi solid or solid state and by weighin
and water.
Generally the specific gravity of pure bitumen is in the range of 0.97 to |.
specific gravity of cutback bitumen may be lower depending on the type and
of diluent used. Tars have specific gravity ranging from 1.10 to 1.25.

Lk
Softening point test
The softening point is the temperature at which the substance attains @ P
degree of softening under specified condition of test. The softening point of Dil
usually determined by Ring and Ball test. The test set-up is shown in Fig. 6.25:

Fl as h Po in t Te st S e t - u p
Fig. 6.26
p p a r a t u s o r o p e n c u p a r ew e d f e p a i t h
h e e t ets t s
THERMOMETER s s e d c u p a
Pensky-Marten clo filled in the cup upto a filling m a r k , Th e O B F e
“The material to be tested is ll accessories including thermomes range
the c u p in a c l o s e d s y s t e m . A i S* to 6° C crpee r m i n u t e ,
are suiti ably fixed. The mple is then heat ied at the rate of
biittumen sa is
e n d i n g u p o n th e e x p e c t e d
f a m e is a p p l i e d at i n t e r v a l s d e p
st i r r i n g i h e s p e c i n e n ? “ T h e te st Jow the act ual fla sh poi nt
is ma de at Tea st 17° C bel 4
flash and fire points. First application
and then at every 1° to 3°C. pare imatr Hod
e r a t u r e — v e s s t h
e e r mSo m e t e r a e e s
T h e f l a s h p o i n t is t a k e n a s t h e t e m p s y s t e m .
o n t h a t c a u s e s a b r i g ht flash in the ©
flame applicati
sTaRY tuo
310 HIGHWAY MATERIALS

fl as h a p p e a r fi rs t at an y po in t on th e BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
For open cup it is the in st an ce w h e n t e d S u r f 3h
d un ti l th e m a t e r i a l g e t s i g n i
h e a t i n g is c o n t i n u e
material. The p o i n t . a n d c o n t i n y
r a t u r e is r e c o r d e d as th e fire 6.3.5 Cutback Bitumen
for 5 seconds; this tempe
of b i t u m e n u s e d in p a v e m ¢
The minimum spec if ie d fl as h po in t 0 Cutback bitumen is defined as the bitumen, the viscosity of which has been reduced
le nt and
Pensky Martens clos ed ty pe te st is 1 7 5 ° C . by a volatile diluent. For use in surface dressings , some type of bitumen macadam
soilbitumen stabilization, it is necessary to have a fluid binder which can be mixed
Solubility test relatively at low temperatures. Hence to increase fluidity of the bituminous binder at low
en ts lik e ca rb on dis uf; hi temperatures the binder is blended with a volatile solvent. After the cutback mix is used
Pure bitumen is co mp le te ly so lu bl e in so lv and the cutback develops the binding
jn construction work, the volatile gets evaporat ed
tetr ac hl or id e, He nc e any im pu ri ty in bi tu me n in the fo rm of ine rt mi g ite viscosity of the cutback and rate of which it hardens on the road depend
properties. The
etc. could be quanti ta ti ve ly an al ys ed by di ss ol vi ng the sa mp le s of bit ume n in, quantity of both bitumen and volatile oi! used as the diluent
on the characteristics and
two solvents. A sample of about 2 g of bitumen is dissolved in about 100
4
f Cutback bitumens are available in three types, namely,
The solution is filtered and the in so lu bl e ma te ri al re ta in ed is wa sh ed , pa st
it is expressed as a percentage of original sample. The soluble maul
(i) Rapid Curing (RC)
preferably less than 1.0 percent. In solubility test with carbon tetrachlori (ji) Medium Curing (MC) and
carbonaceous residue is over 0.5 percent, the bitumen is considered to be cr (iii) Slow Curing (SC)
ri ng or ha rd en in g af te r the ap pl ic at io n.
minimum proportion of bitumen soluble in carbon disulphide is specified as :
This classification is based on the rate of cu a figure which follows the initials; as
‘The grade of cutback or its fluidity is designed by ack of grade 2.
Spot test an ex am pl e RC -2 me an s tha t it is a rap id cu ri ng cu tb
de si gn at ed by nu me ra l 0, su ch as RC -.
This is a test for detecting over heated or cracked bitumen: This test is The cutback with the lowest viscosity is and 5 designate progressively thicker or
be more sensitive than the solubility test for detection of cracking. About 2 g of MC-0 and SC-0. Suffix numerals 0, 1, 2, 3,cr4ease. This number indicates definite
is dissolved in 10 ml of naphtha. A drop of this solution is taken out and place mo re vi sc ou s cu tb ac ks as the nu mb er s in -2 all
re sp ec ti ve of th e ty pe of cu tb ac k; in ot he r wo rd s, R C - 2 , MC -2 an d SC
filter Paper, one after one hour and second after 24 hours after the solution is p Viscos it y ir er at ur e. Th e ini tia l vi sc os it y va lu es (in
ha ve th e sa me ini tia l vi sc os it y at a sp ec if ie d te mp
the strain of the spot on the paper is uniform in colour, the bitumen is
tar vi sc om et er ) of va ri ou s gr ad es of cu tb ac ks as pe r ISI sp ec if ic at io ns
uncracked. But if the spots form dark brown or black circle in the centre with an second s, st an da rd
ring of lighter colour surrounding it, the bitumen is considered to be over h are given in Table 6.7.
cracked. Table 6.7 Viscosity of Cutbacks

Type and grade of Viscosity in seconds in tar viscometer

Loss on heating test Cutback 4mm orifice 25°C_| 10mm 25°C | 10 mm 40°C |
When bitumen is heated, it loses the volatiles and gets hardened. To study RC-0, MC-0 & SC-0_| 251075 |
heating procedure is adopted. About 50g of the © RC-1,MC-1 &SC-1_| 50 to 100
of heating, an accelerated RC-2, MC-2 & SC-2 101020
weighed and heated to a temperature of 163°C for S hours in a special oven des! 25 to 75
this test. This specimen is weighed again after the heating period and the Joss in™ RC-3, MC-3 & SC-3, Tatas |
is expressed as a percentage by weight of original sample. Bitumen used in RC-4, MC-4 & SC-4 60 to 100
[ROS, MC-5 & SC-5
mixes should not indicate more than one percent loss in weight; for bitun et c. wo ul d co nt ai n hi gh pr op or ti on of
The r e Thus lower grade cu tb ac ks li ke RC -0 , RC -I
Penetration values 150-200 upto two loss in weight is allowed,
percentshows a reduction in penetration hi gh er gr ad es li ke RC -4 or RC -5 , RC -0 an d M C - 0 ma y
eating when subjected to penetration test bg it solvent when compared wi th
rc en t so lv en t an d 55 pe rc en t bi tu me n, wh er ea s. RC -S an d
contain approx im at el y 45 pe
reduction in penetration value shouuld
l d be le ss th an 40 pe rc en t of th e or ig )
ap pr ox im at el y! 5 pe rc en t so lv en t an d 85 pe rc en t bi tu me n.
value of th e bi tu me n. MC-S may co nt ai n a n s
ns , f i e d or cu tb ac k p i s p e n s i o n h
Rapi d Cu ri ng Cu tb ac ks ar e bi tu me a f e r Ot :
ta or ga so li ne wh ic h wi ll ra pi dl y ev ap or at e
‘Water content test su ch as ne ph th e R. C, cu tb ac k is go ve rn ed by = A c s a e u e
leaving the bitumen binder . Th e gr ad e of
Its desirable that the bitumen contains minimum water content to prevent © ne tr at io n va lu e of re si du e fr om di st il la ti on up £0
of th e so lv en t us ed . Th e pe
ie, binamien when it is heated above the boiling point of water. The e e
p cutback bitumen is 80 to 120. r t
buna, etermined by mixing known weight of the specimen in @ PUFA cu tb ac ks ar e bi-
tu me n fl ux ed » L a s n e e
iit e y i e jing with &

Medium curing Solvents will not evaporate

and distillin g off the water. The weight intermed ia te -b oi li ng -p oi nt so lv en t li ke ke ro se n
condied an and ‘om
condens water, heating
collected is expressed as percentage by weight of the © te be ca us e th e ker
evaporate relatively at sl ow ra
imum water content in bitumen should not exceed 0.2 percent by ¥°!
Explanations for some of the abo based
Burmah Shell (See list of references) sera a
312 HIGHWAY MATERIALS
rapidly as the gaso line -ran ge solv ents used in the man ufa ctu re of
Cutb acks , BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
to this cut bac k mee
type
Gienation ‘medium curing’ is given fine grain aggregate and san yc ood ge . MC 313
prop erti es and so sati sfac tory coat ing of Some of the general properties of road emulsions are judged by the following tests :
is possi
Slow curing curbac ks are obt ain ed eit her by ble ndi ng bit ume n w i t h f j (i) Residue on Sieving : It is desirable to see that not more than 0,25 percent by weight
oil, or by controlling the rate of flo w and tem per atu re of the Gu a high-boj ‘of emulsion consists of particles greater than 0.15 mm diameter
soi ls har den or set way slo wly as it is a pe at i it
refining. SC cutbacks or wood ile (ii) Stability 10 Mixing with Coarse Graded Aggregate ; "This test carried our to find i
Various tests carried out on cut-backs bitumen are : the emulsion breaks down and coats the aggregate with bitumen too earlyy before
mixing is complete.
@ Viscosity tests at specified temperature using specified size of orifice (iii) Stab ilit y to Mix ing with Cem ent : This test is carr ied out to asse ss the stabi lity of
(b) Distillaation test to find distillation fractions, . uy Up to specifii emulsions when the aggregate contains large proportions of fines.
4
the residue from distillation up to 360°C posi tempers (iv) Water Cem ent : To kno w the perc enta ge wate r in the emul sion whic h depe nds on
the type of the emulsion.
(c) Penek tration test,sty ductility test and test for matter sol ii carbon di f
(v) Sedimentatio n ; Som e sedi ment atio n may occu r whe n a dru m of emul sion is left
residue from distillation up to 360°C oe i oy redi sper ses and can be used
standing befo re use, but on agit atio n, the emul sion
(d) Flash point test on cutback using Pensky Martens closed type app fie d bit ume n sho uld be low eno ugh to be spr aye d
aratus. (vi) Viscosity : The vis cos ity of emu lsi
thr oug h jet s or to coa t the agg reg ate s in sim ple mix ing .
6.3.6 Bituminous Emulsion
‘Three types of bit umi nou s emu lsi on are pre par ed, viz. , (i) Rap id Set tin g (RS ), (ti)
w Set tin g (SS ) type s. Rap id Set tin g typ e emu lsi on is
A bitumen n emulsion ni is liquid product iiin whici h a substanti
f Medium Setting (MS) and (iii) Slo con str uct ion . Me di um
suspended in a finely divided condition in an aqueous moediunraed subl suitable for surface dressing and penetr ati on ma ca da m typ e of
et wit h coa rse agg reg ate s and Slo w Set tin g typ e emu lsi on
one or more suitable materials. An emulsion is a two phase system consisti Setting type is used for premixing
immiscible liquids; the one being dispersed as fine globules in the other. is suitable for fine aggregate mixes.
" ae a or refined tar is broken up into fine globules and kept in 6.3.7 Tar
ee Nei a Proportion of an emulsifier is used to facilitate the organic materials such as wood and
forn Tar is the viscous liquid obtained when natural
eign and to keep the globules of dispersed binder in suspension... The fund in the absence of air. Based on the material from
oe coal carbonized or destrictively distilled widely used
A to form a protective coating around the globules of binder resis : -eferred to as wood tar or coal tar; the latter is more
conleseenes u pital which tar is derives of road tar are :
Emulsifiers usually adopted are soaps, surface active for road work because i t i s superior. Three stages for the production
an powders. Half to one percent emulsifier by weight of finished em
ually taken while preparing normal road em u (i) Ca rb on iz at io n of co al to pr od uc e cr ud e tar
ul:
souls range from 40 to 60 percent and the
remaii (ii). Refini ng or di st il la ti on of cr ud e tar an d
ameter of globules of bitumen portion is about
re si du e wi th di st il la te oil fr ac ti on to gi ve th e de si re d ro ad tar .
two microns. (iii) Blending of di st il la ti on
vUs
eeuallly
the bitua men grades which ai re emulsifii ed for road construction e fi ve gr ad es of ro ad s tar s, viz ., RT -1 , RT -2 , RT -3 , RT -4 an d RT -5 . ba se d on the ir
tse vith penetration values between 190 and 320. Emulsions of tar and tarL bit “There ar lo we st vi sc os it y an d is us ed for su rf ac e pa in ti ng
Viscosity an d ot he r pr op er ti es . RT -| ha s the co mm en de d for
co ld we at he r as thi s ha s ve ry lo w vis cos ity . RT -2 is re
fr ieee ae Prepared, but their use is restricted. Two methods comm
only under exceptionally cl im at ic co nd it io ns , RT -3 ma y be us ed for
mrethead ypaation of emulsions are the colloidal mill method and the highspeed standard surface pain ti ng un de r no rm al In di an
se an d lig ht ca rp et s. R T is
re ne wa l co at s an d pr em ix in g ch ip s for to p co ur
. The manufactured emulsion s are stored in air tight drums. surface painting, m in ba se co ur se . Fo r gr ou ti ng pu rp os es RT -5 ma y
E generally used for pr em ix in g tar ma ca da
aanWhen the emulsion is apPpllied on the road, it breaks down and th os it y a m o ngthe road tars.
Cape ss nthough i e b i n d e r s t a r s bins be adopted, wh ic h has the hi gh es t vi sc
the full binding power develops slowly as and when ar e li st ed b e l o w :
ou s te st s th at ar e ca rr ie d ou t on r o a d ta rs
The va ri
oethetha ofomntschncalsit tesignbrofownbreatok bdlaocvkn. ofIfemthuelsibiotnumeisn sheomwunlsibyo thise change in
wb a nis said to possess rapid-set quality.
n i n t e n d ed '© (i) Specific gravity test
Emulsions which do
re Contact with stone, but break during mixing (ii). Viscosity te st on st an da rd tar vi sc om et er
les. When special type or by fi ne mi
emulsion relatively stable, they s of e m u l s ifying agents are used [0 (iii) Eq ui vi sc ou s te mp er at ur e (E VT )
are called slow setting grades.
E i l e
vane mach used inaebi (iv), Softening point
tuminous road constructions, especially in maint
rks. The main advantage of emulsio (¥) Softening point of residue
even when itit is rainin, g- Also n is that it can be
for the stabilization of sands p
emulsi i ilizati
a "esa weed i soll see
$i HIGHWAY MATERIALS

(vi), Float test BITUMINOUS PAVING MIXES 318

(vii), Water content in the co mp ac te d mi xt ur
dire ct ly re la te d to vo id s
(viii) Dist i l l a t i o n f r a c t i o n o n d i s t i l l a t i o n u p t o 2 0 0 ° C , 2 0 0 ° C t o 2 7 9 ° ¢ a n d 2 7 correlated terms. If voids are restricted, the pel piles none erent
c e n t b y v o l u m e 0 ° mixes improve. Minimum voids requirement qualified for a given mix should be so
(ix) Ph e n o l s , p e r selected which woul d pr ov id e sp ac e for ne ce ss ar y de ns if ic at io n tha t ma y de ve lo p un de r
(a) Nap h t h a l e n e , p e r c e n t b y w e i g h t traffic movements and expansion of bitumen at high temperatures, In the absence of thes f
h t
the bitumen bleeds over the surface and causes skidding.
o l u b l e in t o l u e n e , p e r c e n t b y w e i g
r
(si), Matte in s Durability is defined as the resistance of the mix against weathering and abrasive
actions. Weat he ri ng ca us es ha rd en in g an d thi s de pe nd s up on los s of vo la ti le s an d
The requirements for the five grades of road tars based on the p la ye r co ns is ti ng of bi tu mi no us mi x
of the imp ort ant tes t pro per tie s is gi Abo test. ‘oxidation, Tensil e st ra in is in tr od uc ed in the to
given by the ISI. The su mm ar y cr ac ki ng or pl as ti c fa il ur e
of Ro ad ve
Tan in
rs T; when wheel load s ply ov er it, Ex ce ss iv e st ra in ca us es
Table 6.8 Properties an d Re qu ir em en ts
Flexibility is a pr op er ty of the mi x tha t me as ur es the le ve l be nd in g st re ng th . Th us
suitability of the given bituminous pavi ng mi x ne ed the co ns id er at io n of all the fa ct or s
SI.I. Broperty Road TarGi st an ce of th e fi ni sh ed pa ve me nt ag ai ns t
listed above. Skid resistance is define d as the re si
Nol pe RT [_RT2 nae skidding and is a function of surface te xt ur e an d bi tu me n co nt en t. Wo rk ab il it y ts the ca se
1. | Viscosity by standard tar
with which the mix can be laid an d co mp ac te d. It is fu nc ti on of gr ad at io n of ag er eg si es ,
viscometer (10 mm) their sh ap e an d te xt ur e, bi tu me n co nt en t an d its typ e.
(a) at temperature, °C 35 40 4
, ie viscosity range, seconds Mix design methods should aim at de te rm in in g the pr op er ti es of ag gr eg at es and
33-55 | 30-55 | 35-60 = ll ow in g pro per tie s.
2. |Equiviscous Temperature bituminous material which wo ul d giv e a mi x ha vi ng the fo
32-36 | 37.
(EVT) range, °C 4 ne (i Sufficient stability to satisfy the ser vic e re qu ir em en ts of the pa ve me nt and the
3. [Softening point, °C : a traffi c co nd it io ns , wi th ou t un du e di sp la ce me nt s.
pa ve me nt by co at in g the ag gr eg at e and
4. \Specific
gravity range at 27°C_|1.16-1.26] 1.16-1.26| 1.18-1.28 (ii) Sufficient bitumen to ensure a durablr-e proofing the mix.
Comparison of Tar and Bitumen bonding them together and also by wate
as to pr ov id e a re se rv oi r sp ac e for a sl ig ht
(iii) Sufficient voids in the compacted mie x to traffic and to avoid flushing. bleeding and
ies a pa be have black to dark brown colour, But bitumen is a petro amount of additional compaction du
bounties. pence by the destructive distillation of coal or wood: loss of stability.
fle xib ili ty eve n in the col des t sea son to pre ven t cra cki ng due to rep eat ed
disiphide and invettien rete oe see, Binmme isaae (iv) Suf fic ien t
Recent ; on tetrachloride; but tar is soluble only in toluene. application of traffic loads.
peter mand and retains it better in presence of water than bitumen. (v) Sufficient workability whi le pla cin g and co mp ac ti ng the Mix .
susceptible, resihing much inferior weather resisting property. Tar is more (vi) ‘The mi x sho uld be the mos t ec on om ic al one tha t wo ul d pr od uc e a sta ble . dur abl e
less temperature susceptible, “The ae e a n oy ih te
ptible. The free carbon content is more in tar as and skid resistant pavement.
solubility test. ar e
Three mix design methods, namepalyra, graphs. These methods have been widely: used by
ee m an d Hu bb ar d- Fi el d me th od s
Marshall, Hv
6.4 BITUMINOUS PAVING briefly explained in the following wi th sa s. In each of these
ti sf ac to ry res ult
MIXES various agencies in the design and ‘c on st ru ct io n e
e mi xe s ha ve be en co rr el at ed wi th th
te st re su lt s on th
6.4.1 Requirements of methods, the laboratory it er ia .
Bituminous Mixes
performance stud ie s in de ve lo pi ng th e de si gn cr
The mix design ig should
n aim at at an an econommiiccall blen
blden,d, with P 6.4.2. Design of Bituminous Mixes
mix . Bi tu mi no ae e e Pr op or ti on of bi tu me n so as to ful fil the de si re d :
The following steps may be f o l l o w e d fo r a r a t i o n a l d e s i g n o f a b i t u m i n o u s mi x.
of flexible paver; crete or asphaltic concrete is one of the highest
food bite ant layers used in the su rf ac in g co ur se , Th e de si ra bl e (i) Selection of Aggregate
to ug hn es s an d so un dn es s ar e
de tn gg e i s Me xb il y sk id re si st an an
ce d i su ff ic i
ie nt st re ng th
Aggregates whin view the availability and econom’ constrain
po ss es s , ha e mi ne ss , ‘
C e e ag gr ep ne s
PY Si lv is is defined as r e s i 5
ion undet chosen, keeping
ic h
th e mi x wh en co m g r a
itis a stress whi Fesistance of the pavin,
pr od uc e hi gh er st ab il y ‘of
it
Stability is a fnctn oft iaeey san depending upon ati andundeshdar
ro
p sa nd
sands.
s
an d co he si on . Fr ic ti on al re si st an ce is #
aoe friction and fica pa rt ed by bi tu mi i ial s. C O
n im
t rs that influence the mee ach
¥ the fac‘to
i
 HIGHWAY MATERIALS
316

ay Selection of gere" eate Grating BITUMINOUS PAVING i MIXESMIXE! 317

bitumi no us mi x in cl ud in g th e de ns it y an g - -
The properties of
grain size di s t r i b u t i o n . S t a b i l method, or graphical method, or by trial and error
s a t e s a n d t h e i r are peponioned as by aie
dependent on the a at i basis from jory test. Two of the graphical methods of proportioning, vis
f jangular chart metho d and Rothfu tch’ ;
are expla ined in “
Chap ter 9
Most of the agenc ies and engin eerin g organ isati ons have speci triangular jutch’s meth od,
the open gradi ng. As hi ee
eraded mixes and they do not prefer that can be (v ) P r e p a r a t i o n of S p e c i m e n
aggregate gives higher stabil ity, usual ly the bigge st size Hence
‘The preparation of specimen depends on the stability test method employed
view of the compacted thickness of the layer is selected, provided aij 3 acti on and othe r spec ific atio n shou ld be foll owed as
size of 2.5 to 5 cm are 7 the size of the specimen, comp
equal. In base course maxi mum aggre gate specified in the stability test method.
mon
The stability test methods which are in com
r t Hence after deciding
surface course 1.25 to 1.87 cm size are used in the mixes . use for the design mix are, Marshall, Hubbard-Field and Hveem,
mix aft er ble ndi ng of the ag gr eg at es and fill er sho uld ’ the test methods, the specimens are moulded as per specification.
The gradation of final
(vi) Determination of Spe cif ic Gra vit y of Com pac ted Spe cim en
e : mm thi ck bi tu mi no us con cre te s ‘
oe eeaby be i B e e t l ‘The specific gravity of the compacted spe cim ens , as mou lde d is det erm ine d | Wit h
. : gra vit y of agg reg ate and bit ume n, the the ore tic al ma ximum
Table 6.9 Specified Gradation of Aggregates known values of specific
specific gravity of the mix Gr, is cal cul ate d for a giv en bit ume n con ten t, usi ng the
Bituminous (Asphaltic) Concrete Surface Conn
formula, aujoo a
Sieve size, mm
T00— Wh y/G, + WG, 7
20
125 where Wp = percent by weight of bitumen content
10.0
475 Gy = specific gravity of bitumen
236 Gj = average specific gravity of aggregates.
0.600 d fro m the for mut a.
‘The theoretical density y, per cen t sol ids by vo lu me is cal cul ate
0.300
0.150 em ime
= 0.075
Binder content, percent by weight of mix 7
granvity Here, G = actual specific gravity of test specimen
(ii) Determiof nSpeacifticio
i
Pi pene . . Gy = theoretical maximum specific gravity
avi of the bituminous material is
pacer ‘ie ie gravity of aggregates are repre n ot usually determi Hence percent air voids in the specimen,
sented as either bulk sf
sop pecific gravity, or effective
s p e c ific
_ 100 (G,-G)
si of the Aggregate is ta it Vy = 100-7 G
Whweicchite arre afirllied -by ken.
water on 21 hour ' epee
ti on :
at e (V MA ) is ca lc ul at ed fr om th e eq ua
The Voids in the Mineral Aggreg
found and that of G 6. WW
1)
iS used. the specific gravity ‘se reg ate is cal cul ate d. But wh en eff
is
ect
d
ive Volume VMA == (Vy+Vi)= = 100-7
too
of the tot al or co mb in ed- ag gr eg at e
average spec ific gravity Ga of bl lended a; ix i ston,
and Wa is agg reg ate cont ent per cen t by wei ght
BEISSSS ates calenlated fom RY Here Vp is the percentage of bitumen
G= t o
WG, + W,/G, + Wy/G, + Wy/G,
He nc e, Pe rc en t Vo id s Fi ll ed wi th Bi tu me n (V FB )

100V,, (6.12)
fi
Ws are percent by wei ight of aggregate 1, 2, 3 and 4; Gt. vMA
Te sp ec ti ve ag gr eg at es . (vii) Stability Tests on Compacted Specimens ct ed .
(©) Proportioniy 18 Of Ager bil ity tes ts is car rie d out bas ed on the de si gn m e t h o d se le
: One of the sta
First the desi
thick, P
'8N gradin
e s
Ress of the layer and g ie
j. deci
ded based on the type of the const
Vailability of aggregates. Then the available 4
 HI G H W A Y M A T E R I A L S
318
p t i m u m B i t u m e n C o n t e n t BITUMINOUS PAVING MIXES
(viii) Sel e c t i o n o f O
th e te st m e t h o d a= 4 319
i m u m b i
i t u m e n c -o nt
& en t is se le ct ed b a s e d on lopteg i
The o p t i i ;
q u i r e m e n t s co ns id er ed . thickness of 63.5 + 3.0 mm. Three or four specimens may be pre
design re Ee apetoas ite
bitumen content. The compacted specimens are mings
The Marshall, Hubbard- Fi el d and Hv ee m sta bil ity tes t me th od s are exp lai ned moulds and then removed from the moulds using a specimen extractor. The diameter and
de si gn mean height of the specimens are measured and then they are weighed in air and also
Marshall me th od of bi tu mi no us mi x suspended in water. The specimens are kept immersed in water in a thermostatically
State 1: controlled water bath at 60 + 1°C for 30 to 40 minutes. The specimens are taken out one
Bruce Marshall, formerly. Bituminous Engineer with Mississippi ity Value
for desi gnin g bitu mino us mixes , Hi by one, place d in the Marsh all test head and tested to deter mine Marsh all Stabil
Department formulated Marshall method which is the maximum load in kg before failure and the Flow Value which is the
test procedure was later modified and improved upon by U. S. Corps ofEngineer Yeformation of the spec imen in 0.25 mm units upto the maxi mum load. ‘The corre cted
their extensive research and correlation studies. ASTM and other Marshall Stability Value of each speci men is deter mine by apply ing the appro priat e
standardized the test procedure. Generally, this stability test is applicable’to hogs Correction factor, if the avera ge heigh t of the spec imen is not exact ly 63.5 mm; the
design of bitumen and aggregates with maximum size 2.5 cm. In India, bin Correction facto rs to be appli ed are given in Table 6.10.
concrete mix is commonly designed by Marshall method. Table 6.10 Correction Factors for Marshall Stability Values
In this method, the resistance to plastic deformation of cylindrical Volu me ofsp ec im en in ce | Th ic kn es s of sp ec im en in mm [Correction factor
bituminous mixture is measured when the same is loaded at the peripheryat a rat 457-470 57.1 1.19
cm per minute, The test procedure is used in the design and evaluation of bitu 471 —482 587 114
paving mixes. The test is extensively used in routine test programmes for the p 483 — 495 60.3 1.09
jobs. There are two major features of the Marshall method of designing mixes 496 — 508 61.9 1.04
309 — $22 63.5 1,00
(i) density — voids analysis 523 — 535 65.1 0.96
ii) stability — flow test 536 — 546 66.7 0.93
54 7- 55 9 68. 3 0.89
The stability of the mix is defined as a maximum load carried by a 560-573 699 0.86
specimen at a standard test temperature of 60°C. The flow is measured as the
“The ab ov e pr oc ed ur e is re pe at ed on sp ec im en s pr ep ar ed wi th ot he r va lu es of bi tu me n
deformation in units of 0.25 mm between no load and maximum load ‘carried by ab ou t 15 or 8. 0 pe rc en t bi tu me n by
specimen during stability test. (The flow value may also be measured by deformali content, in
to
su
ta
it
l
ab
mi
le
x,
in cr
Th e
em en
bu
ts
lk
,
de
sa
ns
y
it
0.
y,
5 pe
pe
rc
rc
en
en t
t,
air
ou t
vo id s, vo id s in mi ne ra l ag gr eg at es an d
sveight of us in g th e fo ll ow in g re la ti on sh ip s.
units of 0.1 mm). In this test an attempt is made to obtain optimum binder content fo
aggregate mix type and traffic intensity. voids filled with bitumen are calculated
;
. ‘The apparatus consists of a cylindrical mould,
Percent Air Voids
10.16 cm diameter and 6.35 cm
with a base plate and collar. A compaction pedestal and hammer are used to vy, = G2Se «100 (6.13)
specimen by 4.54 kg weight with 45.7 cm height of fall. A sample extractor is Gi
extrude the compacted specimen from the mould. A breaking head is used (0. it y of th e sp ec im en
specimen by applying a load on its periphery perpendicular to its axis in @ Here Gm = bulk density or ma ss de ns
machine of 5 tonnes capacity at a rate of 5 cm per minute. A dial gauge ec if ic g r a v i t y of m i x t u r e
e serv es as fl ion G, = theoretical sp
guid e rods of the test ing mac hin to mea sure the deformat!
low met er
specimen during loading.
The coarse aggregates, fine aggregates and filler materi
be
mixed in such a way that the final mix after lesiding has eattien eas :
range as given in Table 6.9. Approximately 1200 g of the mixed aggregates i g h t of c o a r s e a g g r e g a t e it t o t a l m i x
where W, = percen t b y w e
are taken and heated to a temperature of 175 to 190°C. The bitumen 1s of f i n e a g g r e g a t e in t o tmix
a l
= per cbey w
n eti g h t
W2
it um en (s ay , 3. an th e re qu ir ed qu an ti ty of th e fir st tri al per ceM ea of f i l l e r in t o t a l m i x
(cepts of 512 or
1 4.
to 0 14
pe5°
rcC d
ent by weight of material aggregates) is added t0 the W5 = p e r c e n t b y w e i g h t
‘garegates and thoroughly mixe d atthe desired temperature of 154 t0 160°C. TW b y w e i g h t o f b i t u m e n i n t o l l mix ;
is jaced in a pre-heated mould and compac ted by a rammer with 50 blows on eithet Wa, = p e r c e n t t e ,
oars ef c a g g r e g a
epee ot 8 to 149°C. (Suitable heating, mixing and comp Gy = Apparent speci i f i c g r a v i t y o
clase i ing upon ac ti ng te mp e! Reet
the grade of the bitumen). The weight of the mixee #
G2 = Apparent specific gr av it y of fi ne ag gr eg at e
n for the preparation of the specimen may be suitably altered to obtain 4°
320 HIGHWAY MATERIALS

Apparent specific gravity of filler

i
2
BITUMINOUS PAVING MIXES
G4 = Specific gravity of bitumen a2
(VMA) (ii) Bitumen content corresponding to maximum unit ‘weight.
Percent Voids in Mineral Aggregate
(iii) Bitumen content corresponding to the median ofdesigned
VMA = Vy+Vb in total mix (4%).
limits of percent air voi
squat si ts
Here Vy = volume of air voids,% ‘The Marshall Stability value, Flow value and percent Voids Filled with Bitumen at the
average value of bitumen content are checked with the Marshall mix design
Vp =
volume of bitumen, % = Gm = Ms criteria/specifications, given in Table 6.11.
4 Table 6.11 Marshall Mix Design Criteria for Bituminous concrete
Percent Voids Filled with Bitumen (VFB)
Test property Specified value
Marshall Stability, kg 340 (minimum)
Flow value, 0.25 mm units I 8016
Air voids in total mix, Vv% 3105
, The ave;rage value of each of the above Propertiei s are
found fe Voids filled with bitumen, VFB% 75 to 85
different bitumen contents. Graphs are plotted with the bitume
and the following values on the Y-axis.
n cone ts Mixes with very high Marshall stability values and low Flow values are not desirable
me as the pavements constructed with such mixes are likely to develop cracks due to heavy
di Marshall stability value moving loads , if the pave ment s comp onen ts permi t relat ively high defle ction value s.
(ii) Flow value
Example 6.3
(iii) Unit weight Find the opti mu m bi tu me n co nt en t of a mi x, co ns id er in g the da ta pl ot te d in Fig . 62 7.
(iv) Percent voids in total mix (Vy) Solution
Here the optimum bitumen contents corresponding to maximum values of stability and
unit weight are 5.5 and 6 percent respectively, from Fig. 6.27.
(v) Percent voids filled with bitumen (VFB)
‘Typical plots of these are shown in Fig, 6.27. content corresponding to 4% air voids in total mix is 5.8 percent.
Bitumen
Hence the optimum bitumen content for the mix design is the average of the three
Ee * values
g 000 4 20] 4 5.546458 .8 percent
= q 5 3
210 Fe= ngg, to 5.8 pe .r ce nt bi tu me n is 15 , wh ic h is sa ti sf ac
per the design criteria.
to ry as
gs The Flow valui e corrreessppoonnddiin
n is 78 %, wh ic h is als o as
sool. = al = per Table 6.11. VF B at 5. 8% bi tu me
43°35 6S 73 sse—as y E24 mi no us mi x de si gn
. LS 5 55 45 Modified Hubbard- Fi el d me th od of bi tu
Rottunen ‘Z BTUMEN bs 7, prrusen F. C. Fi el d. Th e or ig in al me th od wa s
2 ‘The method was developed by P. Hubbard and of
ake Later the me th od wa s mo di fi ed fo rt he de si gn
A 8 intended to design sheet A si ze -
i w,4
ar se ag gr eg at e up to 19 mm
bituminous mixes having co
di am et er mo ul d an d at er co mp ac ti ng c o l n e t
.2 4 em
;‘ 58Pd of 15
‘The equipment consists mpression machine of capacity 5000 ae, Thee eS ane
including tampers and co
of internal diameter 14.6 or e t r o u a r i n c y
% Fs assembly consisting of a ring
e ‘c om pr es si on ma ch in e. assembl
extruded by applying load th ro ug h th
Nadas as 7s a :
Fig. 6.28. ba tc h we ig ht s ar e ca lc ul at ed for
;
io n of th e as re ga te s ai e e e se a n Tn e
For the desired bl en d an d gr ad at ph e a l e
Fig. 6.27 Bituminous Mix Design by Marshall Test o f c o m p a c t e d s i z e , 1 5 . 2 c m c i a n ’
t h e Pp
roduci j i m e n s
b i t u m i n o u s m a t e r i a l s ar e h e a t e d to
i t e s fi lt er a n d th e
The optimum bitumen co:
of the following three bitumen ‘en con nor
nite
ges oes is rt . s elahed agures
contents found from the
 WAY MATERTALS

sORVEN
"ORnee,
3000-— aa
‘en

aut a/em?
NiZL
Sie

UNIT WE!
TESTING RING ae

rs
Se
Sos
CLAMP. ITUMEN iad

TESTING MACHINE PLATFORM

od
% voins ToTar mix

AUGHEGATE vuiUs
Fig. 6.28 Modified Hubbard-Field Test Set-up

pe
temperature. mix placed in the preheated mould and tamped in two layers by

co
each with the specified tampers. The specimen is tamped again on the reverse
1

aoM
blows by each of the two tampers. Then a static load of 4536 kg is appli 0 50 60 70x 40 50 60 70
specimen for two minutes and the specimen is cooled in water to temperature ‘% BITUMEN ‘% errumen
37.8°C, maintaining the same compressive load. The specimen is then remo
and measured. Fig. 6.29 Mix Design by Modified Hubbard Method
The specimen is placed in the test mould assembly over the test ring the specified limits, mix is satisfactory. If both stability and void requirements are not
diameter of 14.6 cm, and the plunger is loaded on the top of the specimen. satisfied by a mix, the mix should be redesigned to correct the deficiency. The final
assembly is kept in a water bath maintained at 60°C for atleast one hour in posi
selection of the mix design should be based on economics and suitability of the mix for
the test requirements.
the compression machine. The compressive load is applied at a constant
deformation of 6.1 cm per minute and the maximum load in kg developed durit Example 6.4
is recorded as the stability value. The average stability value of all the speci data plotted in Fig. 6.29.
Find the optimum bitumen content of the mix considering
using a particular mix is found, The tests are repeated with other bitumen contents
Marshall method. ; Solution
The
_For each bitumen content the average value of specific gravity, percent voids it Bitumen content corresponding to 3.5 percent voids in total mix is $5 percent.
mix and percent aggregate voids are calculated. The following graphs are plowed Hubbard Field stability at 5.5 percent bitumen is 2300 kg and hence the mix is
satisfactory for very heavy traffic.
(i) Stability versus bitumen content
Hveem method of bituminous mix design
(ii) Unit weight versus bitumen content This met hod was dev elo ped by Fra nci s N. Hve em, Mat eri als and Res ear ch Eng ine er
(ii) Percent voids in total mix versus bitumen content. for the California Division of Highways.
: 10 cm in si de di am et er an d [2. 7 em
The equi stofs compaction mo ul d
(iv) Percent aggregate voids versus bitumen content. ea di ng co mp ac to r ca pa bl e of ex er ti ng & m r
height. ‘The mechanical peace is a kn of diat gauge nd
is t
Typical plots of these are shown in Fig, 6.29. of 35 kg/cm? under the tamper foo t. Th e sw el l tes t as se mb ly co ns
The following criteria f g eq ui pm en t an d co be si om et er ere sh ow n
specified by the Asphalt Institute for the design of bitumino
us mix. tripod, The Hyeem stabilometer loadin
Fig. 6.30 and 6.31.
Medium and light traffic [Hear
545-910
Stabilometer Test
of a cy li nd ri ca mo ul d h e r } p r a i s e s a c h e n
2-5 The stabilometer co ns is ts l
rest over & Lala oe,
ing pide
10 cm diameter and 6.25 cm height mould. Fluid pressure
th
encased in e ru bb er me mb ra ne wh ic h act s as an in ne r
 : liqilacement pump handle and
227. 4 and in incre
(|| A eston For
| APPLYING Lonp
A Yo SPECIMEN
of the pump is rotated at neo
a 0 Tkgiem” and
SS
va FLEXIBLE
}) GtAPinace sured to determine the bulk density. 7
eravio 60°C for two hours and placed in the cohesiometer. the cabinet of which i alse maiesained +:
—Liauiy UNDER
SMALL INITIAL a temperature of 69°C. “The led shots are allowed tw flow at a rate of 1890 g per rectase om
PRE SSI
1 matey or testi the specimen breaks, and the led shots in the bucket is weighed(L erems)
The stabilometer and cohesiometer value are calculated using the following formulae
Fig. 6.30 Haveem Stabilometer
5 = (61S)
THERMOMETER eriquerte
sTanowaRY mova l
PLATES
PLATES Here,
‘COUNTER
WEIgHT ‘SUPPLY .
S = relative stability st
peg? 2
Py = vertical pressure at 28 kg/cm? or at a total load of 2268kg.
‘SHOT RECEVER A
Ph = horizontal pressure corresponding to Py = 28 kg/em?,
PivoT BEARING
D2 = Displacement on specimen represented as number of tums of pump handle
to raise Ph from 0.35 to 7 kg/em*.
Fig. 6.31 Cohesiometer L
can be applied through the membrane. Thus providing a lateral con © ~ Woo2t= 0.01761") void
specimen. The confining fluid pressure is applied by rotating a handle and
by a pressure gauge. The vertical pressure is applied through the loading Here
the loading machine. C = Cohesiometer value
As per the requirement of the project, the aggregate gradation oe are chi L_ = weight of shots in gm
optimum bitumen content is then estimated using the Centrifuge Keros W
(CK.E.) method. (The percentage of kerosene retained in the aggregate = di
becca idth of
ela specimn in cm
a
soaked and centrifuged as specified is called C.K.E. value). Charts are av H_ = height of specimen in cm
the optimum bitumen content from the C.K.E. value. Using the specific gravity of the test specimens and the apparent specific gravity of
For mix design, specimens are prepared with three bitumen contents, one§ Aggregates the percent voids in the total mix is calculated.
to 1.0 percent above and one 0.5 to 1.0 percent below the estimated opt! The suitability of the hot mix is decided based on the design criteria given in
content. Two additional specimens are prepared using the estimated opt! Table 6.12.
Content, for the swell tests. The specimens are compacted at 110°C us! si gn Cr it er ia by Hv ee m Me th od
im p Table 6.12 De
ci rc ul ar ra m th e pr es su re of wh ic h in cr ea se s wi th ou t im
compactor, with a
kg/cm’, maintained for about 0.4 seconds and then released. Criteria {
| Ter vale i iaffie_[ Medium tac }_Heavy
‘The compacted swell test specimens are cooled at room temperature for
Biaced in the water pan for 24 hours after setting up the swell Moy Sabilometer value, R aE
Soepeomete aie.
=a 0 =2
arrangement. The swell is measured to the nearest 0.025 mm, and is rep Cf
am i
_ The stabilometer test specimens are kept at temperatur
in the Hveem Stabilometer. The e of 6 0 ° C an d h e e z
fluid pressure is raised to 0.35 *@
 HIGHWAY MATERIALS
326
u a t i n g t h e r e s i s t a n c e v a l u e ( R , e
p l o y e d i n e v a l
The stabilometer is also em g l e ) o y
REFERENCE 227
l , o m p a c t i o n 1 s d o n e u s i n g a k n e a d i n c o m y V a
g r a d e m a t e r i a T h e c in
su b
s . A f t e r t h e c o m p a c t i o n , a l o a d i s a p p l tt
i e g * i 7. Terzaghi , K. an d Pe ck R. B., “S oi l Me ch an i ;
kg per cm ” p r e s s u r e , 1 0 0 t i m e o r c e e e , 9 ics in Engineering Practices”, John
x u d a t i o n p r e s s u r e r e q u i r e d t o f Wiley& Sons.
g . p e r m i n u t e t o r e c o r d t h e e
k
e s o n o t e d p e r m i t t i n g t h e s p e c i m e n t o n S O u t o f in g Soil Classificati Per
s i o n p r e s s u r 1 s a l ew of En gi ne er
specimen, Expan ain in . 8. Lin, T. K. . “A Re vi
15 6, HR B, Wa sh in gt on : ification Systems”, Highway
for 16 to 20 hours. Research Record
l o m e t e r res i s t a n c e R - v a l u e s i s d e t e r m i n e d b y p l a c i n g t h e s p e c i 9, IRC, “Guide Lines for the Design of Flexible Pavement”, IRC : 37-1970, Indian
The stabi
stabil o m e t e r and app l y i n g the la t e r a l a n d v e r t i c a l p r e s s u r e s a s s p e c i f i e d , The Reval, f Road Congress.
c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e f o r m u l a :
soil is 10. BSI, “Methods for Sampling and Testing of Mineral Aggregate, Sands and Fillers”,
BS : 82, British Standards Institution.
ae
R 11. /SI. “Indian Standards Specification for Coarse and Fine Aggregates from Natural
| EL Sources for Concrete” IS : 383, Indian Standards Institution.
D, j }
12. IRC, “Standard Specification and Code of Practice for Construction of Concrete
Here,
Roads”, Indian Roads Congress.
13. ISI, “Indian Standards Methods of Test for Aggregates for Concrete” IS : 2386,
Py = vertical pressure applied (11.2 kg/cm’). Indian Standards Institution.

Ph = horizontal pressure transmitted at Py = 11.2 kg/cm’. 14. Knight, B. H. and Knight, R. C., “Road Aggregates, Their uses and Testing”.
Edward Amold Co., London.
Dz = displacement of stabilometer fluid necessary to increase the 15. ECAFE, “Report of the Seminar on Low Cost Roads, and Soil Stabilization”,
of e
pressure from 0.35 to 7 kg/cm”, measured in number of revolutions New Delhi, 1958.
calibrated pump handle. a 16. IRC, “Recommended Pract ice for Bitu mino us Penet ratio n Maca dam" , India n Roads
R-value of soil is used in the California Resistance value method of pavement desi Congress.
given in Art. 7.3.4. Br 17. Nevellie, A. M., “Properties of Concr ete”, Sir Isaac Pitma n and Sons Ltd., Londo n.

18, DSIR, “Bit umin ous Mater ials in Road Const ructi on”, HMSO , Londo n.
6.5 PORTLAND CEMENT AND CEMENT CONCRETE ; 1202- 1209,
ISI, “Indian Standard Meth ods for Testi ng Tar and Bitum en”, IS
19,
Portland cement is used in the construction of cement concrete pavements. ca Indian Standards Institution.
concrete pavements are considered to be the highest pavement type which 20. ISI, “Indian Standards Specification for Cutback Bitumen", IS : 217, Indian
heavy traffic even under adverse subgrade and climatic conditions. Standards Institution.
for Roads Tar", IS : 215, India n Stand ards
Portland cement is also being used in soil-cement stabilization for thent¢ CO
21. ISI, “Indian Standards Specification
cour ses. The prop erti es of cem ent ‘and ceme Institution.
stabilized sub-base and base
the mix design details of cement concrete are beyond the scope of this 22. /SI, “Indian Standards Speci ficat ion for Pavin g Bitum en”, IS : 73, 1961.
have not been included here, 23, “Mix Desig n Meth ods for Aspha lt Coner ete and Other Hot Mix Types ”, The
Asphalt Institute, U.S.A.
En gi ne er in g” . M c G r a w - H i l l
24, Wallace, H. A, and Martin, J. Ro. “Asphalt Pavement
REFERENCES
Book Co., U.S.A.
oR ¥ Construction, Water proofing and
\. Yoder, E, J., “Pr inc ipl es of Pav eme nt Des ign ”, Joh n Wil ey and Son s: New er ASTM, “Bituminous Materials
for Highway
, A m e r i c a n So ci et y fo r Te st in g an d
S t a n d a r d s , Pa rt Il
Roofing Soil" ASTM Se
. DSIR,“Soil Mechanics for Road Engineers” H.M.S.O. London. Materials. n d e r
we

i n g M i x t u r e s w i t h V a r y i n g 3 B i
3. Kerbs, R. D. and Walker, r, R. D., ., “ti
“Highway Material”, iat", McGraw-Hill4 S. K, , “ B e h a v i i
o u r of B iit
t uum
m i
i n o u s
) ,
P a v
D
i
e
n g
p a r m e n t ‘o f Ci
J
vi l E n g i n e e r i n g
New York.
ty", Ph.D. Th es is ( U n p u b l i s h e d
. Khanna, SK. and Justo C. Y E. G., tt “Highw ay University of Roorkee. r s e ” .
T e s t i s Materialat
Sp ec if ic at io ns fo r 4 em As ph al ti c, C onc r e t e , S u r f a c e C o u
Manu
al) Nem Chand & Bros., Roorkee, ioe “Tentative
5. ISI, "Method of Test for Soils”, IS : 2720, 1964-66 Indian Standards } st
. Taylor, D. W.,"Fundamental of Soil Mechanics", Asia Publishing HOM
 _
328 HIGHWAY MATERIALS,

PROBLEMS
" 7 yh bd G PROBLEMS
he ick aviour 329.
1. Why is it important for a highway engineer to study
2 Enumerate the iden 13. What are the different types of bituminous mate
are “he desirable properties of subgrade soil * Under what circumst
rials used in road construction ?
ances each of these materials is preferred ®
classification tests of soils.
14, Discuss the desirable properties of bitumen, Compare tar and bitumen
. Indicate the main features of Unified and H.R.B. classifi ication systems,
vw
15. What are the various tests carried out on bitumen
their advantages and limitations. ? Briefly mention the principle
and uses of each test.
3. Discuss the suitability of the following soils as a subgrade material with pares 16. List different types of cutbacks. When are these used ? Discuss in brief the testa
reference to stability, volume change, drainage and frost action : 2 carried out on cutback bitumen ?
GW, SM, SU, MH CL, OH, A-I-a, A-2-7, 17. Explain the uses of emulsion. How are they prepared ? Discuss in brief the tests
A-3, A-4 (8), A-S (11) A-6 (3), A-7 (20) carried out on emulsion ?
4. The result of sieve analysis of a soil are given below, 18. What are the desirable properties of bituminous mixes ? What are the steps in
bituminous mix design ? Discuss briefly ?
Sieve size, mm _| Percent passing 19. Explain brieflythe Marshall method of design.
on if 20. Explain briefly the modified Hubbard Field method of bituminous mix design.
0.60 15 21. Explain briefly the Hveem method of bituminous mix design.
0.42 10 x .
0.06 0
(a) Classify the soil (i) Unified and (ii) HRB soil classification systems.
(b) Discuss the suitability of the soil as a subgrade material.
5. The properties of a subgrade soil are given below
7 Liquid limit = 75%
j Plastic limit = 55%
Passing No. 200 sieve = 70%
(a) Determine the Group Index and classify the soil by HRB soil
system.
(b) Discuss the suitability of the soil as a subgrade material.
. What are the applications and limitations of shear, bearing and penetration
- Discuss the principles, applications and limitations of
direct shear,
unconfined compression test.
. Explain the plate bearing test procedure and h
made for a different plate size and for acco
o w co rr ec ti on s fo r poke
unting for worst moisture °:
- Explain CBR and the test procedure for labora
Tesults of the test obtained and in t o r y and field tests.
terp reted ?
+
10. Explain the desirable Properti
es of aggregate to be used inin dilaisferent
Pavement construction.
|. What are the various tests for judging the
s
Objects of carrying out each of these tests and thu i t a b i l i t y o f r o a d stones
eir advantages and lt
2. Explain briefly the principle of the
desirable values of the test results.
v arious tests on road stonesi
A
 INTRODUCTION 331
%) Chapter 7 Based on the vertical alignment and the environmental conditions of the site, the
pavement may be constructed over an embankment, cut or almost at the ground level
Design of Highway Paveme itself, It is always desirable to construct the pavement well abuve the maximutn level of
the ground water to keep the subgrade relatively dry even during monsoons.

7.1.2 Types of Pavement Structure

Based on the structural behaviour, pavements are generally classified into two
categories :
(i) Flexible pavements
(ii) Rigid pavements
Flexible pavements
i
lexible pavements are those, which i on the whole have low or negligible flexural
7.1 INTRODUCTION sea and are rather flexible in their structural action under the loads, The flexible
avement layers reflect the deformation of the lower layers on-to the surface of thebe
iest

7.1.1 Objects and Requirements of Pavements Thus if the lower layer of the pavement or sol subgrade is undulated. the ee
ce nin

wement surface also gets undulated. A typical Mexible pavement consists of four
rr o

The surface of the roadway should be stable and non-yielding, to allow th Eaiponcies : (i) soil subgrade (ii) sub-base course (iii) base course and (iv) surface
Nees

wheel loads of road traffic to move with least possible rolling resistance. course. (See Fig. 7.1 a).
surface should also be even along the longitudinal profile to enable the fast ve SURFACE COURSE
move safely and comfortably at the design speed. The earth road may not be able’ BASE COURSE
any of the above requirements, especially during the varying conditions of SUB-BASE COURSE
and the weather. At high moisture contents, the soil becomes weaker and SOIL SUBGRADE
yielding under heavy wheel loads, thus increasing the tractive resistanc sof t
unevenness and undulations of the surface along the longitudinal profile of (0). FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Causes vertical oscillations in the fast moving automobiles,
Consumption and the wear ofthe vehicle components, resulting in a consid inc rea sin g t l
in the vehicle operation cost. Apart from this uneven pavement surfac era ble CEMENT CONCRETE SLAB
e k YE ENESCO
HESS S
discomfort and fatigue to the passengers of fast moving vehicl eo mds.
pparem
Coe bake Chae
es
in order to provide a stable and even surface for the traffic, the and cyc lis ts.
roadway is P SoIL suscnave
@ suitably designed and constructed pavement structure.
Thus a pavement (b) RIGID PAVEMENT
few layers of pavement materials is constructed over a prepared soil subgradeto $
a carriageway. Fig. 7.1. Co mp on en ts of Fle xib le and Rig id Pav eme nts
or com pre ssi ve st re to
ss the
es lower
it ver tic al
‘The pavement carries the wheel loads and transfer the load stresses through The fl ex ib le pa ve me
n
nt la
tr
ye
an
rs
sf
tr
er
an
th
sm
ro
it
ug h
the
the po i
in ts b ei granul larosteructure. A
e
area on the soil subg rade below. layers by grain to grai a r t yee | he re s
Thus the stresses transferred to the SUbB it} cted gr an ul ar st ru ct ur e co ns is ti ng of st ro ng
i d e e
through the pavement layers are considerably lower than
ct ur e wi th or wi th ou t bi nd er ma te ri al s) ca n ta n
the contact aueregate, stru r ar ea an d th us fo rm s a go od fl ex ib le p o s e tli ne t The ee
neem he ci gh ‘a wi de p b a
ef or e de pe nd s on the ‘o pe ef
spreading ability of this layer ther is one of the a ae t e faces
emenf
design factors, Bituminous concrete Lgenealliog Siee wa ithout
Other material s wh ic h fal l un de r th e gr ou p are .
ba se an d su b- ba se co ur se Mal et Bound
bituminous binder, granular a n s a g e e s
Macadam, cr us he d ag gr eg at e, gr av el , p e c
rs r i c h v
i e
e ‘u nd er ,
erti{ ca l co mp re ss iv e is ma xi mu r
pressive stress is maxiu essure under th e ab il it y0
an d is eq ua l to th e co nt ac t pr
tie wa a1 load

330
 339 DESIGN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS INTRODUCTION 3
cere larger area in the shape of a truncated cone, the layer has considerably higher flexur
al strength than the
distribute the se ayers. Therefore by taking fll advantage of the stress citing ean ee: However these bonded materials dso po il
ssess mk pias
pavel th as the cement concrete pavement
characteristics of the flexible pavement, the layer system concept was develope st
s, Therefore wh en this intermediate class of
oe are used in the base or sub-base co
According to this, the flexible pavement may be constructed in a number of layer and the. urse layer of the Pavements, they are call
top layer has to be the strongest as the highest compressive stresses are to be 5 on id pavement s. This third category of semi-rigid pavements ar either design ed
mets pavements with some correction factors to ed as
this layer, in addition to the wear and tear due to the traffic, The lower layers have to find the thickness requirem ents based
flexi! rience, or by using a new design approach. Th
up only lesser magnitudes of stresses and there is no direct wearing action due to trafiig ese semi-rigid pavement materials
loads, therefore inferior materials with lower cost can be used in the lower layers, on i resistance to impact and abrasion and therefore are us
ually provided with
lowest layer is the prepared surface consisting of the local soil itself, called the subgrade. avible p a v e m ent su rf ac e co ur se.
typical cross section of a flexible pavement structure is shown in Fig. 7.1 (a); this
of a wearing surface at the top, below which is the base course followed by the sub-base 7.1.3 Functions of P a v e m e n t C o m p o n e n t s
course and the lowest layer consists of the soil subgrade which has the lowest stability v a l u a t i o n
among the four typical Nexible pavement components. Each of the flexible pa ‘Soil Subg r a d e a n d it s E
layers above the subgrade, viz. sub-base, base course and the surface course may consi i le is a layer of natural soil prepared to receive the layers of pavement
one or more number of layers of the sameor slightly different materials and specifications, me over it. The loads on the pavement are ultimately received by the soil
subgrade for dispersion to the earth mass. It is essential that at no time, the soil subgrade
Flexible pavements are commonly designed using empirical design charts or equationg on the top of the subgrade is
taking into account some of the design factors. is overstressed. \t means that the pressure transmitted
There are also semi-empirical and
theoretical design methods. 5 within the allowable limit, not to cause excessive stress condition or to deform the same
beyond the elastic limit. Therefore it is desirable that atleast top 50 cm layer of the
Rigid pavements subgrade is well compacted under controlled conditions of optimum moisture content
Rigid pavements are those which possess note worthy flexural strength or and maximum dry density. It is necessary to evaluate the strength properties of the soil
flea subgrade. This helps the designer to adopt the suitable values of the strength Congr
rigidity. The stresses are not transferred from grain to grain to the lower layers as in
for design purposes and in case this supporting layer does not come upto
ease of flexible pavement layers. The rigid pavements are made of Portland cen expectations, the same is treated or stabilized to suit the requirements.
Concrete-either plain, reinforced or prestressed concrete. The plain cement concrete slabs
are expected to take-up about 40 kg/cm” flexural stress. The rigid pavement has the slab Many tests are kno wn for mea sur ing the str eng th pro per tie s of the s e a c h
ati on in the desi gn. Som e of =
action and is capable of transmitting the wheel load stresses through a wider area below, the test are empiri cal and are use ful for thei r cor rel
str eng th test s for the eva lua tio n of soi
The main point of difference in the structural behaviour of rigid pavement as compared have been standardised for the use. The com mon
the flexible pavement is that the critical condition of stress in the rigid pavement is subgrade are :
maximum flexural stress occurring in the slab due to wheel load and the temper California bearing ratio test
changes where-as in the flexible pavement it is the distribution of compressive stress
e: California resistance value test
As the rigid pavement slab has tensile strength, tensile stresses are developed due to the
bending of the slab under wheel load and temperature variations. Thus the types of Triaxial compression test and
stresses developed and their distribution within the cement concrete slab are quite
different. The rigid pavement does not get deformed to the shape of the lower surface Plate bearing test.
it can bridge the minor variations of lower layer. These tes ts ha ve be en ex pl ai ne d in det i
ail l i
int Ch ap te r 6 an d i
in the bo ok ghwhway
HiHig
‘The cement concrete pavement slab can very well serve as a wearing Materials Testing by the authors.
su rf ac e as we ll ‘ the empirical
effective base course. Therefore usuall
ly the rigid pavement structure consists of California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test is a penetration os el Lathes caer
base or sub-base-course may be provided (see Fig method of flexible pavement design. The CBR testis carried out eMer Teg
on prepared specimens or in the field by taking in-situ 5 si ponent materials.
carried out to evaluate the strength of other flexible pavement
This test is used in
Hveem onstabionet
California resistance value is found by using based so!
4n empirical method of flexible pavement design i il strength test, still the test
_ Though triaxial rest is considered as the most pera i is because only a few
iS not very commonly used in structural design of pavemen's:
theoretical methods make use of this triaxial test results. scarps wane

The plate bearing testis carried out using a relatively Mies ment layers. The plate
the load supporting capacity of supporting power °
 peSIGN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS
3M
ining the the elastic modulusus OF DESIGN FACTORS
«used for determining of subgra
subgr di ang
ade = 335
bearing test iS used for de te bearing tests are used in flexible lypavem s i s b y i n c
h e p l a t h o d b a s e d o n l a y e r s y s t e m a n a ent yee
layers ie al ‘and the me on
¢ s o f t
n a t i o f m o d u l u s o f s u b g r a d e r e a c t i o n i n - M e t ,
ey E ued for t ; h e d e t e r m i
est is US d ’ s a p p r o a c h .
7.2.1 Factors to be considered in Design of Pavements
s i s b y W e s t e r g a a r
mantal ly
a n d t h e i r E v a l u a t i o n pavement design consists of two parts :
Su hb ase a n d B a s e C o u r s e s
ar e a; 7 (i), mix design of materials to be used in each pavement component layer
These layers mad e of bro ken sto nes , bou nd or unb oun d
: :
sub-base course a layer ver of of stabilized soil or ;
selected granular soil is also seid times (ji) thickness design of the pavement and the component layers.
s o u s e d as a s u b - b a s e o r s o l i n g c o u r s e , H o S o m
s
place b o u l d e r s t o n e s or b r i c k s a r e a l s o j } e v e r t e
s e s m aller size graded agg r e g a t e s o r ‘The details of bituminous mix design are given in Chapter 6 and the design of soit-
e s i r a b l e to u
sub-base cour s e , it is d
bou lde r sto ne sol ing cou rse of bri ck on ed Mike s aggregate mixes and stabilized soil mixes are given in Chapter 9 ofthis book. The design
or soft aggregates instead of larg e factors and methods for the structural design of flexible and rigid pav ements =
course, as these have no pro per int erl ock ing and the ref ore hav e les ser resi stan Re $0ln g
presented in this chapter.
into the weak subgrade soil when wet. When the subgrade consists offine gnined oft
when the pavement carries heavy wheel loads, there is a tendency for these boulder ad The various fact6rs to be considered for the design of pavements are given below :
or bricks to penetrate into the wet soil, resulting in the formation of undulations and (i) Design wheel load
Sub-base course primarily has the similar fini

|
pavement surface in flexible pavements.
as of the base course and is provided with inferior materials than of base cot Th (ii) Subgrade soil
functions of the base course vary according to type of pavement. & (iii) Climatic factors
Base course and sub-base courses are used under flexible pavement primarily to (iv) Pavement component materials
improve the load supporting capacity by distributing the load through a finite thickness.
(vy) Environmental factors
Base courses are used under rigid pavement for :
(i) preventing pumping
(vi) Special factors in the design of different types of pavements.

' (ii) protecting the subgrade against frost action.

Thus the fundamental purpose of a base course and sub-base
The thickness design of pavement primarily depends upon the design whee! load.
Higher wheel load obviously need thicker pavement, provided other design factors are the
same. While considering the design wheel load, the effects of total static load on each
stress transmitting medium to spread the surface wheel load co ur se is to p r o v wheel, multiple wheel load assembly (if any, like the dual or the dual-tandem whee! loads).
s in such manner as contact pressure, load repetition and the dynamic effects of transient loads are to be taken
Prevent shear and consolidation deformations.
: into account. As the speed increases, the rate of application of the stress is also increased
lua ted by sui tab le str eng th or stab ilit y resulting in a reduction in the pavement deformation under the load; but on uneven
‘es i laatee beaand bas e cou rse lay ers may be eva
ring, CBR or stabilometer test. Each test has its own advantages Pavements,”the impact increases with speed. Some of the important design factors
limitations. 2 Some tim ies thes al associated with the traffic wheel loads have been explained in the subsequent article.
characteristics, Se layers are evaluate d in
i terms gf pressure distribution
Wearing Course an
d its Evaluation
maTaher ete wevaeriing course is
i to give a smooth riding surface t
Saree
offers a watertight lve ang eS UP Wear and tear du
pa ray base cours
e as well as
eee
h a t a
is ki
e tothe traffic. ul ae rent,
wearing course. In rigid pavements
the cemen
, t OF
loyed as wearin
Plans and equipment an} one ‘ype of surface d th ‘Among the climatic factors, rain fall affects the moistu
epends upon the availabilty of ™ © Pavement layers. The daily and seasonal variations in temperature has <2 NTT
i tes
t
the bituminou f or evaluati
s Mixes Use
© design and performance ofrigid pavements and bi tuning Pav inthe subgrade and
d

The stress distri buti oie reme! materials and their

istribution characteristics of the pavemed
qatSterist ials used. The fatigue behaviour of these
cs of the sematercondi Ne
ility under adver tions of weather shoul
 DESIGN O F H I G H W A Y P A V E M E N T S ,
336
fa ct or s su ch as he ig ht of e m b a n k m e n t an d it s fo un d
DESIGN FACTORS. =
e n v j r o n m e n t a l
ta bl e, et c. af fe ct th e Be k
‘T h e
ing. depth of su bs ur fa ce w a t e r
tu mi no us bi nd er an d th e pe rf
aegh of Tee c o k e of th e bi = vertical stress at depth z
in p a v e ment te mp er at ur e i: c h
e depends eon st th e va ri at io ns e d a l y
e
eea or re ss es in ri gi d p a v e m e n t s d e p e n d on th p= surface pressure

in th e m a x i m u m di ff er en ce in t e m p e r a t u r e
a e ur e in th e re gi on an d z = depth at which o; is computed
e p a v e m e n t s l a b .
aa potem of th a = radius of loaded area
nt ma te ri al s, th e fo rm at io n of
In the case of semi-rigid pavemen and the fatigue behaviour i Using the above equation the variation of vertical stress with depth is plotted as given
propogatio
d the mode of
k s
vndions of hair crac ar e to be s t u d i e d b e f o r e a r r i v i n g at a r a t i o n a l me g in Fig. 7.3.
for the semi-rigid pavements. Contact pressure
‘As seen from the Fig, 7.3 the influence of tyre pressure is predominating in the upper
7.2.2 Design Wheel Load layers. Ata greater depth the effect of tyre pressure diminishes and the total load exhibits
1 considerable influence on the vertical stress magnitudes. Tyre pressure of high
The various wheel load factors to be considered in pavement design are magnitudes therefore demand high quality of materials in upper layers in pavements. The
(i) Maximum wheel load total depth of pavement is however not influenced by the tyre pressure. With constant
tyre pressure, the total load governs the stress on the top of subgrade within allowable
(ii) Contact pressure limits.
(iii), Dual or multiple wheel loads and equivalent single wheel load VERTICAL STRESS kg/cm”
(iv) Repetition of loads p46 8 wo 2 14
Maximum wheel load
_ The wheel load configurations are important to know the way in which
given vehicle are applied on the pavement surface. Typical wheel load confi 36 , rakg/em*

DEPTH em
tractor trailer unit of a heavy duty vehicle is shown in Fig. 7.2. \ \— 36t, 7kglem?
18t, 7kg/em
TANDEM ARLE
cy é
cS Fig. 7.3 Vertical Stress Distribution
rf ac e un de r the ste el tyr ed wh ee ls of bu ll oc k —
The stresses on the pavement su St
ng and ha rd ag gr eg at e fo the we ar in g
very high, This demands use of very stro layers of paverent
ss es at a lo we r
!yaacton — TRAILER 4 of the pavement . Ho we ve r the
cart wheel are negligibly small as
st re
the gr os s lo
di
ad
st
is
ri
ve
bu
ry
te d
sma
ov
ll.
er a ce sa r se a.
Le
Bu ty
r Uni t ee l lo ad is as su me d to be
Generally the ewh imprints of tyres with different load and inflat a eee e
Fig. 7.2 Whe el Con fig ura tio n of Tra cto r Tra ile Measurement ofth
For hi: 7
in sh ap e. Th re e te rm s ference
170) ie meen aximum legal axle load as specified by Indian Roads that co nt ac t ar ea s in ma ny ca se s are ell ipt ica l
the thickness ren tum eativalet single whee! load of 4085 kg. Tota (0 tyre pressure are :
co ur se . In fa er e n e t s : Ty re pr es su re in fl ue nc es th e 4 Tyre pressure
)
(Wsteaibgrriadnge mass eeu the magnitude of the vertical pressure at any.
w e l l as on th e to ta l 10 34 : Inflation pressure and
'u Po n
Thebaseeqduatiomon mot Vertical stress th e s u r f a c e p r e s s u r e as even
Contact pressure n
g at io ns un de r a un if or ml y di s! T y r e pr es su re an d in fl at io
on Boussine g ’ s th eo ry i ‘o mp ut
iven by : Theoretically, all these terms sh ou ld m e a n th e sa me e i
e n g , yr e pi pe mo re th an {T E
lire.mean exactly the same. The contact Presai™ Sigsmie wea wien he TE
’_ Pressure when the tyre pressure is less than 7 Le ‘by the relationship
Ws Zz
pli=—— Pressure exceeds this value. Contact pressure can
[ zl
 338 DESIGN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS,
DESIGN FACTORS
= Load on wheel 339
Contact pressure ~ Contact area or area of imprint he depth of d/2 each wheel lo
vale adits due to eac ad P acts independently
h load begins to overlap. At dept and after this poit
h 2 and above, actos
The general variation between the tyre pressure and measured Contact , stinreesttij eaare due to the effect of both wheels as the area of overlap is cons
shown in Fig. 7.4.
ses due to the dual wheels at a
ny depth greater th
i d e r a b l e . So th e
total alent to a single wheel lo an 28 is considered to be
ad of magnitude 2P, though this
aly greater than the stress due to stress is likely to be
si the dual wheels.
Equivalent Single Whe e! Loa d (E SW L) may be det erm ine d bas ed on e t h r equi
deflectio n or equ iva len t str ess cri ter ion . Mul tip le whe el loa ds are con ver ted to ES WL

TYRE PRESSURE
and this Value is used in pavement design,
‘Suppose a dual whe el loa d ass emb ly cau ses a cer tai n val ue of m a x i s Asp
at a particular depth Z (say, depth equal to the thickness of the pavement). As per
deflection criterion the ES WL is tha t sin gle whe el loa d hav ing the sam e
which produces the same value of maximum deflection at the depth Z. Similarly by
coset

stress criterion , the ES WL is the sin gle whe el loa d pro duc ing the sam e val ue of
CONTACT PRESSURE maximum stress at the desired depth Z as the dual, The ESWL is usually determinedby
Fig. 7.4 Relationship between Tyre and Contact Pressure the equivalent stress criterion using a simple graphical method.
The ratio of contact pressure to tyre pressure is define A straight line relationship is assumed between ESWL and depth on log-log scales
d as Rigidity Factor.
of rigidity factor is 1.0 for an average tyre pressure of 7 ke/em*. For determining ESWL the plot is made as shown in Fig. 7.6.
than unity for lower tyre pressures and less th Th is value
an unity for tyre Pressures higher
kg/em?. The rigidity factor depends upon the degree of tens

EQUIVALENT SINGLE WHEEL LOAD

the tyres,
io n de ve loped in
Equivalent single wheel load (ESWL)

ny&
'
'
'
1
(Loc scALe)
To maintain the maximum wheel lo
ad within the specified limit and to carry
load it is necessary to prov
ide dual wheel assembly to the rear axle
In doing so the effect on the pavement t s of the road
equal to two times the load on hrough a dual whee l assembly is obvi
depth below the pavement surfaca n y o n e wheel. In other words, th
e pressure
e cannot be obtained by numerically
Caused by one wheel load. The effect is in betwec adding the
carriedby any one wheel. See Fig. 7.5. In s mre single load and two ti ti 75
chchersion o
is assumed to be at an angle of 45°, tnr d e r to simplify the analysis. DEPTH Z (LOG SCALE)
the clear gap between the two wheels, § b the ant wheel load assembly, Fig. 7.6 Graphical Method for ESWL
anda be the radius ofthe circular conta e the spacing between the centers of the Two points A and B are plotted on the log-log graph with‘ntscoordinates of A (P, 42)
ct area ofan eee Then S = (d where any single wheel
#28): and B (2P, 2S). Line AB is a plot which is the locus of po WL for a dual
load is eva to a certain ee of dual wheels. To separate ESWL is
assembly, it is essential to estimate a design thickness of ie ayer vs used in design
obtained “at the assumed thickness from this graph. the estimated thickness then
Gilculations. Ifthe design thickness so obtained is equal to
th trials are made.
‘he ESWL calculations could be considered as corect. Otherwise y
reduced by be further
NT In Re av y tr uc ks an d tr ai le rs , th e to
trultiple wheels and tandem axles. Figure 7.2 shows ad on ea ch w h e e l
Ma ) Me SP sa wh ee ls an d
ing a0 Joad sarangement 350:
‘endem axles. It is possible to determine ESWL for
Example 7,1
igilltlate) ESWL of a dual wheel assembly earninSTg ing 2004 kg eae distance
he 85 of 15, 20.and 25 cms, Centre to centre 1
37 cm and dist
‘en the walls of the tyres = 11 em.
 DESIGN OF HI G H W A Y P A V E M E N T S DESIGN FACTORS 34
340
i structure fails with N; number
if the pavement 5 ast i Of y
repetitions oA Ps vg Send seh
similarly 1082 number of repetitions of Pz kg load can also case feitse
of rthe same
yement SUUCTFE, then PNj and P2N2 are considered equivalent. Ucleodtas pena
z procedure for evolving equivalent load factors for designing fenibse pevemern,
.
3 McLeod assumes that the pavement thickness which are Cesigned for 2 given whee!
2 i of such load during the Me of paveeeee For
oad would support one million repetition
.
Fi
ti
i 1m 20005
one load application, the pavement thickness so required is only one font: te pesement
thickness designed for 10° load repetitions.

:é ry
14 For computing equivalent load factors, the plot similar to the one gives m Fig The
oa considered by McLeod. One fourth the design thickness were ploced Sar various whee!
rit loads on vertical axis against one, loud application and total thickness (10%) oer
ton The respective repetitions are then reat
1 oy ploted on vertical axis drawn at 10° repetitions.
3035 from the figure for different loads at a pavement thickness of 25 cm (which is an av-reze
PecEMeSS. cm thickness for highway pavement on an ordinary soil subgrade}. The values so obuxined
xe given in Table 7.1. If the wheel load of 2268 kg (5000 Ib) and the filure number of
Fig. 7.7 ESWL Calculation (Example 7.1) repetitions for 25 cm thick pavement are taken as standard, the number of frilure
repetitions for higher wheel loads may be obtained from Fig. 7.8. The number of faire
Solution
repetitions for 2268 and 2722 kg are respectively 105,000 and $0,000 and so 2722 ig
Here P = 2044 kg; 2P = 4088 kg; d=11 cm;S=27cm may be considered equivalent to 105,000/50,000 = 2.1 times the load valoe of 268 ie
X and Y points are plotted on a log-lo h between ESWL
Hence the equivalent wheel load factor if this case is taken as 21 or say 2 The
and ventth given in Table 7.1.
areons
equivalent wheel load factors for various wheel load repetiti
(See Fig. 7.7). see Ee a
X has coordinates (P, d/2) (2044, 5.5)
Y has coordinates (2P, 2S) (4088, 54)
"

FLEXIDLE PAVEMES™ AMICKNESS Cem)

On the X-axis, points corresponding to pavement thickness of 15, 20 and 25 ems:
marand ke
vert
dical lines are drawn from these points to intersect the line
Horizontal lines are now drawn from these points on line XY to meet the Y-axis
bain thecorresponding ESWL values at these pavement thickness. ESWL valies

Repetition of loads MUMBERS ON UNES INDICATE

WHEEL LOAD INES
may be small, But dor ont OF subgrade due to a single application of whee nS
magniide of plastic and. laste deferment load there Wot REPENTIONS
permanent deformations Mr Gkfor mations and the accumulated unrece
Fig. 7.8 Repetitions and Equivalent Lod Fa
, re count Fo ea CEO
ongalent load factors are employed to convert aly wae SSE
ie for design purposes. the abors concept fF
of any particular wheel Salas State Highway Department of USA
‘strength of paveinents_ S the design repetitions of wheel loads.
 DESIGN OF H I G H W A Y P A V E M E N T S
M2 DESIGN FACTORS 343
Table 7.1 Equivalent Wheel Load Factors u e
g R a t i o ( C B R ) v a l
C a l i f o r n i a B e a r i n
| Equivalent to i @
Wheel | Repetitions to u l i
2268 kg (ii) Elast i c m o d
load kg | failure, number
e a r i n g r a t i o
California B t r e n g t h v a l u e s s o o b t a i n e d for the
i n e d i n a r t i c l e 6 . 1 . 8 . T h e s a s b a i n
i The t e s t h a s b e e n e x p l a n c e a n d d o n o t p r o v i d e
3175 22,500 relative s i g n i f i c a
t e s t e d a r e o f
3629_| 13,000 | 82 erials
u e s o f m a t e r i a l s u e d i n
neasure.
h o d s w h i c h e m p l o y t h e C B R s t r e n g t h v a l
4082 6,500 16.3
32.0
mdiaftfeeyrentare padveesmigennt melatyers.
4536 3,300
4990 1,700 c 62.0 Elas t i c M o d u l i i
s , l a s t i c m o d u l i i o f d i f f e r e n t
5443 1,000 105.0 Depending upon the design method the e
l o y e d f o r t h i s R e t e
i n g t e s t i s e m p
ma t e r i a l s a r e e v a l u a t e d. Mainly, plate bear t i o n
e r o d u l u s e l a s t i c i t y o r m o d u l u s o f d e f o r m a o f
Example 7.2 been expla i n e d i n a r t i c l e 6 . 1 . 8 . F u r t h m l c o m p r e s s i o n t e s t .
e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t r i a x i a
high way ma t e r i a l s m a y b
Calculate design repetitions for 20 years period for various wheel loads eq e s t s :
p l a t e b e a r i n g t
2268 kg wheel load using the following traffic survey data on a four lane road. o d u l i i v a l u e s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e d e t e r m i n e d b y
h e e l a s t i c
T Subgrade modulus m
Wheel Average Daily Traffic Percentage of total | (i)
Joads kg | _ (both directions) traffic volume (ji) Elastic modu li i of ba se co ur se an d su b- ba se co ur se ma te ri al s.
2268 13.17 Subgrade modu lu s is co mp ut ed fr om th e pl at e be ar in g te st da ta . Boussinesq's
2722 Total volume settlement equation for maximum ve rt ic al de fl ec ti on A at th e su rf ac e an d th e ce nt re o f a
3175 __| (consideration traffic growth) flexible plate is given by :
3629 215
4082 = Spe (72)
4536 4 Ez, ‘s

fl ex ib le lo ad ed pl at e of ra di us a. Es is the
Solution
Here p is the uniform pressure on the
modulus ofelasticity of the soil. a
Design repetitions for a period of 20 years calculated as given in Table 72 7
equivalent load factors have been taken from Table 7.1 If the load isis appliei d by me an s of a ri gi
igid d ci c i trc ul ar pl at e in
i st ea d of f fl exf l e
ib x le on e,
Z e is no t un if or ml y di st ri bu te d ‘an d so the th eo re ti ca l va lu e of
Pressure on th e su rf ac
maximum deflection A at the surface in this case is given by :
(Wheel
Yoads|, AD-T. | Peteemtage
ke. r | (both direction) | toad
fOr each
| 1.4.) [Number] Equivalent
| Years lof years| load Factors
A= 1.1spa @3)
E,
2268 21S x ——«13.17/100 x 365 x 20 i s co ns id er ed re le
Plate bearing test conducted with a mild steel p neds though inflate rubber tresva nt to the
2722-215 x —15.30/100 x 365 x 20 Condition of rigid plate as in Eq. 7.3. But the wheel loads aa th uniformly distributed
3175-215 x 11.76/10 x 365 x 20 nay be considered as flerible plate loading or loading
3629-215 x 14.11/00 x 365 x 20 sure,
4082215 x 621/100 x 365 x 20 8 ring test carried out
4536215 x 5.84/100_x 365 x 16 IF he level of design deflection is defined, then from the PIE ST ge recorded
20 32 © given soil subgrade with the plate of diameter = 28,
7 ___ Total estimated repetitions (two directions) = the test plots. Fram Eq. 7.3,
{ Design repetitions equivalents of 2268 kg eae load
per lane = a
Subgrade modulus Es = 1.18 e
7.2.3 Strength Characteristics of Pavement Materials anf tthe extending the definition of subgrade modulus, W7 esctoenrsgiadaerridneg ©it.as modulus
For desi he fe'saii z
t y of saat Parametofesroil subgrade in rigid Paver ram plate Bearin
‘Geek ne ce se’: it is required that the various pavement materials a exPpllge7ade reaction K. The computation ofthis g
materials used in prradid the design method employed for the pu ained in article 6.1.8.
indicated in article 6.1. 8. The general steno oo a ee a :
lues evaluat are:
 DESIGN OF H I G H W A Y P A V E M E N T S
MA DESIGN FACTORS
345
JB u r m i s t ee'
r 's cl an
Jastici moduliii of p a v e m e n t ma te ri al ia
s, ls ,
i eq ua ti on s g i v e n by Bu rm is te r
a ota caployel The displacement Frost A c t i o n

s as ti c Mo du lu s B y st action refers to the adverse effective due to frost heave, frost mehing or thaw
em
fee gyst co ns is ti ng of a p a v e m e n t la ye r of th ic kn es h wi th el Fro: alternate cycles of freezing and thawing. The frost action in general
over the subg ra de is gi ve n by : a the sociale .d with freezing temperature on pavement performance.
includes all
effec
«eas = _F2 (For flexible plate) The held water in subgrade soil forms ice crystals at some spots if the freezing
tures continue for a certain period. These ice crystals grow further in size if there is
tempera yous supply of water due to capillary action and the depressed temperature
A= 118 = . Fp (For rigid plate) a_continuo rr esuls in raising of portion ofthe pavement structure known as frost heave
unifo rm raisin g of pavem ent struct ure, the subgr ade suppor t is not
eae heave cases
iadvethe Fv ffect ed at this stage. Howe ver nonun iform heavi ng may cause dans e.
nt iincrease iinr te mp er at ur e wo ul d res ult i
in me lt i
in g or t tha win g ig of the frozen;
the ro ad bed . Th e loa d ca rr yi ng ca pa ci ty of the su bg ra de is
and radius of loaded area a, the value of displacement factor F2 is obtained. R i sels an d so ft en
dimensionless factor and depends on the ratio of modulii of elasticity of subgrade voids created by the melted ice crystals
oe rably decreased at this stage due to the
7
wa te r tr ap pe d in the th aw ed soi l be lo w the pa ve me nt . Un de r he av y
pavement E,/Ep as well as the depth of radius ratio, z/a. ae conse excessive ca us in g pr og re ss iv e fai lur e due to
ne the pavernent would deflect excessively de .
Thus using relationship between F2 and the ratio of pavement thickness to radi
veereased load ca rr yi ng ca pa ci ty of th e su bg ra
contact area, h/a the modulii ratio of subgrade and pavement material, Es/Ep is ce i th aw i
in n g g wh icw h i t h oc cu r a l te rn at el y du e to th e va ri at io n in we at he r
freezi ng an d H e e e e gr al f e e s
(See Fig. 7.22 given later). Since the value of E, is known, the value of elastic
ee undula ti on s an d co ns id er ab le da ma ge s to th e pa ve me nt .
me lt in g an d al te rn at e fr ee ze -t ha w cy cl es is c a l e d t h e ra st a c t i o n .
of the pavement Ep is thus obtained. sue to frost heav e, fr os t
s on wh ic h fr os t ac ti on de pe nd s ma y be br oa dl y cl as si fi ed as :
7.2.4 Climatic Variations ‘The variou s fa ct or
(i) Frost susceptible soil
The climatic variations cause following major effects.
(ii) Depresse d te mp er at ur e be lo w fr ee zi ng po in t
(i) Variation in moisture condition
i) Supply of water
(ii) Frost action (iv) Cover
(iii) Variation in temperature permeangbility
bution, freezi
The soil type, grain size distribelow and capil aty ea epsie n
frost action. The temperature point and ach ee gue ee
The pavement performance is very much affected by the variation in moisture an temperature determines the depth up to which frost actiot ae ‘grow orin solsize.sectioThen
frost. This is mainly because of the variation in stability and the volume of the ry action
soil due to these two effects, Variation in temperature generally affects the continuous Supply of water, the small ice crystals form
water due to the capi an ure content and the
materials like bituminous mixes and cement co supply of water may be from the ground
ncrete. The rate of heat transfer depends on soil density and text,TN beneat oe and colour
Variation in Moisture Content in the soil mass under consi the soil h the cOVeT-
Proportion of frozen moisture
of the cover affects the heat transfer from the atmosphere Sher than that under alight
Considerable variations in moisture con
dition of su bg ra de so il ar e li ke ly 4 iri n For example temperature under a black top pavem ent will beh
year, depending on climatic conditions
drainage conditions, type of
, soi il type ground water level and itsdurivanng@l Soloured pavement or base course.
pavement ani id shoulders. The surface water
‘ma y ente r the sub gra de eit One of the most effective and practical methods to ai
itis porous. 4 The subgraher thr oug h the
de moist ariationsp
vat
a
ato n, det te ee
the p a r e n d Water and frost action is to install proper p s u r f a
th
cee ddees i
i n
r a
e s
d s d e p t h , by :
table. The moisture movement ins ak
depend on f e
fluctuatio ns of ground
Construction of base, sub-base and top layeriit of suberadeiirnage wi os
movement. However, high i
moist subgrade le is also caused by capillary ion and ang
ac tion e erial with wat dra
et
variati
Pesular and non-frosdtinsgusceptibl rsmeat imatic cont
surface and sub-surface drainage system, Ud be controlled by Pro viding | ‘Ong way in withstan the adve cl ie to reduce
l a r y c u t - o f f . I t i a l s 0 P O S )
Providing a suitable capil iJized soil mix ay es.
Pact on pavements by soil stabilization. The SH ney and feet Oe
Sithstand the adverse climatic conditionsof alten for bas ideo soi
aitable stabilized soil mixes may be designe’ Cr. jke calcium COO. siwater
eves and even at the top layer of subsrade | TE ing temperate
lorie when mixed with subgrade soil lower iy,
sc These effects ce temporarily decreases the intensity Of
and will also be progressive and cum
 SIGN € WAY PAVEMENTS

¢ 1 climatic changes.
oat of the various
may cause ¢
sses of high magnitude are w e d h e r e :
induced m e t h o d
due to daily variations in temperature and co
nsequent i) c r o u p I n d l
e exx
Bituminous pavement become Soft in
f o r n i a B e a r i n g R a t i o m e t h o d
iT)
C a l i ;

o r n i a R v al u e o r s t a b i l o m e t e r methad
sion. it is evident that the desi «ily C a©l i f
gn and Performance of h o d
the subgrade, soil pavement Triaxial t e s t m e t
materials and , (iv)
e o d m e t h o d
(vy) McL 2
7.3 DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS (vi) B u r m i s t e r m e t h o d
ign methods, the group Index, CBR, Stabilometer and McLeod methods xe
a b i o a s n i e a r y e a r - ped
7.3.1 Flexible Pavement Design Methods
Cuot i
a e a k a Tehseted TrbiyaxiKaalnsatesst SmtaettehodHighis way
a e p
Department ee
r i c a l m e t h o d . Burm i s t e r m e t h o d is 2 t h e o r e t i c a l
As discussed earlier, the flexible pavements are
built with number of lay aon: as o n i t e m p i see
design process, it is to be ensured that under the application of load none of the sing elas t i c t w o - l a y e r t h e o r y .
overstressed. This means that at any instance no sect
subjected to excessive deformation to form a lo ion of the pavement
M e t h o d ue
cali zed depression or settlement. 7.3.2 G r o u p I n d e x
The maximum intensity of stresses p r o v i d e d a di sc us si on on th e pa pe r de al in g wi th th e Hi gh wa y Re se ar ct
1D. J. St ee l in 19 45
magnitude occurs
of load stresses reduces a it lower layers. in the top layer of the Pavement, : Board m e t h o d of so il cl as si fi ca ti on w h i cnclu
h id e d th e su gg es te d e u s A i p i n t a r o n
=
materials are used in top layers of flexib! le pavements. Hence the ‘superior p in a t c 6. 1. 6 th e gr ow in de x (0
based on Group Index values. As discussed s = oa p e c
me ri ca l eq us ti on
arbit index assigned to the soil types in nu s v a r y fe ri de ee d s
6. 1. s e e e e e
lic id Imit and plasticity index. Refer Eq. ta nt
er is th e so il s u b g r a d e co ns
1020. The higher the GI value, weak : 3
ea te r w o u l d be th e th ic kn es s re qu ir em en t a
volume, the gr
d fo r de
c a r te rm in
att e in g rthee pa ve me nt th
: ic kn es s
The desi; i chart for Group Index metho s
m e in th is me th od is di vi de d in ‘g ro up
given in Fig. 79. The traffic volu
Tate volume (commerciaj a l
l ve hi v
cle h i es ) [ N u m of
b e v
ver i
hi cl —
es

Medium 50
S0 t0
19 30
30 00
first the Gl va lu e of th e so il is
i s
To design —the pavement thickness by this method, Tight, medium or heavy 38
found, The anticipated traffic is estimated and is Se tes Fig. 79-b and the
indicated in Fig. 7.9-a. The appropriate design Cue Be und from the Group
‘otal thickness of pavement (surface, base and anyooaer's
Index design chart corresponding to the GI values
Discussion sical method based on
mae al y an empirical ™
(a) Empirical methods rae GI method of pavement design gered does not consider the sree
(b) Semi-empirical sical properties of the subgrade soil. is open to Index
or semi theoretical m
ethods Sharacteristics of the subgrade soil and therefore ® Chi only, The GreuP
(©) Theoretical methods Teliability of the design based on the index por
™ethod is illustrated by the following example.
Example 7.3 asd nd er ined
AE are
emi-theoretical.
NS own advantages and limitations, ComPutations. Each
There Soil subgrade sample collected from the site "=
8S Biven below :
 MS
DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS
349
- GL Equation
ran G1 = 020+ 0.005 a¢+ 0.01 bd
a = S0-35=15;b=s0-15=35
Here
c = 40-40=0;d=20-10=10

Gl value = 0.2 x 15+0+0.01 x35 10=3+3.5"65 say7

T h i c k n e s s D e t e r m i n a t i o n
pavement
. il be rated as poor from Fig. 7.9 (a) as the G.L. = 7. Traffic
tind a ties heavy. The pavement layers may be designed either using
ae
Fig. 7 . @ » - using the design chart given in Fig, 7.9(b,
From Design Chart (Fig. 7.9 b)
i(i).) Thickn Thi ess of sul b-base for GI of 7= 17 cm
(ji) Combined thickne ss of surface, base and sub-bas e course (using curve D for heavy
traffic) = 47 cm
Hence thickness of base and surfacing = 47 - 17= 30 cm
ee

Discussion
7 20” Pa 30 re a ‘ a
ee ican
t s feta
It may be seen here that the quality of sub-base and base Se
4:
THICKNESSES cm
considered in this method. The strength characteristics of the La Bap pe
() influence the thickness requirement. In this ered emp!
— Combined thickness of surtace, base and sub-base subgrade soil type and certain physical properties of the soil.
+ Thickness of surface and base,
California bearing ratio method
Fig. 7.9 Design Chart by Group Index value 4 R me th od
In 1928 California Division of Highways in the eo dade oe ie octetaforl
i) Soil portion passing Pavement design. The majority of design curves developed lateraePaso Wt Ot
0.074 mm sieve, percent = 50 curves proposed by O. J. Porter. At the beginning site rement design and adopted
(ii) Liquid Limit, percent = 40 coCBmiR nemeerthOfod USforA demasidegninsug rvmil
ey of the existing method of Pier oF advantages of
itary airport pavements. iis of CBR tests are explained in
(iii) Plastic Limit, percent = 20 CBR method is the simplicity of the test procedure. Detail
article 6.1.5,
Design the pavement sectio a i
n by grou
of over 300 commercial vehicles pe ip in de x method for the anticipated traffic The CBR tests were carried out by the California StateBieiry eatageaney De non

Solution
r day. ‘xisting pavement layers including subgrade, sie ich bekaved saison and ~
‘tensive CBR test data collected on pavement whic! correlating
the CBR value and #3
The Gi value could be calculated by either using Group hich failed, an empirical design chart was developed that a material
by the Eq. 6.1, In de x charts vide Fig. Pavement thickness. The basis of the design chart is A higher loawitd hneea dsgivaenthiCBI cker
: Tequired a certain thickness of pavement layer as a cover. ‘relating the CBR value Sisg
From GI Chart fot Mt layer to protect the subgrade. Design UNS COTTE sre beperd
f Dil Pavement thickness cover were developed by senting light and heavy Ue
(i) Numerical value trom Char
t 1 for LL = 40 and percent passing 0.07 [‘Partment for wheel loads of 3175 ke and 5443 eg pred by interpolation for
Sieve = $0, is equal to
3, tra f tM des ign cur ve for 40 82 kg wh ee
"Mle. The design curareveshsown in Fig. 7.1 ! loa d vee ,
(ii) Plasticity Index = LL
- PL = 49 ~ 20 ? == 2
0 pave shown tat thee ens ©
PI=20 and percent P
assing 0.07. ‘4mm sieve
20 . Numerical value from Ch i
lattes carted out by U.S. Comps of fat jintoaeerd.s ee Press andne C.BCBR.R.. aesva!
= 50, is equal to 3.5. ris'Ship between pavement thickness, whee!
Total of value from C
hart + Ch: art Il=3+3.5=
I possible t0 ext
6.5 sayGl=7 Curves 4 8RBe Of 10 to 12 percent. There ee
“S for various loading conditions, using the
 a
DESI G N OF H I G H W A Y P A V E M E N T S
DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEME
NTS,
35!
CALIFORNIA B E A R I N G R A T I O - p a r c e m e
2 o saw 2 ” «aw AUFOMAA BeAmOE 84n2 reBceay
° 7 yy 4 ser

sop —t—l+ v a l aa ie =
1175 09 WE
Cignt TRAFFIC) t
$ 20)
= |aog2ng WHEEL 8

i ii7
2 | t0so 5

33 5439 WHEEL LORD

Hy TRAFFIC)
(neaVY
88 ao] 3
z FS
& s0| 3
&
«|
0
PTOI

Fig. 7.11 C.B.R. Design Chart (Recommended by IRC)

Fig. 7.10 Design Chart (California State Highway Department) ‘Thus CBR method of flexible pavement design is based on strength parameter of
1 subgrade soil and subsequent pavement material.
= dpi 1
le7 5 1 / 2
pe een

IRC Recommendations
ald = *]
1 Some of the important points recommended by the IRC for the CBR method of design
p= PESP_AP (IRC : 37-1970) are given below :
CBR « (a) The CBR tests should be performed on remoulded soils in the laboratory. In-situ
However these expressions are applicable only when the CBR value of tests are not recommended for design purposes. The specimens should be prepared by
soil is less than 12 percent.
static compaction wherever possible and otherwise by dynamic compaction. The
standard test procedure should be strictly adhered to.
Here, t = pavement thickness, cm
(b) For the design of new roads, the subgrade soil sample should be compacted at
P = wheel load,kg OMC to Proctor density whenever suitable compaction equipment is available to achieve
CBR = California Bearing Ratio, percent the dry ety
this density in the field: otherwise the soil sample may be compactethed tosample
expected to be achieved in the field. In the case of existing roads, should
P = tyre pressure, kg/em? compacted to field density of subgrade soil (at OMC or ata field moisture conten).
ns tr uc ti on s th e C B R te st sa mp le s ma y be so ak ed n
in w t fr fo n v s
A = arofea contact, cm? (©) In new co im at e or wh en th e an ne t! V0
fstied before testing. Ho we ve r in ar ea s wt h ai d cl
The Indian Road Congress has recommended a CBR design chart for te r ta bl e is to o de ep to af fe ct th e su be ra de a d h e
India. Different curves A, B, C, D, E, F & G have been given based 08 th2® 50 cm an d th e wa te in g is a r e l o g ei.
commercial vehicles. See Fig. soil peeinpermeable bi tu mi no us su rf ac ,
7.11. This design chart is similar to the one folld ieprecimen be fo re ca rr yi ng ou t C B R te st . Wh er ev
s . ie
th e su bg ra de sh ou ld be de te rm in ed fr om th e e l d
Pavement Thickness Determinatio
n Molstr e co nd it io n of
e o f ne a e e e sh es ,
should be tested on eath Pe
i sa me
Pa) Atleast three samples ‘v ar ia ti on in a
Content. If th e m a x i
th
m
e
u m
de si gn CB R s h o u l be
d HF °C cpr values
=ants the specif ie d li mi ts , in CX !
yerage

sp ec if ie d li mi ts of ma x i m u m
up ES. “0S(Tfoher values 10 to 30 and 10% for values 3010 va ri at io n
the soil Subgrade, ted atleast upt98o10 100 percentoF
Construction over t
such that it
Procator ge 50 c m o f s u b g r a d e s h o u l d be c o m p a
his material cl
:thickness
value of the Sub-
base. Thickns ouldof bethe obtain ed from the design chart kn2
over the sub-cass ess sub-base course is the total th
 W A Y P A V E M E N T S
pesiGN OF HIGH DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVE
MENTS
382 a t e d b y t h e r o a d p o v e n e e 3 353
t r a f f i c t o b e c a
t i m a t e o f d l h e
v i e w t h e e x i s t i n g
? t r a f f i c
(An . should es » k kee e
e ppi nig n g i
i n n v i r
esign a e d t l e a s t P o h
- e be ma
e n t ‘
d
o
e
f m a j o r r o a d s s h o u l d b e d
cr
expecte id e S o v e r a s e s f o r c a t i a s a
i n g o r m u l a m a y b e u s e d i n s u c h c
rate Mi oe t h e f o l l o w f
perio P = 4100kg
traffic.
a= pent p = 6kg/em?
da y fo r de si gn (l ad en we ig ht > 3 t o r a 1
where A = num b e r of he av y ve hi cl es pe r fis ap 738Sem
da y at le as t co un t
t= v 4100 Sa |
| ——-—J|" =
es pe r
Pp = number of heavy vehicl
in cr ea se of h e a v y ve hi cl es
= annual rate of 7 . 5
o m m x a m p l e
b e t w e e n th e la st co un t an d th e ye ar of c a
E
n = numbe r of ye ar s obt ain ed fro m the pro jec t site and the CBR test s was
Soil subgrade sample was
construction. ti conducted at fie ld den sit y. The fol low ing wer e the res ult s :
e n d a y a v e r a g e o f h e a v y hi
The value of P in the formula sho u l d b e t h e s e v
l e , a y
Penetration mm | Load kg | Penetration mm | Load
found from 24 - h o u r c o u n t s . I f r e l i a b l e v a l u e s o f g r o w t h f a c t o r r is n o t a v a i l a b a v 0.0 00 3.0 56.5
a s . ‘ 3
of 7.5% may be assumed for roads in rur a l a r e 0.5 5.0 40 | 62.5
co ns id er ed in uni ts of he av y ve hi cl es (of la de n 1.0 16.2 5.0 752
(g) The traffic for the design is Ab 15 Wy [ends 89.0
exceedin g 3 to nn es ) per day in bot h di re ct io ns an d are di vi de d int o se ve n
G. The suitable design curve should be chosen from the Table given in the =i. 20 | 40.0 10.0 99.5
"i 25 48.5 125 | 106.5
(Fig. 7.11) after estimating the design traffic given in Eq. 7.6-c. The design
considered applicable for single axle loads upto 8,200 kg and tandem axle It is desired to use the following materials for different pavement layers.
14,500 kg. For higher axle loads, the thickness values should be further incr
(i) Compacted sandy soil with 7 percent CBR
When sub-base course materials contain substantial proportion of
(h)
size above 20 mm, the CBR value of these materials would not be valid for the (ii) Poorly graded gravel with 20 percent CBR
subsequent layers above them. Thin layers of wearing course such as surface dr (iii) Well graded gravel with 95 percent CBR ‘
open graded premixed carpet upto 2.5 cm thickness should not be counted:
(iv) Minimum thic knes s of bit umi nou s conc rete surf acin g may be take n as 5 em
total thickness as they do not increase the structural capacity as the pavement. 00 . Th e
T of co mm er ci al ve hi cl e as 12
The traffic survey revealed the present AD ent. The pavement construction is to
Example 74 annual rate of growth of traffic is found to be 8 perc
be completed in three years after the last traffic count.
by CB R me th od as re co mm en de d by IR C, us in all
g the
(i) design curve developed by California State Highway Department (a) Design the pavement section
four pavement materials.
(ii) design chart recommended by IRC
(b) Suggest alternate design without using poorly graded gravel.
(iii) design formula developed by the US Crop
s of Engineers Discuss the limitation of CB R me th od of pa ve me nt des ign int he lig ht of the abo ve
A eine ; Tesults.
day aries © kg whel load or medium light traffic of 200 commer Solution
Tyre pressure = 6 kg/em? CBR Value of Soil Su bg ra de A
Solution
I d plotfor issoilmadesubgrbetwe
sottine en load in kg versus pensation FOIE ay
() Using the desi ade as given in Fig. 7.12. Leads ©
omiaCBRState= 5%High(SeewayFig.Depa
Califand
h kgchartwheelof load rtme n at *t Correction) are 55 and 78 kg respectively.
thick fsie100 7.9) = 38° = 2
(ii) Usin, 5, Area of plunger of dia Sem = 19.6cm i
veces prea” tat recommended by IRC (se Fig. 7.10) for 204 Pressure at 2.5 mm penetration = 6 kp/em
55
cm. and using curve D and for CBR value = 5% the
ii) Using design
formula given in
Eq. |. 7.76.-6-a,
 DESIGN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS
DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS.
358
p is again used for CBR value of 7 percent. Pavement thickness of 40 cm is
curv ed above the compacted soil subgrade having CBR value of 7 perc
required al ness of this layer is 55 - 40 = 15 cm. Similarl en : an d hence the
sctual thi cr poorly graded gravel of CBR 20 percent and wey the thickress of pavement
couewe ‘cm and 8 cm respectively. ll gr ad ed gr av el of C H R 95
perc
‘The designed pavement section is shown in Fig, 7.13.

“gem BITUAINOUS SURFACING

oe ————21 cm
Bem WELL GRADED GRAVEL CBR =93%e {
40cm
18 cm POORLY GRADED GRAVEL CBR = 20% SSem

15 cm COMPACTED SOIL CBR =7%

TIS TIS TTS
a

PENETRATION. mm SOIL SUBGRADE COR= 4%

Fig. 7.12 Load-Penetration Curve (Example 7.5) (NOT TO SCALE)
Fig. 7.13 Pav eme nt Sect ion by CBR meth od (Exa mple 7.5)
'ssure a t tS 5 mm er :
penetration = 78
og ke/em 7 weiter gra ded gra vel as emp loy ed abo ve,
Pres Alternatively, is co ns id er ed not to use poo rly
would be as shown in Fig. 7.14.

@ em BITUMINOUS SURFACING
55. 100 ————————
Toe
196 * aa
70 4.0 percent it
CBR of SoilF at § mm 28:78100 3
196x105 ~ >8Percent
Adopt CBR value = 4.0 percent
Calculation of Design Thickness 15 cm COMPACTED SOIL CBR=7%/
of Different Layers
No
. of vehicles for design (fromi
Equation 16-0) is given by BR = 4% kes
SOIL SUBGRADE C
(3410) Fig, 7. 14 Al te rn at e Pa ve me nt Se ct io n
A= P4419 1999 [ibral Discussion on Limitations of the Method
i I t ma y be
= 3260 vehicles/day Th e CB R me th od su ffers from one de t e the pa ve me nt net
; ; Be thickness of construction insrema same i.¢. 55 a
va lu
‘Phe thickness ‘of construction
es . T M one
the range 1500 to 4500 eviday, °° Used for design as the design traffic en t ma te ri al s wi th di ff er en t CB
GEne 9Faedidffersoil of CBR value 7 percent i same in PS R
© case Poorly graded gravel of CBR value 21 PRY ‘ate 98
wh er
percent
e
7.11, the total pavement thickness ovet °8Se, it has been replaced by well graded gravel o! eet ofwell
Tas 55 as 55 cm for curve F,
2
having 4¥6 CBR Nveikane. eNtotw MBtEtals is required to cover the na b; Therefore the first proposal is more conor atthe fower NEF:
to compute the thickness at c tural soil “S€ Course is pa rt ia ll y re pl ac ed by in fe ri or ma t
ompacted soih
 DESIGN OF HIGHW A Y P A V E M E N T S
s t h e t o t a l t h i c k n e s s DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS,
s i g n g i v e
pavement de l u e w o u l d r e m a i n t h e 47
a n d t h i s t h i c k n e s s v a
ubgr a d e
o m p o n e n t l a y e r s . hus the com
T
jals use d i n c n d S a u e n
i sen t o e f f e c t d u r a b i l i t y a
of t h e q u
l
a
s
l
s h o u l d b e jcjously cho
materi a
v e m e n t D e s ! ign by Cumulative Standard Axle Load
d o f P a i
CBR Metho
I R C : 3 7 - 1 9 8 4 h a s r e v f a c
dii an Roads C o n g r e s s v ii d e d e I R t
p t o f C u m u l a t i v e l i
s , b a s e d o n t h e c o n c e
x i b l e P a v e m e n t o n e e a r l i e r , i !
ona e u Fle al number of all commercial vehicle a s s d
i e t a t h e t o t m e r c i a l v e h i c l e p e r d a y , t h e
i g n t r a f f i c m o r e t h a n 1 5 0 0 c o m
a n d a r d a x l e l o a d s o f ¢

IMICKNESS, mm
so a d s w i t h d e s
t h e c u m u l a t i v e n u m b e r o f s t
<Pef i n e d i n t e r m s o f i x e d c o m m e r c i a l v e h i c l e s w i t h
i g n l i f e o f t h e r o a d , T h e m d
during the de s v e m b e r o f s t a n d a r a x l e
c o n v e r t e d i n t e r m s o f t h e c u m ulati nu
l o a d s a r e t o b e
g n , u s i n g t h e e q u a t i o n :
cater for t h e d e s i

TOTAL PAVEMENT
365A [(1+1)" -1] xF
Ns =
r
al ve hi cl es pe r da y wh en co ns tr uc ti on
where A = number of commerci =
er of lanes.
considering the numb
r = annual growth rate of commercial vehicles
n = design lif e of pa ve me nt , ta ke n as 10 to 15 ye ar s

F = vehicle damage factor, equivalent to number of sta

commercial vehicle on the road stretch. This is a factor
number of commercial vehicles of different axle loads to reer ry a er Je De
standard axle load repetitions. Be CUMULATIVE STANDARD AXLES, 108
The total pavement thickness required is determined using the design De si gn by Cu mu la ti ve St an da rd Ax le Lo sd
Fig. 7.15 C B R M e t h o d of Pa ve me nt
7.15, with the value of Ns in million standard axles (msa) determined as mentio (78a)
the CBR value of subgrade soil determined in the laboratory. The IRC has also. TI traffic index = 1.35 (EWL)” u

f
minimum thickness of the pavement component layers of sub-base, base R = stabilometer resistance value
and the combinations for various ranges of cumulative standard axles. For
ange of 20 to 30 msa, the sub-base course material should have CBR value C = cohesiometer value su r of th e
a c c u m l a t e d
foad (EWL here isthe arious constants for the
and the minimum compacted thickness of this component should be 390 to. 05 The annual value of equivalent wheel h e v
l o a d s . T
course should have a minimum compacted thickness of 250 mm and sur Products of the constants and the numbe r of a x l e
of 100 to 15 mm dense bituminous macadam and 40 mm asphaltic concrete. different number of axles in a group are given below:

7.3.4 California Resistance Value Method

F.. M. Hveem and RM. . M. Carmany any ini 1948 i
provided design
j
aniatses R- value and cohesiometer C-value. The working of the
siometer are explained in article 6.4, Based on performance data, it ¥ st
oe ‘armany that pavement thickness varies directly with
aa load repetitions. It varies inversely with fifth root ofS
‘or pavement thickness is given by the empirical equation: ri ng 19 55 -5 6. He nc e if th e a o n e t EW L i s , o t e by
Californ ia du
t= Kcto0-R) ‘ an d
‘ntipllyyi; ng by the appropriate constant given aOV" f ecample7.6
cls
Here, i = total thickness of Pavement
, cm
numerical constant = 0.
166
 DESIGN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS
358
DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PA
VEMENTS
Examp le 7.6
catenlate ten ger EWL and TI values using the following A, ADT dug
359
while designing pavement as the thickness of the pavemees is eh known, it is easier
AADT nent is first assumed to consist of any one materiat ike
‘Number
(Two directions, icnown C-value. Subsequently the individual thickness uf each ner onacco

ae
ie
(e}’
G on
here, ty and t2 are the thickness values of any two pavement layers and Cy and C) are
their corresponding cohesiome ter values.

Solution Typical C-values for some pavement materials are given below (in metic
equivalents) =
The product-sum of EWL is calculated as given below ;
axles | AADT|
Noof. EWL constant | Product ] Soil-cement base course
2 3500 | 330 1,15,5000 Bituminous concrete |60-62 |
3 344 1070 368,080 Open graded bituminousmix |__22-30_|
4 295 2460 725,700 Gravel base course
3 80 4620 [369,600 |
Total yearly EWL = 2,618,380] Example 7.7
Calculate the equivale nt C- va lu e of a thr ee lay ere d pa ve me nt sec tio n hav ing
Taking the average increase for 10-year period then
individual C-values as given below :
EWLio = CH) 10 x 2,618,380 Materials Thickness, em_| C-valve
Bituminous concrete 10 60
‘Cement treated base 20 225
= 32,729,750 Gravel sub-base [10 15
Tl = 1.35 (EWL)*!! Solution
The individual thickness of each la ye r is co nv er te d to the ir res pec tiv e Era vel
= 1.35 x (32,729,750)!
equivalent using the following relationship =
= 9.057
In the design of flexible Pavements based on California Resistance
therefore the following data are needed :
5
(i) R-value of soil subgrade
Here, tg = gravel thickness
(ii) TI value
t = individual thickness
(iii). Equivalent C-value of pavement
materials Cg = c o h e s i valu
o e
m of
e grav
t e el r= 15
R value ofsol subgrade is obtained from the test using stabilometer8 & C = respective C-value
and Eq. 6.17. The computation of TI value has been explained above-
Equivalent C Value gs (315) xlo#32em
The cohesiometer value C, is
ob ta
lests. It is not possib le to have a in ed for ea ch la ye r of pavement materi (2)
1
x20234sem
composite C-value for the total pave!
&esxtpiemraitmeedntally. However the composite or equivalent C-value of the P4 For base course,tg = | 45
if the thickness
layer is known. The
Pavement is illustrat For sub-base course, ty = 10.0em
ed in Example 7.7.
 DESIGN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS
360 10+ 20+
c k n e s s ™ 10=40 em v IGN OF FLEXIBLE
u a l p a v e m e n t t h i Pave MENTS
‘Therefore a c t
= 13.2 + 34.4 + 10.0 = $
v a l e n t t o g r a v e l t h i c k n e s s 7.6cm the pavement thickness as per California
‘This is equi
vs (0) mi n e d in (i i) an d Gv ) ab ov e. Tesign meted W the Wigher of the values
& oe IS

<9
he thickness of other pavement layers are dec: ded
Now, T & wf pase cou! se thi ckn ess repl aced are calc ulat ed using
ated
Eq
the
79
eq ui va ie
valv es
nt of
ter values of the materials, 79 wah the kv
Cohesiome
California R-values method of pavement design is a putely empireat sf
Tae the test procedure and the specifications should’ be striethy
er an ‘are also available to simplify the design calculations oer
The equivalent C- va lu e of th e pa ve me nt se ct io n is 93 , No ra te d in Ex am pl e 7.8,
e p a v e m e n t d e s i g n m e t h o d is il lu st
T h
Design Procedure
¢ 7 18
is design method it is required to providea pavement section whic s, Example a
chon ae p E cae Design a flexible-pavement consisting of water bound macadam (WBM) base course
(i) Resistance value of sub-grade (R-value) and bituminous concrete surface course of thickness 75 em by Califorma Revaloe
er ) me th od us in g th e fo ll ow in g da ta :
(ii) Expansion pressure (stal ilomet aa
(iii) Exudation pressure Moisture Pressure, kgicm™
content%_ | R ¥al¥¢ [-ESansion | Exudaion
Laboratory tests are carried out on subgrade soil sample compacted 15 0.135 : 465
moisture contents to find Hveem stabilometer R-values expansion pressure
and [0.099 sis")
pressures. The pressure required (applied at rate of about 900 kg per minute)to i 21 0.055 305
water from a compacted subgrade soil sample is known as exudation 0.034 213
depends on soil type and the moisture content. As the compacting moisture ;
the soil is increased, the R value, exudation and expansion pressure decreases, (Test results on subgrade soil
In pavement design problems, first the pavement thickness required may be (i) C-value of WBM base course = 15
i
assuming it to consist of a single layer material of known C-value such as gravel (iii) C-value of bituminous concrete surface course = 62
bound macadam (WBM) base course. Subsequently the thickness of
component layers are chosen as per the traffic and climatic requirements (iv) Traffic index = 9.5
equivalent base course layer thickness to be replaced by these pavement Solution
calculated based on their C-values using Equation 7.9, req uir ed usi ng WB M bas e mat eri al onl y (C val ae =
First find’ the pa ve me nt thi ckn ess
Design steps 15),
(i) The pavement thickness values required as per the R-values of subg (0 Thickness by R-values
different moisture contents are calculated (say, Ty1, Ty2 «..) usin _ 0.166H9.54 (20-5) =312em
g Equa T- K(TI(90-R)
Here the pavement may first be assumed to consist of single base course |
- ce 18
known C-value, Cp. am
Similarly for R-values of 44, 25 and 14 the pavement thickness vals a " 422.996 ond
(i) The pavement thickness values required to counteract the subgrade expansion Pt 69.7 em respectively.
seen by dividing the expansion pressure by the average density of (\) Thickness by Expansion Pressure
wi ‘may bebe assumed as about 2.1 g/cm’. The pavement thicknessi . pe
Assuming average pavement density as 2.1 g/em’ o 0.0021 1 he’ kgiom , the
ais pavers
Tea...) a8 per expansion pressures at different 2 oS eH
moisture contents are car
(iii) The pavement thickness fu thickness needed for counteracting expansion pressure of 13S kee” Saas
pl
s s f o r e x p a n s i ,
o n p r e s s i t e s o f 099, 0.08 and 0.04
i
<n. Sim i l a r l y , p a v e m e n t t h i c k n e
4 7 . 1 , 2 6 . 2 a n d 1 6 . 2 cm r e s p e c t i v e l y : a n s
‘Wem’ a r e
(iv)
Te pavement thickn e s s v a l u e s o b t a i n e d b y R a a b e # 2 S Ri ; *
The exudation Pressure
grade soili] found at variifous compactinit g |
of subs
n t e n t s a l o n g w i t h t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g
te (dl alr et Plot ted agai nst the pav eme nt thic knes s fou nd from (i) abOv € Various subg r a d e m o i s t u r e c o
pressure eit R yalues. The pavement thickness corresponding 8ven in the Table below :
SMr® of 28 ke/em’ is obtained from this graph, t0 #4
say Td.
 DESIGN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS
362 DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE P
AVEMENTS
e
Moisture Pressure, kg/cm’ 363
content’ | ® — Expansion Exudation es
15 56 0.135 36.5 t= 15(2) “1000
b 18 44__|__0.099 26.5
21 25 0.055 18.0 wi
pM base course thickness required = 44.5 ~ 10.0=34.5 om
24 14 0.034 15.0 ‘Therefore the pavement section consists of 34.5 cm of WBM base course and 7.5 em
y ; bituminous concrete. The designed pavement section is shown in Fig. 7.17.
The ve
pavement ick
thickness u ae
val lues given in this table are plotted in F; 187.16
ay, o
is obtained by drawing
equal hihness value by the two methods 8 45° ting
this case is Ty = Te = 44.5 cm,
thickness obtained in
WBM 44:$ cm
w BM 145 cm

SOIL SUBGRADE
Fig. 7.17 Pavement Section (Exa smple 7.8)
THICKNESS BY R-VALUES, Tr om

735 T r i a x i a l M e t h o d
L. A. Palmer and E, S. Barber in 1910 proposed the design method based on
Boussinesq’s displacement equation for homogeneous elastic single layer:
a
(7.10)
~ 2B @? +27)?
Here p= Pina’
oy a 3P
iy) 2a (a? +27)”

THLERECSS GY EXPANSION PRESSURE, Te cm

2,210 _ _3P
Fig. 7.16 Design of Pavement by R-value Method (Example 7.8) az) 2nEA
(iii) Figure 7.16 also shows the plot between the exudation pressure values 2
moisture contents and the corresponding values of pavement thickness 2,% . (_3P
based on R-values at these moisture contents. The paveme oe} (=)
corresponding to an exudation pressure of 28 kg/m? obtained is 40.5 cm fr
plot. Hae y
(iv) Therefore the design thickness of single layer WBM pavement is highet 7 = \(anEa
values (44.5) and (40.5 cm) and is equal to 44.5 em. Assuming that the pavement is incompressible, 2 beco mes T, the thick ness of
(v) Bituminous concrete surface course thickness te = 7.5 cm. Pavement.
3p)
2
_y q.)
C-value of bituminous concrete C, = 62
les =)
C-value of WBM base course Cy = 15
Equivalent thickness of 7.5 cm bituminous concrete in terms of WBM Hee T = pavement thickness, cm
is given by the relation bs s® P = wheel load,ke 2
®
axial test results, kg/em +
E, = modulus
of elasticity of subgrade from
" tn
 G N O F H I G H W A Y PAVE!
DESI
wi DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS,
es
area, cm
a= radius of contact
(0.25 <m) t
4 = design deflection are assumed to, Fe te } 2.
oy
pavement and the subgrade
analysts the
In the above
7. 11 is ba se d on el as ti c th eo ry |
E-value. rhe thickness design ‘equation ci en ts an c p i e |
i n o ac co un affic and rainfait coeffi
t th e tr
equationmys s ta7.ki12ng and 7.13) are empirical modificatianond s.EisThegiverenlatibyon be
r a x z a l T e s t
Us eo f T r
e 6 . 1 . 8 is u s e d in sf
m p r e s s i o n te st as e x p l a i int e d in a r t i c l
ulus E)
The triaxial co r i a l s . A l a t e r a l p r e s s u r e o f 1 . 4 k g j e m ? jg . ayers of t h i c k n e s s {1 a n d t z o f e l a s t i c m o d
i o r v a r i o u s m a t e
valves of elastic moduli f erial, This la te ra l p r e s s u r e is ar bi tr ar i
in the test to fi nd th e E v a l u e of th e m a t
l a y e r s b y th e K a n s a y S t a t e H i g h w a y ly
in the late ra l c o n f i n e m e navement
t in p d e s i g n e q u a t i o n a l o n g wi th
h i s d e p a r t m e n t e m p l o y s th is
aT TU SA . T t i o n co ef fi ci en t, y,
de si gn me th od ma y be
modi f i c a t i o n s fo r : (i ) traffic coefficie n t , X
ta
a
l
n
p
d
a v e
(i
m
i)
e n t
s
t
a
h
t
i
u
c
r
k
a
n e s s va lu e th e K a n s a s H i g h w a y D e p a s
crus l semi-empirical metho, using itil exes t m e n t ROR eee,
to
coefficien t s ar e u s e d as m u l t i p l y i n g f a c t o r s to th e
Thus ea
thus modified. ve n by example 7.9
T, co ns is ti ng of ma te ri al wi th m o d u l u s E i s gi t h o d u s i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g d a t a
‘The pavement thicknes s a l
Design the pavement section by triaxi te st m e
equation: Wheel load = 4100 kg
Radof iconu tacs
t area = 15cm
n= (Re ’ = 15
* 2nE,A Traffic coefficient, X
Rainfall coefficient Y = 0.9
of co ef fi ci en ts X an d Y ba se d on A D T of de si gn t r a f
“The re co mm en de d va lu es i Design deflection A = 0.25em
rainfall are given below : i l E ; = 1 0 0 k g / c m ?
Traffi c co ef fi ci en t (X ) AD T (n um be r) E-value of subgrade so
e r i a l E y = 4 0 0 k g i e m ?
40-400
E-value of base course mat
23 401 — 800 c k b i t u m i n o u s c o n c r e t e s u r f a c e c o u r s e ~ 1 0 0 0 k g ' e m ™
il 801 — 1200 E-value of 7.5 c m t h i
316
I 12 01 — 18 00 a Solution th e
is t of si ng le la ye r of ba se c o u s e ma te ri al on ly :
76 1801 — 2700
‘As s u m i n g th e p a v e m e n t to co ns
8/6 ia 2701 — 4000 pavement thickness is given by =
916 4001 — 6000
6001 — 9000
3
10/6 oe
2
Ey
16 9001 — 13,500 ri 2nE,A E,
1216 13 50 1 — 2 0 , 0 0 0 _ _ _ }
\
Rainfall coefficient (Y) | Average annual rainfall,cm | 5x09) aes 0.63~ 6596"
(ey = 104,64
05 38-50 = atone
51-64 2nx100%0.25 400
06

s
s e m be eq ui va le nt 10by

e
07 65-76 10 00 be er te
te su rf ac e wi th Ee =

R
08 71-90 _Let 7.5 em bi tu mi no us co nc re
co ur se , ‘T he eq ui va le nt r e p l a c e m e n t tS
0.9 91-100 thickness ty of ba se

a
101 — 127

c
1.0

e
ua

4 (R~ I("400
3
(Ee)

s
If pavement and subgra de ar e co ns id er ed as a tw o la ye r sy st em , a St if fn es s te (&} Ven 75 o”
be introduced to take into account the differen t values of modulus of elasticity
i te

l
a v

a
net pavement thickness is then modified using the stiffness:

sic
te 15x( ‘ 3 5 ) = \ o 2 ¢ e m
‘i where E, and Ep are values of modulus of elasticity of the:
pavement, respectively. Thus the thickness of pavement, Tp is calculated fromthe
 PAVEMENTS,
DESIGN OF HIGHWAY DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMprTy,
366
ne r e q u ba
i r
se co
e dur se th ic kn es s = 6
aat5W.i9 ~ 10 2 5 8 . 7em
Therefore th
WBM base course ang 7
T h e p a v e m e n t se ct io n c o n s i s t s of 5 5 . 7 o
g -
m
7
t
. 1
h
8
i
.
c k Ki a
e t e s u r f a c e c o u r s e . S e e F i i
vitaminmas concr

7)Scm BITUMIN O U S MA T E , = 1 0 0 0 K g / e m ?

$5-7¢m B A S E C O U R S E E , ¥ 4 0 0 K s / e m ?

a:
SOIL SUBGRADE y= 100Kg/em?
(NOT TO SCALE)
Fig. 7.18 Pave me nt Se ct io n wi th Ba se Co ur se BEAHING PLATE OUMMETER Cm

Fig. 7.19 Relation between Plat e Diam eter and Base Cour se Cons tant
7.3.6 McLeod Method
De pa rt me nt of Tr an sp or t co nd uc te d
Norman W. MeLeod through Canadian si gn n Solution
plate bearing tests on airfield and highway
oc ed ur
pa
e
ve
wa
me
s
nt
em
s
pl
an
oy
d
ed
de
us in
ve
g
lo
va
pe
ri
d
ou
a
s
de
si ze s of pl at es . ap dius ofcomacta = &[pe = jO"VE =i610m
‘The repetitive plate bearing test pr Bs,
From the plate load tests an em pi ri ca l de si gn eq ua ti on wa s re co mm en de d:
o ,
PpPs f2 -— 2 =01%
Pp Peri m e t e r o v e r a r e a r a t i
Ka ele
T = Klogio © cm di am et er pl at e 20 .5 ex t
ti o of un it su bg ra de su pp or t on 32 .2
Using Fig. 7.20 the ra
Here T = required thi ckn ess of gra vel bas e, cm : deflection is 0.95.
-

P = gross wheel load, kg sie ge , un it su pp or t at 0. 5 cm de fl ec ti on

‘Therefore
= tota l sub gra de sup por t, ke (fo r the sam e con tac t are a, def lec tio n = 095%25-244kgem
number of repetitions of load P) peu
eae
K = base course constant.
It is found that the base course constant K depends on the loaded area. Figure 119_

susenaBvEeARsIuNGvpoPLnAtT(Eu OF ANY DIAMETER

O N
,
I
M
shows the relationship between the plate diameter and base course constant. Thus8 |

T
E
°
C
S
E
granular base course thickness requirement T may be calculated from Eq. 7.14 for a Bs

L
AT C
EF

GUBGRADE SUP! PO"oRem O18 PLATE

D
wheel load P if the subgrade support is known from plate bearing test data. The

i
AT
support § for the design of highway pavement is calculated from the support

)
o

w
=
/
e m
g
calculated for 30 em diameter plate at 0.5 em deflection and ten repetitions. Figs

Kg
is used for finding the ratio of unit subgrade support for the design wheel load diame

T
that on 30 cm diameter plate at 0.5 cm deflection. The design unit subgrade SUP

DEFLECTION ON x
obtained by multiplying the contact pressure of the design load by the above rt.
total subgrade support S is calculated by inultiplying the unit support by the contact
The design method is illustrated in Example 7.10. pe

PHPOR
Example 7.10
Design a highway pavement for a wheel load of 4100 kg with 2 tyre P
5 kg/em” by McLeod method. The plate bearing test carried out on
5 2 sa
30 cm diameter plate yielded a pressure of 2.5 kg/cm” after 10 repetiti ni a
0:5 cm deflection.
 DESIGN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS
368 a t e , DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMEN
o r t o n 3 2 . 2 c m d i a m e t e r p l TS 369
Design subgrade s u p p
32.2?
s = 244" 4
=2100kg
i late is obtai ‘
Base course constant for 32.2m sci plate is ol = i Fig. 7 'asg

Granular pavement thickness.T = K logio <> = 90 logio 57> =26 cm

t h i c k n e s s . iy.
u m i n o u s s u r f a c i n g ou t of t h i s
Provide 5 c m of b i t

a y e r e d S y s t e m ) M e t h o d
7.3.7 Burmister’s (L
th e la ye re d sy st em an al ys is . As :
4. Bu rm is te r de ve lo pe d

©
os ed of la ye rs an d th e el as ti c mo du lu s t e e
asec reties are comp

1 ———wooutus 2
an d su bg ra de do es no t Po ss es s a fa nt
highest. Th e to ta l ma ss of pa ve me nt

Buena
by Bo us si ne sq in hi s an al ys is . However, Bous sined's nstant
assumed
Apr onecseRENE RE

Bu rm is te r’ s la ye re d sy st em an al ys is , If pe
considered as a special case of
subgrade, sub-ba se co ur se an d ba se co ur se ar e as si gn ed el as ti c mo du li i of E,, Ey
an al ys is , it is co ns id er ed Es = Ex h = Ep wh er ea s in 3
as per Bo us si ne q’ s
is taken that Ey > Esh > Es. The effectiveness of the reinforcing action of the pa
ch . Fo ll ow in g ar e th e as su mp

;
layers is logically utilised in Bu rm is te r' s ap pr oa ‘UNIFORM MEDIUM Hi we ‘LAYER And

in this approach : Geos cooussmesa case); + ee

(i) the materials, in the pavement layers are isotropic, homogeneous and el Fig. 7.21. Comparison of Vertical Stress Distribution
pavement forms a stiffer reinforcing layer having modulus of elasticity hi by Boussinesq and Burmister Approaches
that of the underlying subgrade in the two layer system.
(ii) the surface layer is infinite in horizontal direction and finite in vertical For flexible plate, A= 15 En,
underlying layer in two layered system is considered infinite in both dir
(iii) the layers are in continuous contact; the top layer is free of shearing For rigid plate, A= 118 En
stresses outside the loaded area. P
Figure 7.21 provides the comparison of vertical stress distribution For single layer, h = 0, and Ey/ Ep = 1 th er ef or e
F2 = 1 and the se eq ua ti on
redu ces to
Boussinesq’s single layer system and Burmister’s two layer system, as Boussinesq’s settlemen t equ ati on (Eq . 7.2 and 7.3) . See Fig ure 7.22 . In the deri vati ons
Pavement to consist of a single layer having elastic modulus Ep lying over su of displacement equations the Poisson’s ratio 1 is taken as 0.5 both for subgrade and
elastic modulus Es. Pavement material,
It is observed from this figure that the vertical stress on the subgrade is re ie. Hs = Hp=0.5
70 to 30 percent by introducing a pavement layer of thickness equal to the for de of
si air
gn field
load or h = a, having elastic modulus 10 times higher than the elastic The abov e anal ysis is adop ted by U.S. Navy Depa rtme nt
subgradesoil ie., for Ep/E = 10. pavements is comidered that he layered sytem ans ca ao be gaa
design of highway pavements, Following assumptions can be suitably made.ie Pe
‘The Burmister’s approach therefore utilises the reinforcing action of the p2 diameter for load tests may be taken as 30 cm and design deflection may Ye He
or 0.25 em. The design method using Burmister’s two-layer theory '§ 8
The deflection factor F is introduced in two layered system which is Example 7.11.
EyEp and b/a,
Example 7.11
: he ‘eaonip between two layer deflection factor - ; ameter on soil subgrade
S of radius a of lo F an d p a v e m e n t The plate bearing tests were conducted with 30 em plate 4 tecioa we 125 kg/cm”
aded area and ratios E,/E> is given in Fig. 7. and over 15 em base course. The pressure yielded at 0.5 em de
22.
The displ <—
here: aeement equations given by Burmister (Equations 7.4 and 7 and 4.0 kg/em?, respectively.
 DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENTS
371
ii) pesign of flexible pavement for load P = 4100 kg and tyre pr ofS tgien?
" P= Skglem?
9 ut faP w= 4100
Jl
mx 16.1 cm

Fa
FACTOR
peeflection for fl ex ib le pl at e (w he el lo ad ) is gi ve n by :
a = 1SP8 pie og= LSXSHI6MR,
Ey 442
DEFLECTION

_ 05x442 _
PPS peaaten
x/ Ep ) = (1 /4 0) us in g Fi g. 7. 20 , Wa =2 .1
For F) = 0.183 and (E
kn es s *h ’ is gi ve n by :
‘Therefore pavement thic
TWO-LAYER

h = 21a=x 2 16=.331 .6cm

For ai rf ie ld pa ve me nt de si gn by U. S. Na vy me th od mo di fi ca ti on s of th eo re ti ca ll y
ed
calculat thic kn es s ha ve be en su gg es te d. It has be en r e c o m thmat e
ni ne nti d
al seect d
io ns be
Sonsiructed three each on fill, cut and level areas. In each typical locality, three paveny-nt
thickness values equal to 2/3 h, hand 1.5 h are adopted and the actual pavement thickarss
required for the critical deflection is found. Similar approach is possible in highway pavemem
050 100 150 design also after calculating the thickness requirement by the elastic layer theory.

74 DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENTS

THICKNESS OF REINFORCING LAYER

Fig. 7.22 Relationship of F2 and h in a Two-lane System (Burmister’s Me 74.1 General Design Considerations
Design the pavement section for 4100 kg wheel load with tyre pressure of $ Cement conerete pavements represent the group of rigid pavements. Here the load
for an allowable deflection of 0.5 cm using Burmister's approach. carying capacity is mainly due to the rigidity and high modulus of elastinicityprovofidintheg slabthe
Solution itself ie. slab action. H. M. Westergaard is considered the pioneer
rational treatment to the problem of rigid pavement analysis.
(i) Calculate elastic modulus, Es for soil subgrade or single layer and rigid circular,
Westergaa rd con sid ere d the rigi d pav eme nt slab as a thin elast ic plate rest ing on soil
subg rade , whi ch is ass ume d as a dens e liqu id. Here it is assu med that the upwa rd
A= 118 B rie o5= Hox zsntst reaction is proportional to the defl ecti on, ic., p= K A, wher e the cons tant K is defi ned as
; modulus of subgrade reaction. The unit of K is kg/cm per em deflection ie., ke/em'.
F 1 (for single layer) a
Westergaard's Mod ulu s of Sub gra de Reac tion
By = 1g 12519 — 442 kplem? _ The modulus of subgrade reaction, K is proportional to the lee enn a
(il) Calculate elastic modulus ratio of subgrade to pave displacement level A is taken as 0.125 cm in calculating K as explained in pape
ment Es/Ep
is the pressure sustained in kg/ em” by the rigid pl of
at diam
e eter 75 em flection
Fae= Lig
E,
p x Fa; ‘ i.e. 0.5
118 x4x
= Ex442
4xD 15 5S 2 4=0 .12 5 em, the mod ulu s of s u breac
g tion
r K
a isdgiven
e by :
ripe
= BaP tegen’
es p= 05x44.2 _ Ken 015 a
L18x4x15 Relative Stiffness of Slab to Subgrade iy This is
pel A
Use Fig. 7.22 and read value of Ey/Ep against F> = 0,312 and (Wa)
= (15/15), dec Settain degree of resistan ce to slab defl ecti on
. is offe red ‘the a c e mate ria.
E =: [pt .
Pendent upon the stiffhess of pressure-deformaion PoP of flexural strength.
E, 4p CY interpolation between 1/20 and 1/50) * tendency of the slab to deflect is dependent upon
 H I G H W A Y P A V E M E N T S
pESIGN O F
372 DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENTS
wh ic h is al so th e de fo rm at io n of : 373
sre resultant de jon of thesk lab subgrade pressure. The pressure ‘ber, are three typical locations namely the interior,
a e nitude of re la ti ve st if fn es s of sk comer, where differing
measure frigid pavement jg
f th us a fu nc ti on of 7 ae “ ¢ of slab continuity exist, These are termed as Perce hi .
ior Loading :, When load is applied in the interior
Westergaard defined this term a s t h e R a d i u s o f r e l a t i v e s t i f f n e s s
ciedgetetomLoadalte eS re ea Ee
1 ing: When load is applied on an edge of the slab at any place remote from
Po ear’ [6
acomer-
2K(-H) vorner Loading : ‘When the centre of load application is located on the bisector
¢ angle formed by two intersect of the shshjand the lated ge ate
edgesing
t i v e s t i f f n e s s , c m the two come r edges ,
Here 7 = radius of rela comer touching
o f c e m e n t c o n c r e t e k g / e m ? i jvalent Radius of Resisting Section
E = m o d u l u s o f e l a s t i c i t y
t e = 0 . 1 5 considering the caseof interior loading, the maximum bending moment occurs
ri Poisras r
tioofon c
' o n c
s r e
joaded area and acts radially in all directions. Wits the load conctnreel ons &saletaes
c m pavement, the qotstion Sree ss what seesonal sree 8s Devemess
h = s l a b t h i c k n e s s , we
the equivalent radius of
i o n , k g / e m ? tn resisting the bending ‘moment, According to W
s u b g r a d e m o d u l u s o r m o d u l u s o f s u b g r a d e r e a c t
in ing, section i approximated, in terms of radius of load distribut slab
andion
K =
thickness,
Example 7.12 0.16)
ra di us of re la ti ve st if fn es s of 15 c m th ic k c e m e n t co nc re te b = Via? +h? -0.675h
Compute the 4 h
a is les s tha n 1, 72
following data : Here, b = equivalent radius of re si st in g se ct io n, em wh en

s t i c i t y of c e m e n t c o n c r e t e = 2 , 1 0 , 0 0 0 k g / e m ? di st ri bu ti on cm
,
Modulus of e l a ‘a = radi us of wh ee l lo ad

Poi s s o n ' s ra ti o fo r c o n c r e t e = 0.13

’ h = slab thickness,cm
= (i ) 3. 0 k g / o m ? (i i) 7. 5 k g / e m
Modulus of subgrade reaction, K when a is greater tha n 1. 72 4, the va lu e of b= a
Solution
Example 7.13 ra di us
(i) ForK=3.0 e eq ui va le nt ra di us of re si st in g se ct io n of 20 cm sl ab , gi ve n th at th e
Compute th
1 i of contara ea cwhteel load is 15 cm.
En |* - 21 00 00 %1 5° |
I= oa *,| 767.0 - Solution
Eccl Feces h = 20cm,a=15

(i) ForK=7.5
a2 _= B=075,<1.74
is
eat 1 h 20
ss 210000x15* _|* 53 36m
12x7.5(1-0.15") Therefore b = iba? +h? -0.675h
+ 2 0 ? - 0 . 6 7 5 x 2 0 = 1 4 0 7 e m
Th is in di ca te s th at th e inf l lu en ce of mo du lu s of su bg ra de re ac tii on on th = fiex i 5 ?
rettivaly anal. c o m e t d o t no t ex it w o u d
Matin sla prod 60 'when! lod at =
X al on g th e co me r bi se ct or . “T hu s is gi ve n by th e re la ti on
‘The stresses actingon a rigid pavement are ; but it occurs at some di st an ce
By
(i) wheel load stresses and x = 258 val Me Hi
s t o n of m a s a nS
(ii) temperature stresses. pe ol conto
Here, xX = ihanc
Critical Load Position comer bisector, cm
Since the pavement sb has finite length and width, either the character Of @ = radius of wh ee l lo ad d i s t r i b u t i o n em
,
cai stress induced by the application of a given traffic load is ti ve s t i f f n e s se,m
ion of the load on the pavement surface, | = r a d i u s of re la
 7 DESIGN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS
3 DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENTS,
378
7.4.2 Wh e e l L o a d S t r e s s e s u t a t i o n s
: . charts for s t r e s s c o m p
indidi c r e t e sI la bs failed at th ae
Goldbeck in m a n y c o n
ca te d th at
G o l d b e c i t ® ! irae slab thicknessI is f0 found forthe allowable values of maximum sresesS, Se
peste for m u l a du e to a po in t lo ad at th e c o m e r of th e sl ab , i , rials are required for assumed values of fh, Bradbury
c o m eis given by :
r lo ad f
Srress du e to
aoa
and; by expressing all uation in te general frm ee
ed 3P Pi P
SSE. a2)
Here, Se = stre ss du e to c o m e r lo ad , k g / e m ?
c o n c e n t r a t e d p o i n t lo ad , kg ste presented charts to find the values of sess coefficients Q, from the vaso (8)

“()
P = comer load a s s u m e d as a
h = thickness of slab, cm
However the assumptions of unsupported comer. and concentrated point Toad tr ic un it s, in Jo um al of LR .C .
have been later found to be sever e resul ting in very high thic knes s requ irem ent hanna et al ha ve gi ve n a se t of de si gn ch ar ts in me
2 19 70 ba se d on We st er ga aruations for computation of wheel load
d' s eq
volume XXXII- ri or ed ge an d
srorrerncematnt ors

Westergaard’s stress equation for wheel loads fi nd th e lo ad st re ss es at in te

es e ch ar ts ma y be us ed to er ga ar d’ s se ss m e e e
The cement concrete slab is assumed to be a homogeneous, thin elastic
stresses Th
regions of the cement conc rete slab, instead of using West w i n e
le sa vi ng in ti me in th e co mp ut at io n of lo ad st re se s
subgrade reaction being vertical and proportional to the deflection, rraite is a consid er ab
these charts.
The commonly used equations for theoretical computation of wheel load st st re ss es fo r de si gn
been given by Westergaard. He considered three typical regions of the cement Evaluation of wheel lo ad
ed ge an d co me r ha ve be en
pavement slab for the’ analysis of stresses, as the interior, edge and the comer Westerga ar d’ s wh ee l lo ad st re ss eq ua ti on s fo r in te ri or ,
on ce me nt co nc re te
d on th ei r re se ar ch , wo rk
The critical stresses Sj, Se and S; at the typical locations i.e. interior, edge and ¢ modified by various investigators base co me r re gi on s ar e gn ea ly fo un d to be
given in Eq. 7.19to 7.21. Rave me nt sl ab s. Th e st re ss es at th e ed ge an d s Co ng re ss
fo r th e de si gn of ri gi d pa ve me nt fo r hi gh wa ys . Th e In di an Ro ad
ra ve cr it ic al e edge and
Interior Loading recommends the following two formulas fo r th e an al ys is of lo ad st re ss es at th
Comer regions an d fo r th e de si gn of ri gi d pa ve me nt s,
Si = + 1.069]
- us [4 logy (7b) = d’ s ed ge Jo ad st re ss fo rm ul a, mo di fi ed by Te ll er an d Su th er la nd fo r
(i) Westerga ar
st re ss Se in th e cr it ic al ed ge re gi on ,
finding the load
Edge Loading
p) x (4 lo gi o M + lo gi ob -0 .4 08 8) (7.23)
Se = — (W/) + 0.359)
[4 logio Se = 0.529 a (1+ 054
by Ke ll ey fo r fi nd in g th e lo ad

Aye
load stress analysis modified

=(
Corner Loading (it) W e s t e r g a a r d ’ s c o m e r
stress S- at the critical comer region,

h? 1
Here,

Si,SeSe = maximum stress at interior, edge and comer loading, where, Se = load stress a the edge exon kale!
kg/cm’ Se = toad stress tthe comer regio, Kem
h = slab thickness, cm P = design wheel load,kg
P = wheel load, kg CC n
of k
h = thic mentsslas
pavee b, em
adius of wheel load distribution, cm the'CCs
io oofn
LL = Poisrats slab
radius of relative stiffness, cm (see Eq. 7.15) E. = modulus of elasticity ofthe CC elem
radius of resisting section, cm (see
Eq. 7.16)
 DESIGN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS,
DESIGN OF KiGID PAV
EMENTS,
reaction modulus of pavement foundations (1.e., base ¢o, i”
courseor subgrade), kg/cm

.
*
5 EW 4 “5 NY [P5109 49,0045 cm
of
1 © radiusrelat ive stiff ness, om- [ et] Waleed yaG-35
yoy
of pre ssu cm,
re,

4 stress, Sc kg /em*
b = radius of equi vale nt distr ibuti on

1.724n and
b = a.w& h2 e

bo via? +h ? = 0, 67 5 b, wh en * 5 1, 72 4
ad co nt ac t, cm (a ss um ed ci rc ul ar in sh ap e)
a =. radius of lo
‘The above equations 7.23 and 7. 24 for fi nd in g lo ad st re ss es at the ed ge an g

Corner loa
regare io prnesens ted in the form of stress charts by the IRC and these are
Fig. 7.23 and 7.24. These charts are applicable for a particular set of design par
onlyviz. : P= $10kg,0a= 15cm, E=3 10° kg/em, 1 0.15; but different
given for di ff er en t va lu es of K be tw ee n 6.0 an d 30 kg /c m’ . Th e de si gn cu rv es
arg
slab thickness values, h = 14 to 25 cm. These stress charts are very handy and ,
considerable time when the stresses are to be evaluated for various trial thickness
slab while designing a pavement.
18
P=5100kg,a=15¢em Slab thickness, h cm
€=3x105 ka/em? p=0-15 ;
Fig. 7.24 Corner Load Stress Chart (IRC)
Load Stress Parameters
Wheel load P = 5100kg,
Edge lood stress, Se kg/cm?

Radiusa = 15cm
Elastic modulus of cement concrete E = 3% 10° kg/em',
Poisson's ration = 0.15
Example 7.15
Calculate the stresses at interior, edge and comer regions of a cement concrete
Pavement using Westergaard’s
stress equations. Use the following
data
Wheel load, P = 5100kg
Modulus of elasticity
of cement concrete, E. = 3.0%
10° glen"
Pavement thickness,h = 18cm
Poisson's ratio of concrete, = 0.15
3
20 Modulusof subgrade reaction, K = 6.0ke
Slab thickness, h cm Rad
of i
contu
act s
area, a = 1Sem
Fig. 7.23 Edge Load Stress Chart (IRC
)
 DESIGN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS DESIGN OF RIGID
378 PAVEMENTS,
eh 379
Solution i s g i v e n b y refer ring 10 corner load stress chart (Fig.2 7.24),), Using curve K = 3 and comesponting
Radius of rela t i v e s t i f f n e s s ( / ) ep comet load stress Se 25.8 kyle
1 0
1
[_3oxtorxts
s ary ati a3 Temperature Streses
gn J),
n
osm
T a x 6 c i s o i s ) |
[att] vregaard’'s Conceptfor Temperature Stresses
n t o f r e s s t i n g s e c t i o n i g i v e n b y em yrature stresses are developed in cement concrete pavement
te equivale
vatiation
so empertue, “The variation in temperature across the depth ofthe si caused by
15/8 =0.8<313 .74
ah =
varivari
sity nal whe
atioatio rea s an over
n n in temperature, all incr ease or decr ease in slab temp erat ure is co at
aiso ”
b = Vi6a7+h? -0.675h ing the day, the top of the pavement slab gets heated "
= Yi6xis? +18? -0.675 x 18= 140m During ithe siab still remains relatively ae iecee po aie
temperature between the top and bottom of the pavement slab may occur ii eas pete
tepttne mid-noon. This causes the slab to warp or bend, asthe warping is resisted by the
‘Seress at the interior. (Sd attr weiaht of the slab, warping stresses are developed late in the evening the botom of
16P L U self Miah gets heated up due to heat transfer from the top and as the atmospheric
& = os [+1ne0(} +106] th “erature falls, the top of the slab becomes colder resulting in warping of the slab in
temprposite direction and there isa reversal in warping stresses atthe different regionsof

ee losin
es warping stresses in reverse
we Ofab. Thus the daily variation in temperatureof thecausslab,
“Jeections atthe comer, edge and interior regions
During summer season as the mean temperature of the slab increases, the concrete
gavement expa nds towar ds the expan sion joints . Due to the fricti onal resist ance atthe
Stress at the Edge (Se) interface (which depe nds upon the self weigh t of the slab and the coeffi cient of frictiat
on
to
aft 2 P [s1s00(£}t 0359] the interface), compress
expand. Similarly duri
ive
ng
stress
winte r
is devel
seaso n,
oped
the
at
slab
the
contr
botto
acts
m of the
causin g
slab
tensil e
as it tends
stress at the
bott due omto the frictional resistance again opposing the movement of the slab. Thus
due to seaso nal variat ion in tempe ratur e. ‘The fficti onal

apace eae
[puctional stresses are deve lope d
ose [4 x 0.7027 + 0.359] = 28.54 kg/em?™ ress will be zero at the free ends and at expan sion joints and increa ses upto a maxir mum
value towards the interior and there-afler remains constant,
ten ds to pro duc e two typ es of str ess es in a con cre te pav eme nt.
Stress at the Corner (So) ‘Temperature thus
These are
(warping stresses and
(ii) frictional stresses.
Warping stresses
06 2
a = 2427 kgm Wheneverthe top and bottom surfaces of conerete pavement simultaneously Possess
diffrent tem per atu res , the slab ten ds to war p dow nwa rd of upwa rd indu cing war rin g
stresses, See Fig. 8.18, under Highway Constructi chapon
ter,
Example 7.16
The difference in t brenveen the top and oto of the sb depends a
‘athe slab thickness and the climatic conditions of the region.
of thickness 20 cm rests over a WBM base COURS
ACC pavement 7.
reaction 30 kylemt’, Find the load stresses at the edge and comer regions By the time the top temperaare increases to t degrees. the Baten AP
toad of S1OO hg unit IRC stress charts, (Assume a = 1S em, B= 3 * und the difarnce between tp wn ose o€ 1H SOHN
Fee
N=) T degreen
= tdegrees. creat eget
pedis,
Solution Assuming straight tine Variation in temeratre aes PINT
‘at anid depth ox average temperate of stad ot :
Refer exige load stress chart (Fig. 7.23). Using the curve fr Ke
comesponding to h “20 cm, edge load stress S_ = 22.0 kglem?.
 G H W A Y P A V E M E N T S :
DESIGN OF HI evden 2
t o p D E S I G o: F
N EAs
e l o n g a t i o n o f t h e ;
giab bas n o r e s t r a i n t t h e n t h e u n i t , c o n d i t i f i b r e s
7
p i n g s t r e y »
“— due to
fibre r e l a t i v e t e m p e r a t u r e
. W i P 2 C h wey x ner reg i o n . w a r
=e as :
a l c o e f f i c i e n t o f c o n c r e t e =
e e t h e r m
ogee e t e s l a b s . _f
to t h e w a r p i n g of c o n c r
to B e y ao c at t h e j
s s o n ' s r a t i o t h e s t r e s s e s
g th e e f f e c t o f P o i
j nmetucin t i v e s i f t
of C o n t a c t a n d i s t h e r a i n o f r e l a
sere, 3s rad i u s
u a t i o n s =
e e m e g a iki a
sptowing
sees -
e q
he example 7.17
2 - ine the warping stresses at interior, edge and comer tegi
= sa e in
g a
i n
2S o m
s t i c e
i n t s Ps f
ccocrete pavement wwiitths e
transversra j o 2 l i n i m e r v a l a n d PR 26m
of subg de re ac ti on (K ) is 6. 9 ke ’c m’ .
als. The modulus sl ab t h i s a p o n i n
r da y co nd it io ns to be 0. 6° C pe r cm A s s M o
‘ f e r e n t i a l fo i n g es a e r a
a i h i r e c t
as 15 cm fo r c o m p u t P E R N d o r r e
jpaded ar ea EIDE sess
grea below:
© = 1 0 x 1 0 p e r c
E = 3 x 1 0 ° k e e n ?
p= 015

Solution
Calcu l a t e t h e r a d i u s o f r e l a t i v e s t i f f n e s s

En* i
So
2K(-y AI

= [Sa t o h T T
3 t e n 3

12x6.9(1-015
L 1100
ho =
! 872

FromFig 725, Cy = 1.03

7 Ato L,P= _ 3A6B0 24.13, C,- 0.55
ov
.
t = 2 5 x 0 6 = 1 5 ° C
«
: ‘trios warping str e s s f r o m E q u a t i o n 7 . 2 5
: Sup = 3x 1 0 % x 1 0 x 1 0 ™ x 1 5 posenseass|
: 2 1-01
as
; = 25.61 kgcm™
t o w a r p i n g f r o m E q . 7 2 6 ( U saeg s C y abe, 3
A U S OF L e a s e A n D L y / t
poten
‘
jet
edge
stresses du e
a aWarping Str ieess lt Coefic
Fig. 7.25
 DESIGN OF H I G H W A Y P A V E M E N T S
382 DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENTS,
0 1100*x15
x1x
1,03%3 383
=p ing summer : The critical combinations at interior
Ste =
wa buries when the slab tends to warp downward” td sea ne fig ld
comer region from Eq. 7.27. dayfe stre ss is develop at the botom fibre due pase dag presioha
Warping stress at the with the i ar stress duejon,to the loading. However the Pink sess ieis
7 3x10°x10x10%
x15 [15 ccomaprmessive juring expansion. The load stress at edge region is
bigher than the
Ste 3(1-0.15) es 7
critical combination of stresses = load stress + warping stress — frictional stress},
Thomlinson's Temp e r a t u r e S t r e s s A n a l y s i s edge region. ss
n chased for tempe ing winter : The critical combination of stresses at the abo
JL. Thomtinson in 1940 provided > ofbye tempnei Ga Der eon fibre when the slab contracts and the slab warps downward epions occurs
meas urem ents erat ure in cement dere te
i
sonipecninss) FS ai e been seen that iio la ho re pra die nt wD mid day. The frictional stress is tensile during contraction.
curvilinear as against in the assumption of straight line = The critical stress combination = (load stress + warping stress + frictional sess), ar
Westereaard. Thomlinson developed an analysis which yields results more edge region.
experimental data and lower than Westergaard’s equations. Details of this since the differential temperature t is of lower magnitude during winter than in
not discussed here. Summer, the combination (i) may be worst for most of the regions in this country.
ji ‘At comer region, the critical combinoca cursti
at o
thentop fibre of the stab, when
Frictional stresses qi) the slab warps upw duria the d
ng r midsnights. There is no frictistreossnaat lthe
Due to uniform temperature rise and fall in the cement concrete slab, there comer region.
overall expansion and contraction of the slab. Since the slab is in contact wi
subgrade or the sub-base, the slab movements are restrained due to the friction ‘The critical stress combination = (load stress + warping stress), at corner regiorss.
the bottom; layer ofthe pavement and the soil layer. This frictional resistance
tends *o prevent the movements thereby inducing the frictional stress in the bottom Example 7.18
of the cement concrete pavement. Stresses in slabs resulting due to this nm A CC pavement slab of thickness 20 cm is constructed over a granular sub-base
vary with slab length. In short, slab stress induced due to this is negligibly small having modulus of reaction 15 kg/cm’. The maximum temperature difference between
in long slabs, which would undergo movements of more than 0.15 cm, higher the top and bottom of the slab during summer day and night is found to be 18°C. The
frictional stress develops. spacing between the transverse contraction joint is 4.5 m and that between longinadinal
joins is 3.5 m, The design wheel load is 5100 kg, radius ofcontareaac is1Stem, E value
of CC is 3 x 10° kg/cm’, Poisson's ratio is 0.15, and coefficient ofthermal expansion of
CC is 10 10°° per °C and friction coefficient is 1.5. ‘Using the edge and comer load
stress char ts give n by the IRC and the char t for the warp ing sess coef fici ent, fing the
SxhxBxi00 = Bx Ex toxwsxe strea
of n ti
sses the n
at o edge.
2 ‘worst combi

sp = WEE Solution
2x10 (i) Edge Region
Here Sp = unit stress developed in cement concrete pavement, kg/cm (a) Edge load stress from chart (Fig. 7.23).
W = unit weig htete, kg/cm? (about 2400 kg/m?)
of concr for h=20 cm and K = 15 kg/em®, Se= 24.0 kglemt™
f = coefficient of subgrade restraint (maximum vaislu aboute1.5)
L = slab length, metre (©) Warping stress at edge :
y
B = Slab width, metre sti
relative stiffness
Radiusof relative S aha
3
| =608em
a
/ Txis(t 1s
744 Combination of Str
esses
Ii Bs necessary to consid‘ er the conditions :under which the various stresses Length of sl a b L y = 4 . 5 m = 4 5 0 e m
Concrete pavements would combine to give the most critical combinations. Ve,
“Ping stress coefficient, Cy from Fig. 725. a
 GN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS
DESIGN OF R
C= 102 desig 10 govere
viWhrees i n c o n c r e t e during
spacing between the expantina juints’s w s 4
6.78.Cy 70.87, Dowel bars se poised wt con
ent The size a spacing
chy ‘
standard specifiatbalseonon practi enaderenn, Linem
ems are constructed with s og uitble tie fies
sMeter, spacing anid lenei f tthe htars :
£35108
105 10° 18 Lore pacing of expansion joint
wi dt h or th e ga p in ex pa ns io n jo in t de pe nd s up
; the Nhetween the expansion joint, the yreater i the wudth piloted piped em th e len s ee e
{e) Frictional stress
Wit M004. 5x15 ~ 0.81 kg/em? triarnion The use of wide expansion joint space sbould be awnides ax mma be
‘jurcult to keep them properly filled in when the yap widens during winter Vee
From Faq 7.28. Sr 2108 2x10" d be ar in g st re si es wi th wi de r op en in gs . tt
owels would de ve lo p hi gh be nd in g an
recommended not (0 have a gap more than 2.5 cm in any cave The IRC has
(d) Combined stress at edge region :
str ess + recommended that the maximum spacing between expansion joints should not excerd
Critical combination of str ess du ri ng su mm er mi d- da y = loa d 140 m fo r ro ug h in te rf ac e la ye r.
~ frictional stress 1f°6" is the maximum expansion in a slab of length Le with a temperature
rise fromT;
24.0 + 27,84 — 0.81 © 50.73 ke/em? to T2-
(i) Corner Region = Le C (Tz — Ti) where C is the thermal expansion of concrete per degree rise in
temperature.
{a) Load stress:
The joint filler may be assumed to be comp to SO ss
up re of its thickness and
percent ed
From chart 7.24 for h 20 and K 15, therefore, the expansion joint gap should be twice the allowable expansion in concrete,
Sp = 28.0 kgfem? ic, 28°. From the relatio n given above, if 8° is halthe joint
f width, the spacing of
expansion joint Lg is given by the equation :
(b) Max. warping stress :
8
From Eq. 7.27, , Le *o 3
iperh-n 7.29)
(29)
ee Bes
2 fs o10x10" x18
6 [as opie $
X=n) V7 3(1-0.15) 608 Example 7.19
‘The widt h of exp ans ion join t gap is 2.5 em in a cem ent conc rete pave ment . Af the
(c) Frictional stress : This is zero at comer region
C, and the max imu m slab temp erst ure in sum mer is 54°C ,
laying temperature is 10° of thermal expansion
(d) Combined stress at the comer region : calculate the spacing between expansion joints. Assume coefficient
The critical combination of stress in summer mid-night = load stress + W! of concrete as 10 x 10°6 per °C.
= 28,049.15 = 37.15 kg/em? Solution
(It may be noted that the critical combination of stresses at the edge region Is 25
that at the comer under the identical condition of pavement, load and temperat 2
7.4.5 Design of Joints in Cement Concrete Paveme 1.25. cm
nts
Various types of joints provided in cement concrete pavements 0 Tr-Ty = 54-10" 48°C
‘emperature stresses are expansion joint, contraction joints and warpin 125
oe and contraction joints are properly designed and constructed TOOx10x10"°x44
heen warping Joints, in addition, Expansion joint spacing 1s d
Maximum temperature variations expected and the width of joint. 28.5m
 DESIGN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS
38s DESIGN OF GHD FAVES,
spacing of contraction joists at
ly = SRA,
bhwe aR
This movement is resisted Dy a Ay total ares of steel, cm” acrothess
slab aie,
sche ab and the subgrade, Le = spacing between contractyoaio ntsn =
eres oc cu rs at ha lf th e le ng th .
b= slab width, m
hh = slab thickness,cm
W = unit weight of cement concrete, kgm’ (2400)
~ © coeff
of ifric on e(1.n
ctii 5tmax}
S7 allowable tensile stress in steel, kg’cm* (1400)

Example 7.20
FRICTIONAL peterm ine the spa cin g bet wee n cont ract ion join ts for 35 mict er slab watt h tani ng
RESISTANCE anickness of 20 cm and f= 1S, fort he foll owin g two case s
Fig. 7.26 Sl ab Co nt ra ct io n an d Fr ic ti on al Re si st an ce plain ce me nt co nc re te , al lo wa bl e S: = 0 Si gn ?
(for
co
nt ce
cemer nc re
m te ,e1,0
n cm
t di a Ba rs at 0.3 0 m sp ac in g.
ai) for reinfo
‘A l te
l o
ns io n in
w ce
a b
me ntlcoenc re te = bx 100
hx x
So Solution
te Sl ab (w it ho ut re ag or ce me nt !
Equating the above two values, Case (t) For Plain Cement Concre
Assume unit we ig ht of CC, Wo = 24 00 kg m?
bL af
0 = 100Sehb jo in ts
Using Eq. 7. 20 sp ac in g be tw ee n co nt ra ct io n

he Ea sto pont avery

Cane (it ) Fo r Re in fo rc ed Ce me nt Co nc re te Sl ab
ea nofa
Total cross sectiaro ste
l el, Ay in on e di re ct io n ako ng the sla b wa it s
Here, L, = slab length or spacing between contraction joints, m
h = slab thicknessem, aes JS xa rt o? = 8.16en"
f = coefficient of friction, (maximum value is about 1.5) O3sa
Using Eq, 7,29 , sp ac in g be tw ee n co nt ra ct io n joi nts ,
unit weight of cement concrete, kg/m? (2400 kg/m?)
20 08 , Ay nnn W O T T1 S
S__ = allowable stress in tension in cement conerete, kg/cm? (0. le
DHWE Se IOATS
Since the contraction or shrinkage cracks develop mainly during
curing, a very low value of S¢ is considered in design, The permissible st Example 7.21
C after Ue CENTS re
kept as low as about 0,8 kgiem?, he mavimunn increase in temperature Is expected 9 La oe rag rnc
Spacing of Contraction Joints when Reinforcement is provided wate conan sho,
If it is assumed that the reinforcement takes the entire tensile force in
by the frictional resistance of subgrade and hair cracks are allowed, thet

Wrde eh at Si L, h
 Solution Ee oer DESIGN oF
ing between contraction joints in plain RIGID PAVE
MENTS
Spscing CC pavement,
389
a 25
SSE, 4 2x
x
le * Wer * tote 2x00. 8x
- 10
8 x41 0 %
2400x1.4 “4:76m
Maximum spacing suggested by the IRC is 4.5 m for Plain co
Pavements Pi
adopt Le = 4.5m
a)
Spacing between expansion joints,
8
te Tem =t) i
= ——___ Lt
= 49.
100x10x10-°x26 923 ™
Therefore provide spacing of expansion joints = 9 x 4.5 = 40,5 m
(As 10x 4.5 = 45.0 m which is higher than 42.3 m, expansion joints are a
eig
ht contraction joints or after the ninth slab). Providedae,
x Desi
of gDow
nel Bar
Dowel bars of expansion joints are mild steel roun:
of this bar is bonded in one cement concrete slab and
the
in adjacent slab, but is kept free for the moveme
nt durin,

This is explained below: ~

Mf dowel bars are not provided at the transverse jo
ae
would deflect by say, dx} under load P. Th
in t (a s in Fi g. 7.27-a) the loadesldab
e adjacent slab across the expansion join
ot participate in load bearinangd it does no t does
t deflect at all. (ec)
. When the joint is provided with dowel bar system
slab under the same an d th e lo ad P is applied on the fist Fig. 7.27 Functioning of Dowel Bar
the loaded slab deflects by the magnitiide sa
y dx. (Set The IRC recommends that dowel bar system may
be designed on the basis of
i also undergoes a deflection, dx3 due to the dowel ba radbury's analysis for load transfer capacity of a single dowel bar in
shear, bending and
Theoretically, if the dowel bars are rigidly embedded intht bearin
g in concrete. These values are given below
:
Concrete slabs on both sides, should be equal to dx3. It has however been observed For shear in the bar, P’ = 0.785 4° Fs
that dx3 < dx and their ratio upon the thickness ofthe slab, size and dianetr!
dowelsand their spacing.
For bending in the bar, P! = 2d? F
Hemay be noted that dx, Ss
greater a ¥
‘Accordi in loaded slab
rdingly, the stress caused in oe
Ly +885
ae
the sue So tMeFe are no dowels tha the slab joint with dowel bars. This is pe For bearing on concrete, F, Lad
: deflections. The pressure distribution airs P’ =
illustrated in Fig. 7.27 c as per Friberg’ ength of 12.5(Lg +158)
ine the criterion for determining the len’ Where,pr = load transfer capacity of a single dowel bar, kg
diameter of dowel bar, cm
total length of embedment of dowel bar, cm
upon variable like, pavement
ing and size of dowels. joint width, em
Permissible shear stress in dowel bar, kg/cm
 DESIGN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS
390
DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENTS 391
Fe = permissible flexural stress in dowel bar kg/cm?
= . 2 a
Fy = permissible bearing stress in concrete, kg/cm’ : = 125 [! 4x Pek

The load capacity of the dowel bar in bending and bearing depeng laste
o n b o t h t h e s l a b s .
embedded length Ly solution of this equation by trial method is simple. Therefore as a first trial assume
r eq ua l ca pa ci ty in be n di ng i :
In order to obtain balanced design fo La= 45cm.
ta in ed by eq ua ti ng P’ va lu es fr om Eq . 7. 33 ;
length of embedment is first ob 1

the assumed joint with and dowel diameter. On simplification, the value of la = 125 [1s ri
by z
ee1 chit
h is less than 45
a = sa [Feat hS8P bs igi 8
Fy Ly +8.85 Assume
The value of Ly is determined by trial from Eq. 7.35. La = 125 [14x
The minimum dowel length is taken as (Ly + 8), and the lowest of the three
P’ taken as the load capacity of a dowel bar. ‘The load capacity of the dowel Therefore total length of embedment, Lg
group is assumed to be 40% of the design wheel load. The required load capaci
i viding the load capacity of the group Minimum length of dowel bar required, L
= 40.5+2.0=42.5cm
Therefore provide 2.5 cm diameter dowel bars of length 45 cm.

Load Transfer Capacity of Single Dowel Bar, P’

4906 ke
P'(shear) = 0.785 d? F, = 0.785 x 2.5* x 100= 0
Actual value of Lg = 45.0-2.0=43 cm
Example 7.22
3 3
Design the. size and spacing of d P'(bending) = 2d" FL x1400) =T2kg
(2x2.5? TaD
potement of hicks Seti Ty +885 (434882)
load of $000 kg. Assume : a
Toad. Joint width i RL ged — _ 100x =t0l
Dig wees i sie P(bearing) = 3 5(., 4156) 125(43+3)
Solution
Taking the lowest of the three values for de si gn ; lo ad ca pa ci ty of a do we l bar ,
Length of Dowet Bore P (design) = 722kg.
Assume the diame Required Load Capacity ctor
ter of the dowel Fa
bar, d=2 Sem 0.4 x 50 00 = 20 00 ke
# =. 5060 Load capacity of the dowel group = 40 % of P =
e 250m . ona
an 2 2em Reauirea Sapacity factor for dowel group= >>” = 277
soley = 1400 kg/m? Spa
"8 of Dowel Bars
Effective distance upto which there is load transfer
1 = 18/=1.8%80= 144m
bars , the ca pa ci ty
fact or
la = Sx2s [Mee tarts 2 Assum
Vailabe i we, 2 ial spacing of 35 cm between the dowel
100 “Lg +8.8x2 "lable for the group
 ,
BABB MBWLY URW :
SOBA CORD UTE pp ayy,
We
oy ; is OB ME M , Whbi
Ms som
s ’ agg sin ele? Aids evoear
» 6 He wan $ w
; t
hin, pele A enyphy with wirelitfe Ve ete thon the ‘ap
eity aoe
hy = HIb
W, OB

EW ace fog MRA EE PN HES ong A je, en?

«}
MAD,
in M5
4 Grbmith: Vena the PA 46 sesue Sen vhiye.
99
La ite 8 ypsees Thats he ISH SayeNY Sethe hb ~ tileA r ye
oree,n og
ZT,
dae A taper Vawstns potter 15 10 Bin tywed tae 1 = Contteinnt A Nitin twee yormsens 9b
Wa s yp e, hagete 1 Yuen,
Ah o abr 0 15 en vont wtertaen; nee
etavaweatuae aon we wos shift oh cxnsann onesie, ajay! UN Yamess)
binisure 5 = showin wine
‘eh tacos 84 shpenes ib 1) Hemevn SMe Yrypthag TAMIA 0 i ennitn on Bh, ejsn! (ty joey
YA HH Moniihed eta V8 be a0 Niven Wo nt S08 Hh bo ty baromtie 4 vith: Diatred es 0A the See tin 9% 90 55 can} Sie
M o s i y a d ty WHAI tanig Z sping of Se Se to
aidimliddaketili tO
on 4
nT VN
0 11 IE Mi ania trl a yori tes toe ae A dead fy hie
Yan 908MM HA iohopys a ee
vi bvgf t
Viehhar
Find 14 PA Ln Mian then ts sea ttn Seg A exch seyierh os
wach date tt ortrg 4 rns detigh opi Wi Gin erthien, tee A thn tess,
tin 13 thtsiials Stone thes esneeaer sits ek ar WA tense Nope Cecvdugpe i te toe
2006 Uh bHtneh Toe tens teenth VAmen te bat wed Foe womeet
e, Vierstee
WitetWy thee siltsOh thn: emntpeainc yinks,

at rs
fy = 24S, ay
WetsnOhnwd-¥~
226,
lh
44,
meas
7%,

ete UA jn = tn 2 2 OS
Wh cba Sg ASR Ft My

Wk = ‘eg che teem oe ie i eb et ch te

5 = aller stress in version, kale? (MB Seer?) 3
Wve Ss alerwathe tom stress in concrete, Kyl
; et ed Spiny sherai(tis i ten 38 45 ka
Son detearned brats nah N15 keer in psi te bas)
ieos of a "cris tectiomal sven ih one te bar,
elem sane he Pet itnetes of tie bat, cm
4 ~ diamofetite e
bat,rem
 DESIGN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS
3 DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENTS
can
395
Example 7-23 bike oF 18 tas We iadenteasnsitgyiv so obtained is classified and adjustment
th ic l ‘cm
spac me en in the Table below : erent
the dimensions and
t h a s a
As ceme n t C O R C T E E E p a v e
along
r n e n
t h e c e n t r e . D e s i g n hint saan
SS S060) gna jot Spacing wack Design traffic intensity, Ag
war U s e th e f o l o w i n g d a t a : Traffic (no. of vehicles of wt > 3 tonnes, per day)
t e n s i o n ,S ; = 1400 ky seat Classification thickness ofco |
‘Allowable wo r k i n g s t r e s s in at the end of design life Pavement, cm
aB O10 15
Unit weight of concrete, W = 2400 kg/m? <3 1
=po
15 to 45

=a —i}—
—§

Allo wabl e bond stre ss in def orm ed bars in con

Coefficient of friction, f =
cre te, Sp =
1.5
24.6 kg/cm?
:
D us
$5010 1500 4
4
=2 j
Solution
= : 1500 to 4500 i °
‘Area ofsteel per metre of longitudinal joint is given by Eq. 7.36.
6 > 4500 i |
(i) The mean daily and annual temperature cycles are collected. The recommended
temperature differentials between top and bottom of CC slabs of different thickness
at various States and regions in India, for the determination of warping stresses are
= DEAW _ 3.6x1.5%18%2400 given in Table 7.4.
1008, 100%1750 Table 7.4 Recommended Temperature
Differentials in various Regions of the Country
Using | cm diameter bars having area of cross section as = 0.785 cm”, the ‘Temperature differential to “C
the te bars is given by Zone State and Regions in slabs ofthickness
. , - 100 *0. 785 % Tem | 15cm | 20cm | 25cm] 30am
Spacipaci
ng ng = 101330* 3 07_85
554 cm, (say 58 58cm) Rajasthan, Gujrat, Tiayana| 102 | 125] 131 | 183 | 158
LP., excluding hilly regions and
1 cm diameter tie bars, the length Ly is obtained from Eq. 7.38 and MW |Bihar, W. Bengal, Assam and E. Orissa 144 | 156 | 164 | 166 | 168
_ aS, _ 11400 _ ‘excluding hilly and coastal regions.
co Makara, Kamalska, South MP AP.| 147 | 173 | 190 | 203 | 210
4 38.” aug 285 W. Orissa and North T.N. excluding hilly
Total leng
{and coastal regions.
of t
tiehbar = 30cm, say WV [Kerala South TN. excluding hilly and) 132 | 190 | 164 | 176 | 181
Use | om diameter dia bars of length 30 em coastal regions.
at 50 to 5B em ele. Has astal areas bounded by hills 12s | 1461 158 | 162 | 170)
7AS IRC Recommendations for
Design of Concrete Pavements Mi | Coastal areas unbounbydehidlls 13611551170 1 190 | 192)
(4) Design Parameters ‘) The modulus of subgrade reaction K is determined using standard plate of 75 cm
diameterat 0.125 em deflection. If 30 em diameter plate is used, the K-value
(1) The design wheel Wad is taken as 5100 kg with equivalent circular area obtained at 0.125 cm deflection is multiplied by 0.5 in order to estimate the K-value
and a tyre inflation pressun : ‘3 :
Projected for24 years per € ranging from 6,3 to 7.3 ke/em’. The Of standard plate diameter. The minimum K-value of 5.5 kg/cm’ is specified for
'od after construction using the relation : leying cement concrete pavement. If the K value is lower, a suitable sub-base
Ag = Pipe
“surse may be provided to increase the K-value.
fy The flexural stren should not be less
where A 4 ~ fNs he of corcnercial igth of cement concrete used inin the pavement i streng on | ‘
Pi umtu ber of co v e h i c l e s p e r day (laden weight > 340 hen 40 kpyem?, {AS a general guidance the minimam compressive th
menercial vehicles per da
F* aeenwwal rate y at last count.
of int e: % in traffic fic
‘rah roads if data js no i n t e n s it
p salable, pam a “bested E-value i s 3 x 10° gloat Baty = OS.
a a
“P488i0n of concrete may be takenas 10 » 10~” per"
Ly Value is 3 x , -
CaEtW CAottyeeatsConteaanmeen the ss : wate count and t
t Pavernent, he © for dese P
 DESIGN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS, DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENTS
7
imum contraction joint spacings may be kept at 4.$
of Svesset Thies. In the case of re m in unreinforced slabs
w inforced slabs, the contraction jore spacing mury be
a im for 15 cm thick slab with steel reinforcement of
2.7 kgm? and 14 m spacing
gress chart given in Fig
for 20 em thick slabs with see reinforcement of3.8 kgm’,
. at edge region is ealculated as per Westerpaard’s a) ie) Desado of w
‘Dowel Bars
(Teepe ericiet gen i Fig. 728. Equation 724 may be qi baresylstem may be designed on the basis of Bradbury’s analysis for load
cateatation ini = Ls ‘capacity of a single dowel bar in shear, bending and bearing in concrete, using
ta ) load stre ssat
comer i calcul as We warp, 733 and 7.34.
region 1S cal Per Westergaard’
2) Whee by Kelly, ghen in Eq, 722 and using he sess chan, Fig Tan’ minimum dowel length is taken as (Lg + 5), the value of L is determined using
saa The load capacity of the dowel system is assumed to be 40% of the design
< Eg y joad. The distance on either side of the load position upto which the dowel bars
te) D e s Stiep s fo
g r nSi ab T h i c k n e s s
th e jo in t s p a c i n g s a n d la ne w i d t h , se e ea ve in loa d tra nsf er is tak en as 1.8 tim es the rad ius of rel ati ve si fn es s
(i) The width of slab is decided based on ae
Dowel bars do not function satisfactorily in thin slabs and therefore dowel bars are
(ii) The length of the CC slab is equal to the spacing of the contraction joints, vided in slab of thickness 15 cm or more. IRC recommends 2.5 em diameterspaced dowel
is designed using Eq. 7.30 for plain CC pavements; Eq. 7.31 may be bars of length 50 cm to be spaced at 20 cm in the case of 15 cm thick slabs and at
reinforcement is provided at the contraction joints for the assumed trial 30 cm in the case of 20 cm thick slabs, the design load being 5100 kg.
the slab. However the slab length should conform to the '
Spacing of.Joints given under Art. 7.4.6 (4). if) Design of Tie Bars
(iii) A trial thickness value of the slab is assumed for calculating the Tie bar s are de si gn ed for lo ng it ud in al joi nts as ex pl ai ne d in An . 74 .5 . Pe rm is si bl e
warping stress at edge region is calculated (using Equation 7.26) and this bond stress in deformed bars is 24.6 kg/cm” and that in plain tie bars is 17.5 kg/cm’.
2 Recommended
s
details
subtracted from the allowable flexural stress in concrete to find the residual stn Allowable working stress in tensile steel is taken as 1400 kg/cm”.
in the pavement to support edge loads. of tie bars are given in Table 7.5 :
Table 7.5
(using Eq, 7.21). The available factor of safety in edge load stress with Slab thickness, Tie bar details, cm
the residual strength is found. If the value of factor of safety is less than
in excess of 1.0, another trial thickness of the slab is assumed and the
cm Diameter | Max. spacing | Plain bars | Deformed bars
are repeated till the factor of safety works out to 1.0 or a slightly hij 08 38 40 30
the design thickness h cm. i 1.0 60 45 35
i 10 45 4S 35
(¥) The total stresses at the comer due to wheel load and warpin
g is c a 12 | 55 40
stress chart Fig. 7.24 and 7.25, (or by using Eq. 7.22 and 7.27) 45 35,
fem. If this stress for . th is 1.0 30.
value is | 25 12 55 3S_.} 40
14 62 65 46

‘&) Design of Reinforcement

(vi) The desi gn gnthiclite
end of desi kness,a h is adjijust
usteded fefor inens
i ity or ¢ lassifica i
Reinforcem F
ent in CC pavements are intended ora tionof thehe cracks
to prevent deteriora
the traffic int
: ted slab thickness.
adjus ind using 18 the the adjus
adj tment value from Table to ot and not to increase the eal strength of uncracked slabs. The area of ieeoiiiea bea
‘ansverse steel required per metre width or length of slab is computed from the formula :
(d) Spacing of Joints Lfw (740)
= 2S
25 mm wide expansion joints Where A = 2
per m width or length of the slab, cm
all slab thicknesses. When the area of steel required
st ee l) or fr ee
ce be tw ee n fr ee tr an sv er se jo in ts (f or lo ng in ud in al
= distan
spacing of 120 m for slab longitud in al jo in ts (f or tr an sv er se st ee l) , m
Summer. however whe ‘5 em, when the pavement is ©O! ily tak en as 1.5 .
= coefficient of friction between pavementand subgra
‘usual
n the Vement is constructed in winter, the above
may be restricted to $0 a
nd on M respectively,
 DESIGN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS
ry
DESIGN OF RIGID
PAVEMENTS
“ai towable Working stress in steel, owually taken as 1409 ky
‘ percent of minimum yield stress, kg/cm’ Permissible tensile stress in steel (tic bary = 1400 kyfem?
kg/m’ 2 ‘ Permissible bond stress in deformed tie bars = 24,6
© weight of unit area of pavement slab,
keem*
ie he rein
reinforcement may be placed 5 cm below the surface of the slab ang Tempera
ur e di ff er en ti al va lu es in th e re gi on :
acrons‘ d Jummy groove juints to serve the purpose of tie bars, At all ful} [Siabibickness,em a=
edges.
ues. thethe reinforcement is kept atleast 5 cm away from the face Of JointoF ea Temperature differenintsl
a a 25]
iabainlthe region, *C [146 F158] 163)
Faample 7.24 solution
Hesign the following details of a plain ceme
nt concrete Pavement for (a) Joint Spacing,
highway
(4). Spacing of expansion and contraction joints ee + join ~ Ea =125¢m
(b). Pavement slab thickness a
WOT” ao1.25e
Spacing of |expansion joint L, = HOOC(T,-T,)
(c) Dowel bars for expansion joints 100%1010°73%5
(U) Tie bars for longitudinal joints ich is I than ma
mn ximum specified spacing of 140 m and so accept
able. Contraction
te spacing in plain C C,
Follow the design procedure recommended by IRC. where
given data, IRC toad stre ev er applicable, 25, x10" _ 2x0.8x10"
ss charts for edge and corner regions, an
not provided here. d assume any Le = =445m
WF 2400%1.5
Widthof expansion joint wap = which is less than maximum specified spacing of 4.5 m and hence acceptable.
25¢m
‘Maximum variation in temperatu
re between Therefore provide contraction joints at 4.45 m spacing and expansion joints at every
suminer and winter = 35 °C Sth such joints i.e, 4.45 x 8 = 35.5 m spacing (instead of 35.7 m).
Thermal coefficient of concrete = 10» (b) Pavement Slab Thickness
10°® per °C
Allowable tensile stress in CC during curi Assume trial thickness of slab = 20cm
ng = 0.8 kg /cm?
Coefficofiferin
ctt
ion = 1s
Radius ofrelative stiffness, 1 = En: |
Unit weight ofCC =~ 2400 kye DKd-e)
m?
Design wheel loud = 5100kg
Rad
of i
conu
tactsarea = 1Scm 3x10° «20°
Present traffic intensity = 950 co 12x8(1-6.157)
mmercial vehicles/day
Modulus of reaction of
sub-base course =
8 kg/cm?
Hexural strength (allowab
le Hexural stress) o
f concrete = 40 kg/e
7
m?
Eval
of cuoncerete = 3x 10° kg/ by. 30.
em? in
Hyalue = 0.15
Desi load transfer throu
gh dowel system From Fig. 7.25 warping stress coefficient Cy at 1sL (626-=092 0.92
= 40%
Permissible Nexur
al stress in dowe MLyI= 492, cy=0.72< G
l bar = 1400 kg/em?
Petrnissible shear s Temperature differential for 20 cm thick slab = 15.8°C
tress in dowel bar
Permissible bearing
= 1 0 0 0 kg/em?
stress in Concrete Warping stress at edge, Ste = cnet st
= 100 kp/em?
 DESIGN OF HIGHW A Y P A V E M E N T S
400
312
929
0.,
0 x x
3 1
0" %10 x1 %
0 1
1 0
" ° °
0 x
" 1 5
5 .
. 8
8 , DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENTS
2 adjuster for Traffic intensity

Residual strength i n c o n c r e t 1c slab at edge region a r ?

erting a growth
= 40.0 -21.8 = 18.2 kg/em? Assul pam
fa ct or r= 7.
is opened totrafic5%, ann=d 3,the number Of Years after the last count before
gi on , us in g IR C st re ss ch ar t (F ig , 7. 23 ), co rr es po nd oy the new Pav
Load stress in ed ge re
h = 2 0 , K = 8 , S ¢ = 2 7 . 5 kg /e m? : EH
Ag = seo 125] tall = 5013 eviday
residualstrength _ 18.2
Factor of safety available = cdgploodstess 275-7 0.66 This keamhesmna being in the range > 4500, falls in group G and the adj
; A pament,
ae factor is
‘As the factor of safety is less than 1.0, it is unsafe. Therefore assume a higher ‘Therefore the revised design thickness of the slab
thickness
say h = 24 cm. = 24+2=26cm
F 3x10°x24?_]” esr share
12x8(1—0.15*) indi (@) Dowel :
Assume dowel bar diameter = 2.5 cm
44s Foes ‘
= <> =$.46 Joint width, 8 = 2.5m
8 81.53
g bearing
For Equal capacity in bendinand
Ly/l ;of 4.29 =
at )
Cy 5
Cy = 0.80 (from chart Fig. 7.2 ;
‘Temperature differential for 24 cm thick slab (by interpolation) = 16.2°C 1g 8 [eceuso}
R +888)
Se = 4 x3x 105% 10x 10x 16.2% 0.8= 19:44 kp 1
2 Be = 57.5 1400, bathsx25)?
Residual strength at the edge oS [100 Ly +8.8x2.5
= 40.0~ 19.44 = 20.56 kg/em? By substituting different values of Lq by trials (as in Example 7.22), the value of Lg is
Load stress at edge, using stress chart (Fig. 7.23) for found to be 42.2 cm.

h = 4,K=8,S.= 19.2 kg/om? Length

of dowel bar = Ly+8=42.2+2.5=44.7cm

Factor of safety available = as = 1.07 which is safe and acceptable value Therefore provide 45 cm long dowel bars of diameter 2.5 cm
2
Actual value of Lg = 45.0-2.5 = 42.5 cm
Therefore provide a tentative design thickness of24 cm.

ne h offo S_ come
¢ Value r load sire
= 23.0 kg per em.s : Usin g IRC stres s chart Fig. 7.24, for h = 24, f
‘fans capac of singl)e dowel:
P'(shear = 0.785 4° Fs
Comer warping stress Sj. = —E&t_ [a 4906 kg
= 0.785 x 2.5? x 10=00
3(-w) Vi
a 2d?F _ 2x25 'x14
P'(bending) = Tj+888 = 975488x25 00
gg yg
= 3xIS*$ «10x10 6 «162 (pao
3(1-0.15) 81.53 2 100x42.5°x25_ 2281kg
inati of stresses at the comer is 23.0 + 7.1 = 30.1 ke/om W
‘The worst combination "(bearing)
P'(bearing) = —fe-La-t_ =
T25(L, +158) 12.5(42.5 +1.5%25)
also less than the allowable flexural stret
1} Strength of 40 kg/cm” 2 and hence the desidesgn
i is : Taki
aking the lowest value for design, P’ (design) = 678 kg
Mo DESIGN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS,
REFERENCES i
Load capacity factor required : ‘i sje a spacine of tie bar, say 33 cm
vi y ae
1 = 5100 x —— = 2040k;
B otplan bar =! 2S n PIM og
Load capacity ofthe dowel groUP 100
Lent 2S, 224.6
2040
Capacity factor required = “Eog =o ‘he len ath of te bar may be
‘ increased by Sem for tolerance in placement
Therefore provide 1 cm diameter deformed tie bars, 34 cm in length at a spacing of
Spacing cing ofof doweldow bars : so
ckn ess of 24 cm, sieves
i i v e s t i f o r rev ise d sla b thi
Radius of relative stiffness for
3x10 °x26_]"* 866
= | | ba
' [Paes | Yoder, E. J, “Principles of Pavement Design”, John Wiley and Sons., Inc., U.S.A.

Yod er, E. J. an d Wi te za k, M. W., “P ri nc ip le s of Pa ve me nt De si gn ", (S ec on d

Effective dis tan ce upt o whi ch the re is loa d tra nsf er Edition), Jo hn Wi le y an d So ns .
= 18 1=1.8 x 86.6= 155.9 em DSIR, “Soil Mechanics for Road Engineers”, H.M.S.O., London.

‘Assuming a trial spa cin g of 35 em bet wee n the dow el bar s, the cap ac 4. DSIR, “Bituminous Materials in Road Construction”, H.M.S.O., London.
the group: 5, Wallace H. A. and Martin, J. R., “Asphalt Pavement Engineering", Mc-Graw.
= 1+ 13 59 -3 5 , 15 59 -7 0 , 15 59 -1 05 | 15 59 -1 49 : Book Co., U.S.A.
= 141559 155.9 155.9 6. Proceedings, First International Conference on Structural Design of Asphalt
Pavement , Mic Mic
hig hig
an an U.S .A. , 196 2.
= 2.77<the required valofue3.0. Desi gn of Asph alt
7. Proc eedi ngs, Seco nd Inte rnat iona l Conf eren ce on Stru ctur al
Assume dowel bar spacing of30 cm. Pavements, Michigan U.S.A., 1967.
155.9-30 % 155.9-60 : 155.9-90 . IRC, “Guidelines for the Design of Flexible Pavements”, IRC : 37 — 1970, Indian
Capacity factor = 1+ Roads Congress.
155.9 155.9 155.9
155.9—120 re . IRC, “Guidelines for the Design of Rigid Pavements for Highways", IRC =
155: 5: 58— 1974, First Revision, Indian Roads Congress.
As this value is greater than the required capacity factor of 3.0, 30 cm 10. Youn g, N. C., “De sig n of Fun cti ona l Pav eme nts ", McG raw Hill Boo k Co.,
dowel bars is adequate, Therefore provide 2.5 cm dia. Dowel bars at expansion ‘New York,
total length 45 cm at a spacing of 30 cm centres. 'l. SIR, “Concrete Roads, Design and Construction”, H.M.S.O., London.
(d) Tie Bars » IRC, “St and ard Spe cif ica tio ns and Cod e of Prac tice for Con str uct ion of Con cre te
Area of steel per metre length longitudinal joint, Roads”, Indian Roads Congress.
. Vaswani, N. K.,“.. “Design “Desi it Overlyi ng Fo un da of
ti Diff
on s
eren t
RA,W _ 3:5%1.5%26%2400 9 94 om? perm
Ay = RA100s b.f.h. 4 of Concrete Pavement ly!
Blastictis", Ph, D. Thesis (Unpublished) Department of Civil Engineering,
mei .

1001400 University of Roorkee, 1963.

Assuming 1 cm diameter of the bars, cross sectional area of each “Khanna, S. K. Arora, M. G. and Marwah, B. R.,“*NomCongre ms forVol. Whee
ograss, l -2,
XXXIIL load
as = 0.785em?, sae in Concrete Pavements”, Journal, Indian Road
Perimeter of the tie bar = 3.14 em ;
Number of tie bars required per m ' PCA, “C on cr et e Pa ve me nt De si gn ”, Po rt la nd Ce me nt As so ci at io n (U S.A). >
eter length of joint
‘ niergaard H. M,, “Stress. in Concrete Pavements Computed PY these
'¥sis", Public Roads Vol. 7, 1926. “
7 1 Design of
" lley EFPavements”.
KeConcrete li ca ti on of Re su lt s of Re se ac h to the
, “App Proc., American Concrete Institue, Vol. 35, 3 9. St ra go ls
Spacing of tie bar =
 DESIGN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENT
404
omme nded Practi ce for Desig n of Concr ete P, PROBLEMS re
18, ACI, “Ree Instit ute, Vol. 30, 1958, ‘a
‘American Con icrete ‘ attics subgrade soil sample has the following Properties ;
AS
“Guidelines for the Design of Rigid Pavements * i t passing soll 0.075 mm sieve = 60%
" me Reviion), IRC: 58, 1988,, Indian Roads Congress, for. Soll
Liquid Limit = 55%
PROBLEMS plastic Lithmie t = 45%
pavement section by G.I. method
for heavy traffic with over 400
. Explain ‘Flexible and Rigid’ pavements an
d bring out the points of di Design
commerc! “jal vehicles per day.
Explain the CBR method of pavement design
Draw a sketch of flexible pavement cross section and show the . How is this method useful 10
determine thickness of component layers ?
v
Enumerate the functions and importance ofeach component of the
What are the various factors to be considered in paveme piscuss the advantages and limitations of C.B.R. method of design,
significance of each. nt de sign The CBR value of subgrade soil is 8 perc
ent. Calculate the total thickness of
flexible pavement using (i) design curve developed by California State Highway
Discuss the importance of gross wheel load and Department (i) design chart recommended by L R. (ii) design formula developed
Ea

distribution pattern and in pavement design.

by the U.S. Corps of Engineers.
Explain ESWL and the concept in the determination of the equivalent xh 7
‘Assume light traffic or 3175 kg wheel load
w

and tyre pressure of S ke/em?,

The loaded weight on the rear dual wheels of a truck
is $5 00 kg . Th e g The CBR. test carried out on a subgrade soil gave the following readings:
2

centre spacing and clear space in the dual wheels are 30

Calculate the ESWL for pa cm an d 10 etnte
vement thickness (i) 20 cm, (i) 40 cm, (ii)70 Penetration, mm| Load, kg |Penetration, mm] Load, kg
Discuss the effects of repeated applicat 0.0 oo 30 58.0
ions of loads on Pavements. 05 4.0 40
~

equivalent wheel lo ad factors for load Tepetitions. 70.0

n (“to 14.0 50 — | 715
- Calculate the design repetitions for
ten year period equivalent to 2268 kg 15 30.0 75 93.2
if the mixed traffic 2.0
in both directions is 1860 vehicles
distribution of different wheel loads of pe r day. The 41.0 10.0 102.5
commercial vehicles are given 25 50.0 12.5 110.8
Wheel load, Percentage in total ‘The different pavement materials available near the construction site are as follows.
traffic volume (i) Sandy soil with CBR value = 10%
2268
2722 12 (ii) Soil-kankar mix with CBR value = 25%
3175 9 (ii) Broken stone and gravel with CBR = 90%
3629 6
4082 (iv) Bituminous concrete for surfacing = min. 5 cm thick
4
"4536 2 . Design the pavement structure for commercial vehicles of 2000 per day, with 8.0%
4990 growth rate.
9. Explain how the elastic mod pt I | E j
Plate bear
u l i i f subgrade - Explain the California resistance value method of flexible pavement design.
ing test data, = sn Vise cor * Calculate the traffic index value for 10 year period using the follow
ing data.
11. the
Whatintedonsityouy ofundhe
erstanai
d , ne acti: on ? Disa cuss the
No. of axles | ADT (both directions) |
effe cts and ‘e ee
f a c t o r s
2 700
adverse effec, Pends. Suggest measures to prevent het 3 300
12.
+ 700
Enumerate the various
bash of d ase methods Of flexib- le pavement design. . BiJefly e | [ses Saas feet atte 1]
r
13. Explain grow * Calculate equivalent cohesiometer value for ment component layers
method? index method of pavement design. What are the limi Biven below - th e three pa
 DE SI GN OF H I G H W A Y P A V E M E N T S
406 PROBLEMS
s c o n ierete surfa ce cour se 6 cm thick , C-va lug =
(i) Bituminou v a l u e = 2 5 0 , i d pavements? 407
l cement base course 15 cm t
ji) Soi
h i c k , C -
what are the cons id
id er
er at
at i
io ns for de si pn Of
(ii) S u e 5 the fo ll ow in g te rm s:
i( ii), Aggregate s
sub-base cour 2e 0 c m t h i c k , C - v a l = 1
explain
ii
ible pavement, given R-value of subgrade soi) : (a) modulus of subgrade reaction
ig
bes sie cae or WaM base course = 20 and C-value of 7.5 om th (b) radius of relative stiffness
surfacing= 65. (o) ra di us of re si st in g se ct io n
n t h i c k n e s s by C a l i f o r n i a *R ’ v a l u e m e t h o d t s
23, Design paveme t ra di us
of resisting section fora concrete stab
Find the radius of re la ti ve st if fn es s an d
be
data : a from the following data :
(i) Traffic index =10.5 Modulu s of el as ti ci ty of co nc re te = 3.1 x 10° keen?
(ii) C-value of base course = 15 Poisson's ratio of concrete = 015
(iii) C-value of 8.0 cm thick bituminous surface course = 60 = 6.0 kg/em?
Modulus of subgrade reaction
(iv) Test results on subgrade soil are as under : = 2m
‘Thickness of concrete slab
Moisture content, | Pressure, ke/em’ Radius of loaded area = l6cm
percent Keralos Expansion | Exudation™ 34. Explain the critical locations of loading as regards wheel load stresses in cement
165 00 12 465 concrete pavement, Discus s the Westergaard’s concept and assumptions.
19.0 Ta 09
22.5 Is | 04 35. What are the advantages of Bradbury's stress coefficients and other load stress
charts ?
24, Briefly explain the flexible pavement design method using triaxial test
36. Calculate the stresses at interior, edge and comer of a cement concrete pavement by:
25. Calculate thickness of bituminous mat using triaxial method. ; (a) Westergaards's stress equations
E-value of subgrade soil = 90 kg/cm? (b) IRC stress charts
E-value of paving materials = 900 kg/cm?
Modulus ofelasticity of concrete = 3.0 x 10° kg/em?
Wheel load = 5100kg Poisson's ratio of concrete = 0.15
Tyre pressure = Tkg/em? Thickness of concrete pavement = 18 cm
Traffic coefficient = 125 Modulus of subgrade reaction = 8.5 kg/cm”
Saturation coefficient = 08 Wheel load = $100 kg
26. Design the thickness of pavement layers in pr
and sub-base course are to be provided having E o b l e m no . 25 , a b o v e , Radius of loaded area =15em
-values of 400 and 37. Estimate the thickness of cement concrete pavement using the method suggested by
27. Explain McLeod method of pavement
design : Indian Roads Congress.
28. A plate bearing test us
ing 30 cm di lameter plate carried out on a
yielded a pressure of 3 kg/om? after Modulus of elasticity of concrete = 3.0 x 10° kg/cm’ 2

| 0 load repetitions at 0.5 cm de! Modulus of rupture of concrete 2

a highway pavement fo
r a wheel load = 40 kg/cm
Poisson's ratio of concrete =0.15
Modulus of subgrade reaction = 6kg/em™
Wheel load = 5100 kg
Radius of contact area = 15cm
3% Expl Expr: Ale n
ain the design cons iderations for spacing o
 408
DESIGN OF HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS
(a) Expansion joints.
(b) Contraction joints with and without reinforcement.

39. Calculate the spa cin g of ‘ex pan sio n joi nt fro m the fol low ing dat a 5
%) Chapter 8
Maximum joint width =2em
= 20°C Highway Construc
Temperature of laying concrete
x i m u m sl ab t e m p e r a t u r e e x p e c t e d = 5 5 ° C
tion
‘Ma
Coefficient of thermal expansion = 10 x 10° per°¢
40. Find the spacing between contraction joints for a 3.5
m slab width
thic of 22 cm for
kness
(a) Plain concrete slab
(b) RCC. slab
The allowable tensile stress values in concrete an 4.1 GENERAL CONSTRUCTION
d steel are 0.8 and 1499
coefficien
t of friction is 1.5. :
41. Discuss the design details of dowel bars, 1.1 Introduction
42. Explain how the dimensions and spacing of tie bars are desi In article 1.5, it was stated that the science of highway engineering raises some
gned, fundamental questions as to what is a road or highway, how is it planned and designed
43. A cement concrete pavement 20 cm and lastly how is it built. By now in the preceding chapters, the treatment of the subject
thick and 7.5 m width has a longin
along the centre line. Design the diameter, length and has answered the questions pertaining to planning. geometrics, materials and structural
allowable working stress in steel is sp ac in g of the ve bars, design of highways. In this chapter, it is attempted to discuss in detail the question how
1400 kg/cm” in tension, allowable
of deformed bars in concrete is 24.6 kg per em? an bond ae the highways built i.e. highway construction.
Assume unit weight of concrete as 2400 kg/e d coefficient of friction Engineers have been always with open mind to adopt any material available to them
m?. for its use for the construction purposes. Research facilities at hand help them to judge
44. Discuss Westergaard’s concept
of temperature stresses in con
crete pavements. the suitable of the materials. It is logical to see that the purpose of highway construction
is to provide a firm and even surface for the carriageway or the pavement which could
stand the stress caused due to number of load applications. Hence the pavement is
35 m. For concrete E = 3 x 10° ke/em? Prepared using broken stones, or soil (for stabilized soil) and binder material to bind the
and # = 0.15, K value for sub Sggregates to form a homogenous pavement section. The binders employed are mainly
soil slurry, bituminous material and cement,
Concrete as 10 x 10° perc,
Depending upon the desired strength of the pavement, the aggregate ‘gradations and
46. Explain the effect due to the type and proportion of binders are decided. These three basic binder medium give
the expP ansion and cont ‘ise toa number of construction methods.
discuss the types of stress - raction of ce1 ment concr
es induced, et
47. cDihase the criitti cal comb
inianattion of Stresses due to 8.1.2 Types of Highway
wheel load and ' ten Construction
48. tBreiefly ouitllinea th‘h. The © hi highway types are cla
ssified as below :
e LR. recommendatioi ns f
or determining the thi ickness
ooff cemat :(ii)
49. Desi i th x
add e CC pavement thicie kness, expansion and Soil ste
abilizee
d roads
tie bars for a wheel load contraction joint spacin5g, by) Water bound macadam (WBM)
Of 5100 kg. Assume al r o a d
l data suitably. ; ,
wv) Bituminous or black-top
roads
Cement concrete roads

409,
 HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
410
a are ities
classified base ed on t i
location o n a
and n functi, fous, 4 3 GENERAL CON
STRUCTION
The ros le of trafic volume oF intensity. Since i the 4 the
cater for : ruction projects are also meager, it is
hand fo financing ian of low cost roads is now prefered ind
aa ee here large length s of roads are to be
te finances available in the country. Earth roads and const ructe d in the rapi ng
stabilized roage
a es af low cost roads. Stabilised Soil roads are gaining importance
exampcastles roads.
low ole The details of the soil stabilization techniques ar" conctio sin ing the pavement structure in stages to match with pandora aay is eas
are given in Chapter 9. all the miore imperative for developing counties like Ini iaihe of ace
Water bound macadam construction el soe ne crushed on is the map
in India since eighteenth century. Even the present day roads are
et on the existing water bound macadam bases, Here the binding ig dove} day |
moist soil or stone dust. The binder being a slurry, its inherent drawbacks can be Th e hi gh wa y co ns tr uc ti
ar on
at iopro
n jec
of tsuma
bg y
ra be
de , br oa dl y di vi de d in two ph as es
The abrasion and attrition phenomena, the formation of dust during (i Earthwork and pr ep
during monsoons makes it necessary to provide a superior type of surface Tayerto prog (ii) Pavement structure.
This brings the use of bituminous binder. Thus most of the roads with bina
have water bound macadam base. The function of the biturtlinous binder in black, The earth work mainly consists of preparation of the subgrade, to be suitable to
receive the subsequent construction of pavement structure.
is mainly to provide a thin bituminous film coating over the aggregates. When
is compacted together, the bituminous film provides binding or adhesion 32 EARTHWORK
aggregate pieces. The phenomenon is purely physical. The se of bitumen binder hte |
variation in mode of its application, the aggregate gradation, and the mode and 8.2.1 General
depye
compaction have resulted in different techniques of bituminous Pavement The subgrade soil is prepared by bringing isto the desired grade and camber
The bituminous binder being a semi-viscous material, the resulting pavement compacting adequately. The subgrade may be either in embankment and by
possess the rigidity comparable with the cement concrete pavement. depend
or in ex
ing on the topography and the finalized vertical alignment of the road
ca va ti on ,
to be
In the cement concrete pavement, Portland cement is used with constructed,
sand and aggr
form a cement concrete mix. This type of Pavement falls in a group of rigid The earth work quantities are estimated based on longitudinal
and transverse section
and is considered as a high type of pavement. This pavement type sui along the alignment of the road.
traffic condition and can ts any In order to reduce the cost of Construction, it is
necessary to plan the movement of materials from cuts to the nearest fills. It is necessary
be built on almost all soil types. Reinforcement is
provided to construct a reinforced concrete
pavement. Prestressed concrete p to decide the limits of economical haul and lift. It is advantageous to plot a mass haul
are also gaining importance in some cases, diagram to compute the haulage details. The swelling and shrinkage factor may also be
Pavement Types considered in the excavation and compaction of earth.

f The selection of base course and the surface 82.2 Excavation

course depends upon the
factors :
* Excavation is the process of cutting or loosening and removing earth including rock
(i) Type and intensity of traffic. form its original Position, transporting and dumping it as a fill or spoil bank. The
‘Xcavation or cutting may be needed in soil, soft rock or even in hard rock. before
(ii) Funds available for the Construc
tion project and for the subsequent Preparing the subgrade. The selection of excavation equipment and the cost analysis is
ii) Subgrade soil and drainage condi made based on the stiffness ofthe materials to be excavated.
tions,
(iv) Availability of Construct
ion materials at site. Earth excavation work may be divided as excavation or cutting, grading and
(v) Sompaction, The depth of the pedBidas is decided, among other factors, on pete
Climatic condition, of vertical profile of the road. The slope to be provided is governed by the Luchahor
(vi) Plants and equipment avail cluding stratification, if any, and the depth of the cutting. The sa eroneSour
able.
Hegel? in arriving ‘at the maximum permissible slope tS eee
incr’ highway cuts much flater slopes are prefered poechammeeryse
sliding aestheties. Construction of sie drains also requieexca
*«avation equipment jects include bull dozers,
enh
Scraper °@Vation equipment commonly used in aes ed in small projects
Sicay,,' POWer shovels, draglines, clamshells and
“ation is carried out manually using hand tools.
 How excavation wor
‘onsideredto he a vetrsna fy the two halves cle
used for clearing site, opens sue ke 4 i ti
hows the mshell bucket.
about 100 m
pine 1 ioose material at or belay
crial in uniformly thick
a8 it fy x n excavating equipment of the pomer-x fe}
layers NM low
rial vever ¢ natural surface
plow J thof depth of excavation where the machine is sanieneg
primarily to excavate earth of all classes excep foal conthy pressur and hence canat exclose ca va range work ose Fig 2.3
te
tool ted by dragline. SIF material ubich ex
vels may be mounted on crawler tracks and io m
1 shows the operation and basic parts of a e
i
cab, boom, dipper stick, dipper and hoist line, The

tabi thbilat ttanenel

peste to excavate earth from a lower level where it stands fi
face to be excavated is not too shallow, .
Dipper Moret cee
IK \
tree
%

Fig. 8.3 Clamshell

Fi8.g4 .Hoe
The excavation equipment is selected dependin;
ig On the nature of the materia
Fig. 8.1 Power Shovel distance, to be hauled and the method ofdisposal, At times the se l, the
Dragline is used to excavated based on the availability also. lecmaty ibeomnade
soft earth and
Wagons Dragline may also be mout
while excavating from a pit with the 82.3 Embankment
imo the pit in order to excavate. Th
{evel it becomes necessaryto construct em ighway above the existing ground
bankments. The grade line may be raised due
to any of the following reasons :
() tokeep the subgrade above the high ground water
table.
(il) to prevent damage to pavement due to su
rface water and capillary water.
(iil) to. maintain the design standards
of the highway with respec to tthe vertical
alignment,
The design elements in hi
ghway embankments ae :
(}) height
(i) Gil materiat
(iii) Settlement
(iv) Stability of
foundation, an
d
0) Stability of.
slopes
Neighy

The hei
the soi me oft he embankment depends on the f the highwaany d
Sagi disk Sitines mes g0' governedby
© OF to po gr ap hy .
“biliy of fo ‘undation, particul Also the height o! soilis weak.
arly when the foundation
 way embankment materi we of safety
soils. particularly pe a
at are Unsuitabh fait after the
j with 8 view fo Keep
t h e l e a d
1 gatin in strenya
ial Hike ang evident that in y
may be used to re
duige useful also to ine

gical sand drains it is possible to Limit

t r u c t i o n
cttle after the completion of Construction
thet he c o n s
the foundation or due to settlement qahitity of Stopes
of the fj
ation consists of compressible
soil with hij : The embankment slopes should be stable cnough to eliminate + he
pers
due to increase in the load. The settle
quate compaction during construction fi jure nder adverse moisture and other conditions. Hence the stability ot « stery of
settlement may be almost eliminated. Wh
and hence by Id be checked or the slope should be designed providing minimum factorof
atever be the ty ne Often much flatter slopes are preferred in highway embankments duc to seuhetic
it ts desirable that the settlement is almost complete before the constr bY and other reasons.
To accelerate the rate of consolidation of saturated foun
da ti on c l a y s n k m e n t s
aie sometimes co nstructed. These are vertical columns of sand Constr u c t i o n o f e m b a
¢ foundation like marshy soils in order to de
crease drainage path ‘The embankment may be constructed either by rolling in relatively thin layers or by
rate of consolidation. The vertical sand columns may be of30
r to 6 meter spacing, arranged in a hexagonal pattern. A hori: hydraulic fills. The former is called rolled-earth method and is preferred in highway
blanket. 40 to 60 cm thick is placed at the top embankments. Each layer is compacted by rolling to a satisfactory degree or to 2 desired
wicth of embank ment
of the drains extending across the ey density before the next layer is placed. Compaction is carried out at optimum moistare
at its bottom. This helps the water to flow out
Figure 8.5 shows a typical cross section of embankment with wit content so a5 to take advantages of maximum dry density using 2 specified compacting
vertical sand draine affor and equipment. The thickness of the layers may vary between 10 and 30 cm
depending on various factors such as soils type, equipment. specifications etc.
EMBANKMENT The practice of dumping the earth without compacting properly and allowing the il
wo mz on ra t to get consolidated under weather during few subsequent season should be avoided as the
‘SANO BLANKET settlement will continue for a very long period. If pavement is constructed before the
seitlement of the fill is almost complete, the pavement is likely to become uneven and
also fail later-on. Compaction of soil is discussed separately in Art. 82.5.
82.4 Preparation of Subgrade
The preparation of subgrade includes all operations before the pavement structure
Gould be laid over it and compacted, Th us the preparation ofsubgrade would include site
Fig. 8.5 Embankment with Vertical Sand Drains ‘learance, grading (embankment or cut section) and compaction.
Stability of Foundation at F o u n d a t i o n The subgrade may be situated on embankment or excavation or atthe existing ground
: Surface. In all the cases, site sh
ould be cleared off and the top soil acon s of res
W h e n th e e
depth below in mthbeankfmoernmtat:foun
phdaatiron consnsi:ists of weak soilil juji st beneath or
‘Pots rubbish and other organic matter are to be removed, Nextthe, cote Loud
attaac Auatted so as to bring the vertical profile of the subgrade (0 design od op this work
foundatio. n agains: t a failure. tratum, it is essential to consider the stabilit full dozer, sc : It s
embankments. The foundation This is isi al rapers and blade graders are useful equipment ws aegusely befre
s t a b i l t y is val tsr jal
eny it
eertfac
altor
_ int
. ae “sential to compact the top of subgrade, upto a depth o'
by any of the following approa abi lit y is evaluated and the of he.
saf etyca
ise est Picing the pavement layer, F
ch es : 3
(a) Senile a chee failu
r e s u r f a
spe atesbee Ht With Swedcie such as a circular arc or any other: 825 soit Compaction
sh circular are analysis or meth «cally constrained to be packed more
od of 3 compat ion of soil the particles are mechanically sonstainl TB
tea » by expelling part 1g Part o}of
the air voids. Compaction i isture Henc cars
of fg Stlement and lovers the adverse effects OF ed .essentiale fF OPEC NENW
Contsubegrade,HE, sub-base and b ase course are consi
 HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
416 EART, HWORK,
frctors influencing soil compaction include the moi 47
StUre conte ; the roller may be varied and a
a a an, type and stone content, It is a well
and ope of saevrare content (OMC) for a soil which would give pat lso the
wsey ve
Of the feet. Th
an t
r and trhaectnorusm. berTheof efffeiciency ofthe sheep a e d e p e n d s o n t
er
he weight
e
yen ‘ular type and amount of compaction. Hence itis always desi rable
lc role eredd more sui e t i n
ted to compact clayey soils
c o n t a c t w i t h t he ground at a time, ata
ee sas the OMC after deciding the compacting equipment, com ecting feet get c ane nad
During rolling operations co
ompacted and also there n e a e
; the Prthe thickness of compact j s 3 Considerable knead w
Compacting equipment lay i ee
soil.Fs vure 8.7 illustrates the imnegch er s Kept about $ cm more than
tion is achieved in the field either by rolling, in : a nics of Compaction under a shee
il ie more number of pa
sses of the roller may b ps
‘eee ar Comcing equipment may also be classified as roll 18 OF by 24 ction, However the top la e necessary to
aoe wheeled roller so as to yer of the Subgrade oF fill may be
vibrators. Compaction of sands are also achieved by watering Ponding ang get a properly finished surfac compacted using
e .
Rollers
The principle of roles is the application of pressure, which is slowly
then decreased. The various type of rollers which are used for compaction
wheel, pneumatic tyred and sheepsfoot rollers. Further the Construction equi:
as trucks, tractors and bull dozers also help in compaction of the ‘materials to some
Smooth Wheeled Rollers A
There are two types of smooth wheeled rollers, one three-wheeled or macadam
the other tandem folles. The gross weight ofthe former type range betwee4 ntg
whereas that of the latter type with two axles varies between I
to 14 tonnes. The
efficiency of the smooth wheeled roller depends on the weight, width and diameter
roller. The smooth wheeled rollers are suitable to roll a wide range of soils p clayey
granular soils and pavement materials for the various layers. ‘son
These are Particularly
be useful in compacting soils and other materials where a crushi
ng action is advantageous
Pneumatic Tyred Roller
In this type number of pneumatic wheels are mounted on two or
loading platform. These rollers are pulled by tractors. ‘The mo re axles, Fig. 8.7 Compaction by Sheepsfoot Roller
considered to be most pn eu ma ti c ty re d
suitable to compact nonplastic silts and fine sands.
In Rammers are useful to compact relatively small areas and where the rolls» cannot
the direct pressure due to rolling, there is also a slig operate such as co
ht kneading action, The mpaction of trenches, foundation and slopes. The output rammer is
compaction by pneumatic tyred rollers is illustrated in Fig, ‘much lower than that of roller.
8.6,
Mibrators are most suited for compacting dry cohesionless granular material. There
Vinnie Vibrator mounted roller to give the combined effects of rolling and vibration
Vibratory rollers are advantageously used in compacting a wide range of materials.
Watering Getting and ponding) is considered to be an efficient method of
compacting
<chesionless sands. Watering heavily and rolling by smooth wheel of pneumatic tyr
roller
ed
may also give adequate compaction of cohesionless sands,
Field Control for Compa
ction
. For adequate quality control in construction, itis essential to have proper field
ompaction, The two field control tests needed ae
:
() Measurement of moisture content
Fig. 8.6 Compaction by r
() Measurement of dry density
n e u m a t i c Tyred Roller jon by any one ofthe
Sheepsfoot Raller ae Moisture content of the soil may be found ter
e r i k ON C,
This type of Cog 8s Suitable at the site. If the moisture is com ‘of which may be tacehin evthe next
rollef r consists of hollow ste ed by
ofthe roller can e
be increased by filling the ahlaacylii nder witith h proprjojeeccttiing feet.
lecded is the dry density, the desired value
with ooh The weight, @
 HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
a8 :
sator of passes fi the selected eauipment aNd the thiskngs CONSTRUCTIC 1
increasing the ecqyiats by found by any sui table method; the sand replac, 4 clearance may be
UC TI ON
carried out
OF GR AV EL RO AD S aw
tayer. iy density may PS ‘ement re chanical cuuipinese 4 Manually using spptisnces te toed
aysnawidere
aia poecentage (649 100 0F 9S of he standard density
quit
nd e sat isf act e)
rose Shovel Mec! ‘equipment like dozer, S<tapCE and vipp«t taay aheo + PC et
A Sa
certain aso be wed fag
Thus2 by fieel ld chee! chs it is possi ible
t 9 Control the con ziConstr of fill s and exc ava tio
the field compaction. wi Ho wever, statistical quality control method x uction i n of
Of Costs to bring the road Profile 46 he erates
compaction, ‘also be done either manually or us
achieve
owed sles OTTtion
for the compac in construction of high embankments. ae The details have been given in Ant 82, nn sO MAME aed conspacan
a
3 CONSTRUCTION OF EARTH ROADS
pozers are however considered very useful for short hauling distances
caqred out manually, more time is requited. The compacting ct mg Ifthe week «
S31 General <aipot be proper. . it should be left : 1 get consolidated under Sandition SiteThe
atmnpier att?
e d m t u r a l s o i l . T h e equipment used by manual labour include hand Shovel, spade, pick-axe, baskets, raramers
p e s t y p e o f r o a d p r e p a r f r o n a
t
An ear rh o
l
a
y
d
a
is
d
t
e
h
o
e
u
c
t
h
o
e
f
a
t h e s o
t
i l a v a i l a b l e at s i t e a n d at n e a r - b y bo rr ow © Sa hand rollers.
a
ection is tot ml f s o i l at si te . ‘ T h e The subgrade should be graded to the desired camber and longitudinal profile
hp of construction by and large, de p e n d s u p o n t h e t y p e o
acd to
provided to the carth roads is very steep and ranges between | gin 20 to; 1 inher33w,i the desired depth depending on the thickness of pavement construction, Wis desi
ra bl e ys
cr o s s s l o p e h e l p s to k e e p t h e p a v e m e n t s u r f a c e f r e e o f s t a n d i n w a t e r o t fompact the subgrade before pl the pave layers,
acing ment
being pervious, the water would damage the pavement section by softening
snaximum cross slopes of | in 20 is recommended to avoid erosion due to rain (iv) Pavement construction. The borrowed soil (more than one soil type mixed
“desired proportion, if necessary) to the
‘ormation of cross ruts. is dumped on the prepared subgrade and
pulverized. The field moisture content is checked and additional water added, of
necessary, to bring it upto OMC. The soil is mixed, spread and roller in layers such
.2 Specification of Materials that the compacted thickness of each layer does not exceed 10 cm. The type of
Soils of the following properties are considered satisfactory for constructi roller for compaction is decided based on soil type, desired amount of compaction
roads and availability of equipment. Also see Art. 8.2.5. Atleast 95 percent of dry density
of LS. light compaction is considered desirable. ‘The camber of the finished
[ Base course | Wearing courses | pavement surface is checked and corrected if necessary.
i = ay content 7 = s ‘8 else (s) Opening to traffic. The compacted earth road is allowed to dry out for a few days
| ei contest 10 32% 10 1 5 % before opening to traffic,
Sand content 60 t0 80% 65 t0 80%
Liquid limit <35% <35% 84 CONSTRUCTION OF GRAVEL ROADS
[Plasticity index <6% Tro 10%
44.1 General
83.3 Construction Procedure
Gravel roads are considered superior to earth roads as they can carry heavier traffic
The construction of earth road may be divided into the following steps : ‘he road consists of a carriageway constructed using the gravels, The camber may be
()) Material. The soil survey is carried out and suitable borrow pits are between | in 25 and 1 in 30.
eco- nomical haulage distances. The borrow pits are usually selected outside
ectd oun
Sidth, Tre trees, shrubs, grassroots and other organic matter including (OPSUBS. TR $ A well compacted crush d 1 road isis fairly resiillien
ent t and docs not become
stoner. when nen pe a wr road Ce caer for abot 100 tomes of poe ted
removed before excavating earth for construction.
t ‘hle or 60 tonnes of iron tyred vehicles per day per lane. Two types of constr
(i) Loc"4 ation. The centre line and road edges are marked on the ground uction
* are- generally followed. They are ‘ the feather edge iype andsubgrad
alignment, by driving
ore wooden pegs.
Reference pegs are also driven i the e withwrench varying
07% 35
10/He thchnes, Sek The feather edge type apie Okie pie wath
llowing the desired vertical profile of the road during construction. The pe, the caps {0 obtain the desired cross slope rattan wrench. Sioce ere & beter
ofthe reference peps depends on the estimated length of road construction pet atinement eae. 1S Prepared by excavating a
(iit) Preparation of subgrade. for the the gravel, the trench type isis pre! preferred.
subgrade are as follows : The various operations involved in the
re “42 Material
(a) Clearing site r 5
y a ee of crushed stone or gravel of specif, ied poion ei t Howmet softer
(b) Excavating and construction of . ; °F stone may also be utilised. There are no the
fills to bring the road to a desired grade: © inter docking
d ston i blas e
there is POOF
(c) Shaping of subgrade.
3 eee LETS aes ee
 H I G H W A Y C O N S T R U C T I O N
420
CONSTRUCTION OF WATER BOUND MacaDan pe
at
1
429 specific ations of Materia ls for WM Favemen t
Fepre pcourse ABSFERMES
TRENCH TYPE he course aggregates used in WBM generalby com
' ates of broken stones, However, sof aggregnes
gusen curringsoftft aggregates
aggregate such as hankar of Lterie te
sauuralls Oem blast furnace may also be used The weaier pene pps ae, shag
a ee eed during rolling need not strictly conform to the Reqawemetts
of predation at
FEATHER EOGE TYPE sero need of using Serecnings fo filing the voids e era sega
Fig. 8.8 Types of Gravel Road Sections
a b r a s i o n v a l u e
&43 Construction Procedure (i) Los Angeles
i m u m v a l u e , p e r c e n t )
(max
(i) Material Gravel to be used for the construction is stacked along | or
proposed road (i) Aggre g a t e i m p a c t v a l u e
u e , p e r c e n t !
(ii) Location Pegs are driven as explained under article 8.3. H (maximu
i n e s
m
s
v
i
a
n
l
d e x
[ T i p F l a k
(ii) Preparation of subgrade. Site is cleared and fills and cuts are comp! (maximum value,
formed to the desired depth of construction, the width of the trench is m
that of the carriageway. The trench is brought to the desired Properties of Coarse Aggregates
compacted The crushed stone aggregate should be generally hard, durable and of sccopeabix
(iv) Pavement construction. Crushed gravel aggregates are placed
shape, free from flaky and elongated particles. The IRC specifies the following piysacal
requirements of coarse aggregates for WBM construction, in terms of the text valee fur
trench so as to avoid segregation. Aggregates are spread with greater
centre and less towards the edges so as to obtain the desired camber: the three pavement layers.
rolled using smooth wheeled rollers starting from the edges and c Swe and Grading Requirements of Coarse Aggregates
the centre with an overlap of atleast half the width of roller in the’ The coarse aggregates for each layer of construction should, 25 far 2s pousitie
direction, Some quantity of water may also be sprayed and rolling is conform to any one of the three gradings specified below. Grading No I comsmts of
that the compaction is effective. The camber is checked and corrected Soarse aggregates of size range 90 to 40 mm and is more suitable for sub-base coume
time using a template or camber board. Thickness of compacted layer is usually 100 mm. Grading No. 2 consists of aggregates
7
(s Opening to traffic. A few days after the final rolling and drying out, of size range 63 to 40 mm and grading No. 3 of range $0 to 20 mea and compacted
opened to the traffic. t h e thickness of each layer is normally 75 mm.
B
5.5 CONSTRUCTION OF WATER BOUND | GradingNo. | Size range, mm | Sieve size,
MACADAM ROADS 1
85.1 General
The water bound macadam (
Macadam. (See also anicle 2.16 and 2.17), ‘on‘sTthructii on known after the
WBM) is the
means, the pavement base
course made
e t e r m m a c a d a m in t h e
interlocked by rolling an i
of
 jiGuwaY C O N S T R U C T I O N
CONSTRUCTION OF WATER BOUND MACADAM ROADS 433
a2

s in th e c o m p a c t e d (by Stone screening type A, 12.5 mm size for base course ~ 6,18 0 0.21
gs ed to fi ll up th e vo id
alti eenings are s m a l l e r si ze , St on e sc re en in gs fo r su rf ac in g co ur se = 01500.17
The St The sercentl ings consist of agg r e g a t e s of
aggrega t e s . T h E : e 8 at es . Th e gr ad in g r e q u i r e m e n t s of sc re en in ‘Alternatively, Stone screenings type B,
h E © o a r s ’ 3 g g T
material a5 t = 0300033
construction af
v e n b elo’
o n 9.0 mm size for base course
n i n g s S i e v e s i z e ,
o f scree = 0246026
[ Classificnagtion T S i z e
m m m 9.0 mm size for surfacing
gradi m
5 = 03310035

_
1 2 5 1 2 . ‘Alternatively, crushable type screenings
i A | = 0.06 100.09
(©) Binding material for base course
Binding material for surfacing course = 0,10t00.15
no t re qu ir ed if cr us ha bl e ty pe of sc re en in g is us ed ).
(N ot e: Bi nd in g ma te ri al is
of materials required in m? for 7,5 cm compacted
| e r a t i o n s , p r e d o n
fi The approximate loose quantities
qhckness of WB M bas e or sur fac ing cou rse usi ng coa rse agg reg ate of gra din g No. 3
g e s t e d th at fr om e c o n o m i c c o n s i d per 10 m’ area are:
The IRC has sug th an ri ve r b c
rials such as kankar no du le s, m o o r u m oF gr av el (o th er
(a) Coarse aggregate size $0 t0 20 mm = 09110 1.07
sc re en in g ma te ri al , p r o v i d e d the liquid limitof
aggregate) may de utilised as and the 0 % portion of mm siz e for ba se = 02710030
ie fess than 20%, pl as ti ci ty in de x is le ss th an 6 . (b) Stone screenin gs ty pe B, 9.0
if c r u s h a b l e ty pe of m a t e r i a l s ar e u s = 0.22100.24
mm sieve is le ss th an 10 %. H o w e v e r , Stone screen in gs ty pe B, 9.0 mm siz e for su rf ac in g
gs m a y be d i s p e n s e d wi th .
aggregate, the use of screenin Altema ti ve ly cr us ha bl e ty pe sc re en in gs = 03310035
Binding Material (c) Binding material for base course
= 0.0610 0.09
Binding material consis ti ng of fin e gr ai ne d ma te ri al is us ed in W B M
prevent raveling of the stones. Ka nk ar no du le s or li me st on e du st ma y al so Binding material for surfacing course = 0.10100.15

in g ma te ri al wi th pl as ti ci ty in de x va lu e 4 to 9 ri al is no t re qu ir ed if cr us ha bl e ty pe se re en in g is us ed .)
Jocally available. The bind ur se (Note : Bind in g ma te
WBM surface cour se co ns tr uc ti on ; the pl as ti ci ty in de x of bi nd in g co
be Jess than 6.0% in the ca se of WB M la ye rs us ed as ba se co ur se or su b- ba se
85.3 Construction Procedure
bituminous su rf ac in g. If the sc re en in gs us ed co ns is t of cr us ha bl e ma te ri al
sl gravel, there is no need to apply binding material, unless the plastici
is low The foundation fo r re ce iv in g th e ne w la ye r of WI
. Th is fo un da ti on la ye r is pr ep ar ed
sub-base or base course
Quantity of Materials
camb er an d th e du st an d ei th er lo os e ma te ri al s ar e cl ea ne '
als re qu ir ed in m” for 10 < 1 ar e fi ll ed an d th e c o r e t
(i) Tbe approximate loo se qua nti tie s of mat eri scisons and po t- ho le s
cam ber as ne ce ss ar y.
thickness of WBM sub-base using coarse aggregate of grading no ! P gr ad e and
ping the surface to avthfue cirenequsirfuedrrows of depth 50 mm and width 50 mm a ee
surface is a bituminous ) be fo re lay ing
are ¥
in te rv al s an d at 45 de gr ee s to th e ce nt re li ne of th e ca rr ag s2
1.0'm
(2) Coarse aggregate size90 to 40 mm
Coarse aggregate,
(b) Stone screening type A, 12.5 mm size Provision of Lateral Confinement . construction, Thist maofy tHebe
or Lateral confinement i to be provided before stating WEN Se goal to tha
crushable type screenings (‘moorum/gravel) the sh ou ld er s to ad va nc e, 10 2 T
ax bY constructingyer and by trimming the inner sides ver=2")-y
(c) Binding material for sub-base
pacted WBM la
course Spreading of Coarse “Asiheaees
(ii) Th i Pro "
a7prs oxim ate loos e quan titi es of mate rial s requ ired in m for 7.5 om jfo rml y to pr op er we !
thic« knes of WBM base ; ; The coarse a eere ga te s are sp
ch
re
ec
ad
ke
uni
d
fo
by
rm
te
ly
mp la te s. N e tas e of WB
cour coar fo un da ti on an d
compact thn
area aes or surf acin g cour se usin g se Prepared
grading No. 2 per 10m? Sons
to co mp ac te d th ic kn es s of 75 €M E 7 1
(2) Coarse agprepate size 6 sited coarse aggregate grading n0-! which is of 10:
3 to 40 mm
a "Se using
 HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
CONSTRUCTION OF BITUMINOUS PAVEMENTS
a
425
Rolling rofile is checked using camber template and in ea
d o n e by a t h r e sve 5 PEpould not exceed 12 mm in the ease of Sie an eae from
cin ‘hie tershe ungneviennenessnessttexceeXced the specifdeieaid ielilismikts, the defectivi e area e
m p a c t i o n is
aggregates properly, ivcoely by an equival Ae three
e
a d i
affti er spre capacity "6eitn g
i n g t h et h e © or al te rn at
10 to nn es
ve e r r o l l e r o f e se a g g r e g a t e s . *
e i g h t o f t h e r o l l e r d e p ad s on the type of co ar
Pee w we m7 at a spot is scarified, reshaped with added materi
with a mini
the edge s, th e ro ll er be in g ru n fo rw ar d an d al or fresh al a
start ano properly 38 specified earlier.
Rolling ee run of the roller is then gradually shifted towne ba
, comps
ea ch pr ec ed in g re ar wh ee l t r a c k
by
ine el
e J uniformly overlapping er e d g e t o w a r d s th e ce nt :
re | C O
6 co?N S T R U C T I O N O F B I T U M I N O U S P A V E M E N T S
w jdth. This pr oc es s 15 re pe at ed by ro ll in g from eith
p a c t i o n is a c h i e v e d.
equate com m m e n c e d f r o m t h e i n n e r
sl introduction
a d , r o l l i n g is c o
On superelevated portions of t h e r o

sera, le oo Pe
ve me nt nous pavements are in common use in India and abroad. It is
gr ad ua ll y to wa rd s th e ou te r or up pe r ed ge of th e Pa
‘edg e an d pr og re ss ed
f o r e , these are CO" ig course, Flexible pavement
Ap p l i c a t i o n of S c r e e n i n g s mee a in stages by constructing bituminous pavement layers gd hie sal
a t e s a r e r o l l e d a d e q u a t e l y , the dry screenings are sensed of time unlike the cement concrete pavement constuction. Thee ate a
‘After the coarse aggreg ide range of construction materials (type, size and grading of aggregates and type and
rs ti ce s in th re e or mo re ap pl ic at io Dr
ns ,yy
gradually over the surface to fill the inte ou t.
js continued asthe screenings are be in g sp re ad an d br oo mi ng ca rr ie d ade of bituminous binder) and bituminous Pavement construction techniques in use,
gai on in design and construction types have given rise to the bituminous paving
Sprinkling and Grouting vefmology. tis well realized that the excessive binder content over an optimum value
e is spr ink led with wate r, swep t fora given mix is detrimental to the good performance of the black top pavements, This
Afte r the appl icat ion of scre enin gs, the sur fac
concrete mixes, where the
rolled. Wet screenings are swept into the voids using hand brooms. is contrary to the role of cement as a binder in the cement
screenings are applied and rolled till the coarse aggregates are well bonded and fnenss ofthe binder does not decrease the strength. Therefore, based on the surface area
of the aggregates, and the technique of construction the optimum binder content may be
set determined. Another problem associated with the construction of bituminous pavements
Application of Binding Material ‘scontrol of the proper viscosity of the bituminous-aggregate mixtures during mixing and
compaction operations.
After the application of screening and rolling, binding material is applied ata,
‘and slow rate at two or more successive thin layers. After each applicationof| In this country, the bituminous construction is by and large adopted on the surface
material, the surface is copiously sprinkled with water and wet slurry swept wit coarse. In fact till recent years the bituminous construction as a wearing course or a
to fill the voids. This is followed by rolling with a 6 to 10 tonnes roller and ¥ surface course was considered as the main treatment. Bituminous constructions are also
applied to the wheels to wash down the binding materials that sticks to the rol Mdopted for base and binder courses of pavements on heavy-traffic roads. Different from
ctushable type screenings like moorum or gravel are used, there is no need the cement concrete surfacing which would require very high cost of construction and a
binding materials, except in the surfacing course. ci substantial curing period before opening the road to traffic, the bituminous surfacing has
4 distinct advantage in this respect. The black top construction is in extensive use in
Setting and Drying veloping nations like, India where the cement as a construction material is in great
projects. Also stage development is
After final compaction, the WBM course is allowed to set over-night. On the! id for large number of other engineering
osible in the case of bituminous roads, dependingon traffic demands.
the *hungry’ Spots are located and are filled with screenings or binding
sprinkled with water if necessary and rolled. No traffic is allowed till the $82 Types of Bituminous Construction
sels and dries out. In the case of WBM base course, the layer is allowed is
completely without permitting traffic to ply and then the bituminous surfacing 7 ee
Number of types and methods are in use for bituminous pavement t con str uct ion
ti . It
Limited construction traffic may be a
cla ssi fy th em her e bas ed on the met hod s of co ns uc io n Th e
care not to damagehe yer, p e r m i t ac a 10 broadly
fo; nt"8 Con
PoTmSY 1 Ply over the _ struction techniques are in use :
i) Mterface treatments like prime coat and tack coat
8.5.4 Checking of Surface Evenness and Re
ctification of Defects :(i) Saur, dre
ssing and seal coat
The surface evenness of tony gitudinal direction is checked by 3.0 m straight e
the number of undulations exe; ‘eeding 12
mm in the ca se of ; “Suted or penetration
and 10 mm in the: case of grai wing nos. 2 and 3 WB M layer of 8 type constructions -
are re co rd ed in ea ch completed! 9) Penetration
300 m; the ‘maximum number of undulations permitted in each ca Mac adam
with 15 mm undulations are marked for Fectificat se is 30- (b) ) Built-up
Byj
ion of defects. Spray Grout
 HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION CONSTRUCTION OF BITUMINOUS. PA
w i n g ci S,
VEMENT wr
m a y= D b e a n y o f t h e f o l l o
p
ny Prreemmaa whhiic c
h h a cement COOCreLE pavem OF e
a per
n vio
t us suet
nd macada m ce
wt een ucated d by by a primucom
¢ es . 7 Fach coat is usualMie the WHE mics< tas
(a) Brame
arco) as material of higher viscosity like the hua bitumena ph
(o) Carpet ee mi area depending e 3
in the type of the surface Howeveoo n
=) Pamninne RETEAE in r
sem e s e c r e
Secs a tack coat of bituminous emulsion may ali be applied ckt mcg
Sncet asphalt ot rolled asphalt piruminous Surface Dressing
iy . atte:
sascic aspbat 7sin girweami nou s Sur fac e Dre ssi ng (BSD ) is prov ided over
aring coat. The single coat surface dressing consanistsexisting pavemeet sere
of a singic
sa po binder
inous bin material
aes followed by
YS spreading of aggregate cover and The
qlsbility rial
of mateand s , climatic conditions
equipment ene of this method i Mustrated in Fig 89, vale,
mans ig bring them to 2 proper viscosity for their use.
<i Seer, is errect’ as hot aids tetbciegn: te) BEFORE ROLLING a és
applied cold and the technique sercure, AFTER tek,
regure beating are therefore
Tins tne construction techni are classified
que intostwo groun. == = of
BASE COURSE
— eS ee
The methads of bixxninous construction employed int base course 2
penezztio n mac ade m (eit her full grou t or sem i-g rou t) and bit ume n bou nd tig. 8.9 Principle of Bituminous Surface Dressing Construction

When the surface dressing is similarly done in two layers, it is called “rwo cost
squminous surface dressing’. Where better adhesion is ‘aggregates precoaced
‘eth bituminous binder are used in lieu of conventional surface dressing and this
Based on the technique of mixing and construction, the bituminous technique is called “Bituminous Surface Dressing with Precoated Aggregates’ The main
‘asifed 25 road max end central plant méx methods. tf functions of BSD are ;
Depending upon the gradation, the premix constructions are classified as 9 (2) to serv
as a e
thin wearing course of pavement and to protect the base course
znd dense graded. The premixed carpet is open graded whereas the bituming
is dense graded. (>) to water proof the pavement surface and to prevent infiltration of surface water
(©) to provide dust-free pavement surface in dry weather and mud-free pavement in wet
463 Explanatory Notes on Bituminous Construction Types weather.
ty Interface Treatment (ity Seal Coat
‘Thus suroffthe ac exie
sting pavement layer is to be cleaned to remove: Seal coat is usually recommended as a top coat over certain bituminous pavements
#22 thin lzyer of bituminous binder is to be sprayed before the construction: “stich are not impervious, such as open graded bituminous constructions like premixed
of taaminous lever over this surface. This treatment with bituminous mat “pet and grouted Macadam, Seal coat is also provided over an existing bituminous
Secface treatment which is necessary to provide the necessary bond between Pavement which is wom out. The seal coat is a very thin surface treatment or 3 single
tinea levrs. The incerface treatment may either be a prime coat of a tack oat surface dressing which is usually applied over an existing black top surface. A
some cases, the pri me coat followed by a tack coat. Remixed sand bitumen (hot mix) seal coat is also commonly used over the premixed
(2) Prime coat : Bituminous prime coat is the first ap ‘pet. The main functions of seal coat
are :
‘guid bauminous material over an existing porous or plication of '9) 10 eal the surfacing against the ingress of water
WEM base course. The main object of b a
sorbent pavement Sure
Priming is to plug in the capillary ¥ i ins: skid resistant texture
‘nliven an existing dry or weathered bituminous surface.
‘) Penetration Macadam
Of 73 to 14.
ke 6per 10 m? area,
Bian
suminous Penetration
‘ pase or binder
Macadam or Grouted Macadam scrip ndsy state and after
surface is allowed to cure for at that hot= pin The c4OMS ABEregates are first spread and compart ied 4 quantityey at
fe rot ituminous binder of relatively high viscosity 53¢2 bl tos
eer The bitu men penet rates into the voids from the surfa ce
The pring,tes, tts filliutil
ng upes a part of the voids
' and bindi
inding ng some stone
ied in Fig. 8.10.
“ple of Penetration Macadam construction is illests
 ahey" UO) ATOR FetHveETrm
MALaD Gy

nse carpet
merete or Asphalt Coneren
sii Concrete or Asphaltic Conerete (aes
piri
¢ whichis wel ted
» spread and the extent of pus mi
ore
etrated to full depth of compa lane )
cted jumen and the mix is
upto about half the depth. Full grout + Marshall method to fulfil the requirernen ‘i
-grout is adopted in regions of
moderate rq ihe th ic kn es s of bi tu mi no us co nc re te su rf ac
Cen The IRC has provided specification for 49 mes th ek AC e co ur se fay us ua ll y t a r athcomsait
C sticext rourousrsee fofa r
pishnway PA ements.
ay Grovt (BSG) consists of two-layer composite constr, vet Asphalt
aggregates with application of bitumingus binder after each chect asphalt or rolled asphalt is a dense sand-bitumen premiv of compact thicksess
inished with key aggregates at the top to provide a total eg ss mm. used a8'a wearing course, The sheet asphalt consists of well graded care i
mim This method is commonly used for strengthening of Coarse augregates ) and a suitable penetration orade tenes te fen 4
bituminous pavements,
Sasand (without
A suitable wearing course is invariably provided over t vens and impervious layer. This is usually laid over cement concrewe pavement to
before opening to traffic fs vide an excellent riding surface. The sheet asphalt alse protects the joints in
1) Premix Methods F erele pavements and could cause a reduction in warping stresses due to a decerane
the temperature variations between top and bottom of the concrete siab.
In this group of methods the aggregates and the bituminous binder’a
thoroughly before spreading and compacting. It is possible to coat each | ay Mastic Asphalt
aegregate with the binder still the quantity of binder used may be considera Mastic asphalt is a mixture of bitumen, fine aggregates and filler im suitabie
bly.
Penetration macadam type construction. In premixed constructions, the « roportions which yields voidless and impermeable mass. Though the ingredients ix
bitumen used could be precisely controlled and they offer increased s t a b i l mastic asphalt are similar to those in bituminous concrete, propertiesof mastic asphaits
sen with lower bitumen contents. Depending on the gradat are quite different. The mastic asphalts when cooled results in a hard, stable and durable
ion of the ag
Premixed constructions maybe classified as open graded; semidense Laer suitable to withstand heavy traffic. This material also can absorb vibrationsan tas
The common types of and de
premixed bituminous constructions are ituminous 1 property Of self-healing of cracks without bleeding. It is a suitable surfacing materiais
bituminous carpet, and bituminous concrete, Other types of premixed for bridge deck slabs.
include sheet asphalt and mastic
asphalt. The filler, bitumen binder and aggregate are taken in suitable proportion and they are
(oi) Bituminous Macadam
heated in sequence, and cooked at a temperature of 200 to 223°C according to the binder
grade, for over 5 hours in a special cooker, At a temperature of about 200°C the mastic
Sohal has such a consistency that it can flow, But on cooling 10 aoa
©. it hardens to semi-solid or solid state. Because of this property even w'
voidless hard layer of mastic asphalt can be‘ obtained. The mastic asphalt
Should be spread a No
suggented for each thickn t
tolling is required. a Jpmiperatire of Abots 2
BM is essentially a bas 00° 8 ae
fruuch superior than othe hog Methods of C
r onstruction
load dispersion characte
ris Premix 'ypes
of bituminous constructions ar
carried out inthe Gel! wing
(OH) Bituminous Premiced Car WProprian © plants. e
‘There are two types of mixing plant ‘and travelling plant.
pet
The cen
ang uni NIMs Plant consists of hs unit .
thi ABBFeBAtes and bitumen ie
its Fife for Med
Mepates, Her and bitumen
are t ransported 10
 C O N S T R_U C T I O N
HI G H W A Y
-

ae
430 i n o u s m i x i s a g a i n y
. u m
cation and the bit s very good control on ms 4a
s u eS Generally there i srcgate 1
s t a t i o n e
to the construs
d a a
x i n g p l a n t . qual — abrasion value 35 pacent ma
i b e c e n t r a l m i
obtained from
le r uni t an d on be sh if te d fr om ti me to ti ng gate impact value 30 percent max.
The travelling plant is smal on s; anes index 25 percent max,
€ av e ne bi tu mi no us co ns tr uc ti on pr og re ss es . In ho t mi x Co ns tr uc ti
road side as mixed with heated bitumen in a central or travelling plant...
tS eregates at atmospheric temperature are mixed with bituminous 1 wee absorption be ae ' percent max.
e a t i n g . sxining a 40°C after 24 hours immersion (CRRI test) 25 percent max,
l d s t a t e o r a f t e r s l i g h t h
Jow viscosity in c o
‘ ty The recommended size of chippings and quality required are given below :
s C o n s t r u c t i o n P r o c e d u r e s
u
8.6. 5 B i t u m i n o Sieve size, mm Quantity ia
In this article, the mat eri al req uir eme nts , pla nt and equ ipm ent and con str uct ion ak Normal | m? for 10 m7}
us co ns tr uc ti on s ha ve be en pr es en te d
employed for the following types of bitu mi no ES
gt coat, 12. mmrenewal F 12 6
29 [0141s
0.0910 011
nd coat or coat, 9 mmthick|
(i) Surface dressing
q u i p m e n t
(ii ) Gr ou te d or pe ne tr at io n ma ca da m lp ants and E
(iii) Built-up spray grout
quipment for heating of bitumen, mechanical sprayer, mechanical blower or hand
(iv) Bitumen bound macadam
nates and roller are required. Some of these are explained in subsequent methods.
Construction Steps
W) Bituminous carpet o p e r
n g r f a c e : T h e e x i s t i n g s u r f a c e is p r e p a r e d to th e p r
(vi) Bituminous concrete (i) Preparation of existi su
profile and ruts, depressions etc. are rectified before the treatment is done. The
Construction Procedure for Surface Dressing surface is made free of dust or loose materials. A prime coat is applied if the
The bituminous surface dressing (BSD) is done either in a single coat or it
existing base course has a previous surface such as soil stabilized material or WBM.
over the existing bituminous pavement and for renewal or as a wearing ct (i) Application of binder : On a prepared surface using a mechanical sprayer or
water bound macadam road. Also there is a specification for surface pouring-can, uniform spraying of the, bituminous binder is done at the specified rate.
aggregates precoated with bitumen. Care is taken that excessive binder is not applied to the localised areas as this would
The surface dressing work is done only in dry and clear weather when the cause bleeding.
temperature is above 16°C, (ii) Application of stone chippings : After the application of binder, the cover material
Specifications of Materials
ie, stone chippings as per the requirement is spread to cover the surface uniformly.
(iv) Rolling of first or final coat : The rolling is done with tandem roller of 6 to 8 tonnes
‘The requirement of materials greatly differs depending upon whether the applica Weight after the cover mater ial is spread . Rollin g is starte d from the edges
ima single coat or two coats and whether the dressing is done on a black top proceeding towards the centr e longi tudin ally with overl appin g not less than one
on a WBM pavement, third ofthe roller tread. When rolling of one half width upto the centre is on
cl im at ic co nd it io ns : from the lee a
this way, the rolling is carried out on the other half again startingpartic
The
bitumen gra deg r a d e s of by bi tu me n is sel ect ed de pe nd in g up on the Proceeding towards the centre line. This is continued until the les are firmly
ababe hei *s between 80/100 and 180/200 are frequently used. Tar or
inte-locked. This is the final rolling if the surface dressingis in single coat
The binder quantity requirement for surface dressing is given in Table: the second coat is applied then the rolling is done againir after the tretreatmatmentent is done
aggregatesfairly(preferably crush :
cubical fn ioe iy Stone or crushed gravel) should be clean, for second coat, k ars
durable " o a e e e
Wy
a n d st on e ch ip pi ng s fo r se co nd co at : i e
‘Polication of b i n d e r qu ir em en ts . Im me di at el y
oe the p r e p a r e d su rf ac e as pe r re
Table 8.1 Binder Quantity for Surface Dressing (iyetal of s maller aggregates is spread as before.
Roll Rae ma te ri al s, th e ro ll in g. 8
Base course Type _ Binder requirement kg pe10r m’_area af te r th e ap pl ic at io n of th e
__First or Single coat Second coat don % second coat : Soone. dial and crs
DWN typ ‘scribed in (iv) abov
ne lat Cutback| Bitumen
ng an d o p e n i n g to t a i Th e su rf ac e i ch ec ke d
rati ing a straight edge of length 3.0 metre and bes fer 24 ows jo ng rt ac e gr ea te r
(ii) Renewal of Black =} 2022 {190 22[ 1010 12 69 i Us
top to su rfacing | '0t012 | 10t017| 10 t0 12| 10 to 12 te corrected. The road section is opened '°
 HIGHWA Y C O N S T R U C T I O N
INSTRUCTION OF BI "
42 col ITUMINOUS PAVEMENTS ret
Pro ced ure for Pen etr ati on (Grout* ed) Macadam ;
Constru ietion ctiPe on of a penetration macadam is recommended for thio, ys ari d Eq ui pment
‘The constructio oe i equipment needed are :

biti
s g ndevice;
tinie
umeen heaee bi um en
bitumen distributora
oe erials
Specifications of Matert ade of bi ff r o m an
0 a,- a
80/10060,n
/7 00
ReCc nd s to us e an y g
grr a d e of b i t u m e n
RTS could also be used. The quantity of bitumen requicts a mall job bitumen container is heated under the direct
flame.
sd eo heating is done within the bitumen distributor. See Fig.
c o m p a c t e d a g g r e g a t e l a y e r 8.11 ones:
Gare degree of pe ne tr at io n of b i n d e r in to th e pr
e a g g r e g a t e s ar e sp ec if ie d by th
The phys ic al re qu ir em en ts of st on
values :
Los Angles abrasion value 40 percent max,
30 percent max.
Aggregate impact value
Flakiness index 25 percent max.
af te r 24 ho ur s im me rs io n (C RR I te st ) 25 percent max.”
Stripping at 40°C
Loss with sodium sulphate, 5 cycles 12 percent max: Ri
gr eg at e an d ke y ag gr eg at es as re co mm en de d
The grading of the coarse ag : Sas pee
given in Table 8.2 and 8.3.
Fig. 8.11 Bitumen Distributor
Table 8.2 Gradings of Coarse Aggregates for Penetration macad
Different types of aggregate spreaders used are :
Percent passing Compacted thickness , mm
sieve size, mm 50 15s |e Whirl spreader
6 - 100, Vane spreader
50 100 - Hopper spreader
Self propelled spreader
25 35-70 >
19 - 0-15 | These are shown in Fig. 8.12. Two types of rollers used for compaction are tandem
12 0-15 : rollers and vibratory rollers.
9 = = Construction Steps
45 = of existing surface : The underlying course is prepared and
236 os os le (0 Preparation scarified and is brushed.
conditioned to a uniform grade, The surface is lightly
Table 8.3 Key Aggregates for Penetration Macadam Priming coat may be applied if required on porous surfaces.
Percent passing | Compacted thickness (i) Spreading the coarse aggregates :: Th The coarse ageregat tes are spread with proper
,mm | edge protection. ‘This is done either by mechanical spreader or by hand. A ee
sieve size, mm 30 75 is used 0 achieve the desired profile in cross section.
: : Cut to camber profile
38 ae po
100
(iii)
Rolling : The aggregates are dry-rolled with 10 tonnes roller uti
i :
19 100 35-70 are compacted and interlocked. Rolling is commenced from He Sot
Proceeded to the centre, the overlap recommended being 30 aedeearges
12 35-70 . Tolling depends upon the aggregate type. In all cases the roll in weeps
2, : 0-15 Cither first sign of crushing or when the internal movements
4.75 0-15 = :
236 0-15 05 coer ees ceed 12mm
Stopped. Then dry compacted coarse aggregates theare ies et
“sing 3.0 metre straight edge and corrected where
The coarse aggregates required for 50 mm {iv aggregates. the binder is
compacted thickness is 0.06 and com pac ted oo aches hand10m
anical s p r a y e r :
area and for 75 mm compacted thickness is 0.90 m per 10 m? Bit ume n app lic ati on : Ove r the dry 68 eer for50
applied Uniformly eit her with pressure dito
The quantity of key aggregates requi i e d f o r t h i s p u r p o s e is
ang sUatity o f b i t u m e n r e q u i r
0.15 and 0.18m? per 10m aa * required for 50 and 75. mm compar t e d t h i c k n e s s r e s p e c t i v e l y :
75 m m c o m p a c
 HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
CONSTRUCTION OF BITUMINOUS PAVEMENTS

bshe
435

at gearionsgrades
en fl
80/100 to 30/40 or road RT-4 and RT-5
pina pe used have the same specifications asthe penetion mer, 3
eae pase and binder courses are provided, the base course material
pasion value upto 50 percent and aggregates tarsus
‘impact val percen
rappers
anes! aggregates and key aggregates have similar gradings as mite
liar

Conseraction Steps
of ex is ti ng ba se : Th e de pr es si on s an d po t ho le s are
3) Preparation
0 gurface is brought to the required grade and camber. The surface is stoped
prim e co at is ap pl ie d an d cu re d if the su rf ac e is po ro us . -
@ Ta ck co at : He at ed bi tu mi no us bi nd er is ap pl ie d at a rat e of 75 to 10 kg on WB M
guriace an d 6 to 8 kg on bl ac k to p su rf ac e per 10 m” ar ea . g
(a) Spreading first layer = Coarse aggregates are spread and hand packed at a rate of
0.5m per 10m" area.
mgeeeR SREADER - (iv) Rolling : The ag gr eg at e is ro ll ed us in g 8 to 10 to nn es r o l l
as e r
usu al.
COMUNTED ON WHEELS) or ml y
at a rat e of 12. 5 to 15
) Application of binder : Bitumen bind er is sp ra ye d un if
kg per 10 m” ov er th e dry su rf ac e of th e co mp ac te d ag gr eg at es .
(si) Spre ad in g of se co nd la ye r of co ar se ag gr eg at es : Th e se co nd la ye r of co ar se
azer eg at es is sp re adat a r a t
of e
0.5 m° pe r 10 m” ar ea , i m m e d i a
aft t
er e
aplplyyi ng
the binder.
(si) Rolling : This layer is again rolled thoroughly starting from the edges.
(sii) Se co nd ap pl ic at io n of bi nd er : Bi nd er is ap pl ie d at ar at e of 12. 5 to 15 .0 kg per
SELF-PROPELLED SPRERDED 10m” area.
Fig. £12 Aggregate Spreaders (i) Application of ke y ag gr eg at es : Im me di at el y af te r th e ap pl ic at io n of the bi nd er ,
key aggregates are spread at a rat e of 0.1 3 m° pe r 10 m a r e
and a
rol led .
Spresiee of tex ozgregstes : After the application of bi
e un ev en ne ss is ch ec ke d wi th th re e- me tr e st ra ig ht ed ge .
3. The cross profile is again checked. (%) Surface Fi ni sh : Th e su rf ac
in g 12 mm an d th e nu mb er
Longitud in al pr of il e s h o u no t
l dha ve un du la ti on s ex ce ed
The sea! coat & applied if another surfacing course is not! of undulations greater than 10 mm si ze sh ou ld no t ex ce ed 30 in 30 0 m le ng th of
road. In cross prof il e th e ma xi mu m al lo wa bl e va ri at io n in su rf ac e is 8 mm .
type of seal coxt may be applied. The pavement
+ rolling, however should be avoided. Opening to traffic :Builtup spray grout shoud ot be
> Providing surface course. expe 1 ae Beles
Construction Procedure for Bituminous Macadam
pec uw the Central By
locate spots with fi if :
mjabitiminous Macadam (BM) bitumen bound de n
itumis : nnae
es dering the const BE i,co lyBase aftoFer bmiindxierng coanurdse.thenWhcoe mpacted. Ttis PSP ce course at as #
_ IS necessary.
n this layer is
ee] ications of Materials «
enetration. Road ta RT.
Opening ta traffic - The fir eta HES of bitumen used are 30/40, 60770 and $0 TE ciqa. ‘The Bin
sate deing tas. beat mean tet pened to wate Geren M4 emulsion can also be used in cold mix ch
triipeeriodmu
of r
24 n
hours, OV the 9p 0 Yaties from 3.0 1 4.5 percent by weiaht
mest
 HIGHWAT CUNDS TRUS HUN
436 rn .
; used tow porosity fulfilling the following r e q u CONSTRUCTION OF BITUMINO ’
US PAVEMENTS ig
Aggregates are of Fequirements
course. <i yantity f aggregates required for 10 mm’ m? of bitunen bound
¢ 50
eal 1,90 to 1.0m’ respectively, for $0 and 75 mea con — are 6.8 te
Los Angles abrasion value Percent may, brie panier The
acgeenipact ae 35 percent may, 0. wee ‘quantity would be determined based on the gradings
5s ides iplants
t and Equipment aa above
pinkie 1S percent max, ©
various plants and equipment required for the job include :
stripping at 40°C after ‘24 hours immersion (CRRI test) 25 percent max.”
Supping Sprayer ere
S cycles 12 percent Max, may. a. .
Lass with sodium sulphate, 5 or hand
improvised mixer
and impact values Mechanical mixer
é ‘ss ae course the specified maximum
For binder abrasion are spreader — mechanical paver or finisher, grader, or manual methods

a n d 5 0 m m t h i c k n e s s fo r w e Roller
g g r e g a t e s fo r 75 m m
‘The gradings of the a In di ex pl ai ne d in ea rl ie r ar ti cl es . A
course construc tion as s p e c i f i e d by ian Roads Congress are given in Table Various ot he r e q u i p m e n t ar e
e, a t s i s e s tr ac to r un it
finisher is shown In Fig. 8. 13 . It is a se lf pr op el le d ma ch in p
(b) respectively. anda sc re ed in g un it .
at es fo r bi tu mi no us ma ca da m
Table 8.4 Grading of aggreg
THICKNESS
m c o m p a c t e d t h i c k n e s s : CONTROL
fa) Grading for 75 m
Percent passing Base course _|
sieve size, mm Grading |_ Grading 2 seitize
100 100 PAVEMENT
= 90-100
35-70 | 35-65| ‘CompacrInc crawure
= 20-40 Oewice
0-15 = Fig. 8.13 Mechanical Finisher
- 5-20 There are different types of mixer in use. Mechanical mixers include travelling plant
or central plant and ar e em pl oy ed de pe nd in g up on th e jo b. Ma nu al ha nd mi xe r is al so
| = Ss
ie = =| used which is fixed vane type.
0-5 0-5 Construction Steps
0-3 0-5 (i) Preparation of existing layer. Th e exi sti ng lay er is pr ep ar ed to a pro per pro fil e. Pot
Binder content, percent | 30-45 | 3.0-4.5 [ holes are patched and irr egu lar iti es are ma de eve n. ‘Th e sur fac e is pro per ly aned.
cle
|By weight of mix : A track coat is applied of thin layer of
(ii) Tack coat or prime coat application.
(b) Grading for 50 mm compacted thickness : bitumen binder on the existing layer either usin; the sprayer or a pouring can. The

inder coun) quantity of application is 4.0 to 7.5 kg per 10 m’ for bla ckt op lay er and 7.5 t0 10 ke
Per cen t passing Base course
sieve i mm + Per 10 m? for untreated WBM layer.
I (i) Premix preparation. The bitumen binder and aggregates 3S PT
a |=35-701 903080 wadings are separately heated to the specified and are then plan
mixer chosen
binder is also for the job.
specified The
based mixing
on the temperature
laboratory for
results eachA grading
tolerance 20d
of 3
2 10°C U P ts
200 x =
2s 0-15 | 10~30 — allowed. The mixing is done Ula homogeneous misuse is tans, TE
carried to the site for its placem through a ent transporter«mediaoFtely placed 00 the
v is the n i c o n e ? Th e ca mb er
) Placement, ‘The bi tu mi no us pa vi ng mi xt ur e
wi th ra ke s to @ pr ed et er mi ne ’ tha t a com pac tin g,
‘red lo* cation and is spread
Profile is checked with a template. It may De A" ie sesuing Pe
he stated here

suPtTature also influences the strength chars

lure. It is therefore required that the min!
‘ment of the mix and the rolling operations
 HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
438 CONSTRUCTION OF BITUMINOUS p,
anishing the paving mix, The rol lin g is don e w i "AVEMENTS a9
is = ite d the edg es
rol lin g
« fas ona fre
: rds the cent re, pping isj provi k
tlaing
and uni iform overlapp
(ii) APP i c a t i o n o f t a c k c o a t +
hae
pe aero show separate lines of markings due to deffs : binder is heated to a specified ted mperature before itS application
bitumP™ant nt surface. ‘The tack coat or Pp rime Coat is applied justvo
it on
st ties The roller wheels are kept damp, otherwise the Paving mix fa Be
rol the wheels and the finishing may not be good. A Variation ofe we
cising paveme Just before Spreading
wpe ppre
repar
m ation and placing of premix :
ile. The numbernt. ofundulations ¢°
tength iy allowed in the cross profleng (i)
should be less than 30 in 300 m th of paveme mix is prepared in a mechanical mixer or in an impr
The pre The capacity of oha
v nd idr
s ume mi
d xe r
Construction Procedure for Pr e- mi xe d B i t u m i n o u s Ca rp et r e m i x i n g . the drum mixer requires to place a quantity of 0.03 m?
for ee chippings and 0.015 m’ of w
10 mm chippings in one batch. The
Specifications of Materials of cee are however heated separate
ly upto the requ
se gr
ired temperature.
eg at es
an d
the After the
The bitumen binder of 80/100 grade or road tar of grade RT-3 is used, "is thorough and homogeneous mix is obtained, the same
sain for spreading and rolling. The spreading is done with su is taken om and carried
nd er re qu ir ed fo r 2 cm th ic k ca rp et is as un de r. it ab le ra ke s,
‘The quantity of bi a
suitdable templates.
‘The eross profile ofthe laid material is checwithke
(i) Prime coat on @ WBM surface 7.3 to 9.8 kg bitumen or 12.20 to 14.64
per 10m’. (q) Rolling and finishing =
(ii) Tack coat on an existing black top surface 4.9 to 7.3 kg bitumen or 73 immediately after spreading the mix, the rolling operstion is commenced. At one
jon 15 m of the premix is laid and rolled. A tandem or pneumatic roller of 6 to §
road tar per 10m". ionnes is used. To prevent adhesion of the mix to the roller wheels, the same are kept damp
For premixing. depending upon the size and quantity of chipping for both sie with wate r. The roll ing is done until ther e is no furt her move ment of aggr egat es in the mix.
wees 2 total of 14.92 kg bitumen binder or 19.73 kg road tar binder is required pe: (x) Application of seal coat:
mm area.
In areas of low rainfaa ll, premixed coat -s an
is appl iedd- the al
overse carpet. For this
For the carpet of 2 cm thickness, the stone chippings of 12 mm size (ce. passag ‘a medium coarse sand passing 1.7 mm sieve and retained on 1.18 mm sieve is
mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve) and of 10 mm size (passing 12 mm and retaie! ted at the rate of 0.06 m? per 10 m?. The binder required for this purpose is 68 kg per
on 6 mm), are required at the rate of 0.183 m? and 0.091 m? per 10 m? area. 10m of the road surface. In areas of high rainfall (aver 125 cm per year) 2 liquid sea! is
stone chippings should be angular, clean, hard, tough and durable: Sand ned at 9.8 kg per 10 cm’ ? area and covered withi a layer of s appl2 ie
chip ingpp overdthe
tard and durable type is also required. ae The stone chipping of 6 mm size i. passing 10 mm sieve and rzined on 25
‘The aggregates fulfilling the following requirements may be selected :
mm are used at the rate of 0.09 m? per 10m? area. This layer is rolled by 2 light tandem
roller to give a smooth finished surface.
Los Angles abrasion value = 35 % max. (i) Surface finish = ry
(ot) Aggregate impact value = 30% max. edgee should Dot not exceed 10 mm
itudiinal undulatioi ns under 3.0 m straight edg
‘The longitud
Flakiness index = 30% max. te number of undulations higher than 6.0 mm should not exceed 30 neni of 300 =
Swipping value "aad lengt h. The cros s prof ile shou ld not have undu lati ons exce edin g
= 25% max.
Water absorption (si) Opening to traffic :
= 20% max. seal coat or surface
Plants and Equipment _,,|he road may be opened to traffic 24 hours after providing the
cessing.
The varicnss equipeen required
"etired secu d ussed inthe USF
forfor thisthi purpose are already disc
construction types.
Construction Meps » Bei 4 ‘fications,
i ue
by Surfaces, Being of high cost specil ications, the bituminous mixes mixture
ty Preps aration of the existing lity and The "th
surface : tenes satisfy the design requirements of the stability 2° °° gir coatedwi
EEE I applied to the existing layer, tag dense grad ing of coa rse agg reg ate , fine aZe re2 Ae ™ X ofth
s e bin umi nou s
a i weet
fet BIG ct Sepresions with precoated tis necessary to prepare Wey hot -mi x pl a
chippings a= ” bin der . The mix is pre par ed ina
a © 20 Old bitumen surface as required. & 2g “layer depends upon the traffic and quality
“g surtace is of softer a prior to placing the pe for binaries concrete Of
coat is spplied aod caged PE TRAES Suchas laterite, kankaror mooruM: “gt eifications of materials and te consti nck
“concrete (AC) surface course are given
 HWA ODPL tig
iH SAINI
pals pte PORES Sppreapsere im
ses eats of MP? oh poids IVAUIATINoF thy) 0
PO j
/8 hay g norte wae Ree a
1 ndym navansdat abatrev) weet)
—Ay hpsreiet i file Vie nevetis weasels Bend BAPge y ii Hina 6 HWA V5 sei
: 2

eeicant Site ts WN gesassin PO HIS oF $8 Hy. See

aee
i ELISE P: OOR SPY airy, 4 Gaon a Hai suntan
auynsgile wnppned veh Oita 8 WE hey 8 DSindanys cele: oanie of
nit Laaee Dbiys J pey periond psad} wasti OS GeelWP y PAOD, Sula Sse 68 5 be
wy
akes i
ar cic wiles SEAN OU ilbktina
Fln wien, se *Py aca
swipippiinngg wt AE whi oy 74 ih e, an e pe rc e Mi se ot Win se: ach sot oh
yao ap a 107.9 ee yee OP ae, this quantity any bs iaseasen to? Sy
Sunidieen? ik ee msbonunananns Ise.
Nang sith onlin oulpite INS yee, HO
Jos with maynenint silphate nS eyeles, pwr percent
pereent ae gid wr ti an an d pl ac ti g of pr em ie
Is aethe NA je de peepee ih ae NA win yhaed he lewis peso
the bitumen may hs hese yo 1h itn:

sere L dst etme

at te scrape
Fables Grataton at Apmremuten to HOU
VCneraeout panning by weight
Concrete
Heras caillested Srimn
rk _,
es tobner
al paver wt y hasan tate
%
tein
dnote at
ee
EWe ale Hin ding | Cniding2 ine ” yet me aecanalely veri pro v

AW) ueMt Fe ie point wre Of weet siynificence in the steeuyth seoutting:

too javernient otrelure
oa) ie tn
neg Ce oo wn) Malling
iy WoW WW
Awix after it fy placed on the helo , is thoroughly
wo igued o
by rollinatg a
speed not more that ae Lisi poet Slidg Js'Sebe
}i
8 40 4-30 tamer taller Wi s # he ed w b a p e n s in
el) Woo ve D t r e hes
N10 1519 10 tannes having a tyre pressure of 7 ie Hel bere
Wo won e e e
sdanp with water, ‘The number of passes fecha leis the dre ™ foichness ofthe layer.
as ae ee a tu vain eather collin on the next day helps eny ifthe inal rolling
i Qs 4 4
FAO NIIN ome may Watt adequate, ‘The final rolling or finishing
i
is done by 8 to 12 tonne tandem rol er,
Avani Seatatiay Vout ( Quality oscontofrbit
HATO OE BhuWs to he oumi
l conrete
nous conc crete con
conststruction
Apptiod on either side of speckinen
Mainhatl siabitig. Va The routine cheeks are carried out se wre the quality of the resul ting
lue,
twining tN Mement aise is, ‘are made fe to)
WASDALE Vala,i,
Vane
hd MANUS Sa To. galt) A ard of bitumen () emer uresof aggregate (d) temperat ae
Mixture and the pavement surface,

Votty an iin, pereent Ving MIN during mixing and

my discharged i
compaction. of
ese)
by the hot mix plant pone f
Vows THitest wan, NiwaOn
Vw
is collected and tested for above req :
HOON Tw sy Il ests are alse¢ conducted. For every 100m’ ‘compacted surface, one test oftheUs
Hants wid Pawipmons of ‘9884 of the density tiie i
fet NY 4s conducted to check whether it is at mar
PS SOMSITION WOR QP the Nit
u m i nis ewnenste, a hat min plant cca.
“Astustign
The vataion in thickness. allow mom per 45 m leg
SHENG Digh oumtin
p SSASTOOTNR Mechan
i sed Rees
is u s e d , t t
4 OMe! wy
Rivest,
me Ey THRE wage m S we d W D A aQ ui pm en t fe Pinethed surface :
SANE SUED I S A C su rt ac e sh ou ld be ch es he by 23 0 iic longit60udinmaal
SNERE URW This Skleiong shonout lexd ceed 8.0 mm and the numner “The crass o n a e
Ame: Oe The cansemactian x profile
OU DRuMnags, OES exceed 10 in a length of 300 metre.
“Sean cascading 4.0 mm.
 HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
4sid (CTION OF CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENT : CRETE
col STRUCTION OF CEMENT CONCRE pave: NTS
TE PAVEME
8.7 CONSTRUCTION ‘i te matrix. ‘The technique can be compared with iach ea
oy high ae seat ation type construction. we e
7.1 Introduction
pavement maintains a very high recognition, Among thy d concrete layer, lean mix concrete is seal
ee crete
the excellent riding surface and pleasing apps § in pi ‘water is prepared and laid on the prepared, faa mk of gare, sand,
t h e e n g i n e e r s h a v e j
m u c h p r e f e r r e d . F u r t h e r mi ee
eon
bss
s e t e r o a d‘,
s a r e v e r y sause at in any construction Sanaprotject. It isi also, on 0! ling #8 more than the . compacted‘doror fini
materials for its
ch more than any other type ofconstriction ne 2 finished thiTe ckness. knes of the concrete is 20
Tandem
pereet ded. The rolling operation is completed before the
sea ne ‘Curing is done as per conventional method, final Se en,
sha structure nici cement,
six’ ty ‘saves cost as the resultant structure gianvexc
eellsent performance, nt grouted and rolled concrete are suitable for base course only,
toa details of cem ent concrete slabs are given in the following Taek ie
neue the drawbacks of the cement concrete pavement type, it oy serve as both base and surface courses of highway pavements,
and the method is not
thot it requires a very high initial investment ‘There are two modes of construction of cement concrete slab
construction. Transverse and longitudinal joints are unavoidable in this ¢on
The joints as such provide additional planes of weaknesses. The maintenance () Alternate bay method
if any, required in cement concrete pavements are mostly associated with (ii) Continuous bay method
number of joints provided are also kept to a minimum as the
‘Alternate bay method of construction means constructing a bay or one slab in alternate
involve substantial extra work. A minimum period of 28 days curing is jon leaving the next or intermediate bay to follow up after a gap of one week or so,
the cement concrete pavement could be opened to the traffic. The cer
pavements are constructed with or without the sub-base course. This deci See Fig. 8.14. In alternate bay construction the slabs constructed are in sequence of X,
depending upon the soil type, design load and economic consideration. y,Zetc. leaving gaps of bay X’, Y', Z’, etc. This technique provides additional working
purpose of the sub-base course beneath the cement concrete pavements are convenience for laying of slabs. ‘The construction of joints is easier.
(i) to provide a strong supporting layer.
to provide a capillary cut-off preventing the damages due to mud pum
(iii) to reduce thickness requirements of cement concrete slab and lower |
construction. WBM is the most popular type of underlying layer gener
in India. Soil stabilized layers can also be used with advantage.
(iv) to increase the service life of the CC pavement
The construction of cement concrete pavement is dealt under the following,
1. Construction of pavement slabs ‘,
2. Construction of joints
Fig. 8.14 Construction Method of Cement Concrete Road
8.7.2 Construction_of Cement Concrete Pavement
Slab But it has many drawbacks as follows : ; 2
( Large number of transverse joints are to be provided. | This ines:
Cement grouted layer Construction cost and reduces the smooth riding quality of the surface. vn
Rolled concrete layer Duri rains, the surface water collects on the subgrade between the
i(i)) During s
fini ae oy
width of road and the traffic wil
Cement concrete slab Ai)i The construction is spread over the full i
In cement growed layer Completely diverted.
,
i d i n s e q u e n c e ie . X' , Y. 2" et e.
as 18 to 25 mm is laid o
nt
loose thickness is compact
“ Somtini uous (bay) method all the slabs or bays ar= bes e ba cha day's}
jo in ts ar e ho we ve r ta
Of coarse sand, cement an »Zete. Co ns tr uc ti on
ofi,the eadsvaent!age wae
astl:1% tol: 2%. To con e th e la te r me th od is pr ef er ed maaly
7 PMS
ha lf th e pa ve me nt wi dt h ca n be ta ke n
ould o a of
dive rt ed on th e ot he r h the road.
a of
l f
 CONSTRUCTION OF CEMENT CONCKETE PAVE MENTS
4s
yoru
cee porrows with two wheels. afc used to transport concrete for shut in
ostueices trom

cetland cement is generally used. In case of y i s e of a w o

sgpgfyatinsigbrastcrienegd uncitoms prMiosuenstedo| thereo o d e n or mild steel screed with Suicahte hacaties
ote Ae be used to reduce curing time. n, p
gener earl engine, and traveling onsideropfoelrmies.d either eectrially or by cemmpeesset
hardening comment
ec The maximum size of Coarse aggregates should not, iit
sess. The gradation of coarse aggregate may range fro, ; =
the agaregate is collected in two size ranges,
one below ay h com
prises of vibrating head with suitable motive power either of cumpresned ar.
wd “pen the grading is from 20 to 50 mm, the materials are, seercity or of petrol driven engine right enough to ensure proper contol and manplate
° m a a r a n r t e c a n i
ane below and above mm misize. The aggregate should
i m p u be
r i t ifree
e s Be) ate t7sboof concrete.
to av d It is used to ensure compaction
ar y
ombing
of the cement concrete aang with the
Teo ome ¥
ca, clay, al ka li , o r g a n i c tendency of honey-c
as tron. pyrite, coal, e a g g r e g a t e s sh ou l,
m i c r o n si ev e in th e c o a r s finishing operations in common use are float,
lignite, clay of fines passing 75 teen Fi A be Tools and appliances for surface.
grag edse. belt and fibre brush.
than one percent by weight. The desirable limits of important propertiesare:
Aggregate croshing value 30% max.
Float
= 30% max. The longitudinal float is of75; cm length and 7.5 em width and is made of bard wood
impact value 30% andis fined with handle. (SFig.ee 8.15). This‘siis used for smoothing the concrete
Los Angeles abrasion value: 30% max. as per the ISI and
: 35% max. as per the IRC Leama
Soundness, average loss in
=
weigh: after 10 cycles : 12 percent max. in sodium sulphate
18 percent max. in magnesium sulphate E ‘ ne

Fine oggregate. Natural sands should be preferred as fine aggregate reer titers
stones may also be used.
Propoetioning of concrete. The concrete may be proportioned so as to il
minimum modulus of rupture of 40 kg/cm’ on field specimens after 28 days toa
develop 2 minimum compressive strength of 280 kg/em” at 28 days, or highet
desired in the design. aa rus
Plants and Equipment Fig. 8.15 Float
‘The equipment necessary for the construction of cement concrete Svaight Edge
beiching mixing. placing. finishing and carrying the concrete pavement. Itis used to check the finished pavement surface in longitudinal
commonly used are given below. directon. Ut ts mass
tf hard wood with M.S. plate at bottom, 3 meter in length, 10 ¢m vith eon
Concrete Maxer andles as shown in Fig. 8.16.
If batch ing by volu me is r e q u i i n g boxes are Pm?
et
the differene apzregates, posers then the separate measuring be fo re
28 belts are used for finishing the pavements surface BEI AA Tay th e co nc re te Ba rd en s
material after filling. x :
is pr ov id ed wi i
tht h a
a st ra s
ig t a i ht ed ge fo r 3: lings2'*25 is of 25 cm width and atleast 75 em longet than ah
Baxching Device "0 wooden handles at the end. Sec Fig. 8.17.
Conczese mixer of adequate capac; Fibre Brush sur and
fac e
:Fi the pavernent
Sapacmty of not fess than 0.2m? bring broom is used to make broom marks 208 SF TY ie wooden basof
‘engih gg > feSistance
zi . Hard fibre s are used
miners ate 2iso equipped with tim ; ‘about 2 meter 108
Sse: dang te ful tne Of of moun
iningongand releas
SeteeesS ithich autom atica lly OE g we wae iN
at the end of mixing Pe
 HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
CONSTRUCTION OF CEMENT CONCRETE PA
VEMENTS ie 7
icted subgrade or sub-base extends atleast 30 M On eithr si
pio” CConcreted; that the subgrade is property drained; that de pints
wit oe reaction obtained with a plate bearing testis 5.54 ky/em? es be
of subi sal
is
prepared and checked at least two days in ad
he suber He Kept la fsia ctadil v;
bert
ion the
necessary, it should be satura
t n e v i b e he ae ts
concrete. Water proof paper may teald with water for 6 to 20 hours in aliens at
acing aly over the soil subgrade. In su so be placed whenever the cement corre is
Ge ng of the concrete is not required.
c h a ca se , th e m oisteing of the subgrade prior
Fig. 8.16 Straight Edge
oP
—WOOOEN HANOLE
ww Placing ol Fees
The steel OF wooden forms are used for the purpose.
‘he steel forms are of M.S, channel sections and their depth is equal to the th
ickness
ements, The sections have a length of at least 3 m except on curves of less ‘than
de radius, Where shorter sections are used. When set to grade, the maximum.
- om of the top surface of any section from a straight line is not exceeded by 3 mm,
Wooden forms are dressed on side; these have minimum base width of 10 cm for slab
thickness of 20 cm and minimum base width of 15 em for slabs over 20 cm thick. The
forms are jointed neatly and are set with exactness to the required grade and alignment.
Sufficient rigidity is obtained to support the forms in such a position during the entire
Bits operation of compacting and finishing that they do not deviate more than 3 mm from a
| sraight edge 3 m in length.

(ix) Batching of Material and Mixing

t-— PAVEMENT MOTH
+ 7S cm “ After determining the proportion of ingredients for the field mix, the fine aggregates
PUAN aad course aggregates are proportioned by weight in a weight-batching plant and placed

HANDLE cee into the hopper along with the necessary quantity of cement. Cement is measured by the
tag. All batching of material is done on the basis of one or more whole bags
the weight of one bag is taken as 50 kg or the unit weight of cement is taken as
of cement,
1440 kg/m’,
ELEVATION The mixing of concrete is done in batch mixer which will ensure a sc
Fig. 8.17 Belt dstribution of the materials throughout the mass, so that the mix is uniform in colour
Edging Tool ‘Stomogenous.
The batch of cement, fine aggregate and coarse aggregat
‘The edging tool is used for rounding the transverse edges at expansion “. The water for mixing is e is a e 15 S et
longitudinal edges. The vertical limb of this tool extends to the introduced into the drum within the firs jute after all the
rounded edge of the M.S. plate has radius of 6 mm. ing. The mixing of each batch is commenced within one and half min
sare placed in the mixer.
Other Small Toots ‘ ™ Transporting and Placing of Concrete a acs
Other small tools and e: quipment such as spades, shovels and pans
necessary for the work are also provided. oF the
Cement concrete is mixed in quantities required for IMME ET i
4 it te

Construction steps for cement concre Riemeg or sub-base 10 the reqired

soil subgrade work in continuous ome
0% the within OEP To see that
te pavement slab
eee tion the form fom te mie
i) Preparation of Subgrade and Sub-bave B R E TTY eisrbon
Sa pacenet Of materials results while the concrete
‘The subgrade or sup-base for laying feng *. spreading
The is done uniformly. ys Fading and splicing ©!
of th e co nc re te slabs should
follo wing, requirement; that no soft spots are Pr esent in the subgrade oF “scree POVELS, Needle vibrator is employed in liew
 HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
consTR UC TI ON OF JO IN TS IN CE ME NT CO NC RE TE PA VE ME NT S
dd Fin
“ Compaction and Fur ish
ish ing
ing , 5 OF JOU bai
consTRUCTION TE PAVEM!
INTS IN CEMENT CONCRE
"i urface of pavement is co mp ac te d eit her by me an s of a pow er. ENTS
a vib rat ing han d scr eed . For are as wh er e the wid th of the cri ti, $egst I roduction
The su ri ,
ne i the comer of roa d jun cti ons , etc ., ha nd co ns ol id at io n and fin jg:
ishing cat
as B may 7 ins a8ovided in omen comets Toads for expansion, contraction and warpi
oa ted
adopt | sins due t0 the variation in the temperatutemreperofatuslabres.”of Cha ngesSucheenaseteor ef:
S12, in turn reduce the cha nge s in the sla bs
(a)a Con cre te as soo n 35 pla ced , i s str uck off
m
un
the
if
gr
or
ad
ml
e.
y and sc re ed ed to th e « ofthe
eo ‘cause expans io n of the sl ab ho ri zo nt al y i t t e c i v c 5 ofi: o n s in th e
of the pav e l me nt to co nf or “Spove the temperature during which a n i n c r e a s e
cross-section empersur’
a s l i . ” S i m i l l y t h e r e
is placed on the si de fo rm s an d is dr aw n ah ea d in ts
<ombin t i o n v e n Sf sla b al so wh en the te mp er at ur e fal ls tbhee l o s
w l a bth w
is te my p e r a t u r e , t i s
e
t e
s
e t a
(b) The tamper 1s P B e n wh ic h is ac i c p h e n o m e n o n h o
10 co mp ac t th e co nc re te . of atmospheric temp er at ur es y c l
series of lifts and drops pand and contract.
Floating and S t r a i g h t E d g i n g di
by means of the longitudi : The SP sifferential betwee
sl ab mo ve me nt s also n tatop and bottom of pavement sab. During the
ke pl ac e in ve rt ic al di re ct io n wh ic h i s
mid te
The concrete is fu rt he r c o m p a c t e d
i a g e w a y c e n t r e li ne an d
sl ab ha s hi gh er te mp er at ur e ha n th e bo om of sib This
al float is held in a
Jongitudin p o s i t i o n pa ra ll el to c a r r
n g i t u d i n a l spe paveme nt he sa b cur ls
gradually trom one side of th e p a v e m e n t to th e o t h e r . A f t e r th e l o
® WP op fibres of th e sl ab to ex pa nd mo re th an th e bo tt om fi br es , an dt
e e x c e s s w a t e r ge ts d i s a p p e a r e d , th e s l a b s u r f a c e is te st ed fo r it s 4 se edges as shown in Fig, 8.18 b. Th is ph en om en on is kn ow n as wa rp in g do wn of th e
done an d th
fevel wi th th e st ra ig ht e d g e sh.
Belting, Br oo mi ng an d Ed gi ng
Just before the concrete become s ha rd , th e su rf ac e is be lt ed wi th a
belt, The short strokes ar e ap pl ie d tr an sv er se ly to th e ca rr ia ge wa y. Tees
INTERFACE
After belting, the pavement is given a br oo m fin ish wit h fib re br oo m br us Th
h.
the pa ve me nt tr an sv er se ly fr om e d gto ele
e (a) No warping condition
broom is pulled gently over the sur fac e of
Brooming is do ne pe rp en di cu la r to the cen tre lin e of the pa ve me nt .

Before the concre te dev elo ps init ial set, the edg es of the sla b are car efu lly fi t
with an edging tool,

(vi) Curing of Cement Concrete

WTERFACE
“The entire pavement surface of the newly laid cement concrete is cured i
with the following methods = oak (6) Warping down condition
Initial curing. “The surface of the pavement is entirely covered with burlap
jute mats, Prior or being placed, the mats are thoroughly saturated with walet?
placed with the wet side down to remain in intimate contact with the surface. =

Cu ri ng wi th we t soil exposed edges of th e sl ab ar e ba nk ed wi th a so il be rm

(c) Warping up condition
ofeet
sandy soil free from stonesst c The soil isi thoroughly
is placed. zhly kept sat et
W a r p i n g of C e m e n t C o n e r e t e P a v e m e n t St ab
Fig. 8 . 1 8 i s h i g h e r than the
8 :
=
imiitersiow Membrane Method. Use of an impervious. membrane which St? BE ee apt the mid night the temperature of the botom of te
part a slippery surface to the pavement is used. Liquid is applied under of the slab top. The slab warps up during this time. ‘a warped shape
sa
sprsay oz
noz zle ac
to on
cov er te
the entire surface with a uniform film, it harden In
y the weight ofthe pavement slab prevents he slab to take 2 es. THE
Saggid: teai

. liquid is applied immediately after the surface “inde veloping stress in the slab which are known alps minimum at
When the concrete attains the required strength or after 28 days of curing, Soomer te cig Png stresses are maximum at the interior"
road is opened to the traffic ft on,
 HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
5 STRUCTION OF JOINTS IN CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEEMA
MENTS
480 . fas | c 451
warped down in the day time, the warping 5
the fe : metre for smooth interface laid in winter and 90 to 120
Whes i oe of the sla b, In wa rp ed up con dit ion , 0 1 6 iy in summer. However for rough
interface thao metre for smooth
e espacing between expans ao
developed at the tOP ‘of the pa ve me nt sla b. To mi ni mi se the tem per a fa ce . A ty pi ca l expansion joint i
velo ‘ t i o n 4 an d i s
jing Sis
joints ater ey be 140 m. A typical Joint mmis shown in Fig. 8.20. The apapprproxoximimat
ate
may be Provided: ies oe for this type of joints is from 20 t0 25 .
pavement ae cme, coe ion and warping joints
across the full widl . is
¢ on gop
uc ti on jo in ts ar e al so pr ov id ed . The
7 this, the constr en METAL CAP ramtey
to th e cl os e of da y' s j o b an d th FILLED with Cortom.
of the slabs is du e
barra a co ns tr uc tit.
on joN o
in r m a i l y th e co }
te to co
r0 ta nn ed ga me th
in e
ci ne
de xtwi da
th y an wi th
ex pansion joint. It is customary to provide

of wi dt h 3. 5 m fo r h i g h w a y pa ve me nt s.
Pine a a time whic h ma y be
n as lo ng it ud in al jo in ts . Jo in ts ar e a g ;
also jointed together by a joint know ement :
depending upon th ei r di re ct io n of pl ac
(i) Transverse jo in ts . Th es e ar e fu rt he r cl as si fi ed as :
(a) Expansion joint Fig. 8.20 Expansion Joint with Dowel Bar
(b) Contraction joint
it may be stated here that the break in slab continuity forming a joint adds a weaker
(c) Warping joint ‘in the cement concrete pavement. The stresses include due to the wheel loads at
(d) Construction joint vith joins are of very high order at the edge and come r regio ns. In order to stren gthen
thes locat ions follo wing meas ures are adop ted :
(ii) Longitudinal joints. The location of these joints are shown in Fig. 8.19.
The load transference across the transverse joint is carried out through a system of
edle intervals projecting in the concrete in longitudinal direction
at suitab
reinforcement provid
upt 60 ocm length, Such a device is named as dowel bar. See Fig, 8.20. In the expansion
jpint, thus load transference is affected through a system of dowel bars. Dowel bars are
embedded and kept fixed in concrete at one end and the other end is kept free to expand or
contract by providing a thin coating of bitumen over it. Metal cap is provided at this end to
0m os —}

offer a space of about 2.5 cm for movements during expansion. In the design, 40 percentof
wheel load is expected to be taken up by the group of dowel bars and transferred to the
‘jjoining slab. Spacing between the dowel bars is generally adopted as 30 cm. The size of
L t the dowel varies with pavement thickness and it ranges between 20 to 30 mm. The total
LONGITUDINAL ‘ength of dowel bar varies between 40 cm to 73 cm depending upon the dowel diameter.
JOINT
Contraction Joints
f-—

Tao Contraction joints are provided to permit the contraction of the slab. These joints are
4 closer than expansion joints. Load transference at the joints is provided through
Fig. 8.19 Location of Joints Physical interlocking by the aggregates projecting out at the joint faces. As per IRC
Following are the requirement of a good joint : Peications, the maximum spacing of contraction joints in unreinforced CC slabs is
™and in reinforced slab of thickness 20 cm is 14 m.
(@) Joint must move freely,
(b) Joint must not allow infiltrerion of rain water and ingress of stone gri ae it is recommended to provide contraction joints at close spacing, there seems to
ts: Need of providing any load transference, as mainly this will be done by the
(c) Joint must not protude out the gene fied interlocking. For added safety, some agencies recommended the use of dowel
ral level of the slab.
he
ich are fully bounded in the concrete .
8‘.8.2 Tra
ansverse Joints YPical contraction joints are shown in Fig. 8.21.
Xpansion joints
“ing Joints
Pe These
lased jojoints
es arespied
provi 'o allow for expansion of the slabs due.10 oy “arping
ing joints
joi are provided
it to /e stresses included due to warping. These are
also permit the contra ‘ction temperature of the cement concrete. Ying a, ‘inged joints. Longitudinal joints with tie bars fall in this class of joint. These
ction of slabs. Expansion joints in India are provided# Poy Se Tarely needed if the suitably designed expansion and contraction joints are
© prevent cracking.
 HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
stAeR st
cons RUCTION OF JOINTS IN CEMENT CONCRETE, PAVEMENTS an)

whee

(a) Dummy Joint

Sint irom.
(a) Plain Bott Joint
SEALER

(b) Butt Joint with Tie Bar

(c) Tongue and Groove Warping Joints

(©) Contraction Joint with” Dowel Bar sori Seiad
Fig. 8.21 Contraction Joints Fig. 8.22 Longitu al

$43 Longitudinal Joints JP) rangement of joints

Lengnudinal joints are provided in cement concrete roads which have We ay i ta erse direction are placed as follows :
+5 m. On soil subgrade of clay, such joints are provided to allow differ |
and suslling due to repid changes in subgrade moisture under the edges 0 (®) Staggered arrangement
craze of road T. he longitudinal joints are provided to prevent
the cement concrete pavements. This type of. jo '® ©) Uniform arrangement
int acts as a hinge and n
the tao slabs togeat tthe same level.
he r, ©) Skew arrangement
{a the longinsdinal joints tie bars are provided to hold the se Figure 8.23 shows the arrangement of joints.
“aos types of longitudinal joints in use are shown in Fig. 8.22. cither side of the
we plain but ith tie ba type of jo ints 4 Iti
d a e a f tiwne inanaFig.v3 ets8.23 joints are placed.
sapdinal joints ast sho
in tine
wie pant Stats the simplest longitudinal joint and is formed by painting
: e Fl(3), sympathetici raceracksOt
are of en ee
|
gs acro ss
ci
ie
fumen. The tie bars are also placed in the type of butt joint WE engine Tansverse joints. It is therefore rec sho in w
Fign
. 823 0)
Re
Reco
comm
mmended size and spacinis g of tiei bars are as follows : inal joint in same transverse alignment as n s bas t i n so on
Ps is always att tP
.d to avoid the skew alignment of thejoints but At places wbeteA)
{In cement concrete slab of thickness 20 cm, (a) 10 mm diameter i tersections, it may be requir: ed to eS skewso
Out at<t in
len: gth 35 cm or plain bars of length formed are
45
diameter deformed bars of length 40 cm orcmpl are placed at 45 cm ain ring ahBEMent cannot be avoided, the acute
a i n b
‘pacing. In slabs of thickne25smms , tie bars of diarams etofer len10,gth 1255 ofcM af P ‘Pement as shown in Fig. 8.23.
10 46 cm are placed at 30 10.62 cm spacing. 14 m8
ae #
 nye
JOINT FILLER
AND. SEALER

ecm coven

Fig. 8.24 Strengthening of Corner Region

9.1 Joint Filler

n t
Joi fi l l e r s h o u l d p o s s e s s t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o p e r t i e s :
{@) Compressibility
(b) Elasticity
(©) Durability
Thus the filler material should be compressible and elastic ie, it should be able to get
compressed and on release of the compression, should be able to regain its shape and be
last.
Figure 8.25 explains the functioning of the filler during changes in seasons. The filler
's placed during construction as in Fig. 8.25a and when the summer approaches, the
Favement expands and the joint gap thereby reduces as shown in Fig. 8.2Sb; at this time,
.
the filler is compressed During winter that follows in a cycle, the slab edges move back
and ifthe filler is inelastic, there will be formation of gaps as shown in Fig. 8.25c. These
sare detrimental and in fact render the joint as with a gap.
Type of Join Filler
(> Following are the few types of joints filer materials :
Fig. 8.23 Arrangement of Joints ®) Sof wood
8.9 JOINT FILLER AN
D SEALER ") Impregnated fibre board
a the break in the cement concrete pavement and these cl oe or cork bound with bitumen sae
subgrade isand of sien nd ingress of stone grits, The infil trati on of water dams taj P-formed fillers are made from fibres of soft borAdS PONE tended board, coir

subgrade la ee,{° the phenomenon known as mud pumping Meter ig SouiFed that the preformed strips of these MBIETT Th y
S ei
S gh t
width gets reduced oot HOME ert enters into the joint space, the &f \ ‘ith bitumen. Th
e bitumen content specified by IRC is viet. These are
blowups take ghe Luls like spalling of joint edges take place. In extreme don topes required fer the satisfactory filler materials are *
top ofof wus
materials and and thethe tac tte Joint space s are first
the joints are Sealed using a sealer. filled with comp ‘C recommendations :
 as HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
JOINT FILLER AND SEALER
joning of sealer
is e x p l a i ' 457
functioningOt ee 2s. lained through Fig. £26, Ti pc farce ag
2gee an soa’ the sealer
extensionin the Sealer i
material. eroaches, the slab edges
At this instance thesea past polmove sean
assi ing on its extensibility, either it maintains its contin ity oF it Omen
ers the chains of maintenance, Problems show up at te joes ae
[e).AT THE TIME OF ComsTRUCTION 2%.
Ser 8260. Contrary
to this, would
mae the bitumen in summer depending upon the fine
ow and spread sound oe jn Hbtacect
we Sn a will render the fm tian ae decease the smooth riding qual
agpce. This will renderthe film thickness unsuitable for the
of the ST juring winter. See Fig. 8.26c. subsequent
variations SEALER

(o). OURS SUMMER

{0)-4T THE TIME @F ConsTRUCTION

TAUAK
‘STALE wy

KC) OymING WINTER

Fig. 8.25 Functioning of Joint Filler
(i) Compression. The pressure required to compress the: specimen to
raaaue Warn
$0
original thickness should be between 7 to 53 kg/cm”
. Materials should
408s of its original weight by more than 3 percent.
(ii) Recovery. Specimen should recover at least 70 percent of
the load is applied and released after one hour at the en or ig inal
d of third applic
(ii) Exirusion. The extrusion of one edge shou
Specimen is compressed to $0 percent of it ld no t be more than 6.5 m
s thickness with three edges
The specimen should not show disintegration of fibre when tested. Non-ex (€)-0URING SUMMER
resilient type bitumen-impregnate d fibre may be preferred
as joint filler ma Fig. 8.26 Functioning of Joint Sealer
8.9.2 Joint Sealer rr aling compound shouldbe impemable and be flexible to acsomdte he sab
ovements; the compound should not flow in hot sea son or become brittle in co
®
For effective seatin;
of jo in t
compounds possess the followifol wn, g for a longcaeperiod, it is essentiathlat This shows that there are definite require in characteristics ofthe sealing
properties : l \ ments of certain
(2) Adhesion to cement concrete edges ee
(©) Extensibility without fracture G
aes — cs
i 180°C max.
(©) Resistance to
ingress of grit ; = ‘75°C min.
(4) Durability —

the temperature changes,

 HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION REFERENCES,
458
P A V E M E N T S
C O N C R E T E
8.10 E
0 RERINI F O R C E D
eee higher loads, there is obvious tendency
0 nee? With the
Tie rere oof reinforcement is 10 hold the cracked slab port
sed in cement concrete pavement is in the form of welded
10 8 greater temperate
ce bar mats ie themto open up any more. Sufficient load 4
transfer theo ‘ o
as new ak Dicofecement. See Fi 827. It may be clearly undersoe] «costly. By Prt viding a residcual ual Compressive isctkresssa1a tihe thslearb ebfyore urd Be
vel se otal tensile stress can fairly be neutrali ang thus sa
atlect s ts ppent recommended f0F use, does not provide any added f ae soed concrete pavement Could Support heavier loads than pl
zed me USE Of tence
quan of olen function of the reinforcement is more or less similar (0 the dowel
oS te built for longer without joint. a m o s n o e
rele Pavement
Oe ene barsto withstand tensile forces due to the movement f sb a
ance betwen the bot ib e of th e co nc re te an d th e su bg ra de , investigators have contributed in the desi
several ‘The works of Leonhardt and Morice are note) te Prestressed concrete
cicete
pavements: 5 -
gallowing are few observations for the design:
(a) Length: A length upto about 120 m can be prestressed for the Pavement,
ib) Width = A width of 3.6 m for prestressed Pavement is desirable and a longitudinal
rn ye therefore should be provided.
(¢) Thickness : Because of the need to Provide a required cover for tendon
SUBSIDENCE OF THE —~ ninimum recommended thickness is 15 em, s, th e
Stis 3
ne TOs
(a). NO. REINFORCEMENT
"reece
mie (8) Siress magnitudes : A minimum value of 22 kg/em? of presress is recommended
for 120 metre long prestressed pavement slabs 10 percent increase over this may be
ceed t0 allow for losses in prestressing. A transverse pesress if required should be
concn), of3t04 kee’.
Prestressing is applied either by pre-tensioning or by Post-tensioning For highway
javement, post-tensioning system has been used. Known methods include Freyssinet
Magnel-Blaton Lee-McCall and Gifford-Lidall systems. Most of these systems employ
NO SUBSIDENCE
OBSERVED site of 7.0 mm diameter with ultimate tensile strength of 142-173 kg/em?. Freyssinet in
(D) WITH REINFORCEMENT Fronce has utilised flat hydraulic jacks instead of steel tendons for highway pavements.
Fig. 8.27 Effect of Reinforcement in Concrete Pavement 4 The construction of prestressed concrete pavements is difficult job and needs a skilled
‘em. Due to the long length of tendons, there is a great amount of energy stored in it and
Experience shows that hair cracks ofien occur at frequent intervals in RCC ¥y huilure of anchor could be very severe. The Loss in prestressing due to subgrade
pavement, but such cracks show no tendency to open up. The reinforcement ‘esnint is one of the major problems in prestressed concrete pavement construction.
recommended is as under :
gets i's
Traffic intensity | Reinforcement, kg/m™ |
Moderate 35: REFERENCES
Heavy 7.0 i Peurifoy, RL. “Construction Planning, Equipment and Method", McGraw-Hill
In order to obtainir the maxiismum advantage, it is suggested that greater quaqua!nti
orctyemetl
the Book Co. Inc. New York
reinforcement should be placed in the longitudinal direction. Further the reinforce®
should either be placed in the mid-depth or towards the top of the pavement a Qilesby CH. and Hewes L. 1, “Highway Engineering’, John Wileyand Sons Inc.
functioning. Steel wire fabric should conform to IS : 1556 - 1960 ew York,
conformto IS : 432 ~ 19 an d ba r ma ts S3 7
60. eee Hewes L , “American Highway Practice”, Vol. 1 & Il John Wileleyy. and Sons Inc.
New York
8.11 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE P
AVEMENTS Bateme, ey Wiley & Sans Inc.,
New very Hs “Introduction to Highway Engineering’ Joh te
The prestressing technique has been applied to the highway pavements in be
The prestressed pavement i y ’ & aw-Hi ll Book Co
Elimination of the joints
can be built in continuous length upto 120 m wil Age, J
Ine ys “The Construction of Roads and Pavements" M" , McG
without inducing cracks in the pavement could be ” New York,
 WAY CONSTRUE
PROBLEMS
Guidelines for the Design of Hpi teyvemanny §
go, HRCjan Roads Highways see + <94
Congress.
india
mC, fenative Specification for Built-up Spray Giout RES ae
30. roads Congress. Toe nee SARE: ate lag,
ic,. «fentati
“Tentatveive Specif
Spe ications forfor Bituminous § ce
Bituminous Surfa ssing Using Pre-costed
ce for Borrow pits for Road Embankments nC gates", IRC : 48-1972, Indian Roads Congreve
IRC 10-1961, Indian Roads Congress,
PROBLEMS

iListe different
di meth ods of roads constructi
struction . i
Discuss theiri adv;
Works”, If
Construction in Water-h logged imitations. owe we
IRC, “Recommendation for Road
2. Discuss the methods of earth excavation for road construction and the users of
Roads Congress, 1970
various equipment.
DSIR. il Mechanics for Road Engineers” H.M.S.O., London,
M j 3, What are the problems in the construction of high embankments over week
of Practice for Water Bound
JRC, “Standard Specifications and Code : foundation soils ? How are the various problems dealt with ?
IRC: 19, Indian Roads Congress, 1977.
4. Explain the objects of compaction and the effect of inadequatete compaction. Discuss
Materials in Road Construction, H.M.S.O., London, the advantages and applications of various compactini g equipment for construction
DSIR, “Bituminous
“Tentative Specification for Two-Coat Bituminous Surface D of subgrade and embankments.
IRC,
23-! 1966, Indian Roads Congress. 5. Enumerate the steps for the preparation of subgrade.

IRC. “Recommended Practice for Bituminous Penetration Macadam ( 1 6. Explain briefly the construction of earth roads. Discuss the advantages and
Indian Roads Congress. limitations ofearth roads.
Swaminathan, C. C. and Mazumdar, B, C., “Mastic Asphalt surfacing 7. Briefly list the method of construction of gravel roads.
Vol. XXX 1I— 2, 1968 . ei
Deck”, Jour nal, Indi an Road s Cong ress , 8. Specify the materials requforired are thetuses
construction of WBM roads. Wha
of road ?
and limitations of this type
IRC : 27, Indian Roads Congress. 9. Write down the construction steps for water bound macailam road.
IRC, “Recommended Practice for 2 em thick Bitumen and Tar Carpets”, I What are the Various types of bituminous construction in use ? Discuss the
Indian Roads Congress. advant age
and limitation s of s
each.
. IRC, “Tentative specification for 4 cm Asphaltic Concrete Surface . Write short notes on :
29, Indian Roads Congress.
(@) Surface dressing
The Asphalt Institute (U.S.A.), “Mix Design Methods for Asphalt
Other Hot Mix Types” (b) Interface treatment
. Burmah Shell (India), “Bituminous Roads Construction”. (©) Seal coat
|. Wallace, H. A., and Martin J. R. “Asphalt pavement Engineering”, (4) Penetration macadam (Grouted macadam)
Book Co. Inc., New York. (©) Bitumen bound macadam
. Khanna, S. K., “Behaviour of Bituminous Paving Mixes with Vi (9 Bituminous concrete
Visci osity”, Ph.D. Thesis (Un-published) Department of Civil
University
of Roorkee, 1968, pee): De (®) Sheet asphalt (Rolled asphalt)
. DSIR, “Concrete Roads, Design and Construction”, H.M.S.0., London : (h) Mastic asphalt
- PCA, “Design of Street and Highway Pavement", Portland CementAs Compare the following methods ofbituminous road construction
USA. oe
IRC, “Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for Construction | (9) Central plant mix and road mix methods.
Roads” , IRC ; 15, Indian Roads Congress. (©) Wot mix and cold mix
462
materials re qu ir ed , pl an ts an d eq ui pm en t an d coy
t u m i n o u s c o n s t r u c t i o n s :
What are the hods of bi
following mel

{a) Surfa c e d r e s s i n g
a d a m
Chapter 9
g r o u t e d m a c
(b) Penetr a t i o n o r
Soil Stabilized R
(c ) B i t u m e n b o u n d m a c a d a m
oads
(d) Bituminous carpet
m i n o u s c o n c r e t e
(e) Bitu d s 7 =
w b a c k s o f c e m e n t c o n c r e t e r o a
What are the a d v a n t a g e s a n d d r a E l a n
n c r e t e l a y e r s a n d t h e i r u s e s .
grouted a n d r o l l e d c o

. (a) Compare alternate bay an d co nt in uo us ba y me th od s of Con str uct ion

Of trae
concrete roads.
e di ff er en t ty pe s of jo in ts
(b) With the aid of neat sketches show th
9.1 INT R O D U C T I O N
positions. t a d J
ts of ma te ri al s; pl an ts an d eq ui pm en t fo r 9.1.1 Objects
What are the requiremen
‘Sement cone,
road construction ? Discuss briefly. In developing countries like Ind ia the big ges t han dic ap to pro vid e a com ple te net war k

Enumerate the steps in the construction of cement concrete pavement.

of road system is the limited finances available to build road by the comentionsl
methods. Therefore there is a need to resort to one of the suitable methods of low cost
. Discuss the object of the following types of joints; draw neat sketches : road construction, followed by a process of stage development of the roads, to meet the
growing needs of the road traffic. Thus apart from affecting economy in the imtiai
(a) Expansion joints construction cost of lower layers of the pavement such as sub-base course it should be.
possible to upgr ad e the low cos t roa ds to hig her spe cif ica tio n at a late r dat e wit hou t
(b) Contraction joints inv olv ing ap pr ec ia bl e wa st ag e, uti liz ing the pri nci ple of pa ve me nt con str uct ion in sta ges .
(c) Warping joints The construction cost can be co ns id er ab ly dec rea sed by sel ect ing ioc al mat eri als
uc ti on of the low er lay ers ‘of th e pav eme nt suc h as the
(d) Construction joints including local soils for the constr
sub-base course. If the sta bil ity of the loc al soi l is not ade qua te for sup por tin g whe e!
ov ed by soi l sta bil iza tio n tec hni que s. Thu s the pri nci ple of
(e) Longitudinal joints loads, the properties are impr er
eff ect ive uti liz ati on of loc al soi ls and oth
|. Write short notes on : soil stabilized road construction involves the
suitable stabilizing agents.
(a) Thickened edge sections
9.1.2 Mechanics of Soil Stabilization
(b) Load transfer device
The term soil stabilization means the improvement of :
(c) Sympathetic cracks the soil by the stab comp acti on; pro pot oni ad
g othe A83 8
use of controlled ilization deals wih pips] Raesceti cereLabe rge’
(d) Strengthening corer of slabs admixture or ilizers. Soil stab sores:
chemical methods to make the stabilized soil serve its veins bats
(e) Prestressed concrete pavements. Material. The basic principles in soil stabilization may 7
. r t e a l
20. Explain with sketches the requirements of joints filler and sealer. ~” () evatuatin; g the properties of given soll. te effecve ant
desiirable prope r t i e
i s a n d t h e v a r i o u s m a t e r i a l s in u s e . su pp le me nt in g
Di Gi) de ci di ng th e me th od of
21. iscuss the uses and li— mitations of reinforced cement concrete €conomical method of stabilization.
concrete pavements for highways.
Ai) designing the st ab il iz ed so il mi x fo r in te nd ed
(ivy Considering the construction procedure be) adequately
layers,
463
 SOIL STABILIZED ROADS.
464
res ult in any one or mo re of the fo ll ow in g cha : Z
l i z a t i o n m a y
Soil stabi tio n of the sa 465
e den sit y or swe ll ‘4 all the soo \t. ‘t al es ade qua te com pac
Increase in stability, ch an ge in the pr op er ti es lik
@ ied ayers is the moss
physical characteristics. pe) hate essential ak
Ch an ge in ch em ic al pro per tie s. x td investigation for Soil Stabilized Road
(b)
m str eng th by wat er pro ofi ng. he various field 4 and as laboratory. inys estigati
eet
©) Ret ain ing and des ire d mi ni mu Mrqetion may be listed weded for soil stbitized road
Based on the above principles, the various technique of soil Stabilizatig
com and alig nmen t
tnvesti
gati on of route
grouped as follows : q
(i
i S o i l s u r v e y a n d f i e l d i d e n t i f i c a t i o n
o f s o i l s
av ai la bl e so il s an d a;
(i) Proportioning technique : Va ri ou s lo ca ll y
i l i t y a l s p o r t a t i o n
in suitable proportions and compacted to serve the desi red objective, of «iy SUEY for availab of materi and trans
by th e ad di ti on my a t o r y t s n s o i l s
of a fine grained soil ca n be im pr ov ed w Lab o r t e s o
the stability
sand components in suitable proportions. Like wise the stability of a cohesi ad a t i o n
co he si ve so il . = (4) Soil c l a s s i f i c
sand may be improved by th e ad di ti on of so me
The soil survey is carried out and disturbed soil samples are collected fro
(ii) Ceme ntin g agent s : The stren gth of the stabi lized soil can cons ider ably be increa ses fi ing the top soil and organi
depth after removing the top 5 m shallow
ganic matter, along the
by the addition of cementing agents like portland lime or limefiy;
cement, oes Field identification tests are carried out to assess the oe cl ae Nh
Bituminous materials also impart binding effect to non-cohesive soils. Uae The laboratory tests may be for : physical, chemi cal asand liengugid neliermit ava b e ‘
litofe ythe soil.
hane s
a
soils. Identificatii on and cl ; as si fi ca ti on tes ts su ch
(iii) Modifying agents : If the stabilizer added in small proportion could modify te an al ys is ma y be ca rr ie d ou t. Ch em ic al
undesirable properties of certain soils (such as high plasticity, swelling, etc.) ma echani ca l tests, include determination of organic
mate rial , such stab iliz ers may be call ed m o d i f i e n matter, total soluble salts, sulphate and pH value. A suitable test such as CBI
them more usef ul as con str uct ion be conducted on the soil sample, The other tests to estimate the agen me,
The most common modifier used in the case of highly plastic soils is lime. Portland are soundness, strength and abrasion tests on aggregate component and determination of
cement also acts as modifier in some cases. swelling property on the fine fraction of the soil.
(iv) Water proofing agents : A compacted soil mass which is normally stable ¢ Soil classification systems followed for soil stabilization works are the HRB or
may become weaker or softer by the ingress of water or when subjected to i Revised PRA classification system and also the united soil classification. However
conditions. If absorption of water can be stopped or retarded by mem a classification of some of the soils in India such as black cotton soil could not be properly
water proofing agent, it will be possible to make use of such materials made. Hence some modifications in the above two classification systems have been
advantage. The most common method of water proofing is by thet suggested by the Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi.
bituminous materials,
ai Stab Mention Matias
9.14 Soil
Water repelling agents : Almost the same function as water-proofing agent
ilizati
v
performed by some water repelling or retarding agents like vinsol resin The methods of soil stabilization which are in common use are:
resinous materials. (3) Mechanical soil stabilization
(vi) Water retaining agents : Some non-cohesive soils have suffi oot (ii) Soil-cement stabilization
compacted layer possesses slight moisture content, but the soil may becom?! vi (ii) Soil-time stabilization
and less stable-when completely dried. In such cases use of
deliquescent properties, like calcium chloride is likely to be useful to resin “t (i) Soil-bitumen stabilization
moisture to impart some apparent cohesion and thus retain the stabil These methods of stabilization have been explained in the subs
incidentally can also reduce the dust nuisance in unsurfaced roads. = equent articles.
(vii) Heat treatment ; Thermal stabilization has different useful aspects ore
92 MECHANICAL SOIL STABILIZATION
i There are desirable such as reduction in swelling properties
soils. 4 ization ofP 921 Prine:
Principles and Applications
soil may be used as a soft aggregate in mechanical soil stabil 2 atel y compacted 10
pozzolanic additive in soil-lime stabilization. Correctly "
Pro por tio ned mat eri als (ag gre gates and soils) lin. Thus the
(viii) Chemical stabilization : There are several chemicals, which when added t Mechay nically stable layer, the method is called mechani
asSic prj
combination, even in trace quantities (less than 0.5 percent by weight a i be
i ‘nciples in this method of stabilization are =
impart useful changes in certain types of soils, However considerable 1 i Proportioning
and care is needed before adopting any of the costly chemicals. Cori i i) Compaction
also been successfully used as additives in so il-cement and soil-lime :
 SOIL STABILIZED ROADS
466 cg MECI HANICAL Soy,
f i n e s i s m i x e d wit h a STABILIZATION
neg lig ibl e e fi ne is
far soiti contaiinining egligibl ility. Similarly the stabil
s mi xe d wit h
r actors Affecting
ib le to in cr ea se th e st ab Mechanica) Sta
eye ont is poss 93 tbl) bility
mit ald be considerabion.ly improved by mixing a su it ab le pr op or ti on of 8 M s of mechanical st
abieilized soi} mixes
gr ad at 5 depend on the
.
to ge t a su it ab le factory
Mechanical stabilization has been successfully applied
fo r
for
lo w
sub-base
co st r o a d s base 3 ; (i) Mechanical strength of agorepa
tes ue
constructions. It ha s al so be en us ed as su e
rf co
ac ur se
Su ch ag (in) Grestion
roads when the traffi c an d ra in fa ll ar e lo w.
(iy Properties of soll
a t e M i x t u r e s m i c a et c,
9.2.2. Properties of S o i l - A g g r e g (iv) Presence o f s a l t s ,
(v) Compaction
The desirable properties of soil-aggregates mixture are strength, ing When the soil is used in small proportion to just fil u
less changes in volume and stability with variation in moisture content, good rushing strength of aggregate is important, However, ids in the aggregates
less frost susceptibility and ease of compaction. It is generally believed that successfully used in mechanical stabilization work,’ Grai a t e r tad
or a soil-aggregate mix could be increased by increasing its dry density suestined mix wo" uld determine th n size dianinnae ote
proportioning of the mixes is done to attain maximum dry density, f termine ethe maximum Stability of the mi pepe
<eoregate-sil iX results in a mix with high dry density ea ch tO waded
erties of the soil such as plasticity characterists ic wor ul
va Proj d affect the performanc
illustrated in Fig. 9.1. the mix. A mix containing soil wah igh plasticity in e of
dex, results in poor stability unde
aking conditions. Hence it is r
Figure 9.1a shows the sfafe when the aggregate is without fines. This obviously desirable to limit the plasticity i
a mass which is stable only when confined (as there is no cohesion component), ‘otuents. Sails like sulphates and presence of misa'ae ic, ae i
presence of salts like calcium chloride are considered beneficial. Compaction is one of ne
permeable, no frost action and practically no variation in volume or stability
wig
moisture variations. It is not easy to compact such a granular material. Se the mo st im po rt an t fa ct or s af fe ct in g the pr op er ti es an
layer. Effective compaction is desirable to produce high ddenspeitrfy orandmancstae bilofitytheofthstabilized
Figure 9.1 b shows the state when the voids in the compacted aggregate are just, e mix,
with compacted binder, thus retaining the frictional component of the mass due to te 9.2.4 Mix Design in Mechanical Stabilization
grain-to-grain contact of the egate. There is increased stability even wh
unconfined due to higher cohesion; but the mix is less permeable and is likely to tase The factors to be considered in the design of mix are gradation, density, index
properties and stability. Of these, the graduation is the most important factor.
frost action and variation in volume and stability due to moisture variations which depend
much on the property of the binder. Ben Gradation. The particle size distribution that gives maximum density is generally
aimed at. The theoretical gradation for maximum density is given by :
Figure 9.1¢ illustrates the states when the aggregate is mixed with excess fines 2
compacted, As the aggregate grains have lost their contacts with each other and 5
float in the binder soil, the angle of friction and stability are decreased and P= 100 ($) el)
considered less desirable with poor drainage, more variation in stability and volume
moisture variation and high frost susceptibility. The mix being more the material
Here, P = percent finer than diameter ‘d’ (min m)
compaction is easy.
D = diameter of largest particle,mm
va lu es ra ng in g fr om 0.5 to 0.3 de pe nd in g
1 = gradation index,.which have
upon the shape.
l pa rt ic le s wh il e de ri vi ng th e gr ad at io n eq ua ti on fr m e e n s t h
e r i c a
efller assumed sph of gradation index obtained forthe shri shape 02007
d the value
ssy an s w h i c h ar e an gu la r fl ak y in sh ap e, th e v a l e of c p a a k e
mag® Of Partic le P e c o e
ss th an 0. 5, up to 0. 3 or ev en le ss er , z s
(@) Compacted —(b)_Compacted aggre- (c) Aazresate fa imum density will be le B S I . ha ve
‘agaregates Bates with compa- with A . S . T . M . an d
i, gen‘but0!ionMEfor agsagrtiesfgaactetos.ry base and surface courses.
with no fines cted fines just excess fines roporn,
filling the voids
essary to mix them in
Fig. 9.1. Typical States of Soil Aggregates When
f riaefe W ‘ l a b e i i c cinity,
materials are available in the near Vici Ti. it is nec ‘As an example oF
Thus it may be seen that the proportioning of the mix affects. the coarse PFPortion which would produce a mix with te i depositsoF borraw pits itis
considerably. With proper proportioning it is possible to attain a ™% 7 ®ggregate, sand and fine soil are available from
combination of the desirable properties.
 SON. STABILIZED ROADS
468 MECHANICAL s
pr op or ti on of the se co mp on en t Ma te ri a, oit, STABILIZATI
fifirst essen 1 so devise te bus t
fon use for proportioning are the angular chittsp
ON’
meth o d s i n c o m m jv a graph paper With Yoox represepting =
Roch f u r o h' s m e t h o d . cmv Byes (96 Fig. 9.3) a diagonal time pg PONE Ad Kass 2 sep Nbcerng
a n g u l a r C h a r t We
e r ’ h y T r i
Prop ortic y f M a t
¥ Laee 0
l e r e e m a t e r i a l s a r e t o b e m i x e d
e a e e b e M The di ifleflere tert Cn n
parte ites ae
od is applica b n
whe t h
s ieri
t y a
) l
. s m aTyh eb e m cacti n of pete CTHARE tas tien on tie
aie p a t e f e r m a x i m u m d e n a
e s ( o r s i l t a n d c l a y ) a n d t h e i r p e r c e n t a g e s Mate attce etn. The
cearse aggreg a t e , sa n d a n d f i n e r e e m a t e r i a l s A , B a n d C a e ihe te whch was,
S u p p o s t h
tr i a n g u l a r c h a r t a s s h o w n I n F i g . 9 . 2 .
i n e d m a t e r i a l s . P o i n A , a y Hawn fi the material i be
tra n g r e s p e c t i v e l y c o a r s e , m e d i u m a n d f i n e g r a i b u t i o n ( o r p r o p o r rived ae ly ae W be mised,
a a r r t knowing the grain size d i s t r
plot t e d o n t h e t n a n g u l c h uted as shevan in Fig
r e e m a t e r i a l s . Next step is to obtai
,
aggregate sand and fi n e s ) o f t h e t h
n i n g a g r a d a t i o n f y The lowi ng only ms i
a d a t i o n c r i t e r i o o r b y u s
gradation D based on some tgr D is also plotted in the triangular char of th f A and B are join ed. Oppanite endsof te alae ig
ar e n i n E q . 9 . 1 , T h e p o i n
i c a l c o n s t r u c t i o n f o r o b t a i n i n g t h e p r o p o craight lines
seo percent passin g of B). Sim
0
ila rlyx
the oppo site
Joined.
ends o f lo ne ryey
(i.c., zero percent
ye !
eared gradati o n . N o w t h e g r a p h B a t E . T h e the desi red vad a J me of Ban de
o d u c i n g t h e l i n e C D t o m e e t t h e l i n e A are joined e lines meet
The points where thes
gd C is made, by pr n e s a r e g i v e n b y fepeesent the proportions in whi ch the mate rial s A, B and C are pa = e 9)
coarse aggregat san e d a n d f i ‘yes may be read from the Y-a xis by pro jec tin the
g poin ts of oe oS
Fig 93 —

PERCENT PASSING
PERCENT SiLT AND CLAY (20 06mm} Paorree C2E,mm
te ri al s by Tr ia ng ul ar Ch ar t
Fig, 9.2 Proportioning of Ma Fig , 9.3 . Pr op or ti on in g of Ma te ri al s by Ro th fu tc h Me th od

agli ot alw ays nec ess ary tha tth e pro por tio n of the mix whi ch give s max imu m dey
% coarse aggregate = a a x 100 feasty should also give maximum stability, especially under soaked conditions Hence t
also possib le to des ign the pro por tio ns bas ed on a stab ilit y test.
AE xD C x 100 gs Detsily. Sta nda rd dry den sit y is obt ain ed in the lab ora tor y co mp ac ti tet.
on At eas t
Percent ofthe standard dry density value is aimed atin the field compaction
———
%Sand
and
=
“ABXEC ~
recommended values of fiqu sd ben t os
ED
% Fines = Ec «100 ates ‘Pr ope rti es. The fol low ing are the
icity index for the material passing 0.425 mm sieve.

Proportioning of Materials by Rothfutch's Method

This method may be used when a nu mb er of ma te ri al s ha ve to be mi xe d Liquid limit
obtaining a desired or design gr ad at io n. Th e de si re d gr ad at io n ma y o pb a sie d s
S S E © hick is.
based on re co mm en de d gr ai n si ze di st ri bu ti on ch ar ts or ta bl es oF by ust! weigh Stalbiitt y. Any method of stability test may be. only adopted
equation like that given in Eq. 9.1. oF the type of mat e r i a l . S o a k e d C . B . te st 8 "
 SOIL S T A B I L I Z E D R O A D S
0 SOIL-CEMEN’
4 T STABILIZATION
t i o n P r o c e d u r e +s method f ofsi stabilization, 41
9 . 2 5 C o n s t r u c M e h r? ‘content of size less than 0.425Ba se course materialx consi
F an 0. 07 § wo n g r a c e ! 0
Materials
r o m th e s e l e c t e d b o r r o w <i sareyeent an d pl as ti ci ty in de x S g 7 fm m an d gr ea te r th 1g no t less,
r u c t i ‘o n m a t e r i a l s ar e c o l l e c t e d f P i t s a n d a r e y i: " i
The cons t r o p o r t i o n s .
o f h e r o a d in t h e d e s i r e d p an d so i j
along the side s t
wens, ond nes Consists of br ic k ag gr ep at es
0. 42 5 an d gr ea te r H e 0 a emm in in th
the e ra ti
so o
it
Equipment 1 Zig b e se t le ss t h a n 33 v m c a t a
fent and the plasticitinydi . 0 7 5
e d : fo r ex ca va ti on up to sh al lo w de pt h, ha
su rf ac e t r e a t m e n t ise plasti
de si re ci
d, ty
th i n d e 2 % H o w e v e r h e n
t n e led ar e
The equipmen pactitioonn., Machinery or manual labour may be used fc
o r c o m
sym‘tihenouMseha’s method of construction is briefly given here : 10 8 to 10%.
dist a n c e a n d f ro ll er of th e su it ab le ty pe an d we ig ht i
F o r c o m p a c t i o n ,
and h a u l a g e .
t h e m a t e r i a l s t o b e c o m p a c t te d. Re fe r ar ti cl e 8. 2. 5 fo r ch oi ce of eq soils collected from approved borrow pits and stacked on roads
depe n d i n g o n and soils mine d nd spre ad a
Ap Wate is added upto OMC,
(Gy 14m thick 100s ase course mate (andy soil) i spread and rolled by 8
‘camanb
degrr
ade.
Construction steps
e is p r e p a r e d as e x p l a i n e d in A r t . 8 . 2 . 4 .
(i) T h e s u b g r a d tonnes power roller to a compacted thickness of about 714 cm.
soil it a
n s as p e r d e s i g n , mater ial (bric k aggre gate +
Surface course
(ii) The materials ar e m i x e d to th e d e s i r e d p
basis.
r o p o r t i o iy)
11% em loose frrn lvah
Go) Sfequate water is spreaa dcompto acted thickness of about Tivene © ired 1:2) mixed with
proportions ar e c o n v e r t e d o n v o l u m e oes BY 8
h o d a n d a d d i t o n a le e anes power roller to
(ii) The existing moisturd conte teriaisl is re-mixed. n t c h e c k e d b y a r a p i d m e t sur fac e is wat ere d an d lef tov er ‘
r e a d a n d th e m a
aly ) After rolling, the A ove rni ght . The sur fac e is aga in rol led
requi r e d is s p rnd finished.
s p r e a d to th e d e s i r e d g r a d e a n d c o m p a c t e d b y ro ll er s.
(iv) T h e w e t m i x is (si) The roa d is clo sed to tra ffi c for fou r to fiv e day s and
be y Sk en e tc hi
is
oa d For
4
started from the edges and wit h ad eq ua te lon git udi nal ove rla p, it is con tin ued up i next few day s, onl y rub ber tyr ed tra ffj c is all owe d
on is ach iev ed. ‘two wee ks the
centre. Rolling is continued till ad eq ua te co mp ac ti road is opened to all traffic, 3
When two layers such as ba se co ur se an d su rf ac e co ur se ar e to be iy Mehra’s method of construction can carry 50 tonnes per day i ‘

process is repeated wi th ap pr op ri at e pr op or ti on s of mi xe s. with light rainfall. With bituminous surface cient be set pape ae
l te st s ne ce ss ar y ar e = service upto about 200 tonnes per day even in places with heavy rainfall rae
(v) Field control tests : Tw o fi el d co nt ro

moi stu re con ten t of the mix bef ore co mp ac ti on . 93 SOIL-CEMENT STABILIZATION
(a) determina tio n of
n of de ns it y du ri ng an d jus t af te r co mp ac ti on . _
93.1 Principles and Applications
(b) determinatio
on ne ed ed in mo is tu re or co mp ac ti on t
Based on these two tests, modificati ,
Soil-cement is an intimate mix of soil, A cement and water which is well compacted to
decided. form a strong base course. Cement treated or cement modified soil refers to the
te r the co mp ac te d la ye r ha rd en by
s compacted mix when cement is used in small proportions to impart some strength or to
(vi) ‘The stabilized road is opened to tra ffi c af modify the properties of the soil.
9.2.6 Stabilization " Using Soft Aggregates 3 'n granular soil, the mech an is m of sta bil iza tio n is due to the dev elo pme nt of bo nd
Pees the hydrated cement and the com pac ted soil pa rt at
ic the
lepoin
s ts of con tac t. In
When hard variety of agg reg ate s are not loc all y ava ila ble , the loc al sof t due to red uct ion in plas tici ty and for mat ion of mat rix
uct ion in ord er to kee p the con str uct ion stained soil, the stabilization is
may have to be used for con str prop orti on
ate hav e low cru shi ng str eng th and low agg reg ate i m p a c t ne simall clay glummoips.stureDegree of stab iliz atio n d e p e
on n
natu d
re s
of sol, the
possible. The soft agg reg of mec ! cal l of cement compactin cem ent and the dry dens ity ofth e comp acte d mix. By
Still they have been successfully adopted in the con str uct ion ge of ce me nt ad de d, th er e is an in cr ease in the strength and durability
rf ac e co ur se la ye rs . Th e co mm on so ft Oscikee Percenta sti cit y.
sub-base course and even in base and su te an d br ok en 38 eet and a decrease in vo lu me ch an ge , mo is tu re mo ve me and
nt pla
mo or um la te ri
used in road construction are kankar,
Soil-cement can be used as a su b- ba se or ba se co ur se of all. typ es of c a t i a )
Because of the low stre ng th , th e ag gr eg at es ar e li ke ly to br ea k do wn at n e im pact, this can not be
contact. If the aggregate is mi xe d wit h mo re pr op or ti on soi l so tha t ea ch a ev ‘t, as the material has poor resistance to abra" sion and cou rse .
sur ‘ace Course. A bituminous wearing course is placed cover the bas e
aggregate is enveloped by soil as shown in Fig, 9.lc, then there is no problem ™
of these aggregates during compaction and under traffic loads. When the | $33 ai wail
soft aggregates to soil is approximately | : 2, best results are obtained. : Factor Influencing Properties of Soil-Cement
which influence the prperieso comet ee bal 4 i ‘sont
ie i"

A method of stabilization using brick a iggregates and \d_ So! soi Piheri‘ious
oats factors :
“ation and mixing compaction, curing and additives, ifany:
S. R. Mehra and therefore the method is popularly known as M
stabilization. IRC has standardised the method of stabilisation using soft
 SOIL STABILIZED ROADS, R O
SOILR
-CEME NT STABIL
IZATION
4.3 esa oF SlleCeme
nt Nth
2 physical propertics of the soil like particle size dist ribu tion , slay
inde x affe ct the prop erti es of soil -com ens are various mix design methods ie
we figuid limit and plasticity alter the Prop erti es an d PCA met hod . he mos t com mon ly kno wn ac he s
s , gani c matt er and sulp hate cont ent be irra
pemical factor Z

o f s o i l - c e m e n t .
s a t i s f a c t o r y s t a b i l i z a t i o n of so il s g,
The cement co n t e n t r e q u i r e d fo r
T h e c e m e n t r e q u i r e m e n t
so fo
il r
w i a
t we
h h ll
i g g r a d e d g r a
hn u l a
el r
ay so
cil
o n twe o
n u
t l
. d Ttbe ha s been
type .
Ree or a poor ly g r a d e d or fi ne g r a i n e d
q u ent for satisfactory
i r e m stabilization of soils
observe d th at th e c e m e n t r e
shown it co
specific surface ar ea of th e so il .
nt co nt en t an d th is is co ns id er ed qu it e strength of 17.5 kg/cm? is taken
3c design ceme
an d th e ca ti on e x c h a n g e capacity of soil qred for base course of highway pavements with light to
The constituents of soils
reaction with cement. The presence of certain types of organic matter in sojj heavy trafic, a higher strength factor of 28 to 35 kgiem? may bbe adopted for mix design
n
tire of hardeni ofg so il -c em en t an d al so ca us e re du ct io n in st re ng th . Su lp ha te y —_—
te r ar e in ge ne ra l de tr im en ta l to so il -c em en t s t a
in so il an d in gr ou nd wa
th e hy dr at ed c e m e n t an d ca us e
Magnesium sulphate may attack even
strength and durability of the soil-cement.
wae aren?
Cement
‘An increase in cement conten t gen era lly cau ses inc rea se in str eng th and d
g ce me nt giv e al mo st the sa me res ult s of sta bil iza tio
Both normal and air entrainin

COMPRESSIVE SIRE NET

Pulverisation and mixing
Better th e pu lv er is at io n an d de gr ee of mi xi ng , hi gh er i
s of so il re du ce s st re ng th an d du ra bi li ty of so il -c em en t.
unpulverised dry lump
wet soil lump are not as harmful as dry lumps. The properties of soil cement
consid er ab ly im pr ov ed by pu lv er iz in g th e so il su ch th at th e size ofthe lumpsis
as possible . Un if or mi ty of mi xi ng so il , ce me nt an d wa te r is desirable. The
mixing is me as ur ed in te rm s of mi xi ng ef fi ci en cy wh ic h is the percentage of s ronten
the specimens prepared from field mix expressed in terms of the strength Fig. 9.4 Compressive Strength for Varying Cement Contents
prepared from th or ou gh ly re mi xe d la bo ra to ry sp ec im en s. In cr ea se in n
wet mixi ng an d de la y in co mp ac ti on af te r we t mi xi ng ca us e re du ct n
io in In the P.C.A. method the design criteria are based on durability or ability ofthe soil-
cement specimens to withstand the specified wel-dry cycles and freez-thaw cycles.
and durability of the soil-cement. Durability is decided based on resistance to loss in weight due to brushingthe surface,
Compaction Volume change and moisture content during the specified durability cycles.
is an optimum moisture content corresponding to maximum |
mix design criteria, the maximum soil-cement loss after the 12
There
er cem ent According to the PCA
density or streng th of a soi l-c eme nt mix . The re is not hin g like wat tests should not exceed the following limits.
cles of wet-dry or freeze-thaw
cement, as in cement concrete. The moisture that is added for adequate 0 [Sol ype. HRB classification
more than enough for the purpose of hydration of cement. Ifthe dry density Max, brushing loss, percent by weight
str eng th and dur abi 14 AeLASAZIA2S
increased by increasing the amo unt of com pac tio n, the
: 10 ADGA2TAIAS
cement also increase. 7 ‘A-6,A7
Curing 2 percent
m
of wit maximum volu c e h a n g e d u r i n g th e du ra bi li ty cy cl e sh ou ld s e p e r t t e Wi ss
During curing adequate moisture is to be retained. Higher tempera Moulded volume of th e s p e c i m e n s . T h e mo is tu re c o m e t s s a a n
o in cr ea se s wi th @& & »
acce le ra te s the rat e of gai n in st re ng th , the st re ng th als ud not exceed the saturation moisture content of moulded sPeamnc™S.
Additives i x d e s i K e abov e met hod s are ike
Sto, The soil-cI-ceme nt mix designed bye antheci above me of granular base cou
d OS) recommended a reduced
se
_ There are various useful activities to soil-cement which improve the Wane 2% durable enough to replac
is a useful additive when clayey soil or an organic soil is to be stabi “onstruction, However Highway
hydroxide, sodium carbonate and calcium chloride are some of the
additives to soil-cement.
Hi SOIL STABILIZED ROADS,
‘SOIL-LIME S
TABILIAZAT
JON
nes of 75 persi cent of f yran
gra nuular base course when soil- cement ans
ee oucted ‘over weak subgrades. There is no accepted methods for thicknese.
e
wil
m , m u y
th old work OF construction joj : It iS Lo be made.

g
d he edges may get s re e v
ee r C a r

a c c
efully a5 the od
soil-cement base course. Hibeate an t
e p
emneca,
is : e s o d t r u c t i n g
& t
seatitiM Tictra the meth of con
iB s
oint between
B a s e C o u r s e base course
9.3.4 Cons t r u c t i o n o f S o i l - c e m e n t
a s e ‘ w i t h o u t d a m a g i n g i t , ing j completed section of soil-
Fciame N
Materials
fr om th e si te or fr om ne ar -b y
The soils to be stat bilized, either er at io n, th e fo ll ow ag a e
u l v e r i z e Fr om pr ac ti ca l co ns id
collected and
recommended
p
for the so
4,
il s to be s e l e c t e d : sevotere ston
Passing 4.75 mm sieve > 50 percent WAZZZEEZI___ fen
Passing 0.075 mm sieve_| <50 percent
[Liquid timit <40 percent
Plasticity Index <18 percent

Plants and Equipment

There ar e t w o m e t h o d s of c o n s t r u c t i o n :

(i) Mix-in-place method

(ii) Plant mix method
o n e m a n u a l l y u s i n g m i n o r e q u i p m e n
or t by
‘The mix-in-place method could be d m e t h o d la rg e mi xi ng
n t
simple agricultural equipme or by h e a v y m a c h i n e r y . In pl an t m i x
r i a l s , (s oi l, c e m e n t a n d w a t e r ) mi x th em a n d
plants are used which can batch the mate
deliver for spreading. These are pla nts wh ic h ca nb e shi fte d wh en the con str uct ion
progresses, known as tra vel lin g pla nt and als o the re Sam e sta tio nar y plants. Compacting
equipment are also needed.
Construction Steps for Mix-in-Place Method Fig. 9.5 Protecti on of Jo in t in So il -C em en t Co ns tr uc ti on
(i) Preparation of subgrade or sub-base The various field control tests are :
(ii) Pulverisation of soil {@) checking of moisture co nt en t of soi l an d so il -c em en t mi x
(iii) Application of cement and dry mixing r de gr ee of pu lv er iz at io n by si ev in g th ro ug h 4.7 5 mm sie ve
(b) ch ec ki ng fo
i e s t r e n g t h of f i e l d mi x a n d
(iv) Addition of or spraying water and remixing (©) testing of mixing efficiency by co mp ar in g
th e co mp re ss i
(v) Spreading and grading re-mixed and compacted specimens.

(vi) Compaction (@) checking cement content of mix.

eit her by pt (¢) determining dr y de ns it y of th e co mp ac te d la ye r
lo we d mo is t cu ri ng la ye r.
(vii) Curing-the soil-cement lay er is al
la ye r an d su rf ac e "e B a t of
i fi
n g
ni sh ed
moisture to escape or by covering with moist soil. (checking depth of the proc es se d
(viii) Joint with old work
94 SOIL-LIME STABILIZATION
(ix) Field control tests. 54.1 Principles and Applications
In the case of plant mixing steps (ii), (i and (iv) are p e r f o r m e d in th e m i x i n g , for eyey silo 15a inde
Ba Soil fiime has been widei ly used ¢ilster as tea moobsdiervfiered. 0"WhiHYEY TAsisnsail witbeh high
li me ma y : co me s
The compaction is done with minimum possible delay a f t e r w e t m
m
i
a
x
d
i
e
n g .
to ca se s bo th ac ti on s of
SePlasvetiracil ty are treated with lime, the plasticity index
wheel rollers are most commonly adopted. During curing, efforts are Sp
much moisture as" possib le out of the water added for compa ction .
bituminous materi al or coveri ng with moist soil are comm en metho ds of curing :
 SO I L S T A B I L I Z E D R O A D S SOIL-LIME $1 A
47 6 BILIAZA TION,
= pulverized, having less affinny with water, ay

pide inte ie grained aifonwork.. Lime alia Tipit lanaiee g ni e d

soils there ean also be pozzo
poy Eeaular soils. In fine ¢
in added strength.
th e va ri ou s po ss ib le re t i o n s ar e
When a clay is tr ea te d wi th li me ,
io n, re du ct io n in th ic kn es s of wa te r f i l a r o un an)
coagulation or Rogculat io n.
cementing ac ti on an d ca rb on at

J lation;
treated clays. indica ‘The changes in
characteristics ot soil-lime mixture also take place simultaneously; the total time
for the changes depending, on several factors including soil tyne,

The maximum dry density of soil-lime mix is decreased by 2 to 3 percent in tem

untreated soils; however this decrease in dry density with the addition of small props
of lime does not cause reduction in strength,
Soilsime is quite suitable as sub-base course for high types of pavements
and. fypes of Lame
course for pavements with low traffic, As in the case of soil-cement, soil-lime
cannot be used ay a surface course even for light traltic in view of its very poor re ter long curing periods all types of limes produce almost the same effects, However
quick fie (CaO) have been found to be more effective than hydrated lime [Ca (OH)3}
to abrasion and impact. Soil-lime is quite suitable in warm. regions; but it is
suitable under freezing temperatures, Hut quick lime has a tendency to cause skin burns of unprotected workmen, and hence
nee! fia! handling" and protection, Hydrated time is therefore commonly used in
94.2 Factors Affecting Properties of Soil-lime stabilization work, either as a dry powder of by mi ixing with water,

The various factors on which the properties of soil-lime depend are soil type, Compaction
content: compaction, curing and additives; if any, Fs the compacted density is important as regards the strength of soil-lime is concerned
Hence compac tio n is don e at OM C and ma xi mu m den sit y is aim ed at
Soil Dy Curing,
Various soil properties affect the base exchange characteristics and pozzolani¢ The strengtly of soi lel ime inc rea ses wit h cur ing per lod upt o sev era l year s, The rate of
The proportion of increase in strength in a soil-lime mix depends on the pozzolane incr ease in str eng th rap id dur ing the init ial peri od of curi ng, whi ch also dep end s on the
soil, ue during: temperature, At low temperature the rate of fs tr en gl ga in de cr ea se s co ns id er ab ly ,
below freezing point practically there is no gait in strength, The humidity, of the
Lime Content surroundings curing, curing. atlso a fects the strength,
Generally an iner in lime content causes a slight change in liquidti Additives
considerable increase in plastic limit resulting in reduction in plasticity index, s t i e n g t of th e m i s as
Addition of time ay o d i t i v e s
shown in Fig, 9.6 for a typical clayey soil. The rate of inerease in plastle limit sksited. Hence materials which ingrense the strength of soilime are tr ie d
rapid and then the rate decreases beyond a certain lime content. ‘This pol atta cement and pozzotanie nvateriats like flvast t o a d s i t h
termed fime fixation point, ‘This is the approximate time content that is consi Materials in this. is. v g a p
c h e s . a n i Ws
n pect, L i m e s f l y n s h s t a b i l i z a t i o n
w a r m t e p i o n s a n d W h e r e
used up for modification of clay, During this range the increase in stability of t “snsiderable seope for the construction of Lov w go st ro ad s in
s o u l i ve a y e t a n i l i g a t e ,
lime not be noteworthy, When the lime content in the 1 further increas ‘Yas is available as a waste product. Chemical mls Jul adaitives to soilhimes ve s T i k e
isa high rate of increase in stability. However when the lime content is increased | “osu hyalroxidte and sodium sulphate are also found to be use!
4 certain proportion, the stability values generally start decreasing, as illustrat
96. 5 : IAD Dest of soil-tine Mix a s a mo di fi er for
Ar time used mainly ation Aint OF
With proper lime treatment it is possible to make the clay almost nonp! had is no st an da rd me th od of mi x de si gn b a sed
ny liane fi
plasticity index reducing to practically zero, Increase in lime content al tn g d e e d e d
'Y plastic clay, then the fine content May
considerable reduction in swelling and increase in shrinkage litnit. All these
desirable for stabilization of clay,
 8 SOIL STABILIZED ROADS,
47
values
STABILIZATION OF SOIL Using BITUMNNO
id
in de x an d sw el li ng lingy a j = SOUS M, AT. a
i gher value to redu ce t l he pl as ti ci ty
may be considered 88 a cr it et io n fo r D to
piuminous stabilized layer may be yey ag ERIALS 5

n e st re ng th te st al so im en s wi th ou t a
‘3 m s st re ng th of so il -l im e sp ec
Howevet the compressive roads and ever 8S SUrTICS Course For roads with ris mie inletFain falSOUrepions
of ordinary
da ys ma y be qu it e lo w.
g.52 Factors Affecting Properties of Soil-bitumen
9.4.4 Construction of S o i l - l i m e B a s e C o u r s e ‘rhe various factors on which the pro
portion of bituminous material, mixi Ig,perties of the stab iliz ed
compaction, curing mix depends are soil type,
Materials
and additives, if any
re co mm en de d lim it of tty soil
The soil to be stabilize d is sca rif ied . Th er e is no
sui tab ly s y ‘he particle size, shape and the gradation of the so
as ev en hi gh ly pl as ti soi ls ean be
the sol to be stabilized with lime or quick lime are stored near the site, {rig si ‘ubitumen'
en mix. A small proportion of fines imj il i influ
i ence the properties of the
the soil is preferred, though, high clay
lime. Fresh stock of hydrated lime wd er .
that the lim e av ai la bl e is ma de a fin e po
The relative affinity of soil particles for water and bit
Plants and Equipment chemical factors. Presence of cations with higher valency he eae hea
e s r
aluminum have lesser affinity with water and hene € are more desi Potass ium and
‘The equipment needed are for scarifving, pulversing, mixing (in-situ) and ¢,
fatonie charges in soil can be got exchanged with mare desiablnreg Cees ject
Construction Steps emical additives; for proper adhesion the soil surf
oom electrostatic forces. face and bitumen should have
(i) Preparation of subgrade.
Types of Bituminous Material
(ii) Pulverisation of the soil to be stabilized.
Cutbacks of different grades give different stability values for a soi i
thet ca be ried withthe sall atthe time of coneroctoe ptt etldh cl
(iv) Allowing the mixture to age for about a day or precond soning the s of cutback is also chosen depending on climatic conditions. “Emulsion generally
mixing when pulverisation becomes easy. gives slightly inferior results than cutback.
(v) Adding rest of the lime, water if necessary and remixing. Amount of Bitumen

(vi) Spreading to desired grade and compacting. Increasing proportion of bitumen causes a decrease in maximum dry density of soil-
bitumen, but the stability increases and after a certain optimum bitumen content, it
es
(vii) The soil-lime is protected from drying out and is allowed moist-curing. ve rapidly falls. Water absorption decreases with increase in bitumen content though a
slight increase may be noted for very low bitumen content ifthe specimens are soaked for
(viii) Field control tests include checking moisture content at the time of ef long period, such as 28 days. The variation of these properties with increase in bitumen
and checking dry density soon after compaction. content for a typical sandy soil has been illustrated in Fig. 9.7. The optimum bitumen
9.5 STABILIZATION OF SOIL USING BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
9.5.1 P iples and Application

water proofing the inherent strength and other properties of the soil could be
case of the cohesionless soils the binding action is also important. Gi ene!

srapiity vaLUe
binding and water proofing actions are provided to soil.
_In granular soil the coarser grains may be individually coated and stuck
thin film of bituminous materials. But in fine grained soils bituminous material
the voids between small soil clods, thus water proofing the compacted soil-bitum
Most commonly used materials are cutback and emulsion, As heating
quantities of soil and bitumen is not possible, a suitable grade of cutback |
depen upon the climat condit
ding and mixin probl
ic ions Emuls @ g ems. ions
used, especially in places when there is scarcity of water for construction PUP 5 i g rent
the soil-bitumen (cut back or emulsion) is compacted, the layer is cured du! BrTUME.N CONTENT, sfSoi ae
water and volatiles evaporate and the mix hardens. Fig. 9.7 Effect of Bit ume n Con ere teo n Pr e"
 SOIL STABILIZED ROADS, Re
4s0 reSPECIA
L PROI BLEMS 5 IN Soy, a
y g
stprabopileritties, e n e r a l l y r a n g e s f r o m 10 6 pereent by wejghy Fe e e i l
e e S T A B I L IZA TIC ON
coJonte ntensittiesfrfor mam3 in¢nun soil WORK
epenading om the soil PrOP
ing i
Mixing od ma y be pr ef er re d, tn o p
s e p a af m i x n g w i t h lo w mi xi ng s pe p e ri
r i o d m a y b e pr ef er re d, tn
Improved typeaf mixing wil in fi ne pa rt ic le s, it is ne ce ss ar y tg gy OM Plasticity index
Sasi posible an d to di sp er se bi tu me n mp er at ur es (W hi ch is pr e
be fo re ad di ng th e cu tb ac k. Mi xi ng te
see vi th wa te r of th e mi x, de pe nd i ig ond Equipment
:
c te mp er at ur e: it se lt ) al so af fe cts the pr op er ti es plan 5
atmospheri
ad e ‘o f cu tb ac k an d th e so il ty pe . ‘the plants and equipment needed are for xa
tyy pe and gSgr ring Pulvriing,
" mining ang
compactii on
Compaction
th e st ab il it y an d re si st an ce to ab so rb construction Steps
ppetter the compaction, higher will be of the resulting mix depend ( The soil to be stabilized is pulverized,
compaction ch ar ac te ri st ic s an d th e pr op er ti es
er at ur e, ae ra ti on of th e mi x be fo re co m
compacting moisture content and temp Th e op ti mu m mo is tu re co nt en t (i) Water is added to soil and is mixed.
amount and compaction.
type of
the
mu m so ak ed st ab il it y an d mi ni m @ Cutback or emulsion is now added and
corresponding to maximum dry densi maxi
n. Th e qu an ti ty of e n e d So ll is re mi xe d fo r pr
sl ig ht ly de pe nd in g on th e pro , distribution of bi tu me
abso rp ti on fo r a so
x
il
co
bi
ns
tu
ti
me
tu
n mi
en
x
ts
ma
.
y dif fer
¥ lesser when emulsion is used for stabilization, would
“¢¢°4 # Sep (i) be
properti es of th e mi
jv) The mix is spr ead , gr ad ed and co mpacted.
aa (
Curing
(v) The compacted layer is allowed to cure when the moi
By curing soil bitumen. the wa te r and the vol ati les (of the so lv en t use d in cu th ac i solvent evaporate. isture and volatiles of the
bi tu me n to be ef fe ct iv e to im pa rt the
allowed to evaporate thereby allowing the de si re d st ab i (vi) Field control tests include the following :
and water proofing actions. Th e cu ri ng pe ri od re qu ir ed to ac hi ev e
joss in weight would depend on cu ri ng te mp er at ur e, re la ti ve hu mi di ty an d soi l typ e, (a) checking of pulverisation of wet mixed soil
(b) checking of moisture content and bitumen content before ‘compactic ion.
Additivies

Anti-stripping and reactive chemical additives have been tried to iene (c) checking of dry density after compaction.

properties of the mixes with varying degree of success. Portland cement is oa

; 96 SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN SOIL STABILIZATION WORK
times used along with soil-bitumen to increase the stability of the mix.
9.6.1 General
9.5.3 Design of Soil-bitumen Mix
The _
m a i Roars seins
de si gn . Ho we ve r so il -w at er -b it um en mi x are g e n problems in stabilized road construction projects may be divided into three
There is no standard of mix ma xi mu m dry den sit y.
compacted at the optimum water cont en t co rr es po nd in g to
s bi tu me n co nt en ts an d are te st ed for sta bil ity mi the choice of the stabilization technique to be adopted.
specimens are prepared with variou t are co ns id er ed
water absorption. C.B.R. test an d mo di fi ed Hu bb ar d Fi el d tes (i) the design of the stabilized mix.
wa te r pr oo fi ng eff ect s. Ot he r la bo ra to ry tes ts wh i
evaluating the stability and iii 7
used in soil-bitumen mixes fre e fr om co ur se pa rt ic le s are lo wa Be ar in g Va lu e MN) the thickness design ofthe stabilized layerilayers.
cone penetration test. A graph may be pl ot te d wi th bi tu me n co nt en t ve rs st
us it y
bil ity A Choi "8 of the Stabilization
and the optimum bitumen co nt en t co rr es po nd in g to ma xi mu m sta Technique
found. Either this value or a lower value of bitumen content may be The choice° ofthe stabililizizatatiion H s depends upo n sev era l fac tor s suc h as (a) th e
desired stability value an d wa te r- pr oo fi ng ac ti on are ac hi ev ed for tha t mi x.
be st ab il iz ed , (b)
tech e
av
ni
ai
qu
la bi lt y of er co ns ru ct on ma ra e and
ite tri but ion
a

at lo w co st, (c) vo lu me , typ e and dis

9.5.4 Construction of Bituminous Stabilized Layer hen drainage re ea lt y qu ir em en 's ©
and environmental condit io ns , (¢) re
co ur se (f) co ns tr uc ti on eq ui pm en p a g e r
ey ar ea s ba se or su rf ac e, ns ti in c cl
Materials
d (h) other limita ti on s fo rt he co
From practical conside! “altigae ME Pr oj
fr
ec
om
t an
all th es e fa ct or s, te ov er al l fi nd s 188 for
_ The selected soil is pulverised and stacked.
following properties of the soil are suggested for proper stabilization :
Sagar, theAParfinal choice of the stabilization technique:
 SOI L S T A B I L I Z E D R O A D S
48: " SPECIAL PROBLEMS [jy SOIL
i e n i a ; # STABII
s c a t n a LIZATION w
Mix Design io 7
t o b e ad op te d i s | e e d 92 stabilization of Black Cotton sojjs om 483
lization t e c h n i q u e s e s i g n ae
o n e a b o v e , t h e next requirement is t h e m i x d plack Cotton (BC) soils are high) EY Soils, grayish .
oe r a t i o n t h e s t a b i l i t y a n d d u r a b i l i t y r e q u i r e m e n t s a
yeral BC soil“ areas mubabie.y blackish in colour found,
o c o n s i d e d e r e d i n t h e
should t a k e i n t
n i s t o b e m a d e . O t h e r f a c t o r s t o b e c o n s i w
Tayer for which the desig n c l u d i n g t h e s t a b i l i z e r s a v a i l a b l e a n d t h e o v e r a l l 0 2 ncreasing the cost of comes be
are the m a t e r i a l s i i v e s m a y a l s o b e ; t h e : :
g n r e q u i r e m e n t s . U s e o f a d d i t
mix e s w h i c h f u l f i l t h e d e s i h e m i x , S c o p e o f g
r a t e o f g a i n in s t r e n g t h o f t
increase the s t a b i l i t y o r t h e c o m p a r e t h e a.
x m e t h o ds may be investig a t e d t o uneven;
stabilization meth o d s , o r c o m p l e
. ato ns are fo rm ed al mo st af te r ev er y Pc cc ci ed
, PULS, waves
}ORSOON season, resuli ng in heavy and
and other ad v a n t a g e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l m e t h o d s o f s t a b i l i z a t i o n ~
cmaoirnrtenant ance demand every year. cost of
da rd iz e the mi x de si gn pr oc ed ur e an d de si gn criter; a
‘The black cotton soils are found to contain m ;
It is necessary to stan
vans sabiived mixe s. Th e mi x pr op er ty sh ou ld be de si gn at ed in t e m s
at high exp ans ive char acte rist ics. The coll oida l clay co nt re
en 3), MB E hic h hs
strength value so that the same may be subsequently utilised in thickne nd the fraction passing 0.075 mm sieve ranges from 70 to 100 Pcl ig ~ 50 percent
lit tle fl ex ur al st re ng th , th e st re ng th athe) asticity index values ranges from from 4040 to 100 + T h e liqui d limit
problems. For mixes with o e a 10t)0 perce; ntandid 2, 20 to<f 60 resppeeccttiivvei el! y,
Praveniently be designated by compresste iv e st re ng th , C. B. R. or by wy toils have lo w sh ri nk ag e li mi t (1 0 to 15 pe rc en B C
no wo rt hy fl ex ur al st re ng th su ch as soi l ‘hese properties render the soil fo be highly sens itive to moisture chang10 es,30 pecompr , All
rcent)essib
stability test. Stabilized mixes with le
vozzolanic tested for flexural strength also usi
concrete mix etc. should be and plaxic in nature.
e de si gn er to us e th es e st re ng th va lu es fo r designing
specimens so as to enable th ee Pe,From stabilization point of view, the followin i are the maini problems ini the case of
thickness base course slabs.
ae
Thickness Design of Stabilized Layer (i) It is very difficult to pulverize
the soil as the dry h i
The aspect which is oft en giv en less sig nif ica nce in sta bil iza tio n projec ts, te + high dry strength and the wet soil is ouverte Laer
thickness design requirement of the sta bil ize d lay er. The thi ckn ess req uir eme nt (ii) There is excessive variation in volume and stability with variation in water content.
stabilized layer is gen era lly ado pte d eit her as equ al to the gra nul ar bas e cour se thic ines
iva len cy. How eve r the thic kns (iii) There is considere able shrinkage on drying, resulting ing ini the formationi of extensi
or by using some modifi cat ion fac tor for gra vel equ cracks. B.C. soil compacted at OMC will also shrink
design of the stabilize d lay er in ter ms of the gra nul ar bas e cou rse or the WBM liye is much lower than OMC. pine
i shrinkay init
traf fic, eli mi 2 eH
depends on several factors suc h as the typ e and pro per tie s of the mix , the
the des ign life of the pav eme nt. The com mon con te (iv) The BC soil exerts high swelling pressure from belo w soaked.
on being
and environme nta l con dit ion s, and
of equal pressure cri ter ion see ms to be ina deq uat e for dec idi ng gra vel equ iva len cy fart s (v) Conventional construction materials like hard aggregate i
of stabilized materials. Be within easy reach. ale ane
The stabilized mixes which are equivalent to conventional granular. base. col The BC soils are very poor and undependable subgrade material. Hence the main
materials fro m str uct ura l sta bil ity and per for man ce cri ter ia, do not pos e a fr Problem is to treat the subgrade soil itself such that the undesirable characteristics are
eme nt of the pav eme nt lay er. But mix es whi ch are infer modified by a suitable stabilization technique. Also suitable methods of constructing
designing the thickness requir
in performan ce or wea ker str uct ura lly sho uld be con sid ere d sep ara tel y whi le Bbbase and base courses are to be decided based on practical considerations.
the thickness of the layer. In the case of semi rigid es, the thickness re had various methods of stabilization, the most effective method to stabilize BC
should be less than the granular base course. It is very difficult to assess the tie ‘using lime along with suitable additives; when necessary. Also thermal
So far there is no design method which is acé
requirements of these materials. Be ization is quite effective; however heat treatment of the entire soil for stabilization
suitable for the design of such stabilized materials. S
sane to be difficult and expensiv e. The cement requireme nt for satisfacto ry
pavements may be designed as S6f! cemeion of BC soil isso high (15 to 25 percent) that itis nt advisable to use Portland
Soil-cement
their deflecti on,
and
pressure
pozzolanic
distribu tion and. fatigue chara cte
concrete

te
pavements, ', all by itself, for stabilization.

ore p r t
it to react
considerably different froin other flexible pavement materials and stabilized mise a ing
5 "
iti t?
careful consideration and extensive studies are needed before adopting equ! 5

for thickness design of stabilized mixes in terms of granular base course thickness a t i o n in l i m e t r e a t e d B C s o i l s : ih
“Sminant modific
In some soils the stabilizer requirements and the cost increases to such @ o s t z e r o , a n d th e so il b e h a v e s r a b oye
that stabilization’ may work out to be costlier than cenventional co! 4 is t i c i t y i n d e x d e c r e a s e s to a
in
l
n
m
a t u r e a n d irbecomes8) 1 ain
suitable steps are taken. Highly clayey soils like Black Cotton Soils are © i A l s o t h e s o i l b e c o m e s f a b l e e
are e s s c a n e ® s in v o l u m
a problem-soil in India. Similarly stabilization of desert sand for road h w a t e r d e c r s and there
e a s e
also a typical problem. Hence these two problems of stabilization are briefly, ° ae affinity wit e t e n t .
“ c h a n g e s in m o i s t u r c o n
the subsequent paragraphs.
 B I L I Z E D , R O A D S
SOIL STA
484 REFERENCE,
a s e d .
(iii), The soaked st a b i l i t y v a l u e i s i n c r e
is l e s s s h r i n k a g e a f t e r c o m p a c y aye most prom i s i n g b i t u m inous 8 material iin dese i
l i m i t is i n c r e a s e d here
a n d t
iv), The shrinkage son
ye.
is c o n s i d e r a b l y : |g asthe emulsion toe ste uit $0 percent water, pet d a quay
a
(v) T h e
°
c e m e n t r e q u i r e m e n t o f t h e l i m e - t r e a t e d s o i l A ining woulbed ¥ sesit cutng the water evaporieg net netted
goss ad kankar powde sand. The stability ofthe mix contd ee eas
jicm ionto boftmikankar ous poewndeorn andmayothebr emagterial a improve rove Ntieg grapdaatciaon. AenlPsooNsuitablBye
untr e a t e d B C s o i l .

fo r st ab i iz at io n of th e so il f o kanes
a n g e s
All these modifications are d e s i r a
e
b
m
l
a
e
t
c h
erials ‘The foll o w i n g ar e th e r e c o m m e
a n d ba se c o u r s
subgrade, subry-bassteabilization ‘of BC soils for road construction : REFERENCE
for satisfacto
1, FE,
s u b g r a d1e
i) The soil en by wel f ht) up to the desired depth
» be trea ted with a small proportion of lime (ore
‘
“Report of the Seminar on Low-cost Ri
‘oads
ighway Sub-committee, Economic. Commission for Asia andthe far Few Mt, ty Inland
and Soil stabilization’,
Oe about one percent Transport Committee, New Delhi, 1958,
e d b y & l a y e r ‘o f w e l l c o m p a c t e d s o i l
(ii) Sub-base ma y b e c o n s t r u c t
in t w o s t a g e s , f i r s t raywani, N. K,, Khanna, S, K., and Thatte, P, M, “Use of Soft Agerepates in Soil
Sta b i l i z a t i o n w o r k rried out
m a y b e c a stabilization for Highway purposes”, Journal of Indian National Society of Sei
ent t
clay using about 2 to 3 perc p a c t i n gt o Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, July, 1968,
e r c e n t ) a n d r e q u i r e d w a t e r a n d c o m
adding remaining lime (2 to 3} p
y e r d e p e n d s o n d e s i g n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a n d Khanna, S. K. Arora, M, G., Vasan R. M,, “Durability and Strength charactrit is
deusity . T h i c k n e s s o f t h e l a of Lime-Flyash-Soil Mixture for Road Construction” 4
equipment. Congress, Road Research Bulletin No, 14, 1970, eS ne Ea
-l im e pl us so me ad di ti ve , Al on g y 7 >
in g so il
| Khanna, S. Ky, Justo, C. E.G and Surinder Kumar, “Design of Soil-Aggregate
y be pr ep ar ed by us
(iii) Base course ma
6 pe rc en t li me (i n tw o es), addition of 3 to $ pere
st ag
BC soil treated with 3 to ur se la ye r. Instead of Po Mixtures for base Course” Road Research Bulletin 15, indian Road Congress, 1971,
nd cement would re su lt in a sc ro ng ba se co
Portla
cement, pozzolanic materials like tlyash, surkhi, heat-treated BC soils or
BC so il h
_ Melua, S. Rand Uppal, H. Ly “Use of Stabilized Soil in Engineering
Si flyash an d so il -l im e he at tr ea te d Construction", Journal Indian Roads Congress, Vol. XIV-3, 1950.
cinder dust may be used. ur se us in g
ba se co
shown great promise in making good
ld be
an
pr
d
op
ec
er
on
ly
om
de
ic
si
al
gn ed . Wh good road
er e Cotton, M. D., “Early Soil-cement Research and Development", Journal of
The stabilized soil mix shou
M ba se s ma y be tructed.
co ns
Highway Division, Proc. ASCE, Vol, 85, 1959.
ll y, W B ati on,
are availabl e lo ca
| PCA, “So il- cem ent Lab ora tor y Han d-B ook ", Por tla nd Cem ent Ass oci
a su pe ri or ty pe (p re mi x ty pe ) she
(iy) Bituminous surface course, pref er ab ly Chicago.
as a wearing course. Sak sen a, V. N., “Ef fec t of Spe cif ic Sur fac e of Soi ls on Cem ent
. Justo, C. E, G. and
bil iza tio n”, Roa d Res ear ch Bul let in 12, Ind ian Roa d Con gre ss,
Requirement for Sta
9.6.3 Stabilization of Desert Sand 1968.
in re gi on s of Ra ja st ha n an d ot he r p l a t
‘There are large deposits of desert sand rt ma in ly b e . HRB, “Soil Stabilization with Portland Cement” Highway Research Board,
co ns tr uc t ro ad s ac ro ss th e de se
India. It is really a great problem to

2
on ma te ri al , so acute There is al Bulletin 292, 1961.
non av ai la bi li ty of ot he r su it ab le co ns tr uc ti
it ab le st ab il iz at io n te ch ni qu e se em s to be the . Justo, C. E, Gx, “Structural Design of Soil-cement Base Course for Highway
water in the desert region. Hence a su
economical solution,
c Pavement”, Ph.D. ‘Thesis (Unpublished) Department of Civil Engineering
University of Roorkee, 1972.
‘The desert san d dep osi ts con sis t of fin e gra ine d uni for mly gra ded san d e m e n t Co ns tr uc ti on H a n d Bo ok ”, Co nc re te ‘A ss oc ia ti on of In di a.
cem ent + CAl,"So i l - c
particles. This renders the des ert san d wit h poo r sta bil ity . The Re se ar ch Bo ar d
" Highway:
satisfactory stabiliza tio n is als o ver y hig h in suc h soil . Due to the sc ar ci of
ty 2. Morelan, H. and Mitchell, H., “Lime Soil Mixtures’
as con sid era ble wat er is Mm Bulletin 304, 1961.
cement-stabilizati on is all the mor e dif fic ult io n, Jo ur na l, Indian
cement base course construction. Keeping all these problems in view, “U se of Li me in So il Stabilizai
'3. Mehra, S. ., Chadda, 1. R.,
stabilization seems to be a suitable solution.
C o n g r e s s , Vo l. XI X- 1 an d 4, 19 54 . io n” Hi gh wa y Re se ar ch Bo ar d
Roads
“S ci en ce of So il Su bi li za
Use of hot sand-bitumen would result in satisfactory mix, WiBullnteterinkorn10,8, H.1955F.. , cae in Cts
including filler can be added to give a proper gradation of the mix.
mixing of locally available kankar dust has been found to give sati Kaui, RK DavSoilids”,on,Highwa lerd BullBe.etin 34) 241, 499.
D. y7. ResandearchSheeBoar
However use of hot sand-bitumen mix is not economical for sub-base and Stabilization of
construction. If cutback is to be used, the requirement of mixing water cont
considerable.
 SOIL S T A B I L I Z E D R O A D S
486
i . PROBLEMS
p., “F ac to rs to be co
co ns
ns id
id er
er ed
ed in th e a o l any
a s CEG, Hariharan Poy “Facto piseuss the prio ri pl et an d ap pl ic at io n of s
a
Maen. Whit me te (airs
16, al Re se ar ch Se si on
nett ic k St ab il is at io n” , Pr os . 38 th An nu
Pr ee tn g th e pr op er ti es of so l bi
12 <necify how soil-bitumen mix is designed tu me n 7
cMimgatioannd Power, 1968: f Mi xi ng an d Ae ra ti on . on Soil-c, 5, Spe An d th e st ab il to ad ce xe tr ct es
. Dayal R., “Etfect0
and .
a CEG a
19 69 , ' piscus s th e pr ob le ms in st ab il iz at io n of : Ni ne
In di an Ro ad Co ng re ss Vo l. XX X1 1- 3,
: Deer Journal, B l a c k C o t t o n S o i l f o r u g g ; o i l s
a t i a , H . S, “ S t a b i l i z a t i o n o f (a) Black c o t t o n s
smal H. Land Bh i n 5, I n d i a n R o a d s C o n g r e s s , 1 9 5 8 , s
i n t s R o a d R e s e a r c h B u l l e t (b) D e s e r t s a n d
ee a t z a t i o n ,
a b i l i z a t i o n o f C e r t a i n C l a y e y S o i l in I n d i a b y H e t a b l e m e t h o d o f s t a b i l i
SX , “ S t V I I - 2 , 1 9 5 2 . su g g e s t s u i
n R o a d C o n g r e s s , V o l . X
poole I n d i a
an d Bh al la , B. D . “ A R e s u m e on th e St ab il iz at io n of na ”,
Uppal, H. L. X - 2 , 19 65 . Sa
eo Roads Congress, Vo l, X X I
r So il -b it um en Mi xt ur es ”,
_ justo, C. EG. “Mix design Methods fo nbul, Turkey,
h a n i c s & F o u n d a t i o n En gi ne er in g, Is ta
Co nf er en ce on So il M e c
1975.
st Vi ll ag e Ro ad s" , Na ti on al Se mi na r;
. Justo, C. E. G., “All Weather Low Co of Engineers (India),
Transportati on , 5S * An nu al Co n. , In st it ut io n
Februray, 1975.
of Li me -f ly as h Co nc re te as Pa ve me nt Ba .
IRC, “Tentative Guidelines for the use . re ss
‘or Sub-base”, IRC : 60 -1 97 6, In di an Ro ad s Co ng

24. IRC, “Tentative Guidelines for th e us e of Lo w Gr ad e Ag gr eg te s an d So il

Mixtures in Road Paveme nt Co ns tr uc ti on ”, IR C : 63 -1 97 6, In di an Ro ad s

PROBLEMS

|. Discuss the scope of soi l st ab il iz at io n

in ro ad co ns tr uc ti on .
. Explain the mechanics of soil stabilization.
ci pl e, ap pl ic at io n an d me th od of co ns tr uc ti on of
. Explain the prin
stabilization.
so il -a gg re ga te s mi xt ur es an d the fac tor s
.. Discuss the properties of
propertie’s of mechanical stabilized soil.
e of sof t ag gr eg at e in soi l sta bil iza tio n. Ex pl ai n Me hr a’ s
. Discuss the scop
stabilization.
. Exp lai n the fact ors in des ign of mix for mec han ica l soil sta bil iza tio n.
|. Discuss the principles and scope of soil-cement stabilization.
. What are the factors influencing the properties of soil-cement ? Explain
cement mix is designed.
). How is soil-cement base course constructed ? Give details.
. Explain the principle, scope and factors affecting the properties
stabilization.
. Enumerate the construction procedure of lime stabilized base course.
 PAVEMENT FAILURES

(7) Ch a p t e r 1 O irs, maintenance of shoulders

mag es ME: Ye h of te
489
fjai ns and clea ring cho
inspked cuv ers
bung ,
alow s, ete of misc ella neou s had side

e
ecti on
n c
signs arboriculture, ems Nike road
Highway M a i n t e n a periodic maintenance : ‘These include reney al s of w
(wo) Pirface and preventive maintenance of various items, Me SOU Of pavement
:
jal repairs : These include stren, ‘in
€ of p r v e n e n a a e si
SerstructiOn, reconstruction C
a d
Caused by floods, providing itonald sa fe ty m e a s u ik
r e s
e i g n a t
s ‘Sings etc, M a
i n t e n a n c e M a n a g e m e n t Sy st em
10.14 Ma
e type and extentof maintenance requirement for a road dependon
aM bility standard laid down, the maint hance inter
the
As several
needs funds available and the
priorities for the mamtenance operations, linked factors are involvedin
proaineenance works of road net work consisting of di fferent categoofrroads, a
' maint t e n a n c m a n a Th i e s
is appropriate for the road e e: g e m e n t . e va ri ou s
10.1 INTRODUCTION
s
“jem
i r
approach
e
to be in cl ud ed in th e ma in te na nc e ma na ge me nt sy st em ar
4 2 fo
i g h w a y M a i n t e n a n c e ser vic eab ili ty sta nda rds f i .
10.1.1 Ne ed fo r H @ Minimum acceptable for the maintenance of different
Road maintenance is on e of th e im po rt an t c o m p o n e n t s of th e en ti re ro ad T e categories of roads.
ro ad co nd it io n, di ag no si s of tt
ma in te na nc e op er at io ns e assessment of
in vo lv e th Field surveys for the evaluation of maintenance requirements.
ap pr op ri at e m a i n t e n a n c e st ep s. Ev en if th e h i g h w a y sar (i)
problem and adopting th e mo st
d, th ey m a y re qu ir e ma in te na nc e; th e ex te nt of w h i c h
wi l (iii) Various factors influencing the maintenance needs such
well desi gn ed an d co ns tr uc te S i a 3 she 04,
cl ud in g th e p a v e m e n t ty pe . Va ri ou s ty pe s of drainage, climate, traffic,environmental condition, etc.
depend on seve ra l fa ct or s in
li se d fa il ur e to ma jo r an d ge ne ra l fa il ur es do t a set of
pavemen t s ra ng in g fr om mi no r an d lo ca (iv) Estim ation of rate of deteri oratio n of the pavem ent under the prevai ling
du e to on e or a c o m b i n a t i o n of se veral causes.
place on roads. The failures may be conditions.

Failures
) Type and extent of maintenance requirements and various possible altematives
General Causes of Pavement
10.1.2 and their economic evaluation.
of pa ve me nt fa il ur es ne ed in g ma in te na nc e me as ur es m a y
So me of th e ge ne ra l ca us es (vi) Availability of funds.
be classified as given below : wi) Maintenance cost, availability of materials, man power and equipment.
(a) De fe ct s in the qu al it y of ma te ri al s us ed . nan ce
(vil) Need based all oca tio n for opt imu m util izat ion of inpu ts and fixi ng mai nte
d qu al it y co nt ro l du ri ng co ns tr uc ti on .
(b) Defects in construction method an priorities.
su bs ur fa ce dr ai na ge in th e lo ca li ty res ult ing in the sta
(c) Inadequate surface or 10.2 PAVEMENT FAILURES
‘of wat er in the su bg ra de or in any of the pa ve me nt lay ers .
of wh ee l loa ds and the nu mb er of loa d re pe ti ti on s it G
(d) Increase in the magnitude : ener
increase in traffic volume. A flexible pavement failutle re is defined bylocalize formation essi of pot norm holes, s,
crackowed
ras,is foll
alized depressions and set ments. The d depr on ally
(c) Settlement of foundation of embankment of the fill material itself. @ w a v y p a v e m e n t s u f i c e , T h
t h e v i c i n i t y . T h e s e q u e n c e d e v e l o p s e w a
h e h e a v i n g in e n t s of th e p a v e m e n t s t r u c t u r e d e v e l o p th
s
o f a n y o n e o r
tan ions on the pavementm o r e compon
fall, frost action, ete. surface or lo igitudinalal ruts and J shoving Pavement
ne gat
c o n s i d e r e d , a s a f a i l u r e , w h e n i t i s e x c e s s i v e
10.1.3 Classification of Maintenance Works enness m a y i t s e l be
f pl ex o s e 0 ,
e n t d i s t r e s s a n d f a i l u r e is c o n s i d e r e d c o B e c o n
‘The various items of highway maintenance works may be broadly ¢! The subject of pavem i o r a t i o n a n d f a i l u r e . Th e a e i m e n t a l ac ti on s
three heads : p a v e m e n t d e t e r
bipny geUS 1f0 ilmtshe lead to the deterioration of bitin t e e g e e r e ,
in
» Paver ete pavements.
bit 4 ents are rapidly increased when excess water 1S
inous pavements or in the cracks and joint ofthe
488
 MAINTENANCE
HIGHWAY PAVEMENT
FAILURES i
es
Py
concrete pal
e d
* ra
by the den "ea sures i! subgrade
cr
A rigid pa ve me nt fa il ur e is e n
paren pas effects. ra ne Of tIthe ‘Tprhiims e cancausbee noofticefldexibinle thepafovermmenof flueis ecesve de
Gructural rack of break resi li ng in pr og re ss iv e su bs id en ce of so me lo pe ip
su pp or ti ng la ye rs be ne at h th e co me , oa i
ve me nt su rf ac e an d al so d e p e n ’ p i n d fo nt ta ce
ve me nt . Mo de ra te ir re gu la ri ti es th e
e pa ve m, angle Sy in the pa fo ll ow ed by. jo a 2
su st ai ne d du e 1 in he re nt be nd in g st re ng th of th es
SSEstO N5 y e e . Th e la te ra l s h o v of i pa n vegme nt se ss o"
Pavements are pable of wi th st an di ng sl ig ht va ri at io ns in th e nt be ar in g ca pa ci ty or th e ed ge al on g e e s t i of
ae se ca calized gaps moderately. It is the combi nde pavement jue
n
10
e s s
in su
of
ff
p
ic
a
ie
v e m e n t su rf ac e is c o n s i d e r e d s e e m i l u in | pa th of
suppormentts and F y ’ they b r i d g e th e l o to ni
th ti
e on of n a e ee sneven p a v e m e n t pa ve me nt fa ye
ng ,e a e
e fa il ur e c o n d i t i o n s in th e ri gi d p a v e m e n t . D u e De o f sib ein de io sy We o k ’ 8S
Sree hat induce th c o n c r e t e p a v e m e n t s m a y al so c r a c k e e ta y ib ut ed du e to tw o ba si c :
fects, the newly c o n s t r u c t e d c e m e n t jo in ts , E V E R if tg ‘The fail ur e © a t r e a s o n s
f t e n fa il ur e of ri gi d p a v e m e n t s st ar t f r o m inadequate stability
se h i l e m o v e s on t h e m . O Re x
edges of slabs. Excessive st r e s s a p p l i c a t i o n

t s
10. 2 . 2 F a i l u r e s i n F l e x i b l e P a v e m e n wate stability may be due to inherent weakn,
pe r co mp ac ti on . St ab il it y is th e re si ta ne e gy o t e & Sc en e
As stated above, the Jocalize d s e t t l e m e n t of an y o n e c o m p o n e n t
is
la
d
ye
e
r
m a
of
n d
th
s
e f
th
e
at
t e
inde mpro eq ua te to de fo rm at io n und er the
to c apavement fail
u s e ur e. Th ress Excess iv e st re ss ap pl ic at io n is du e to in ad
in
pavement structure c o u l d be e n o u g h
a n d la id . T h u s to m a i n t a i n th e s t a b i l i y e S08, of design-value. The deformat io n of so l s u b g r a
and d onee n s Ha d
la ye rs s h o u l d be ca re fu ll y d e s i g n e d in nu mb er of lo ad repetitions Pavement materials
one of th e be st ab le w i t h i n it se lf an d ye found t0 increa se wi th in cr ea se
the pavemen t st ru ct ur e as a w h o l e , e a c h la ye r s h o u l d
i n t a i n it s st ab il it y. F i g u r e 10 .1 il lu st ra te s th e a b o v e co ne he ap pl ie d st re ss on the su bg ra de or pa ve me nt i
ine the to ta l p a v e m e n t m a
es in th e. so il s u b g r a d e , ba se co ur se an d th e the lo ad W o Ce
u
I ibe tpacity, the deformation due to on of the layers is not tic or fully recovered o
l e
d co mp ar ed to s
Fieure 10.1-a , b a n d c il lu st ra te th e fa il ur su rf ac e de fo rm ai ng
co ur se . It m a y be se en th at u l t i m a t e l y th er e is ed . If the co mp ac ti
voce of wearing a d e or b a s e or su rf ac e. * when the lo ad is re le as
of the de fo rm at io n ma y be pet p e e wi h fe re nc e
of
Shen fa il ur e ta ke s pl ac e ei th er in s u b g r wtetpsequent loading, pa rt
deformation. Buu nanent due to co mp ac ti on
minis maty be called consolidatA ion i 8if the apli
wih respec to the stability and if plastic flow takes place pepe opedyey
toa Loan erable,e,
gil, this deformation is called plastic deformation and is not even partly recoverabl
weaning COURSE
weanne These have been illustrated in Fig. 10.2.
©
ceFonmation —‘tromanon oe Fenton
NI Tee evo mo
~~“ ‘SOW SUBGRADE Pr
Soi SoBCRADE s e
(b) F a i l u r e in B a s e C o u r
Failure in Subgrade
4; 4
(a)

Load ~ ! = =
=
woacen
cece m e e e ” e h
Fig. 10.2 Soil De fo rm at io n un de r Lo ad s
Pe ‘pe of damage inflexible pavement tat an be caused by traffic
de 0 Pe
Byesgy St €0 inadequate and improper compaction of shade at os Pe
been illustrated in Fig. 10.3.
Frilures lures 5
SOM SUBGRADE inSub-base or Base Courses
Follow ae
(©) Failure in Wearing Course 4 OWing are the chi ef typ es of su b- ba se or bas e cou se fl ue s:
te th e di re ct io n of up he av al du e to th e
Arrows indica fi Tradequate stat
movement of material from the layer
Fig. 10.1 Failure in Flexible Pavement
 js upon the
urse 15 Prt
qurfiace £0
ol
-rior materials: : Many taibures taint
f inferior materials in the paving ube’
in ist ri initially, ut show rapibyd deterioration
reMerials should be judged
< and specifications for construction ay Chapter 6 Highway
sted TREE 8, Highovay
afater :
Con r t
g u r s
ure of wearin co oper gradation of SRCe : F a i l u r e o f w e a k a t
r e g i W e
F a i l u r e d u e to I m p r o p e r C o m p a c t i o n Fa design. Imp t n poor bituminous carson, fe bee comer and
Fig, 1 9 . 3 m e n t L a y e r s fee r y p e o f b i n d e r r e s u l i c t ,
orSubgrad e a n d P a v e n o u s co n s t r u c t i o n r e q u i r e s egree of. qua
a h i g h t n
d y c e e t h e d e s i o n a s p e
the bitumi t l y d a m a g i n g t o t h e r e s u l t i n g p since over of under
d
estimate bin d e r c o n t e n t , a r e b o t h g r e a
8 p a v i n g m i x i n c l u d i n g
(i i i ) L o s s o f b a s e c o u r s e m a t e r i a l s .
Senperature controls .
e w e a r i n g c o u r s e . i c a t i o n d o x i d a t i o n o f b i n d e r a l s o m a k e t h e b i t u m i n o u s s u r f a c i n g t r i t e
tiv) Inadequa t Yolat i l a n f u e r a
i a l s . cane eracking, of the pave me nt su rf ac e wh ic h s u r f a c i ng a nd
ws seepage of rin water to
n g of b a s e c o u r s e m a t e r
(v)_ Use of inferior m a t e r i a l s a n d c r u s h i
un de rl yi ng la ye rs . allo
c o n f i n e m e n t fo r t h e g r a n u l a r b a s e c o u r s e . i th e
Lack of late ra l
(vi)
: P o o r m i x p r o p o r t i o n i n g or i n a d e q u a t e Ty
1023 , pi ca l Fl ex ib le Pa ve me nt
: Fa il ur es
t r e n g t h
Inadequate stability or s stability or strength of sub-base or base cours ib le pa ve me nt fa il ur es :
of of t h e ty pi ca l fl ex
ma i n r e a s o n s fo r th e la ck o u r s e la ye r w e a k . . Impr Follo w i nar
g e s o m e
m a k e th e b a s e c
varieties of stone aggreg a t e s al so {) Alligator (map) cracking
e co ns tr uc ti on re su lt s in base course.
po or
control during th
e in (i) Co ns ol id at io n of p a v e m e n t la ye rs
on ; D u e to th e in te rn al m o v e m e n t s of a g g r e g a t j
Loss of bind in g ac ti ic at io ns , th e c o m p o s i t e st v i
de r th e re pe at ed st re ss ap pl (ii) Shear failure
pace course layers un re su lt s J o o s e n i n g of th e to ta l ma ss an d f o
layers gets disturbed. Th is (iv) Longitudinal cracking
on th e b i t u m i n o u s su rf ac in g of fl ex ib le p a v e m e n t s . T h e r e
al li ga to r cr ac ks
an d po or lo ad tr an sm it ti ng pr op e ——
binding acti on re su lt in g in lo w st ab il it y r. gg) Frost heaving
e r m a n e n t d e f o r m a t i o n s ar e th us ‘c au se d in th is la ye
pavement layer. Ex ce ss iv e p (W) Lack of binding (keying) to the lower course.
se ma te ri al s : T h e lo ss of ba se co ur se ma te ri al s is
Loss of ba se co ur a r i n g co ur se oF t h e (vil) Reflection cracking,
th e ba se co ur se is no t c o v e r e d wi th a w e
when either es pl yi ng on 1 es) (iit) Fe 5
at io n.
y
has completely wom out. Due to th e fa st m o v i n g ve hi cl
T R g i Hy ) Fo rm at io n of w a v e s an d co rr ug
th e p n e u m a t i c ty re s an d th e e x p o s e d ba se CO U' sE
suction caused betwee n e I Alligator (Map) Cracking
re mo va l of bi nd in g ma te ri al in W B M ba se an d th e st on
causes Figure 10.4 shows the general pat ter n of all iga tor or ma p cra cki ng of the bit umi nou s
loose state.
most common type of failure and occurs due relative movement
form dust due to abragig’ waficng This is the repeated application of heavy
The exposed aggregates of the base course also may aoe layer materials. This may be caused by the
such pavement sections, there iS or due to the moisure vandir f
pect
and attrition, With further use of is called sling ay seg in fatigue failure
‘The removal of materials yreventive ‘ shrinkay ige of subgrade and other pa yvement o a t te + sur course inayerthis
The pi
dust pallivati
d
Petey, Ntly in g ba se co ur se wo ul d als o ca us e @ cr ac ki ng
su it ab le su rf ac e tr ea tm en t. In WB M roa ds, it i s co nv en ti o! spread 3 Consotidari‘ation of pavement Layers
to serve as the bi: nding material after the rains, which al 4 dation of o0€ OF
prevent the raveling of stones. Formation of ruts are mainly attributed to the consol 1 path cause
ar in g co ur se OF in t. The repeated application of load along the O° vies ea
Inadequate wearin g co ur se : Ab se nc e of we ing ef
ity of wearing course exposes the base course to the dama gi
variations mainly due to rains, frost action and the traffic.
 HIG H W A Y M A I N T E N A N C E
P ’AV E M E N T FAI L U R E S .
494

n a C r e e k t a i n g s t
u a n¢ to f r o s t s i t e ) n e sie s ¥ k

n l e n a
v e m e n t t r a v e r s i n g t h r o u g h t h e f u l l p a rJ e
e m e net n t
s sie d i n p a d e l o p e s a l s o w o u l d c a u s e t h i s i y p eo f p a n e a S e t l e n e o f i t
i
w avies o f s i s l i
res t H e a g
v i n g a r e o f t e n e r s t
rr ost hea : t e n m i s u n d
f
a l i o n v e m e n t i s f o l l o w e wdi t p r c a e , s h e a r
s i r . t h e u p h e a v o f p o s t o f p a a dep r e s s i o n , I n t h e c a s e o f
n g . r e s m
fosFost unhedavi waterthe and i cli o s
mat t l
ic y @ l
cond o c
itioa
*
ns, h
Sep
rs
ei ne emen t port ion lized ea
depe ndin g upon vit 2 ,

SS PAVEMENT wiotk

Fig. 10.4 Map Cracking UpMeaREAVA

wtavay ove 10
deformation resulting in consolidation deformation or longitudinal ruts. Shallow Fig. 10.7 Failure due to Frost Heave
the surfacing cours e can also be due to weari ng along the wheel path.
the depth and width of ruts, it can be estimated whether the conso lidation deformaing Lack of Bi nd in g wi th Lo we r La ye r
has been- caused in the subgr ade or in subs eque nt layer s. A typica l’ sectio n
pave ment surfa ce show ing such failur e is given in Fig. 10.5. Slipping occurs when the surface course is not keyed/bound withthe underlying base.
hig results in opening up and loss of pave ment mater
the ials formi
chic ane n acta et s
Such conditions are more frequent in case when
- ONE LANE WIDTH ea over the existing cement concrete base course or soil-cement base course. This condition
is more pronounce d when the prime/tack coat in between two layers is lacking. The
| 10.8.
snouLoen [
FORMATION OF RUTS
noao tevet | typical failure is shown in Fig.

Wy uy. saihae Cy
Fig. 10.5 Formation of Ruts irae
Ba SOWL-CEMENT BASE
Shear Failure & Cracking
‘Shear filures are essoctated with th lahereit weakness ofthe ssiv yaveni tiltam
shearing resistance bein g low due to inad equa te stabi lity or exce ely heav y l o x Fig. 10.8 Failure due to Lack of Binding

The shear failure causes upheaval of pavement materials by forming a fracture Reflection Cracking
cracking. Figure 10.6 isa typical section showing this type of failure. se rv ed in bit umi nou s ove rla ys pro vid ed ove
This type of crackings. is ob ck pattern as existing in cement ‘concrete pavementsr exi sti ng
cement concrete pavement The cra
ate mostly reflected on bituminous surinffaclueingnceind theby sam ioncksof iethe
e patsener.ce ofStrrefuctlecuratiol nactera
‘otal pavement sec tio n is not mu ch the pre
PAVEMENT WIDTH Since the cracks appear at the surface, these allow surface water 19 HP through an
<tise damage to the soil subgra de or res ult in mu d pum pin g. #= Fig: 9.
SHQULDER up HEAVAL
i 24 Failure
- in Cement Concrete pavements
. i the formation of
Fri lur e
i
of ce me nt co nc re te pa ve me nt s are re co gn iz ed ma in ly by
a Structural cracking. The failures are mainly due to two factors.

Defi iciency of pavement materials

SHEAR FAILURE
(7) Stracturay
Fig. 10.6 Shear Failure Cracking ictural inadequacy of the pavement system-
 HI G H W A Y M A I N T E N A N C E
4 96
PAVEMENT FAILURES
497
|TUMINOUS OVERLA+Y—— sync In ad eq ua cy of Pa ve me nt Sy st em
subgrade support
CEMENT CONCRETE nis srt ra ck ing
ate
in pa cm an , Si lo s Wo ul d be a my of
BASE SLAB lowi are the ou ee ng
failure ‘which develop Sypes of
(Inadequate pavement thickness
su bg ra de su pp or t an d po or su bg ra de soi t
ii) Inadequate
(
1 spa cin gs of joints
. i
(ii. tncorrer
avove would give rise tthe failures ofthe following types:
{a cracking of slab come r s :
y«i Cracking of pavements longitudinally,
fi Settlement of slabs
REFLECTION
CRACKS (v)_ Widening of joints
(v) Mud pumping
A
PLAN 1025 Typical Rigid Pavement Failures
BITUMINOUS SURFACING
ee e a d n and as e pe of re s i n rigi d pav eme nts ih e
FAILED C.C, PAVEMENT ‘{. Sealing of cement concrete
SECTION KY (iy. Shrinkage cracks
Fig. 10.9 Formation of Reflection Cracks i) Spalling ofjoints
(v) Warping cracks
Deficiency of Pavement Materials
wh ic h wo ul d gi ve ris e to the di ff er en t def ect s. or () Mud pumping
Following are the chief causes
failures of cement concrete pavement : (wi) Structural cracks
(i) Soft aggregates Scaling of Cement Concrete
(ii) Poor workmanship in joint construction Sealing is observed in cement concrete pavement showing overall deteriorai
sonia The scalingis mainly attributed due to the deficiency testis patent
(iii) Poor joint filler and sealer material ae eal impurities which damage the mix. Further due to excessive vibration
be salen the cement mortar comes to the top during construction and thus with use,
(iv) Poor surface finish pogament mortar gets abraded exposing the agaregate of the mix. This makes the
‘ent surface rough and shabby in appearance.
(v) Improper and insufficient curing
The various defects that creep in due to the above are
Seintage Cracks
n t th e cu ri ng op er at io n of ce me nt co ne re te pa ve me nt s im me di at el y at er the
(i) Disintegration of cement concrete o de ve lo p. Th e pl ac em en t of cr ac ks are in
rats the shrink ag e cr ac ks no rm al ly
(ii) Formation of cracking in tr an sv er se di re ct io n.
al ‘ a l
Sp ling of Joint as we ll as
(iii) Spallofin joingts
fi ll er ma te ri al s ar e pl ac ed A0 18
-.
ca si ng
.
of p a v e s
“bythe es When pre-formed
Poor riding surface
(iv) Som is

so me ho w di sl oc ated and filer s t s p S A T y s

(v) Slippery surface att Placem en t is th is fa y al ig ns o f ys
wi th ou t no ti ci ng
88 completed of a concrete layer on the top side and the jot
(vi) Formation of shrinkage cracks
Seesivg aN overhang
(vii) Ingress of surface water and further progressive failures Sracking and subsidence.
 HI G H W A Y M A I N T E N A N C E
498 MAINITNET!ENANC
E OF WIG
HWays
Warping Cracks s rr)
wel t des ign ed to ac co mm od at e the warmpin g of slabs » ie wa TER wor sey ena, |
7
If the joints are not of ¢ xcessive stresses dueestoe warping and thy1c % tem,
i velopment e jo in ts ar e ge ne ra ll y,
ae s in an ir re gu la r pa tt er n. Hi ng = e e
c l
cracking af th1 e bsea of warping stresses. There is no structural defect due tone
‘
Jievi ng the sla nip s itudi
Fe oper reinforcement is provided atthe longitudinal and trans
fy
h e s t r u c t u r a l a d e q u a c y .
tak e s c a r e o f t

Mud Pumping
Mud pumping is rec pavement caused duringo g n i s e d w h e n t h e s o i l s l u r r y eects outwartdhroumgoht the Join = 1
c r e t e the down
crack s o f c e m e n t c o n a u s e t h e n o n e n t o f ,
w h e e l l o a d s . F o l l o w i n g a r e t h e f a c t o r s which c
U n d e r t h e h e a v y
t e n t o f s l a b d e f l e c t i o n
(i) Ex
(ji) Type of subgrade soil
(iii), A m o u n t of f r e e w a t e r
in c e m e n t c o n c r e t e p a v e m e n t s th at a r e p c g
Pumping is not i c e d j u s t a f t e r t h e r a i n s
p p l i c a t i o n s o f r e p e a t e d l o a d s , s p a c e s ax
on cl a y e y s o i l s u b g r a d e , D u e to t h e a
t l a b s a n d w a t e r i n f i l t r a t e s i n t o t h e s e s p a c e s t h r o y
devel o p e d u n d e r n e a t h t h e p a v e m e n s
h e p a v e m e n t s as s h o w n in F i g . 1 0 . 1 0 a , S i n c e th e so ll fsaly
joints, cracks and edges of t e soil slurry or soil suspension in water
e d y p e , it h o l d s w a t e r a n d f o r m s t h
of fine grain t ye
the mud.
y wh ee l lo ad s ca us es th e pa ve me nt sl ab to de fl ec t
‘Sub se qu en t ap pl ic at io n of he av
es out part of th e mu d ea ch ti me , th ro ug h th e sp ac es
critical locations and also forc mo re an d mo re mu d is eje cte d
pave me nt jo in ts , cr ac ks or ed ge . Sc e Fi g. 10 .1 0b . Wh en
but, there is a substa nt ia l lo ss in fi ne gr ai ne d so bgrade, resulting in consider.
il fr om su
de su pp or t at th es e lo ca ti on s. Wi th co nt in ue d tr af fi c mo ve me nt s ;
Joss of su bg ra pa ve me nt sl ab du e to’ red uct ion
pr ogressive increase in the wheel load st re ss in th e
eq ue nt ly cr ac ks ar e de ve lo pe d an d th e pa ve me nt ul ti ma te ly fa ll s
su bg ra de su pp or t, co ns g is gen era l?
in Fi g, 10 .1 0c . Th e pa ve me nt cr ac ki ng du e to mu d pu mp in
illustrated ne fi ae
pr og re ss iv e ty pe of fa il ur e in ri gi d pa ve me nt s.
ic kn es s fo r th e am ou nt an d ty pe of ve hi cl es is th e pr im er s
In ad eq ua te pa ve me nt th at th e co me rs
cracking. Largely, the paveme nt s ar e fo un d to cr ac k
for the structural sv er se cr ac ks ar e al so , fo un dt on t
edge s as sh ow n in Fi g. 10 .9 . Lo ng it ud in al an d tr an
me s qu it e di ff ic ul t to di ff er en ti at e th e ty pe of cr ac ks . Ge ne ra ll ys it i o
it beco in ts or co me rs ar e no t du e 10 sp al li ng
decided that the crack in the vicinity of jo
e st ru ct ur
pumping, then the cracks are atribsted toth ure stresses.al in ad eq ua cy . Th e cr ac ki ng |
interi or re gi on s ar e ma in ly du e to th e te mp er at ri) = 3 Fig. 10.10 Mud Pumping
(9 Routine maintenance
a
10.3 MAINTENANCE OF HIGHWAYS
(i) Petiodic maintenance
10.3.1 General (ii) Special
repairs
Rout, whetheitris
‘After knowing the var iou s def ect s tha t ma y cau se pa ve me nt fai lur es, i t }
td periodic maintenances ar needed 29 2, crge ae
ixigal®va nd constructed with scientific bias or not. Sinee 1d positivelyese
study the different measures that one adopted to maintain and upkeep | wear ou Even
their excellent functions, As a basic principle, it may be observed that 8 traffic and adverse climatic conditions, they Would Po
is designed based on scientific standing would resist the' various detrime
Would need the minimu m ma in te na nc e. Va ri ou s ma in te na nc e op er at io ns af =
 HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE
500 MAINTENA
NCE, or
yp HIGHWAYS
for their
if the highways are not used, they
the
also
are
pavements
would
more
need
than
maintenance
one, Traffic is ication of calcium chloride reta ie
factors that cause damage
ongtadinal and
to
cross drains would need attention unger ted earth ‘ roads are also comin these gon: ve to the by prenceipic tatare of
Fate ae of maintenance Work i they
facieage work. One of the common items
longitudinal and cross drains. periss
odar | ma, intenati nce fby spreading 1B MUismojt Wil alon, rut
icy-a Formation of cross ruts may be due to conc 3 "pg ofthe camb
rubbish and weeds from the is Lae f heavy rain fall, it may not be ostble a er
weet Som Wp prices
S| ars and st re ng th en in g of pa ve me nt wit h ov er la ys are ne areas © either these Tut s should be re"4paired from ti’ Mwo e™® lkresed exe regs
ve bee
payeoen fei Many defects that ha become even more complex than n di sc us se d in Art . 10. 2 s e e of a surface treatment or stabil;
2 ‘fte
yonsoon ized layer be povided omnes
fod
‘and the maintenance jobs in such cases
‘Teianing a new highway net wor k. Spe cia l rep air s of su bs ur fa ce dra ina ge y m
sfose drainage structures ma y be ne ed ed in so me cas es. Im pr ov em en ts off the heavy mi
treometries ma y als o be inc lud ed und er spe cia l rep air s. andiions. 18 dry weather dust is formed and oe traffic and adverse climatie
When the pa ve me nt sur fac e is sev ere ly da ma ge d or aft er the use ful ser vic e life ,
be necessary to renew the surface,
Routine Maintenance
surface, the stone aggregates protrude out
10.3.2
be r e Sif are also formed in localised spots of WBM roads
Following is the bri ef list of var iou s rou tin e mai nte nan ce that may
highways :
(i) Upkeep of carriageway monsoons.
maintenance, Particparti ularly after the
(ji). Maintenance of shoulders and subgrade.
Dust nuissance can be effectively prevented by providing bituminous r:
(iii) Maintenance of side drains and other ancillary works. course over WBM pavement. However po oe include bared of dust
{iv) Patch repairs of pot holes and localised failures. palliatives.
Pot holes and ruts formed shobeuld patched up. The patch repair work is carie
Asa principle, the road network of the State in view is divided in numberof by first cutting out a rectangular shape of the defective seats piconet
and these sections are placed under the administrative control of the different affected depth. Then with coarse aggregate of the same size (using part ofthe old
divisions. The responsibility of planning, designing and constructing of new aggregate and remaining fresh aggregate) the patch is filled up and compacted well by
obviously assigned to each section geographically and the maintenance also thu ramming such that the patched area is about 1 cm above the general pavement surface.
assigned to the same groups or sections. The engineers thus would maintainthe com This allows for the further compaction of this patched portion, under traffic. Wet soil
records of each case commencing from its design and construction stages. Unless binder is applied on the surface of the patched areato fill up the imerstices
and the
records are available at hand, it would be difficult to assess the real cause.of| surface is rammed again.
problems, The maintenance schedule listed above of routine type and the
carried out at regular interval like (i) day to day and (ii) seasonal.” The maintenant Afierthe period of useful life of the WBM road or when the layer fails extensively, a
techniques are now discussed for different types of highways, resurfacing is called for. If the thickness requirement ofthe olf road was inadequatethe,
thickness of the WBM pavement is increased duri ngcing.
the resurfa
10.3.3 Maintenance of Earth Roads
1035 Maintenance of Bituminous Surfaces
The usual damages caused in the earth roads needing frequent maintenance are
(i) formation of dust in dry weather Mainly the maintenance works of bituminous surfacing consists of:
() Patch repairs
(ii) formation of longitudinal ruts along wheel path or vehicles
(®) Surface treatments
(iii) formation of cross ruts along the surface after monsoons due to surface water:
Resurfacing
Thus, dust nuissance may be remedied by the following methods : Patch Renai
pai
Frequent sprinkling of water Patch s o road surface. Localiz
depr PATSeg arehy carried out on the damageduoFrfalycee" dye to defects in materials
Treatment with calcium chloride trn ucantd
"consio i opo
n t hi f o
oles may be formr m e d in the s
Use of other dust palliatives
so2
HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE ;
aterials iscauses rem ova l‘al o f MAINTENANCH OF Hayy, AY,
mi
Tised of a '
sn ahdes ndtheere UTIL Hb, hey Yu us
Inadequate
pl" ate ang may be dene
of
on
detective
aff ect ed h v a l a oF
binding
at a1 cre
ntla wetthement 8 ate useday
iY
8B
jpifortl
selver ornaton of or ug ed po em 1s
s e ne at e e
CSpit onte , 5 woud

lPorehola
Holes and Repairs
h a p e and the aff ect ed ; poo r gra
whidat
ch ion
giv or
es mix
Tse 10 i Def
the ect
wav eive gia
form dat
atio n et t fo the sur
es are eut to rec tan gul ar sha pe a mat eri al in the Ooin r ect th re e t li g lye i
en co un te re d, he ca ve d Pat che s w n , s h ie po we me nt eienets the det : nated
als me A prem
reve unt the bitsouumindnoumats eribind L i s then plac ed in Sl e ae
d painted with er, n em pe rn ir g 3 Mlc ous stat e oft he bit ume n bin der
use d as bin der , ‘Bi tum ino us emu lsi ons c u e w commaeti
aaa ratiyeutback or ennsion is wet dur ing mo =e en tempera ty high tem per a weat ly dep end s
ceen when the pavement surface and the ogg reg ate s are f bituminous mix would make the resulti
hol e, is wel l co mp ac te d by ra mm in g to av oi d any pa, ne wavy surface is formed during rolling. = PAS™EM Surface yer with ow
material so placed in the pot s of 6 cm or so, Iti s
The materials in pot holes are pl ac ed in lay ers of th ic kn es
ta
unstable underlying layers + Weak underlying sh
necessary to replace the base co ur se ma te ri al s wit h sim ila r ne w ma
of
te
the
ri
pa
al
tc
if the fg
hes js jes its
; © eet repeated plying of vehicles on Soh AaYetS also cause the formation of
been detected in the base course lay er als o. ‘Th e fi ni sh ed le ve l m A any one of the
tir traffic,
on un de hey pee jayers can cause su rf ac e de fo rm at io ns a ill ust rat ed i
slightly above orig in al lev el to al lo w for su bs eq ue nt co mp ac BEnatei i
te e ¢
te pemodial Measures
Surface Treatment to im
an d th e pa ve me nt be co me s pat chy be no way pro ve the roa d
ee ds
Excess of bitumen in the surface materials bldevelop in such pavement surfaces, [tig ‘There app ear s to
for med . Usu all y ano the r laye r
Surface once the waves: and.
of sur fac e i
or ru tt in g or sh ov in g a tion s are alr ead y
Jevelling course. But often the waves and corrugation scala lee is ~ after
and sl ip pe ry . Co rr ug at io ns
customary to spread blotti ng ma te ri al s su ch as ag gr eg at e ch ip s of ma xi mu m siz e of and pro per mea sur e is take n, lop, unless the
asic reason for this pro ble m is inv est iga ted
10 mm or coarse sand du ri ng su mm er . Ne ce ss ar y ro ll in g is do ne to de ve lo p pe rm an en t
bond between the existing surface and the ne w ma te ri al s, af te r he at in g the su rf ac e if ifthe instability of underlying layer is due to exces sive moisture conditions, suitab le
subsurface drainage system is warranted to remedy the defect permanently, if the failure
necessary. lower layers , this would need coup le
dev elo ps compaction of the
‘The binders in the bla ck top sur fac es als o get oxi diz ed due to age ing . Thi s js due to improper
due to subgr ade soil which may be a highly plasti c
o get wom reconstruction. If the failure is
minute cracking in the pavement surface. Bituminous wearing surface may als may be by subgr ade treat ment usin g a modif ying agent for
and /or hea vy rai n fall , expans ive clay, the solut ion
out showing up mos sai c of agg reg ate s or rou gh sur fac e to tra ffi c
h as sur fac e dr es si or
ng s sabilization as discussed in Art. 9.6.2.
Such pavement surface are app lie d wit h a ren ewa l coa t suc
coat. If the sur fac e has bee n ser iou sly dre ssi ng or sea l coa t. If the sur fac e Depending upon the failure of a given layer, the pavements would be reconstructed
seriously damaged due to oxidization or volatilization of binder materials, it fight from the defective stage. Since the above factors would be carefully observed in
necessary to apply more than one layer of surface treatments. replacement of layers, the pavement section so constructed may offer satisfactory riding
quality
Resurfacing Skidding of pavement surfaces
In the even t whe n the pav eme nt surf ace is tota lly wor n out and dev elo ps a poot eme nt for hig hwa y
eco nom ica l to pro vid e an add iti ona l sur fac e coar se on Skid resistance pro per ty of pav eme nt sur fac e is esse ntia l req uir
surface, it may be mor e
ssfey. The ski d res ist anc e or the fri cti on of the pav eme nt surf ace may be mea sur ed
existing surface. In case the pavement is of inadequate thickness due to increase in dev ice s suc h as the pen dul um type fric tion rec ord ed or the skid
loads and streng the nin g is nec ess ary , then an ove rla y of ade qua te thi ckn ess s h o u l d wing any one of the dy na mi c ski d re si st an ce
é testing device attached to test vehicle or the in st ru me nt mo un te d
designed and constructed. veh icl e. Ski ddi ng has bee n con tri but ing to the larg e umb er of,
‘este towed by another
Xcidents on highways. Statistics show that about 40 percent ofthe acidents a due to
10.3.6 Special Repairs in Flexible Pavements
the poor skid res ist anc e off ere d by the pav eme nt surf ace. It may not be Lg er is g
whi ch wou ld com ple tel y eli min ate skid ding , of the wenis
Waves and corrugations “mut hig hwa ys e suf ici nt de ss l
Nesigation carried out on this . asp ect : indi cate . tha tth
‘proper’
Following are the factors which contribute to formation of waves and corrugations: cate can be built into the road surface and canBe
(a) Defective rolling : If the rolling during construction stage is improper thus tion and maintenance controls. mI
are few factors, which
the formation of waves then the process being progressive, the wave formation ott cla y, dus t, dr y sa nd , oil an d gr ea se on th e P a y e e o y red oat ion iB
continue indefinitely, However the subsequent traffic operations would als? skidding, These materials on the pavement oes. (a) Sraight skidding {
similar effects if the rolling is inadequate during the construction stage. e n tyr e © and a n d the pa ve me nt su rf ac e. Sk Fadi
id di ng ng is of te e “ o h t PS :
ski (0
ddi ngor occ urs . in 1
(by SH IN E:
(b) Poor subgrade conditions : Subgrade consisting of poor soils including feet ding. skidding. (c) sid ewa y, ski ddi ng. BN pe nd in g it
plastic or organic soils and high water table close to subgrade surface may © ®" of travel when the sudden) brakes fe: ‘does
 HIG H W A Y M A I N T E N A N C E
PAVEMENT
504 EVALUAT 1
0N
in g is gr ad f
ua l an d w h e e l contii nues to ‘tevolyaaal
encountered w h e n th e br ak
ov id , Je d oe
p e r e l e v a t i o n is no t pr
skidding octurs on curves views su
be lo ca li ze d on e du e to m e e e s e r e S c t
fr ic ti on is in ad eq ua te . wfil e si ly
coefficient of sewlemege involves first remedy of the basic
4 lop sufficient skid resistance if they are maintained cles
putt pair peated film, debris and polishing characteristics of agrena
the skid resistance properly. Rough surfaces or textures like those of gravel
and cement concrete roads offer sufficient amount of kid resistance,
the
pavements are more prone to skidding. Wheels do the Polishing of
a0. it as the riding surface becomes ‘Very unsat) i factory CL
excessive bitumen bleeding to the surface produces a smooth skid-prone paveriand broken slabs. In such a case the only Se owen settlemert ofthe
Sex The remedial measure mainly is renewal of the wearing surface, pan cen-up CC pavement slabs and re-construction of new flexible or rey oe rt Of Be
In the case of bituminous surfacing with excessive bleeding, some times Maintenance of Joints
are spread after heating the surface and rolled to form a non-skid riding surface. ius are the weakest parts in CC
it ined by the proper functi pavements. The
in te na nc e of Ce me nt Co nc re te Ro ad s oning of the joints. petals th
10.3 .7 Ma ements are observes at or near
the joints. Therefore, utmost ‘are
e f d a g s e r s pi
It may be stated here that ver y lit tle ma in te na nc e suc h as ma in te na nc e of joi nts fmaatetreial filler and sealer materials are intact at he joins. Du is to be taken te
needed for cement concrete roads, if they are well designed and constructed,
is squeezed out of the expansion j r i n
oints due to the exg s u m e t e y o r e c ece
is fo rm at io n of cra cks . It is the ref ore ne ce ss ar y to ex am in e the fubsequently as the slabs contract duri pansion of the slabs.
in this type of road . ng wi inter, the joi int gap opepais
n s out
and causes are as ce rt ai ne d bef ore any re me di al me as ur e is ad op te d. Various ty (See Fig, 8.2.6), Therefore, and cracks a ;
formed in the old sealer material.
cracking have been explained in Art. 10.2.2. the joint sealer is essential both at expansion and contraction joins as a part pe
Treatment of Cracks maintenance work of the CC pavement. The opened-up joints are cleaned with brash and
refilled with suitable joint sealer material before the stan of the rains,
The cracks developed in cement concrete (CC) may be classified into two g
The joint filler material at the expansion joints may get damaged or deteriorated after
(i) Temperature cracks, which are initially fine cracks or hair-cracks formed several years of pavement life. The repair consist of removal of the sealer and
slab, in between a pair of transverse or longitudinal joints, dividing the slab deteriorated filler and sealer materials from the expansion joints cleaning up, replacement
into two or more approximately equal parts due to the temperature stresses with new filler board (provided with suitable grooves cut on the bottom half at the
shrinkage stress, warping stress, etc. in the slab. positions of the dowel bars) and sealing the top of the joints with suitable sealer material
Itwill be convenient to insert the new filler board at the expansion joints during winter
(ii) Structural cracks formed near the edge and corner regions of the slabs, d season when the joint opening is widest.
combined wheel load and warping stresses in the slab. :
10.3.8 Special Repairs of Cement Concrete Pavements
maintenance. As the cracks due to the shrinkage in the CC pavement start
bottom of the slab, by the time fine cracks are visible on the top of the slab, the ef Mud Jackinig or Lifting of Slabs
the bottom portion would have got widened. Due to repeated application of heavy.
ar ts p u m p i n g , th e re me dy fo r co rr ec ti ng i t li es in pr ov id in g th e
loads and the variations in temperature and moisture conditions, the cracks get Wide Onceive pdraaivenamegen.t stIf the subsidence is localized then the same is repaired by patching
and further deterioration becomes rapid, Once the surface water starts getting sftheicctportions of slabs with bituminous mixes. Advanced countries adopt the procedures ot
pavement and the subgrade through the widened cracks, progressive failureoF
pr oc es s co ns is ts of dr il li ng nu mb es of h o l e s 4 em to 5 om di am et er |S
pavement is imminent. Therefore before these cracks get wide enough 10 | e
muetdrejack10in.3 g.metrThe apart in the cement concrete slab. Grouting in such slabs is oe under
infiltration of water, they should be sealed off to prevent rapid deteriorations,
es e ho le s, ‘T he gr ou t no rm al ly us ed is i h e 1 : 3 4 ce me ts ad
The dirt, sand and other loose particles at the cracks are thoroughly cleaned Pessre through th sand mix, colloidal mix wih sulfcen wat eedos Te
rieitumen. For cement- a pr es su re ho le s us in g th e co mp re so t
sharp tool, stiff brush and pressure blower, Kerosene oil is applied on the clean in je ct ed t h r o u g h
AASe'sd frthomus below by the pressure grout, upto the desired level.
to facilitate proper bonding of the sealing material. The cracks are then filledby
grade bituminous sealing compound, heated to liquid consistency. ‘The sealet: ty
upto about 3 mm above the level of the slab along the cracks and a layer of sand ' PAVEMEN EVALUA
over it to protect the sealer temporarily.
om
T TION
“41 Gene ubgrade
The formation ofstructural cracks in CC slabs should be viewed seriously a !
ral
sppt®Ment evaluatio involves r i o u s f a c
a thorough sty of re loading and €¥t o r s s u c h 3
immediate attent ion, as these indicate possible beginning of pavement failure: n
cause of the failure should be investigated, If the failure is confined to one oF ". pavement compositio and its thickness,
n
 HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE
$06 STRENGTHENING OF py STING
nary objective of pavement condition evaluation is ToWe to
Pay FMEts ‘ea
conditions,
exte nt the pave ment fulfi ls the inte nded req uir eme n -
whether and Ae ees
maintenance and strengthening jobs coul d be plan ned in time . The
irem
studi
ents
es
for
g
U n e v e n in n
de e
x, em
s s
ik ag ” [
R
~
i
~
s
investigate the structural adeq uacy of pave ment s and also the requ Tn old pa ve me nt s Tod
safe and comf orta ble traff ic oper atio ns.
‘There are various approaches and methods of pavement evaluations, The
methods may be broa dly clas sifi ed into two grou ps : 120to 144
145 to 240
(i) Structural evaluation of pavements:
y luationof pav vement surface face conditcondi ion
(ii) Eva In in new pavements

ct ctural Evaluation of Pavements

u 0.4.2 StruStru 20 to 145
The structural evaluation of both flexible and rigid pavement may be carted,
plate bearing test. The structural capacity of the pavement may be assessed by
this iis correlated wit ith the physical Measurements such as lon
carried at a specified deflection of the plate or by the amount of deflection at a spec file of the pavement, degree of cracking and patching repr and tancvene
Joad on the plate.
edicting the road users serviceability rating of pavements
Field investigations and tests carried out in various countries have shown bails ements made on the pavement surface. based co te oe
performance of a flexible pavement is closely related to be elastic deflection under{g Two equations were female pie
present Serviceability Index (PSI) values for fl
exible and rig pavements
or its rebound deflection. Measurement of transient deflection of pavement under :
wheel loads serves as an index of the pavement to carry traffic loads under the p
conditions. Of the various equipment used for the purpose, Benkelman Beam is mou 105 STRENGTHENING OF EXISTING PAVEMENTS
commonly used, as the measurements are simple and easy. This method was
devised by 4. C. Benkelman in U.S.A. Benkelman Beam measurements are 10.5.1 Objects
a rating survey of the road so as to di For the successful maintenance of pavements it is essential that they have adequate
similar serviceability. Assessment of flexible pavement overlay thickness requit stability to withstand the design traffic under prevailing climatic and subgrade coosiaions
Benkelman Beam method is explained in Art. 10.5.3. There are number of other n If the pavements have to support increased wheel loads and load repetitions, the
destructive testing techniques for assessing the load carrying capacity ofthe paver pavements rapidly undergo the distress and no amount of routine and periodic
maintenance can help them. Due to unexpected economic developments in the given
10.4.3 Evaluation of Pavement Surface Condition ‘egion, the loading conditions may becomes severe and the altemative would be either w
divert the traffic on some adjacent routes or to strengthen the existing pavements
The surface condition of flexible pavement may be evaluated by the unevenness Strengthening may be done by providing additional thickness of the pavement of
patches and cracks. The surface condition of rigid pavements may be assessed Adequate thickness in one or more layers over the existing pavement, which is called
cracks developed and by faulty joints affecting the riding quality of the pavement. verlay. If the existing pavements have completely deteriorated, an overlay would not
The pavement unevenness may be measured using unevenness indicator, profil ‘eve the purpose and the solution would be to remove the existing damaged pavement
profilometer or roughometer. An equipment capable of integrating the
Snicture and to rebuild the same. In partially damaged pavement sectio patchns,
repasr
ur orks are carried out before constructing the overlay.
pavement surface to a cumulative scale and that gives the Unevenness Index |
surface in cmvkm length of road may be called, Bump Integrator or une\
integrator. The U. S. Bureau of Public Roads Roughometer is one such device. ntevid
iani‘imet® formaipro ce engineers should therefore be vigilant and should take tbe dessso=
naning
an ‘overlay as and when needed.
could be towed by an automobile. In AASHO? road test, profilometer was used {0
the variable slope angle of the surface formed by two probe wheels spaced 13.5 cm Ws.2 Types of
Overlay
The pavement unevenness criteria to indicate the pavement riding qualities exp! categories
based cn the NPE of
terms of unevenness index recommended by Hollaway is given in Table 10.1, y
eintt,"6 9¥ervelament co mb in at io ns ar e di vi de d int o fo ur
The pavement serviceability concept was introduced at the AASHO Road Pa and the overlay :
.
(i)i) Flexible Overlay over
comparing relative performance of various test sections during periods. The’ Prt flexible pavements
serviceability of a pavement is related to a pre-determined scale by a panel of. (i ) )
Cement concrete or rigid overay ove exible anemens
Sensitive to the wishes of motor veh icle users by actually riding over the pa (ii) Fes ie k
Present serviceability rating (PSR) is the mean opinion of the members of the « Flexible overlays over cement concrete or rigid Pe
——— C ae
*now AASHTO "Ment concrete or rigid overlay over rigid pavemens
 HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE
$08
me choke of the overlay OPS depends upon number of factors
ee nPoveray‘ requir, ovat
b materials, wheel loads cost ete, ws
a wet nentis Here 2 Peed
ability ete fr te remand of
10.3 Design of Overlay ; ; i
ea ic tay equiE cali scngvenmg 1oetonghar emSE eae: pact
The first stage of investigation before an overlay could be designed i gy Fee earn i eet aetna S08 her te
sing pavement as discussed in Art. 10.4 seta may be at the weakest condition due to maximus minares meee
aay bate
feuible pavement may be determined either by one of the conventional pa un Be
aes
: oray byby a nonsdsstructive testing method like the Benkel 3eaten Reais jeam is a a OSes
device Genewhich ei
method. bpenkelman
etfon of a pavement due (0 2 dual pate
conven;
wheel load pean ben fhe resins
delle ipmnent Consists of a slender beam of ength 3.64m which os ge vers bad
thi ckn ess re qu ir em en t is de si gn ed for the des ign t jt a distance 2.44 m from the probe end. ‘The datum frame Sadhaisipety 2 ase,
The total pavement x legs and a rear leg with adjustable height. The probe end of he nee
gra de. Any one of the des ign me th od s des cri bed
existing conditions of sub en he dual rear wheels of tick and ress onthe pavement saree as at
may be chosen for the des ign and the app rop ria te str eng th tes t is car ri
het . if the dual wheel load pose is fied on te a
sample of soil callected from the subgrade below the existing pavement, For the loaet ‘te spindle is teal “oi teeters fee
frame iene aA end wn ie oe te ba ee rere
CBR value of the subgrade soil is determined at the field density and the CBR,
pavement design as recommended by the IRC (Art. 7.3.3)'is adopted for <a the fulcrimn’and the’ dial gouge ipiatie, (‘S ce the deslance
design thickness of the flexible pavement for the design traffic volume (Eq, 76 ee Fig 1012} Ththu e pseta
existing thickness of the pavement is found from test pits dug along the
geflection reading measured at the dial gauge is to be multiplied by tw to ger he actus!
movement of the probe ‘end due to the rebound deflection of the Pavement surface
pavement. The overlay thickness required is given by the relation : sual wheel load is moved forward. A loaded truck with rear ave loa of Tig
ho = hg—he tan! for the deflection study. The design wheel load is a dal whee lad asemet of
poss weight 4085 kg with an inflation pressure of $.6 kg/cm”.
where, hy = overlay thickness required, cm
hg = total design thickness required, presently determined,cm ©
he = total thickness of the existing pavement, cm i
|
This is shown in Fig. 10.11. Suitable equivalency factors may be assigned to
types of materials in the pavement and overlay layers. +
=
OVERLAY = ho t
EXISTING = _ = = ss (1) Probe (2/Beam sah sem
(8) Conn
Bn9 NB he (4) Beam support (5) Buzzer {b) Banery thor
Tr=F Cas w Ss (7) Push button switch (8) Levelling feet {9) Spat Level
(10) Dial gauge (HN) Lifting handles (12) Rent adjustable
Fig. 10.11 Overlay Design (13) Lock screw (14) Round
head serews
Overlay Design by Benkelman Beam Deflection Studies Fig. 10.12 Benkelman Beam
Principle Procedure
4 The stretch of road length to be evaluated is fint see the general
A well compacted pavement section or one which has been well conditioned Sedition
1 S T ae
deforms elastically under each wheel load application such that when the fF the pavement with respect to the ruts. cracks ene wal gouged ae
away, there is an elastic recovery or rebound deflection of the deformed | © Pavement condition survey, the pavement stretches po fa ad ee te
surface. This is the basic principle of deflection method pavement evaluation 0 cpa Classes (of lengths not less than $00 gece 2s bu ye rs
design. defi. «Of Benkelman Beam deflection studies. won a fine 0.9 mace fo
F . .
The maximum deflection under a design wheel load depends on several veg" Measurements are located along the wheel pas © than 35 the Sane
fecTeMt edge in the case of pavements of total with OT, an of anti
as subgrade
4 soil prop erti es, mois ture in the subg rade , pav eme nt thic knes om vements r
composition, temperature of the pavement, loading particulars, etc. Therefore # Cdge is t r e on narrower PS!
Be is reduced 10 0.6 metre
 mi for the defection ti
e “ASE
project and the _ preg precision
preferably 202 observ; ations) may
> deflection observation pant
the wheel paths on both Points
ihe sea
1 observation points, the study ig ce eegeb

Ww. The trick is. di 1 slowly parallel to the edge and stopped such thatthe
rear dual wh s centrally placed over the first point for deflectioy
Measures
(4) The probe end of the Benkelman Beam is inserted between the BAP Of the
wheel and is placed exactly over the deflection observation point. See Fig. 10)
(iii) When the diat gauge reading is stationary or when the rate of change of pays
deflection is less than 0,025 mm per minute, the initial dial gauge reading
noted. Both the readings of the large and small needles of the dial ‘Baugem:
noted; the large needle may also be set to zero if necessary at this stage ot
least count of the large needle is 0.01 mm and that of small needle is 2.0 mm)...

stopped.” The intermediate dial gauge reading Dj is noted when the

recovery of the pavement is less than 0.025 mm per minute. a
(¥) The truck is then driven forward through a further distance of 9.0 m and the fi
dial gauge reading Deis recorded as before.
(vi) The three deflection dial reading Do, Dj and Dr form a set of readings
deflection point under consideration. Similarly the truck is moved forward to the
next deflection point, the brobe of the Benkelman Beam insertandedte
procedure of noting the set of three deflection observation is repeated.
deflection observations are continued at all the desired points.
(vii) The temperature of the pavement surface are recorded at intervals of one bout
during the study. The tyre pressure is checked and adjusted if necessary,#
intervals of about three hours during the deflection study. The moisture content
the subgrade soil is also to be determined at suitable intervals.
(viii) The rebound deflection value D at any point is given by one of the following1"?
conditions :
(a) If D, ~ Dy 25 divisions of the dial gauge or 0.025 mm, D = 2 (Do-0?
divisions of 0.01 mm units = 0.02 (Dy - Dp) mm
(b) If D, ~ Dr 2 25 division, this indiates that correction is needed ff
vertical movement of the front legs. Therefore, ‘Measurement
D=2 (Dy —- Dp +2 K (Dj - Dp divisions. Fig. 10.13. Selection of Points and Procedare
peers of D e n e s go
The value of K is to be determined for every make of the Benkelman Beam © = distance between the dil gauge and rea adn
given by the relation ; Ee, f = distance between the front and reat IBS ia India i found 10 be
K = 3d-2¢ Tha Value of K of Benkelman Beam geOee on
f e (b)nWith
caso
étefore, the deflvaleuecD tin i oom
where d = distance between the bearing of the beam and the rear adjusting p = 002(D.-D0+ 0057
 HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE
$id STRENGTHENING OF EXISTING PAVEMENT
s u b g r a d e m o i s t u r e v a r i a t i o n s
a v epa
m ve
e me
n t t e m p e r a t u r e a n d . ENTS
313
Correctio n f
fo o r r p
l i k e a RK 5
l a y e r s
When the pavement c o n s i s t s o f r e l a l v e l y h i
s t a
e tin o
surface: course, Oa34 Bla em ie
tic concr e t e in t h e 2 e c n )
macadam or asphal
v e : ia p a v e m e n t d e f l
p a v e m e n t s u r f a c e c o u r s e c a u s e ere Ho thickness of bituminous overlay in em
temper a t u r e o f r a t y
R C h a s s u g g e s t e d a s t a n d a r d ‘ p a v e m e n t t e m p e 5 °
standard lo a d . T h e I Ire of 3) °C iy whe!
= deflection reduction factor depni
0 0 6 5 m m p e r ” ° C to b e a p p l i e d f e e t h e v a r i a t i o n f r o m th R for bituminous overlays range tomo ee) Material (usual valies
correction factor of 0, a v e m e n t tan,
pavement temperatur e. e correcti Th o n wil l b e n e g a t i v e w h e n t h e P be generally taken being 12), 1 the average values that my
a n d p o s i t i v e w h e n i t is l o w e r . H o w e v e r it is s u g g e s t e d th at
is a b o v e 3 5 ° C
n the pavem e n t t e m p e r a t u r e is a b o v e 3 0 0 Dy = allowable deflection which depends
studies s h o u
o
l
n
d b e
c
c
t
a
o
r
r
r i
is
e
to
d
b
o
e
u
a
t
p
w
p
h
l
e
i e d . ; * desired design life, values ranging from 0.78 Vere OF 44 te
co r r e c t i f a used in flexible pavements for overlay design, S Beerlly
The seasonal variations cause variation in subgrade moisture. As jt is
Indian Road Congress suggests the following formula f i
possible to conduct deflection studies during monsoon season when subgrade
of 20
content is the highest, the IRC has suggested that tentative correction factors de schp ess equ iva len t to gra nul ar
thi 4 in the overlay Jayer, the thickness
mate rial of WB M laye r Whe n me ee et y
clayey soils and 1.2 to 1.3 for san dy sub gra de soi ls may be ado pte d ters
if the value has to be Suitably decreased pens
The def lec tio n und er the wor st B e ‘Shuivalency factor’ ofthe material into consideration
observations are made during dry seasons. Zz D,
moisture may therefore be estimated by multiplying the summer deflection vale the ho = 550 logio De mm (305)
appropriate correction factor.
Analysis of Data where, ho = thickness of granular or WBM overlay in mm
De = (D +0), after applying the corrections for pavement temperature
‘The rebound deflection values Dy, Dz, D3 are determined in mm after applying the and
corrections, if necessary, to the observed values of Do, Dand Dj in each case. BE:
subgrade moisture
Da = 1.00, 1.25 and 1.5 mm, ifthe projected design traffiA cis 1500 104500,
‘The mean value of the deflections at n points is given by : 450 to 1500 and 150 to 450 respectively. Here,
B= 2D am A = designtaffic=P{1+r]°" (see
Eq. 7.6)
a
When bituminous concrete or Bituminous Macadam with bituminous surface course is
The standard deviation of the deflection values is given by : provided as the overlay, an equivalency factor of 2.0 is suggested by the IRC to decide
Bop the actual overlay thickness required. Thus, the thickness ofbituminous concrete overlay }i
o - [2@=0y in mm will be ho/2 when the value of ho is determined from Eq. 10.5.
(n-1)
Example 10.1
Characteristics deflection De is given by : m def lec tio n stu die s wer e carr ied out on 15 sele cted poin ts on a stre tch
Ben kel man Bea
of flexible paveme nt dur ing sum mer sea son usin g a dual whee l load of 408 5 ke,
De =
Here the value of ‘t’ is to be chosen depending upon
Ditto
fo
the percentage of the deflection
Bs)
cm? pre ssu re. ‘Th e def lec tio n val ues obt ain ed in mm afte
56 kg/ rections are given below. If the present traffic consists of i se
lag cor
r mak ing the nev ess e
values to be covered in the design. When t= 1.0, D.= D +o covers about 84 percent
vehicles per day, determine the thi ckn ess of bit umi nou s over lay req uir e, ifth e pav eme st
the cases; when t = 2.0, D. = D +2 o covers about 97.7 percent of the cases ‘em per atu re dur ing the test was 30° C and the corr ecti on factor for pearance pot
deflection values on the pavement section, assuming normal distribution of reboutd Subgrade moisture content is 1.3. Assume annual rate of growth o
deflection values. The IRC recommends the former case, ic. De = D + 0, wheress ‘Adopt IRC guidan ces . ee e
many other countries they adopt the later case for overlay design.
140,132, 1.25, 1.35, 1.48, 1.60, 1.65, 1.5, 145, 140, 136,146,150 152
The necessary corrections for pavement temperature and subgrade moisture méy Solution .
applied to the characteristic deflection value, Dg before designing the overlay thicknes®
Overlay Thickness Design zm a4
Mean deflection B = =D - 2474 = 1.45 mm
a
The overlay thickness required hg may be determined after deciding the alla
deflection Dg in the pavement under the design load.
overlay thickness ho in cm is given by :
According to Ruiz’s €4 Standard deviation = =
ol
mm
 HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE, REFERENCES
i“
Characteristics defl ecti on De © D+ a= 1.55 7 mim
Deflection after temp. correction = 1.557 ~ (39-35) 0,0065 « ‘en rt
w a k e ~ ay a1 _—<
rorssF Eng ine ers
Cor rec ted det ect ion for sub gra de moi stu re = 1.53 1 1.3 = 1.99 mm
and, PCA
Assuming the number of years atter the last traffic count before the ¢ ‘Onstructin 9p
overlay as n= 2, desi gn traff ic A is give n by :
re puege’

= 750 {1 + 0.075]'? = 1768 com. vehu/day

Therefore as per IRC recommendations adopt allowable deflection Ds = 1.0 mm, cad= inthe warping Sess and also inthe
Overlay thickness of granular material edi ment may be Strengthened
m a x i m u miy
c o m b i nnecde .
by a bituminous overlay befo
D. crctral crack and star fling. The weil lie of rip exe re the ee
ho 550 logio
| D, mm
rate s
Constructed bituminous overlay placed
atth e r i g h t t i m e .
1.990
550 log 1.00 = 164.4 mm = 16. Sm For calcula t i n g th e t h i c k n e s s o f f l e x i b l e o v e r l a y o v e r ri
igid paveme
the nt
followin
sg
e m p l o y e d .
reationship is
Assuming an equivalency factor of 2.0 for bituminous concrete overlay, the design hp = 2.5 (Fhg—he)
thickness of bituminous concrete overlay & (10.7)
Here hy = fl ex ib le ov er la y th ic kn es s
= 16.5x'%4=8.25
cm
Rigid Overlay Over Rigid Pavement he = existing rigid pavement thickness
When a rigid or CC overlay is constructed over an existing rigid or CC pavement, the hg = design thickness of rigid pavement
interface between the old and new concrete cannot have perfect bond such that the'two F = factor which depends upon modulus of existing pavement
slabs could act as a monolithic one. Two typical types of interface are posible)
providing maximum possible interface bond by making the old. surface rough For calculating the thickness of bituminous overlay, the following relationship is used.
separating the two slabs at the interface by thin layer of bituminous material, or
interface bond. hye (108)
For calculating the rigid overlay thickness, the existing rigid pavement is evaluated ; S
and the thickness for the design wheel load is calculated using the criterion laid down ie, hy =. 1.66 (Fhg—he)
article 7.4. To obtain the overlay thickness, the following relationship may be used Rigid Overlay Over Flexible Pavement
‘ho = (ha? —Xhe)" : The thickn ess of rig id ove rla y is cal cul ate d by usin g the desi gn erte ria for rigi d
Here, ho = _rigid overlay thickness Pavements as laid down in Article 7.4. The plate bearing testis anger ae weer
mite Paveme nt and K val ue is thu s obt ain ed. The des ign is mad e
hg = design thickness design wheel load,
he = existing pavement thickness 20
overpit
ty REFE RENCES
Values of a, b, X and n depend upon the pavement and the method of
ee 2 itis nin
Pavements",
construction. Table 10.2 shows the recommended values of these factors. i RC ” Proceedings,
Seminar on Strengthening of Exisivg Road
Flexible Overlay Over Rigid Pavement 's Congress, 1971.
ia lM : oa Indian Roads Comers
A flexible or bituminous overlay when provided over a rigid pavement, the wheel I ine (Roads Wing), “Manual for Maintenanc® of
is distributed throughA a larger area by the overlay, thus slightly reducing the*: Wh 3. . gs
road Foundston Failures”,
stress on the old rigid pavement. Further the maximum temperature differential ™ . fess Research Laboratory, “The Investigation of
ISO,
: London, 1950,
 sie HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE
; PROBLEMS
subbaraiu, BH. and Nanda, R. Ls “Assessment of Riding Quali ;
2 rate Thdia”, Road Research Bulletin No. 5, Indian Roads Conga of sxplin the VOFIOUS Ie OF Flues in cen si
$, Subbaraju, BH. and Nanda, BL. “Investigation of Some Roads
' n India”, Journal, Indian Roads“Invest
~” Wester igati
Congre ss, Vol. XXIV — 2, 1950, Fj «expla
ain in ho
how the
a earth roa Lis.
main tena the
ofnce SIE ePavements and theieot
lovifot: ngpiears iu i
‘ements are ¢; on, aS

6. Khanna, SK. Arora, M. G. and Nickwada, S. P., “Use of Benke! (p Bituminous surfaces \
Design of Flexible Overlays” National Seminar, 20 — years Design 4 1
of Reads and Bridges, Vol), Minisuy of Transport ana Shipping @ fe) Cement conerete pavemen
1968. are the various causes of formation
7. Mahabir Prasad, Sharma, V. P. S. and Jain, B. K., “A Study of B 1. Wements? Suggest remedial measures, OF waves and conrvgations ix Next 1
Deflection for Assessment of Flexible Pavement Performance in U. in the necessity of design approach and -
Indian Roads Congress Vol. XXXIII-2, 1970. 3, pExplai
av e m e n t ts
s for the following cases pethod of strengthening of exining
8. Justo, CEG. and Ramadas, C. K., “Evaluation of Flexible Pavementand p (a) F l e x i b l e o v e r l a y o v e r f l e x i b l e p a v e m e n t
Overlay Thickness”, PIRC Seminar on Highway Design & Main x i b l e o v e r l a y o v e r r i g i d p a v e m e n t
Developing Countries, University of Warkwick, England, 1979, (b) F l e
9. IRC, “Tentative Guidelines for Strengthening of Flexible Road Pavements | )(o Rigid overlay over flexible pavement
Benkelman Beam Deflection Technique”, IRC : 81-1981, Indian Roads Co, (@ Ri g i d o v e r l a y o v e r r i g i d p a v e m e n t
10. Subbaraju B. H. and Gokhale ¥. C., “An Investigation of Concrete P 9, Write short notes on :
Failure”, Journal, Indian Roads Congress Vol. XXIII-2, 1965. i g a t o r ) c r a c k i n g
(2) Map ( a l l
Il. Yoder, E. J, “Pumping of Highway and Airfield Pavement", Proc. Hi
Research Board, Washington, 1951. (b) Reflection cracking
Bf
12. HRB, “Final Repont of Commitee on Maintenance of Concrete Pavemet x (©) Skidding of pavement surfaces
Relate d to the Pumping Acton of Slabs" Proc. Highway Research Board, 146 (d) Scaling of cement concrete
13. Sika, R. P., “Choice Among Available Techniques for Evaluating the Strengih (e) Mud pumping {
Existing Flexible Pavements” Seminar on Strengthening of Existing Rosl () Spalling of joints, j
Pavements, Indian Roads Congress, 1971. ars
\4. Pnull, ¥. R. “Evaluation of Pavement Condition by Serviceability Ralig 10. Write a descriptive note on pavement evaluation.
Technique”, Seminar on Strengthening of Existing Road Pavements, Indian Roads 1. Explain the principle and uses of Benkelman Beam test.
Congress, 1971. 2 sti black top pavement was tested using
12, Existing i Benkelman Beam withit a test vehicle ik
15. IRC Seminar on “Maintenance and Drainage Aspects of Road Pavements”, of 8170 kg rear axle load. Observations recorded at a pavement temperatureof
Roads Congress, Bangalore, July 1982. ; 43°C are given below:
Length of test stretch = 300 m .
PROBLEMS Serial number | Rebound deflection
subsection
1 Discuss briefly the importance of highway maintenance.
2. (a) What are the general causes of pavement failures ?
Ps |
(6) Write a note on Maintenance Management System. |
3. Explain the procedure for patch repair works in :
(a) WBM pavement concrete, taking
Com, pute the thickness
G of overlay of bituminous
(b) Bituminous pavement
moist i
ection as 1.25 mm, if the factor for
(c) Bituminous pavement during monsoons (when the paveme
nt is wet).
 IMPORTANC
EOp HIGHWa

) C h a p t e r I 1
y DRAINAG
(Y wi sustailined
susta contact of f water with by F
Ei
519
strip
i
ping of bitumen from a,
layers EBLE
and ie
Pavernenns
forni on of ant detatanenCaer fines
chessue
r

Highway Drainage
pituminous pavement
‘phe prime cause of failures in rigig
(vi) presence cof water in fine subgrade soit” ™*™ by ud pumping ik due to the
s pavement edge causes con
cui Exeess water on shoulderand
i s t u r e re c
ca a u s e us es i
in cr ea se s
in we ig ht an d th siderable damage
iil) excess moistu
re du ct io n in st re ng th of th e ‘0 1 m e eo i Sic ina
simultancous
reasons of failure of earth slopes and em! f heh On Of the main
«g) In places where freezing ig temy temp
(ix) water in the subgrade and er at ur es are prevalent ini wine, presence
a continuo
us Supply of water from the
pals water an
cause considerable damage to the pavement due in \frost acti ion
Erosion of soil from top of unsurfaced roads and stSlopes of embankmencutt,and
11.1 INTRODUCTION @) water.
pill side is also due to surface
ee
Highway drainage is the process of removing and controlling excess surface and of Hi gh wa y Dr ai na ge Sy st em
soil water withinthe right of way. This includes interception and diversion of wate ty 11.2.2 Requir em en ts
the road surface and subgrade. The installation of suitable surface and subsurge (i) The surface water from the carriageway and shoulder should effectively be
drainage system is an essential part of highway design and construction. drained off without allowing it to percolate to subgrade,
During rains, part of the rain water flows on surface and part of it Percolates throug, (ii) The surface water from the adjoining’ land should be prevented from entering the
the soil mass as gravitational water until it reaches the ground water bel the, roadway.
Wale
table. Removal and diversion of surface water from the roadway and adjoining lat (iii) The side drain-should have sufficient capacity and longitudinal slope to carry
termed as surface drainage. Diversion or removal of excess soil-water from the subgaie away all the surface water collected,
is termed as sub-surface drainage. Some water is retained in the pores ofthe soilmis
and on the surface of soil particles by surface tension and adsorptive forces, which cmt (iv) Flow of surface water across the toad and shoulders and along slopes should not
be drained off by normal gravitational methods and this water is termed as held walen cause formation of cross ruts or erosion.
(v) Seepage and oth er sou rce s of und er gro und wate r shou ld be drai ned of fby the
11.2 IMPORTANCE OF HIGHWAY DRAINAGE subsurface drainage system.
und wate r table shou ld be kept
k well belo w the level vel of of
11.2.1. Significance of Drainage (vi) Highest level of gro
subgrade, preferably by atleast 1.2 m.
An increase in moisture content causes decrease in strength or stability of a ol al en, esp eci all y
the variation in soil strength with moisture content also depends on the soil type and (vii) In waterlogged areas special precautioti ns shoud be tak ally if det rim ent al

mode of stress application. Highway drainage is important because salts are present or if flooding is likely to occur.
reasons : of th e fol lows
§5 11.3 SURFACE DRAINAGE
(i) Excess moisture in soil subgrade causes considerable lowering of its
The pavement is likely to fail due to subgrade failure as discussed in Article| s# + water is first collected
ee The surface water is to be collected and then apo hae i dap of
(ii) Increase in moisture cause reduction i in strength of many pavement male in longitudinal drains, generally in side drains and the caves and sal
stabilized soil and water bound macadam. : featest stream, valley or water course, rosssu sigs STS side das.
bridges may be necessary for the disposal of rface
:
(iii) In some clayey soils variation in moisture content causes considerab 6
le: —,
volume of subgrade. This sometimes contributes to paveme
nt failure. "13.1 Collection of Surface Water < sine the camber Of
ay
(iv) One of the most important causes o}
f pavement failure by the formation i s removed by providin g
The water from the pavement surface 1s me decited beso baad yest of paverment
and corrugations in flexible Ppaveme nts is due to poor
drainage. i
Spe to the pavement, The rate ofthis e085 of camber
Surface and amount rainfall. The eo
518
Pavement surfaces are given in Amicle 41.2
 an HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
SUMP ACE
DKAINAG
chovays, the water Which is deaited thone the: Pavenient
aig UF SUELACE Dralage System 1
ois poy oe shouhers bofive Ut iy lead to the side drains, iene ie ‘
these oats are constinctevt With switatle ervey slope we that the gWailstertkets i dt 0 s t e r y K e
ai ns of ru ra l ta t i n c e d r a i n a g e e y
si lo dr u t
the showklers to the side att
ains of tape
Avitoda Cunttinesd) dr
ain
zo
s,
id al
Th es
sh
e
ap e, Cu tt su it ab le cr os s Se ct io n fe : thWee st e s t e t o f s
a n a l y s i s
ded 0 phe
)i i y e t e a t i n s l e
slopes, These side drains are provided parallel (0 the road alignment And hoange
tn em ba uk ar en ts th e lo ng it ud in al Al ta in g “ n a l y s is
also called longitudinal drains, ; iyUe ja w a l i o a
ane oF Nah sides Beyeanl the foe; UN cutis, draitts ate installed oy e eri
cithv 5rill » d m a l y s i s
formation. Soe Rig 4.6 to 48. Rut in places where there ig r ,
ooaezection of deep open drains may be undesirable. ‘This is particularly: true objective of hydrologic analysis iy to
ie cach the element of the dmalnaye
ANAL Rormationt is ti cuMting, tn such eases Covered drains oF drain, wath luring the fain e tary bier byyt edad
Filled wath hayes of coarse saint and gravel may be used, See Fig, MRCHL, trenches negate ye ets evaporated, Call infiltrates into the round vy
7 The remaining portion of water
wh ic h f
iy mriettie
o m
pi asnmeolt, Various factors Heche
affecting the runoff are tate of rai
reure contin, topography of the area, type nfal perdipiecte
are drainage system is to be de of ground cover Ine eer 2 a H
saat signed to drain a w a y th
ande surfs (ce runoff
a water The
area including intensity duration r o h a
ic of caity fall in the He ct ar es of
iegory are to BC collected, NeNextxt the ru no ff :
N-OfF and maximuns rate of run -OfT for the area under
eration is de te rm in ed us in g any of the
ea to m wh er e wa te r is lik Accepted
ely to fl ow approaches.
in. It is als o ne ce ss ar y to
fir the dr ai na ge ar
formula is widely used to estimate the peak run-off water for hingbway
Rational Pata st for m is giv en by ;
LAYERS OF Craver drainage. The rat ion al for mul a, in its sim ple
WITH Lang:
WA LOWER
Qin Stag any
where QQ run-off, msec
C = run-off coefficient, expressed as a ratio of run-off to rate of rain fall
i = intensity of rain fall, mm/sec
Ag = drainage area in 1000 m?
The above expression is dimensionally not balanced. The value of run-off coefficient
Cdepends mainly on the type of surf and ace
its slope. The C-values may be taken as 0.8
to prevent the entry of rubbish int o the div aee so ne ie a ic al cat ch pit wi th 809 for bituminous and cement concrete pavements, 0.35 t0 0.70 for gravelad WEM
Rvements, 0.40 to 0.65 for impervious soil, 0.30 to 0.55 for soil covered with turf and
drainage system is shownin Fig. 11.2.
005 ta 0.30 for pervious soils, When the drainage area Ay consists of several types of
Sefkces with run-off coefficients C1, C2, C3, with their respective areas At. Az. As be
“sighted value of run-off coefficient C is determined from :
c= Ay) +30 AG += ( nly
LONCITUDINA A, + Ag+ Are
CRAIN PPE
The d e t e rfo mr th
i e n e
ex pedcted
MAMWOLE
CATCH mY * design value of the rain fall intensity i is 1 be S a r s
frequ ency of occur rence . Ther a Oein le t ti ve fo r
— Sf storm and estimated SSPE
Fig. 11.2 Surface Drainage Syste
m in Urban Roads Se gig, OW from the remotest point in drain age area tothe us 5
Drainage of surface water is 24 oa ¢ Fig. 11.3). ‘The time for wat to
erflow te of i te Sa
Rerajy POvMitS is dete rm in ed ba se d on the al lo wa bl e VE NT 1
be SD on soil NPE
Seon ne, FO 0. 3 to 1.5 mi se c, ¢ MS he n s
Bde ON oF the duration of storm for design may be UAey
If the drainage system in hill road ofi5 "ime of flow throthe ugdrhain. The frequofenSAT"
complex maintena nc e pr ob le ms . The de ta il s
 HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
$22 SURFACE
DRAIaGg

l D e s i g n $23
pe t r o i
esi
noc the design runoftIPQ is det lermined, th
ase drains and partially filled culver peep ited Tet Mic design of
through ore” : ohannels, i s P e n p l e s t t
ja nt
is the quanti ity Of surface water (m/s(m3 ec) to,
¢ i!Mr jowable vel:ocity of flow (1n/sec) on the si ide1 draits reno td bY a tide tain and Y i
‘= Wael (in?) is found from the relation:
cha rai the area of co section A of }
33 AV t|
Q*
; j clocity of
he velocity of unl unlined channel
nel must be i
high enough to ay 1|
} i, pote to high a8 (0 €3USe erosion, ‘The allowable ses sihing and it shouts 1i
3 yi types for sand and silt itis 0.3 (0 0.5 m/sec, loam 06 1009, cay 0.9 19 Peds on the wn
yood soil cove red with well e s t a b l i
eis msec. For gs Well established grass 1.5 ias andmiceyavemayb
l |
e i
Mgwed. By adjusting the value of slope $ in fq. 11.4, iyfoul
“ ble limit, Assuming uni form and steady fh
of flow. V within permissi Velocity
Srniform cross section and slope, Manning's formula is wack pe rene chanel
otipeity of low or the longitudinal slope which is piven by Seemining the |
v= Lg i i
Ti, MINUTES Here, V = average velocity, m/sec, i
Fig. 11.3 Time of Flow to Inlet
n = Manning's roughness coefficient |
return period (may be taken as 5, 10, 25 or SO years). From the chart (Fig. 11,4)te R= hydraulic radius m (cross section area of flow divided by wetted
design value of the rainfall intensity i is found corresponding to the duration of stormant perimeter)
the selected value of frequency. :
S = longitudinal
slope of channel
The roughness coefficient values depend on the type of soil in unlined channels. For i]
ordinary carth, the value of n = 0.02, whereas for earth with heavy vegelation or grass the i
value of n = 0.05 to 0.1. in lined channels, the roughness coefficient depends on the type i
RAINFALL tmeTEOSiTY, wau/nn.

For well finished concrete, the value of n = 0.013 but for rough rubble and i

The slope S of the longitudinal drain of a known of an assumed cross section and
depth of flow, may be determined using Manning's formula (Eq. 11.4) for the design
values of velocity of flow V, roughness coefficient n and hydraulic radius R-
Data for Drainage Design
/ The following data are to be collected for the design of ad side
is exdpeactiedn. to flow on the
#0 3040 40 ( Total road length and width of land from where
wanures, Stretch of the side drain. wa te is © :
— ounanion - : snage area and their tS
Fig. 11.4 Typical Rainfall Intensity Duration Curve BS ) Run-off coefficients of different types of surfaces ates atc) 4
FesPective areas (such as paved area, road shoulder ares jplet t
The drainage area from which the surface water is expected to flow to a Sie Fe (iii)
is of the side drain along,
determined with the aid of a contour map or by studying the topography oF “ot pistance from farthest point inthe drainage ks oe : i i
area. This area is expressed in units of 1000 square metre to obtain the value OFS 4g
tiv”) steepest gradi ent andth e avera ge wale of atoab le vey of 0 8 ad
used in Eq. 11.1 Thus with the estimated value of C, i and Ag the design value of YPe of s o i l ica l
the drains! OF the side drain, Rough ess coe ficient : i
Q for the longitudinal side drain is determined. “4
 HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
$24 —_ SURFACE DRAIiAGp
(0) Rain fall data including average intensity and frequency of recurrence of, solution $25
2025
Design Steps r o a d to d r a i n F S fo r av e,
e d e s i g n o f l o n g i t u d i n a l d r a i n s o f a inlet ti me Tr i (F ig . 11
i .3 ) averg turf with
Simplified s t e p s fo r t h
water are given below gistance = 33 mins. (by interpolation) ae Slope ComepOnding 6 26 m
of retum period such as 10 years, 25 Years etc, is decided rime T2 fOr WALEr 10 flow through S40 my
(i) The frequency the qe _540_ = 15 mins. MBN Of drain 1 06 vee
finances available and desired margin of safety, for the design of
system. bp = 96x60
Duration or time of concentration T
(ii) The values of coefficients of run-off Cy, C2, C3 etc. from drainage areasA,
‘Agee. are found and the weighted value of C is computed, Drainage area S40 x 200 = 198999 mm,92
Aa= 108000/1000 = 19g
(iii) Inlet time Ty for the flow of storm water from the farthest point in the
area to the drain inlet along the steepest path of flow is estimated ee Design value of rain fall intensity for 19
distance, slope of the ground and type of the cover. Figure 11.3 may be used cone spon ding to 48 mins. Duration (Fig. 11.4) 299 aes of
this purpose. fe pet therefore, i = 703660
(iv) Time of flow along the longitudinal drain Tz is: determined for the Design q u a n t i t y o f f l o w , Som
length of longitudinal drain L upto the nearest cross drainage or a water coure: 70
: 3
=0.25 *x F609 * 108 a= 0.525 m°isec.
and for the allowable velocity of flow V in the drain i.e., Tz = +.

(v) The total time T for inlet flow and flow along the drain is taken as the Example 11.2
concentration or the design value of rain fall duration, T = T, + T2. The maximum quantity of water expected in one of the pen longitSa x
ies 3 ; udinal
(vi) From the rain fall intensity-duration-frequency curves (Fig. 11.4) the rain fall clayey soil is 0.9 m°/sec. Design the crass section and longitudinal en basa
intensity i is found in mm/sec. corresponding to duration T and frequency
drain assuming the bottom width of the trapezoidal section to be 1.0 m and pease
return period. be 1.0 vertical to-1.5 horizontal. The allowable velocity of flow in the den'@ vo ence
and Manning's roughness coefficient is 0.02. ae
(vii) The total area of drainage Ay is found in units of 1000 m”. Solution

(viii) The run-off quantity Q is computed =C i Ag. @ Crass Section

(ix) The cross secti onal area of flow A of the drain is calcu lated = Q/V, where V
iste The allowable velocity of flow through the clay soil V = 1.2 msec.
allowable speed of flow in the drain, me From Eq. 11.3, cross section area of drain A=Q/V = 09/1.2=0.75m?
(x) The required depth of flow in the drain is calculated for a convenient botion For the trapezoidal section with bottom width 1.0 m and side slope 1.0 vertical to 1.5
width and side slop of the drain. The actual depth of the open channe! drain8) horizontal, when the depth of flow is d metre, the top width would be (1 + 3d) and the
be incre ased slight ly to give a free board . ‘The hydra ulic mean radius of flow)
” 2
determined. . os section area of the drain = (1+1+34)d2=d+ =.
(xi) The required longitudinal slope S of the drain is calculated using M 4 2
formula adopting suitable value of roughness coefficient n. This area has been found to be 0.75 m2 (in the previous step)
Example 11.1 Therefore, 3d?
d+— = 075
The distance between the farthest point in the turf covered drainage area. (ui i ie, 2
average slope of 1.5 % towards the drain) and the point of entry to side drain San \s@+d-075 = 0
The weighted average value of the run-off coefficient is 0.25. The len
longitudinal open drain in a sandy clay soil from the inlet point to the cross ing this quadratic equation for d,
540 m.. The velocity of flow in the side drain may be assumed as 0.6 m/sec so that
and erosion are prevented. Estimate the design quantity of flow on the side drain * ais ffs) 045m
ten-years period of frequency of occurrence of the storm. 2 as Ixls
$26 HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
SURFACE D
RAINAGE
fl ow fo r th e de si gn qu an ti ty of Wa te r the land
This is the actual depth of 0.1 5 m, theth dep th naijmum distance of flowa 108 8 327
+ i ¢, all allo wing a free boa rd of
Therefore,
trapezoidal section.
rain may be taken as 0.45 + 0.15 = 0.6 m. of mee 2 land in.with A¥ETORE Lr and coy ope 9 ' Metfonfite,ainlet 525 ag
Lhe time Ty fron
Hus
fii) Slope
uat ion 1) 4 rime of HOW 8 in e Yon git udi nal drai n of ten ga 409 ‘mo n Joa my soil wit
‘The lon git udi nal slo pe may be fou nd usi ng Man nin g's for mul a (Eq = 8.33 min, wi & speed
5 60
mise = gx
v= — 1—-R'pw.S gle of 08 08
guration of rai n fal l = 11. 00 + 8,3 3 = 19.33 m j
-
vel oci ty of flo w y = Total - rf 3 min,
‘Assume roughness coeffi cie nt n for cla y = 0.0 2 and min . dur ati on and 25 year s p e r i
cro ss secti on i 2 nim
nefro Fig. 11.4
* 125 mav , cor
hr. res pon din g to 19.3 3 Peri od, rain fait
For ‘or thethe as assumed trapepezoidal section, J the wet ted are a of ion is 0.7 5 my
= +(1. 5x04 5) x2+1 .0=2 .62 m. 1 = 1251660. 60)=0.0347 mmec
wetted per ime ter is
Hydraulic radius R = area/perimeter = 0.75/2.62 = 0.286 : Q = CiAg=0.371 0.0347 x 14.6= 0.188
misee
w2 -_ Vn _ 1.2x0.02 = 0.0553 $ iy Cross Section
Ss g i v e n as
R (0.286)? Area of cross s e c t i o n o f f l o w in t h e d r a i n is

0 . 1 8 8 0 . 8 = 0 . 2 3 5 m ?
Slope S = 0.0031 or 1 in 322.5 A = QIV=
Therefore, provide a longitudinal slope of | in 320. and
Assuming bottom width of drain as 0.5 m, slope of 1.0 vertical to 1.5 horizontal
Example 11.3 depin of flow as d, top width = (0.5 +3 d)m.
‘Area of cr os s se ct io n of fl ow in dr ai n is gi ve n by
The surfa ce water from road side is drain ed to the longi tudin al side drain from
one half a bituminous pavement surface of total width 7.0 m, shoulder and adjoining 0.235 = (0,5+0.5+3d) $ =0Sd+15d
of width 8.0 m on one side of the drain . On the other side of the longi tudin al drain , y
flows acros s from reser ve land with grass and 2% cross slope towa rds the side d r a i n
Width of this strip of land being 25 m. The run off coeff icien ts of the pavem ent, shoul der ie, 15d?+05d-0235 = 0
and reserve land with grass surfa ce are 0.8, 0.25 and 0.35 respe ctive ly. The length : Solving the quadratic equation,
stretch of land parallel to the road from wher e water is expe cted to flow to the s i
is about 400 m. Esti mate the quant ity of run-o ff flow ing in the drain assu ming 25
period of frequency.
in lo am y soi l wit h
e dra in
be taken as O40 m, afr alowins 2
and slo pe of the sid allowing a free
Design the cro ss sec tio n
roughness coefficient = 0.022 and suitable speed of flow = 0.8 m/sec. Theboard the ave
reforeof ,about rag
14 cm.
e dep th of the dra in may i

uti 7
Solution (ii) Slope of Drain
(i) Quan: tity of Run-Off‘ ! When the depth of flo w in the tra pez oid al drai n is 0.26 3 m, the slop e side s of the
Drainage area consists of ium is equal to 0.474 m.

(1) pavement area =3.5 x 400 = 1400 m? = Ay, with Cy = 0.8 Wetted perimeter = 0.5+2x0.474= 1-448m
wit h C2 =0 25 8 2 sted perimeter= 0.235/1.448 = 0.162
(2) area of shoulder and adjoining lan d = 8 x 400 = 320 0 m? = Ag, : R = Area/wetted per

(3) area ofland on the othe side ofthe drai=n25 x 400= 10000 m? = As with C3 Resi?
Total drainage area 1400 + 3200 + 10000 = 14600 m” 2B, 0.0e25 9.9EN 672
0S8o
In _
‘Ag = 1460/1000 = 14.6 gi? = NOR Sai”
Weighted value of run-off coefficient 0.0 0 4 5 2 , o r y i n 2 2 1
S$ =
AC) +A2C2 + A3C3.
ee A, +A2+A;
=0.371 id
a long
Therefore, prov itudeinal toe of 8220
 HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
$28 SUBAUME AE,
:
LAS Cross Drainage sil ACE DRAB Acs: ry)
dry wihe i!wll a wel Ie bermeabie,
Mg the lever
Whenever streams have to° crass the Raa
roadway, ficility for
A l cross tie OWA wisee
pe ated Hence in addition, neman on fi
provided Also often the water fron the side drain is taken th across by between the tw bern antl i sax
away from the , 10 W Willer Course OF yal} renclie® J b ainaye
order to divert the water sivel,
drainage structures comm on ly in us e are cu lv er ts an d sm al l br id ge s, emverse drains. A typical sketch of ua OME the water ange Wie 1 onder to
stream crosses a ro ad wi th a li ne ar wa te rw ay les s th an ab ou t six me te r, the si! ver ve dra ins for eff ect ive low eri ng of wan es M E ye
MB OF water table jg sho
r we t om
Mma ptu
Pel
tio ns
of
as
rans) in Fig
w. 45 6
structure provided is called culverts for higher values of linear waterway, the
called a bridge.
s of c u l v e r t s in us e ar e
The common type
Slab culvert
Box culvert
Arch culvert
Pipe culvert
p l a c e d ov er a b u t m e n t s m a d e of m a s o n r y an d th e
In slab culverts RCC slab is
generally limited to 3 metre. Box culvert of square or rectangular shapes is madsy
RCC. Arch culvert is generally built using brick or stone masonry, plain cement concee
may also be used. Pipe culverts of minimum diameter 75 cm and made of sted
prefabricated RCC is used when the discharge is low.
Various types of bridges are in use; the choice is based on several consideaice
including the span. RCC and steel bridges are commonly constructed these days,
On less important roads, in order to reduce the construction cost of cross drain
structures, sometimes submersible bridges or cause ways are constructed. Duringte
floods the wate r will flow over the road. The total peri od inte rrup tion to traffi c bas
however to be kept as low as possible, not exceeding about 15 days in a year.
11.4 SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE

Changes in moisture content of subgrade are caused by fluctuations in groundwit

table seepage flow, percolation of rain water and movement of capillary water anders
water vapour. In sub-surface drainage of highways, it is attempted to keep the
of moisture in subgrade soil to a minimum. However only the gravitati
drained by the usual drainage systems.
11.4.1 Lowering of Water Table
The highest level of water table should be fairly below the level of subgrade. It
that the subgrade and pavement layers are not subjected to excessive mo! nt)
practical considerations it is suggested that the water table should be kept let
1.2 m below the subgrade. In places where water table is high (almost at BO 7
times) the best remedy is to take the road formation on embankment of heii
than 1.0 to 1.2 metre. When the formation is to be at or below the general
would be necessary to lower the water table. Y
IF the soil is relatively permeable, it may be possible to lower the high Wale
merely construction of longitudinal drainage trenches with drain pipe and fille’ ©
depth of the trench would on the required lowering of water table, distance sem with Trans verse DP
drainage trenches and soil types. See Fig. 11.5. Fig. 11.6 Sub-surface Drainage Sy*!
 HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
$30 SUB-SURFA
CE DRAINA
GE
of S e e p a g e F l o w 3H
11.4.2 Control r v i o u s st ra ta b e l o w ar e sg} ,
l g r o u n d ‘as well as th e i m p e
When t h e g e n e r a is
i s at d e p t h 7
less than 0.6 6 1 0 . 0 9 :
he ¢ seepa g e
e zz o n eo n e
is likely
i
to exist Ift
n c h fi ll ed w i t h fi lt er m a t e r C a t
low
n a l p i p e d r a i n inep t
ag er e Mo w. Fi gu re 11 .7 . sh
Lai e e e l f o n g i t u d i p t
inal tercPiept the seepageh e se gk T e s h o w e

tan a
be co ns tr uc te d to in
to th e de si re d de pt h. the
re pp the se ep ag e li ne ca n be lo we re d
HIGHEST WateR Tate
ior
Fig. 11.9 impermeable Capitiary C
ut-off
suopine GROUND ya Design of Subsurface Drainage System
‘The size and spacing of the subsurface drainage system Sey
a
e
ac
ne
p
me
pe
da
s
he
Y
typ e oft
e .
and
i
soi l
a c
of
x p
e
te
the typ
cesar
of wa te rto be dr ai ne d off ,
TONE OF
SEEPALE Flow filling the drainage trenches and also for -
should be used for
drainage system. AS a safe
al : Th e fil ter ma te ri al us ed in
Design of filter materi permeability offering negligible resistance fai els ibe sub sur fac e d r i
designed to have sufficient e fin e f Lng
fiter ma te ri al sh ou ld al so be de si gn ed to res ist the fl ow in g of th
resulting in problems like piping. Hence theeabigraliinty sizaned dipipsting ribu. tionThe of thpreocedfilurtere matforeridesa!i is
se d on th es e tw o cr it er ia of pe rm
decided ba i”
of fil ter is br ie fl y di sc us se d he re =
Fig. 11.7 Control of Seepage Flow grain size distribution chart (percent passing vs particles size on log scale) plot
(i) Ona
the grain size distribution curve for the foundation soil.
11.4.3 Control of Capillary Rise
If the water reaching the su bg ra de due to cap ill ary ris e is lik ely to be det rim ent (i) Find the valu e of Djs size of foun dati on mate rial and plot a point of parti cle size
possible to solve the pr ob le m by arr est ing the cap ill ary rise ins tea d of low eri ng
SDs of fou nda tio n to rep res ent the low er limi t of Djs siz eof fier . This is to fulfi l
table. The cap ill ary ris e ma y be ch ec ke d eit her by a cap : the permeability condition given by
following two types :
ess is pro vid ed Djs of filter
(i) A lay er of gra nul ar mat eri al of sui tab le thi ckn
the hig hes t lev el of s u ai0s foundation shoulbe d> 5
construction of embankment, between the sub gra de and Djs of
water table, (See Fig. 11.8). The thi ckn ess of the gra nul ar cap ill ary cut -of f lay er
be sufficiently higher tha n the ant ici pat ed cap ill ary ris e wit hin the gra nul ar (il) To fulfil the condition to prevent piping
the capillary water can not rise above the cutoff layer.
pr ov id in g cap ill ary cut -of f is by ins ert ing an imp filter
Djss ofN
(ii) Another method of ——. should be <5
Des of foundation
i
DC
bitumi no us lay er in the pla ce of gr an ul ar bla nke t. (Se e Fig . 11. 9).
i2* of filter givven en byby 5 Das
Hence plot a point to re pr es en t the upp er lim its of Dis
of foundation, sined pipes
\W) Find the size of the perforation in the drain pipe oF ene pom sven bythe Sze
Ad let this be = Dp. Plot a point to represent Drs sae
CAPIL 2D, ie within whist
MTC 8 3. pT TRE oe be oe s o n
resis te region witia
pi
HIGHEST WATER TABLE The shaded area thus obtained
11.10, ution curve of satisfactory file
Fig. distrib
act in size rf
Fig. 11.8 Granular Capillary Cut-off
 HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
Rid PROBLEMS
pepressit the subsurface water Vevel by sui
ww Able
constructing embankinen
dvnage yen,
Dy

pising the road level by

qw &
iding a# capt
providing capillary
cut off x10 AITESL the
rm) PINAL Vike of wyley
thickness in view of
) providing sufficient pavement
ro vi ng ver tic al1 sad den ny a ut f the hi ps nd in g
Wino ensute rap drainage of We PAN ert a a

riscint eonine
nda yo,
When Hoodi n g al so is ex pe ct ed fo r
the roa d sur fac e may be Pe at
fovided with nent Petl ods, In Addi tion vo the Fok
yc tO surtce biancena Saietiad
1 . Where traffic is slight, a bituminous
payee [ice With seal com
me nt al sa lt s ar e pr es en t in the wa te rs ‘hay Ye wfficle
When dletri et, In Adio oh shang
sneastite® which may be adopted with greater care ‘and contr,
should be us ed to wi th st an d 1 su perior
ystivetiont tuaterials el ec ts of sal t, Ag
cu lr ol be lo w th e su bg ra de an d a m e l
tiestive capillary w pe d b e t ne ve 0 the
paverient sur fCE and preferably om sh ou ld er s al so wo ul d yo Me WAY It sustaving the
Feuimental ettects of th e al te , I th e pe rm ea bi li ty of the f
PARTICLE MITE, mm (LOB SCALED cl ay ey so il s) gr av it at io na l dr ai na ge v u e HN si bs ere, Cas a the
vine of silly anid Ineffective, In auch eases
he r me th od s su ch as el ec tr or os in ot ic dra
Big. HAO Design of Filter Materhal vsibil it y OF us in g ot nae may be considered,if
economically feasible,
ALS DRAINAGE OF SL OP ES & ER OS IO N CO NT RO L,
REFERENCES
Deainage of slopes of cmbankinent, cutting and Hil side ate of utmost tt
prevent tustability of slopes and slides Soaking of the slope causes increase AW tres nd IRC, "Road Drainage Practlees Around the World", Special Publication, Indian
revhietion in stre ngth , Hen ce an eff lei ent net wor k uf sut tac e dra ina ge sys tem ¢ y
p the slo pes pro per ly deal Roads Congrers,
at tintensep tin g dra ins and slo pin g dra ins to kee
asetial for stabilit y. The sto pin g dra ins may be pro vid ed wit h Tini ng or pitc hing . Mahapatra, M., “Drainage In Hill Roads", Joumal tndian Roads Congress,
filled with gravel The wat er fon t the sto ppi ng dra ins is col lec ted in cat ch 4 Vol, X=1 & 4, 1989,
slivertod across thr oug h the cul ver ts at sui tab le int erv als , Bs
Ree |. Tulaye A. Y, and Durga Prasad G., "The Design of Drainage Facilities Pavement",
The Tow of surtice water also frequently causes erosion of soll, This may. Journal, Indian Roads Congress, Vol. XXIX, 1969-66,
earth toads if the etoss slope is too steep and also on earth shoulders, Surltee SIR, “Soil Mechanics for Road Engineers", HMSO London,
and stabilization of these surfaces are usefiil for the control of erosion,
» Leonards, CAy “Foundation Engineering" MeGraw-tlll Book Co, ie, New York.
Frosion of soil thom the slo pes of cut and em ba nk ni en t is det rim ent al (0
stability, The erosion de pe nd s on sev era l fac tor s su ch as int ens ity and du Habkow, ¥. and Zawakhaye, M.." Highway Enginecting”, Mit Publishers, Moscow
fall, type and conditions of soi l, hei ght s and ang le af the slo pe and cli mat ic.
R, “D ra in ag e of Hi gh wa y an d Ai rf ie ld Pa ve me nt s’ th n Wi ll ey&
Ce de rg re n, H.
One of the casiest and effective Ways of reducing erasion an slope is by Sons,
severe erusion conditions the slopes may be protected by stone pitehits
handplaced rocks. stabilization techniques are also usefil, | Luthin , J. N., “D ra in ag e Eng ine eri ng’ , Wil ey Eas ter n (P) Lid
Ogle and ySons
C.H,,"Highway Engineering", Thitd Eaton, John Wile
11.6 ROAD CONSTRUCTION IN WATER - LOGGED AREAS
PROBLEMS
When the subgrade is subjected to soaking condition duc to high siubsdl
capillary rise, the area is considered as waterlogged. In extreme cases there! * Discuss the importance of Highway Drainage:
tlooding for prolonged periods. In addition to water-logging If the “te are the requirements of a good highway drainage ait anes
detrimental salts like sulphates, there are additional problems for
maintenance of roads in such areas, z plain how the surface water is calle a a wearinil 10s
When the problem is one of water-logging only without flooding |
nh
"ds. What are the spectal problems in
detrimental salts, the following methods may be adopted :
 HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
534
the design approach for surface drainage system of a highway,
4. Specify :
estimate the desi;gn quantityity ofof flowToy on a road
: side drain nN f for 25 E
cca ‘sestorm from the following data : ¥ ay
bare bare soi soil slope Pe 1.0
1.0 9 84 = 5 ae
Width of f dra ina
d r a i t ge area along g with cross
in = 650 m; al lo wa bl e vel oci ty of flo w <{ %
pier area and open dra = 0.3 0
weighted average rol lin g of run off cut off

The maximum quantity of water to be discharged by the two side i

highway section is 14 m/see. Design the side drains forthe following
a Sil ty lo am , ma xi mu m ve lo ci ty of fl ow = 0.8 m/ se c.

Roughness coefficient = 0.03.

. Water flow s to a stre tch of sid e drai n of leng th 0.5 km fro m a tota l drai ns
Ry

0.35 km* consisting of bare earth with average 1% slope, the farthest sag
drainage area to the drain inlet being 0.2 km and also from half the width ¢ rhe
lane bituminous pavement of length 0.5 km. The run-off coeffi Ed 12.1 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS,
bituminous pavement is 0.8 and that of the earth surface is 0.4, Assume 10 yes.
frequency of occurrence of storm for finding the design quantity of flow i India has a tot al ar ea ab ou t 25 90 00 sq. km co ve re d wit h de ns e
side drains. Design the cross section and slope of the longitudinal side drain populated ly fo re st
and ed
thin ly
hills. In the Himalayan region, vegetation and human habitation extends upto
bottom width of 0.75 m along clayey soil, if Manning's roughness coe! high altitudes but habitation is mostly confined to 3000 to 3650
‘Me
abot mear
ve e n sea
0.02 and allowable velocity of flow is 1.1 m/sec. level.
8. Write an explanatory note on cross drainage and drainage structures. Due to the mountainous terrain, navigation and rail traffic are not possible. Even ar
traf
fic is difficult due to the prohibitive cost of construction of required landing strips. in
9. Explain with sketches how the subsurface drainage system is provided to consideration of strategic need of the country, highest upto elevation of $500 m are now
water table, and control seepage flow. Linh been negotiated by roads. To provide for communication facilities for the military and to
By accelerate for development of the regions, the Border Roads Development Board was set
._ Indicate how the filter material is designed for use in sub-surface drainage
up by Government of India in the year 1960. The present expenditure on hill roads
. Explain the importance of erosion control and drainage of slopes. How. construction forms about 30 to 40 percent of the total central outlay for roads.
achieved ? A terrain can be classified into four groups based on the cross slope ic. the slope
9
. Discuss how the problem of road construction in water logged areas may be approximately perpendicular to the centre line of the highway alignment: (i) plain (i)
rolling (iii) mountainous and (iv) steep terrains.
Hence, a hill road is one which passes through a terrain with a cross slope of 25
Percent or more. A hilly or mountainous area is ceemarbel by a highly ae ve
With widely differing elevations, steep slopes, deep gorges and a great number
courses, Owing to complex topography, the route length has to be inefectively increased.
Type of tevain | Gross slpe, percent]
(i) Level (L) or plain
(ii) Rolling (R)
i ) Mountainous(M) 250i
(iv) Steep(S) Above
Wi s th e ob j i
»ject of the engineer to establi ish the shortest ‘ expenditure
“ween the obligatory eal This should be done beeping. ‘cotostthe
NsPortation,
Pini the wear and tear fof the vehicle

535
 HILL ROADS
536 ALIGNMENT0)
A . F Hi, ROADS
Selection of a suita ble alig nmen t a billy regio n is a comp lex job iy
radial form and where the valley converges into a knot of eh ength
pars he Ps of several mountains. A thorough knowledge of the Beological peli sep enktteork
as the proc ess of Toad Natio, phe res seainst the resistances, effective length tein,
ofthe ‘area is essen tial to decid e the road alig nmen t,
seinene disturbs: the natur°al stabilityi conditions. in thePrevmain on nceof soof hi ToadsSee
entiir tena ‘
, ty
1d sainees and strai ght tne dai ee Wo st in t
ao w i t ER
h Se
al sections of four altemate routes seabe roe fe sais ‘tree "
uy
abilization ofhill slopes have been major problems
Jone! inFig 124 tod. The
The clima tic condi tions also influ ence the prog ress of hill road ¢

Some areas are sub jec ted to hea vy win ds wit h a vel oci ty exc eed ing 100 kp h?
be cleared during the wis!
some hill road sections, large quantities of snow are to Sil
season, National Highway to Kashmir, Hindustan-Tibbet, igure-Gangtok A; (ssa
Joshimath to Badrinath are some of the main routes which generally get affected wit,
snow fall and other problems like land slides. n
Geometric standards as of plains cannot be adopted in hills, Massive and
protective works are required at many places in the hill alignment resulting in heary
expenditure. Large quantity of earth work including blasting of hard rock may be needed
during hill road construction.
Normally, hill roads are also classified as N.H., S.H., M.D.R., O.D.R. and V.R.
level terrain. 5 Fig. 12.1 Longitudinal Sections of Alternate Routes

The Border Roads Organisation (Govt. of India) has classified hill roads as follows Inbill stations the difference in elevation ‘h’ is likely to be high when compared tothe
shortest distance Lo resulting in a gradient steeper than the ruling gradient as in
(National Highways Bal Fig. 12.1 a. Hence it becomes necessary to increase the lengthat leastotLy = (Ly = fi)
(ii) Class 9 (6 m wide for 3-tonnes vehicles) soasto have the desired ruling gradient (Fig, 12.1 b).
iii) Class 5 (4.9 m wide for |-tonne vehicles) In actual practice it is not possible to strictly follow such uniform rate of gradient.
Figure 12.1¢ and d illustrate the longitudinal sections of two altemate alignments wah
(iv) Class 3 (2.45 to 3.65 m wide for jeeps) lengths Lz = (Lo + J) and L3 = (Lo + /3) respectively. These two alignments
also have
‘sefective rises and falls, the sum of which are hz and hs respectively. Here the sum of
12.2 ALIGNMENT OF HILL ROADS ‘effective rise and fall are obtained by finding the total rise and total fallin excessof
12.2.1 General Consideration sig ® Sradient then subtracting the actual difference in elevation ‘ bape tem
walons A and B. Ineffective rise and fall cannot ava be avoided in sich ahemse
The hill road alignment should link up the obligatory and control points fitting vale s due to the topographic conditions enroute.
the landscape and satisfying the geometric requirements . The best alignment for te me fc dering amouetof
road is one wherein the total sum of the ascends and descends between extreme PO!‘ed OY fesisting
sont®Tequi red lengths of the different routes are compared by considering
the least. It is permissible to increase the length as much as 50 times the height s® tik etree fom stasioo Ae B
a detour. = z a iiiowe Work done in case (a) (Fig, 12.1a) in moving
a load W
.
Shortest |
The various steps necessary in the alignment of a hill road include 90 Seth La un to height i
i
reconnaissance, trace cut or preliminary survey and detailed survey- It =) WELg+ Wh= Wille? (2)
advantageous to start the survey from the higher obligatory point. The details sy
surveys and general principles of alignment are discussed in articles 3.1 and 3.2: Ye Fe We
survey and photogrammetric applications are most useful for the survey ofthe hill: Ly => resisting ngth= Lo?
Some particulars of special significance are discussed below : f = coefficient of friesiona ese
 HILL ROADS ALIGNMENT of
HILL ROADS,
538 eo
r e s i s t i n g l e n g t h
In c a s e ( b ) t h e a
La = Lit we a
a t h s ar e pi ve n e o
(d ) th e v a l u e s of r e s i s t i n g l e n g
Similarly in al i g n m e n t s (© ) a n d
Lot ey sto th+ Mth Be}
La =

y+ hehe m = i g t h e B e h e LECENO
and Ls = Was m2 oe es
1. Sandy loam 2, Clay and clay loam 3. Chay shale
e th e ad di ti on al di st an ce to be tr av er se d alon 4.Granite Limestone ‘6 Rubble
In th es e eq ua ti on s [2 an d /3 ar
fa ll al on g th e ro ut es , th e
hz an d h3 ar e th e to ta l un ef fective rise and
alternative routes, t Be
Fig. 12.2 Stability of Roads Based on Inclination of Strata
gi ve s th e co rr ec t id ea of va ri ou s al the cut slo pes
Thus the concept of re si st in g le ng th side hazard can ‘be checked by ad ju st in g
the al ig nm en t so tha t
t af te r th e p r e l i m i n a r y su ly out of
rv ey . O b v i o u s th e a h a d “e ds at a mo re fa vo uru ab le an gl e to the be dd in g pla nes . Th e al ig nm en t
while select in g an a l i g n m e n
r d s , th e on e wi th th e mi ni ms Th e
satercept si t h e plane s of the rock tend sto dip away from the cut
il l th e de si re d g e o m e t r i c s t a n d a
alignments which fulf n g
‘ini ine ae so ad j u s t e d t h a t th e b e d d i
resisting leng th s h o u l d be pr ef er re d. slopes rather th a n t o w a r d s t h e m .
ou ld be gi ve n to s o m e of th e ad di ti on al
c o n s i d e r a t i o n sh
C u t f o r H a i r P i n B e n d s “ie In locating an alignment, slides dueto proposed cuts or fills. These are:
Trace situations w h i c h m a y c a u s e la nd
to 1.0 metre wide, prepared along the alignment off b y t h e s i d e fi ll
Trace cut is a narrow track, 0.6 In hill roadste r o u n d w a t e r f l o w
for inspection during location of the route. R e s t r i c t i o n o f g
hill road to enable access sufficient margin to obtain ar
(a)
a t i v e l y w e a k u n d e r l y i n g so il l a y e r b y fi ll
cut is done at a ruling gradient of 1 in 25. This gives pract (b) O v e r l o a d i n g o f r e l
in 20 when final formation is completed. At zigs this. p l a n e s bb y h e a v y s i d e fi ll
gradient of | obtain correct curve c (@) Over loading o f b e d d i n g
is not always possible to
difficulties, because it
to almost level-at the hair-pin bendsor sha f c u t s , u n s t ale rock or fill
b
gradient. ‘The ruling gradient if changed s (d) Over steepe n i n g o
finished gradient is correct. Hence detailed survey
curves to ensure that m e n t S u r v e y
curve, particularly at hair-pin bends. 12.2.2 Ali g n
each sharp r o a d is f i x e d in th e t h r e e s t a g e s :
of te n oc cu r ei th er in re -e nt ra nt s The alignment o f h i l l
Sharp curves of radius below 18 meter
go ti at e a de ep bu t na rr ow va ll ey , formi
A re-entra nt cu rv e is pr ov id ed to ne (i) Reconnaissance
spurs,
th e re -e nt ra nt cu rv e ma y be fi lled up for providing desired
open bend. Part of ro un d a th in sp ur of hi ll fo rm in g a bl in d be nd , (ii) Trace cut and
the bend. Sharp curves wh il e go in g ‘f or m:
wi dt h of
necessitate cu tt in g- in , so as to pr ov id e ic
su ie
ff nt vi si bi li ty an d
ii) Detailed surveys i n g t h e r e c o n n a i s s a n c e . F i r s t t h e
e f o r t h e a l i g n m e n t i s' s s e t e c t e d d u r g r a p h s ( i f
The general rout n t n d s e r i a l p h o t o
r e e a
Geological Considerations c a l a n d m e t e o r o l o g i c a l m a p s o f t h e a
w h e r e it 1 5
ot pographical geologi a l r e c o n n a i s s a n c e
f o l l o w e d b y a e r i e t a i l e d s t u d y o f
If th e ge ol og ic al an d hy dr ol og ic al co nt available) are studied. This equmay e n t l
b
y
e
th e gr ou nd re co nn ai ss an e®
d
di st ur b th e na tu ra l sl op e st ab il necess ar y an d fe as ib le , S u b s
construction of the road ma y ng th e
in cl in at io n or di p of st at a an d diffic ul t st re tc he s ar e ca rr ie d ou t. a on th e gr ou nd du ri i g
slope depends on type of rock,
iv el y,
‘
ce
i
is v e fu rv ey s, 1 0 1 0 1 2 m w i d e
Dip of the strata should be as sm al l as po ss ib le or al te rn at ut e s e l e c t e d d u r i n g th e re co nn ai ss an ri en s. in st ea d of c u t i e
lo ca ti on s, wh er ea s b, The ro i d e an acce ss fo r su bs eq ue nt d e t a i l
See Fig. 12.2. The sides a, e, f and h ar e st ab le tr ac e cu t so as to p r o v
track is co ns tr uc te d, wi th ea si er gr ad ie nt s th an
unstable locations.
Stratified se di me nt ar y ro ck of te n oc cu rs as fo ld s wh ic h ma y be co nc av e, ( imo hard rock, access is achieved by means ix
Ids may va ry fr om ho ri z0 ! v e y s , b e n c h m a r k s :
D u r ii n g t h e e t a i l e d s u r
dtained. A strip covering about
Sections are ob ustments ti ne
place to place and foldings, sharp curv es m a y be surveyed . Necessawrhy
‘T he ce nt
adj
re sried for the routes
e s an d ha lt pi n be nd s fo n
These determine the physical chi the design of h o r i z o n t a l c u r
ol
v
og ic al s o i l in v’ s a c i
in cutting along hill face. The stab il it y of th e fa ce is an im po rt an t fe and reference pillars, Hydr an d s o ” a

rv at io ns gi ve so me id ea of th e ge ol og y ©
the road. Careful obse
superficial observation lead to serious errors,
 HILL ROADS
540 GEOMET! 5
RICS OF HILL ROAD
OF HILL ROAD [205 on
12.3 GEOMETRICS Speed, kmp’
4 . SSD. m 10 x Pas
superelevation, and radius of E 35 9 C30}
The geometric standards for gradient, aking sight distance ica [30T
for the diff Ae,
roads are different from those in the plains. The
hill
main
road
reasons
as alreaget: ‘phe overtaking culated from the relation:
topograpity: and other problems in alignment of .
also to be low. Table 4.8),
(See Y sp = 0:556Vb+2sTV, +0+02 278
78vr-
Consequently the speed standards are
a n d
ae Vv = speed of overtaking vehicle, kmph
F o r m a t i o n a n d L
Width of Pavement, Vp = speed of overtaken Vehicle =(V— 16) kmph
p a v e m e n t or c a r r i a g e w a y , f o r m a t i o n an d l a n g
‘The recommended wid t h s of N a n d fo
roads in In di a ar e g i v e n e 12.1.
in T a b l = spacing of moving vehicles = (02 Vy +6)m
‘Table 12.1 Wi dt h of Pa ve me nt , Fo rm at io n an d La nd T = overtakitinmeg = HAA secs
lu di ng | Ri gh t- of -w ay ross
Highway | Pave me nt | Ro ad wa y wi dt h, m (e xc
side drains and parapets) __[ Normal in kmph/sec, elytak. en as 4.72, 4.45 and 4.0 for speeds of 30,
‘A = accelerationkmph
classification | width, m 40 and 50 respectiv
WH & SH
8.80 are:
_ um overtaking sight distance specified —
Two-lane | 7.00 =i" 4 =< —
Single-lane | 3.75 6.25 Speed. ionoh | OL
MDR [_3.15 4.15 1s asia
3.75 4.75 15 m
ODR 9 Superelevation
VR 3.00 4.00 l ro ad s i al eu la te d fr om
‘T he su pe re le va ti on to be pr ov id ed at ho ri zo nt al cu rv es of hil
d roc k, the sho uld ers may be red uce d by 0.4 m on eith er side o
‘Atstretch on har
Jane roads and by 0.2 m in oth er cas es. The mi ni mu m set bac k for bui ldi ng line b the formula : v
the right-of-way should be 5 m in nor mal cas es and 3 m in exc ept ion al cir cum sta ge (128)
225R
Camber or Cross-Fall
ti on Sh ou ld no t ex ce ed 7 pe rc en t in se ct io ns of bil l
hill roa ds and re co mm en de d IRC specifies that th e su pe re le va
Steeper cross slope or ca mb er is ado pte d for d an d 10 pe rc en t in ot he r pl ac es ,
given in Table 12.2. 4 roads which get snow boun
in al gr ad ie nt s gr ea te r tha n 1 in 20, fla tte r ca mb er Radius of Horizontal Curve
When the road has longitud rv es ia hi l ro ad s, R (i in ) is ca le ul at ed fr om the
“The minimum radius of horizontal cu
Provided. formula :
Table 12.2 Recommended values of camber 2 7)
R e m 8 V (1 2.
Type of Surface Camber, percent_| e+f af ' 1“
Subgrades, earth roads and shoulder 3.010 4.0 as 0. 15 ._ Th e mi ni mu m rad ii re co mm en de d
su rf ac e ‘The lateral friction factor f is taken
GrBiavtuelminoanusd W.suB. M.
rfacing 2.5 various classes of hill roads are givineTanble 123.
_2.0 Table 123 Minimum Radi of Curvesin Hill Roads
High type bituminous surface &CC |
‘imma nee _—_—
Sight Distance z St bo un d
Caof teRogoadrys | ‘M ou nt ai no us te rr ai n Po un d | sno w
The stopping sight distance is calculated from the; relation : row bound snow bound sols ss

Nu&SH, 30 2 i "
ssp = 0.278 vt++ Y25—4f MDR. 30 % is 3
O. c R.
ViD. 20in 15 i com mete compound
Where ere V == di lesidesi gn speed, . ky kmph
ay ads of 30 ceptional
t.= reaction time, taken as 3 seconds Reverse curves are designed to have ® MM irl
ic eh
f = coefficient of friction, assumed as 0.4 Curves and a straight distance of 9 ™ She sight amet
‘aées, the radius can be reduced to 22.5.™
Safe stopping sight distance for various speeds given by IRC are given below
 HILL ROADS GEOMETRICSOF
32 HHL) RROAALD
i e n t m a y b e
i m i t i n g g r a d Baty
l
je r t h a n t h e
h
Ato r
mn
i z o n t a l cu rv es , th e peeutey Hd. se
at ho ri zo nt ai cu rv es is ca lc ul at ed fr om th e tel Too m.
Extra wi dt h of ca rr ia ge wa y We

we+ e Baantoe b e f l a t t e r t h a n 4 p e r c e n t ,
may
n a y n o t h o w e
l
c
e
e
y
r
Curves
=
a n d V a l
la ne s. summi t
where n is th e n u m b e r of
tw o- la ne m i t d V a l l e y C u e s m a y b e c a l e u l a e d a s h o l t
‘The recommend e d va lu es of ex tr a w i d e n i n g on si ng le an d h
ie tenBaetndsof su m a n
curves ar e gi ve n b e l o w fo r va speeds.
ri ou s ap r Pm u s r o c k , d e e p v a y ,
14-20 | 2 0 - 3 0 | 3 0 - 6 0 | 6 0 - 1 5 0 ep sause_ of preci pito ? B e n d s to o b i p o u t a n t
[Radius of curve. m r a B O E , a p i n N e e n v e r y i 6 i l t o a d s W i t h i n
[Extra width of si ng le -T an e ro ad s. m 15 | 12 | 09 | 06 u
peeqsance ofne mavailable tuming angle, it ofe t i m e s e v e n
0 | 4 0 - 6 0 | 6 0 - 1 0 0 | 1 0 0 - 1 5 0 g n o r m a l g e o m e t r i c s t a n d a r d s a n d s u m e
[Radius of curve. m T 3 0 - 1
09 | 06 curves followin
possible to lay out side having the minimum soe and max of design. A bai gin
f a n e r o a d s m —j 15 | 12
[Extra wi dt h of r w o r ni ne gcated on 2 hil oint of land sides and ground wae, srmum stably, 1 mest
ten safe ffom view p s o u l b e
b e n d s w i t h l o n g a r m s a n d f a r t e r s p a c i n g
vir pin n o b l e m s a n d e x p e n s i v e p o e t i v e w e t s s p i t t g,l dee s i e n
c e d e c o n s t u c t i o p r a i r p i n b e n d s in
ri t y a r e a d o p t e d f o r p l a n n i n g h
u c c e s s i v e h a i r p i n b e n d s s h o u l d be .
) S t r a i g h t l e n g t h b e t w e e n t w o s
r a n s i t i o n c u r e s . T h i s v e a g h f e r h c g
sesjing the length of cievouildar coasntdly t protective measures between the
{a
:
Setback Distance
p o n d i n g to ov er ta ki ng si gh t Shon the hill slopesndst.o a pper and
[As it is not practicabl e to pr ov id e vi si bi li ty
e
c o
so
r r e
as
s
to pr ov id e at le as t th e sa fe s t Jower arms of the be
all along the hill road, th e a l i g n m e n t is m a d i g n s p e e d = 2 0 k m p h
y th e m i n i m u m se t ba ck di st an ce on th e in ne r si de «b) Minimum des m
Sight distance. Accordingls speeds and radii of curves have been specified by the {@) Minimum r a d i u s o f t h e i n n e r c u r v e = 1 4 1
sae ontal curves for variou m u m l e n g t h of t r a n s i t i o n = 1 5
Roads Congress. (4) Mini r v e = t i n 10
{@)_ Superelevation in circul a r p o r t i o n of t h e c u
Transition Curves th e ap ex of th e cu rv e ar e re sp ec ti ve ly 11 .9 an d
a : (0) Minimum width of ca rr ia ge wa y at gh wa y. Th e
c u r v e s is to be ca lc ul at ed f r o m th e fo rm ul
ng le -l an e pa ve me nt s of Na ti on al an d St at e Hi
The length of tr an si ti on 9.0 m for two-lane and si
i m p m wi dt h fo r M D R an d O D R is 7.5 m.
oo2isv* min
_ : ad ie nt s ar e | jn 40 an d 1 in 20 0 re sp ec ti ve ly at th e
& CR (@) The maximum and m
cue.
i n i m u m gr

a x i m u m v a l u e s of 0 . 7 6 fo r s p e e d s l e s s t h a n 3 0 k p h ) an 5 pe rc en t fo r 40 me tr e.
tere C= a (a n (b) A p p r o a c h gr ad ie nt s sh ou ld no t be st ee pe r th
re d of al l th e
i n pe nd , th e is la nd po rt io n s h a l lbe cl ea
Ae Fo r g o o d vi si bi li ty at th e h a i r - p
m e t r e
Ly = leng t h o f t r a n s i t i o n , tees etc,
be nd an d fe w ty pi ca l cr os s se ct io ns
R = radius, metre Figure 12.3 shows a hair pin
V = design speed, kmph fo r
Cut slopes
S
a n s i t i o n r e c o m m e n d e d b y L L R . C . ar e 10 m g si de sl op es ar e re co mm en de d d e p e n d i
up n
on gte S0 0 T
‘The minimum lengths of t r The fo ll ow in
a n d 20 m fo r d e s i g n s p e e d 40 to ‘5 0 k m p h .
up to 40 k m p h
m o o r u m an d h a r d c l s
Gradients
t e e p te rr ai ty Cedi tSoeild s inckludingcocon;n alomerate__———|
g r a d i e n t s in m o u n t a i n o u s te rr ai n a n d in s {Disineyra roc or or
‘T he r u l i n g a n d l i m i t i n g T h e ru li ng a n d ds i
s a
h all e |
a b o v e m e a n se a le ve l ar e 5 a n d 6 p e r c e n t r e s p e c t i v e l y . K e t r
T c
o k
c k a n
tm h e i g h t ar e 6 a n d 7.
!
S L
e
M
c
o v e
i
a b
a
g h t
c
h e i
h
m
e
0
r
3 0 0
a
o

aeiiain
gradients in steep te rr ai n u p t
l i n g p o w e r of e n g i n e s de c
Sititudes (> 3000 m) as the pul s t g r a d i e n t s s h o u l d be l o w e r .
supply . th e d e s i g n v a l u e s of s t e e p e
544 HIL A, ROADS

M5

(a).PLAN OF A HAIR PIN BEND

oor tin 20
Aw is
H O L E S F O R E N D A T T A C K BORE HOLES FOR FACE ATTACK
BORE
{B).LONGITUDINAL SECTION ALONG EFGH Fig. 12.4 Rock Blasting
il the inner slope is at a safe angle to prevent slipping. in such a case, thebastieati ng and
sai is com men ced from top. Ifth e rock i s soft or loos ely sa id ng i
commenced at point on the hill-side far above the formation level g forlargeobtainin g sufficient
the cliff face by firin mine s and then
batter for the inner slope. Blowing out
dres sing the slop e, is ano the r alte rnat ive. In actu al cons truc tion , there is great diffi culty
to the rcqu ired leve ls and grad e. Unle ss speci al care is taken ,
SECTION ON AA in removing rock exactly
SECTION ou an basting may be slig htly shor t of requ irem ent or i t can be over -bla stin g. Duri ng blast ing
the drain on hill-side is also form ed. Blas ted ston es are used for reta inin g walls , back -
(eLHAIR PIN BEND ON SAME SIDE OF [HE HILL fili ng high reta inin g, wall s and apro ns etc.
Precipice Work
Where the time available does not all ow for bla sti ng and tun nel wor k, cif gal ler ies
Re ne go ti at io n of cli ffs and pre cip ice s. The se are sui tab le
: and cradles are resorted for the ed onl y for sho rt ter m use and mi sa
‘es : co ns id er
only for ight vehicles or foot traffic and See Fig. 125 and 126. Itis ingora
permanent road way for regular traffic. to ens ure saf e att ach men t f o r t h e jun per s
strata should dip. inwards ssfrenom thethe fac e in ord er
and holdfasts and to le ris k of roc k fal ls IF the tp of Ih PI SC E
inaccessible, it is necessary either to start from below oF fo veel te gabe
SECTION ON AA or lig ht ga ng wa y is pro jec ted forw ant F N
farthest point ofthe road.whicA hlogthe holes are drille and dthe supportsere
Provide a platform from cradles
(d),HAIR PIN BEND AROUND A VALLEY (RE-ENTRANT) ie
When boring is not practicable, alight roadway may be cari on Ts
Fig. 12.3 Hair Pin Bends Suspen de d by me an s of wi re ca bl es fr om ju mp er s dr iv en at he OP © be cra dle
'n Fig. 12.6. The bearer of the cradle should tilt upwa™S © ards and become
However detailed investigations are needed in deep cut and where th e fa ce of th e cli ff; the su rf ac e wil l sl op e
instability are likely. pas away from
\gerous,

12.4 DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF HILL ROADS Retaining Walls os jon to provide
Rock Cutting Retaining walls are most important structure ia Ml allsconstartucitedo con ards theME
If the rock strata slopes downward into the hi valet Stability to the roadway and to the sre ein pee {and slide
the road forming a half tunnel. Blasting is done either from face or from Ia, ile of the roadway and also on the cut HY
sides. See Fig. 12.4. If the strata is inclined towards the hill slope, cutting y.
546 HILL ROADS
DESIGN AND CO
NSTRUCTION OF HILL ROADS
347

AIRE B0PR~

Fig. 12.5 Cliff Galleries

Dry stone masonry is preferred to masonry in mortar as the former per
drainage of seeping water. The design of retaining walls is based on the thumb ru
performance of existing structures in similar regions. Harger and Bonney st
section of 0.5 H with a minimum width of 0.45 m to 0.60 m at top and a front
in 4 with the rear side vertical. A typical design is given in Fig. 12.7.
For heights greater than 6 m, sections of (0.4 H + 0.3) to (0.5 H + 0.6) mare
with a top widt h of 0.75 m. Also band s of cour sed rubb le maso nry in ceme nt
vertical and hori zont al inte rval s of abou t 3 m each are cons truc ted as show n in
for added stability. Here the rear face is vertical and filled with boulders an
improve drainage and to resist earth pressure for half the height. The front
out to 1: 2%to 1:3.
Revetment Walls
The embankment slo pes are nor mal ly pro tec ted wit h rou gh sto ne pit chi ng
thick in order to avoid erosion due to flow of water. See Fig. 12.9. If the sto}
fer abl e to con str uct a toe wal l as sho wn in Fig. 12. 10 to
is too long, it is pre
embankment and depending upon the slope available. Where the cutting slope
and contains loose or sco ura ble soil s, sli ps are lik ely to occ ur. In such |
revetment wal ls of dry sto ne mas onr y are con str uct ed to reta in the soil on the c l
to prevent occurrence of any such slips.
s 13. 5 m an d 28. 5 m ha ve be en co ns tr uc te d in the Boa l
Revetment walls of height q
Ghat road in Tamil Nadu.

Foundations of Retaining Walls

In hilly regions, the presence of hard gravelly soil or even soft rock may bE
misleading as these may occur in thin section over lying sloping rocks. So,
 548 HILL ROADS

SECTION ON XY"
RANDOM RUBBLE MASONRY
t l - s l o p e b y S t o n e P i t c h i n g

TW CEMENT MORTAR
Fig. 1 2 . 9 P r o t e c t i o n o f H i

¥.
STONE BOULOERS of
Bic SIZED cRaveL.

presence of hard rock at shallow depth is indicated, the foundations should be

the rock bed. In addition to <his, dowel bars are also provided. The foundation
provided with a downward slope of | in 6 or | in 4 towards the hill side.

Pavement Type
Because of the high intensity of rain fall generally throughout the year if r ™ w a l l
a l l w i t h R e v e t m e
regions, an impermeable type of pavement proves more effective, though the in! Fig. 12.10 Toe W'
may be high. A permeable surface such as W.B.M. gets eroded by the heavy
regular maintenance cost comes out to be high,
 $50 HILL ROADS

DRAINAGE IN, W
bituminous pavements are therefore preferred on hill road, ILL ROADS
aude are not considered suitable because of its high initial cath Sst
construction, Since frequent damages are expected in hilly areas, a flexible
be more easily and cheaply repaired than a cement concrete pavement, a Bark
pavement with W.B.M. boss course and bituminous surfacing may be colt
hill roads. But in localities where damages due to land slides, subsidence
are not amiipated, cement concrete pavement are provided subjet io
funds. The atmospheric temperature variations of the region also should hoy ns
LR.C. recommends the use of bitumen with penetration grade 175/295 fae
macadam in very cold regions. A higher viscosity bitumen, though can be See
mined with aggregates by heating atthe required temperature, will become Gene
cold regions. Cutback are also used with slight heating, In freezing temperatu
grade RC-3 is preferred re
over bitumen if equipment are available for construction,
bitumen gets hardened rapidly and it does not coat the aggregates properly, In
areas Where there will be mostly tank traffic,
mastic asphalt is also recommended,
12.5 DRAINAGE IN HILL ROADS

Drainage uf Water from Hill Slope

Surface water flowing from the hill sl
ope towards the road way is one of the
problems in drainage of hill roads. It is desirable that the water
allowed to flow into the side drains due to fr om th e hill side is;
the problems in maintaining the side

of culverts.
Figure 12.11 shows the layout of drainage system in hill road includin
drains and sloping drains. g cate
Catch-water drains, if improperly constructed are liable to do
to the road. Recommendations in the report on the ECAFE mo re da ma ge tha n.
Seminar on Low Cost Ro
held in January, 1958, suggest dispensing away with catch-water drains, unless the
are lined and properly maintained. ECAFE recommends that catch-wate d
be located from the top edge of cutting and the water shou r dr ai ns
ld be led into the
culvert. The catch water drains should be given a gradient of 1 in 50 to 1 in 33 to ayo
high water velocity and possible wash out. If drains of large sect
bed and sides are paved, io ns ar e re qu ir ed ,
Road-side Drains
Side drain is provided only on the hill side of the roads and not on both sides. sone
limitation in the formation width, the side drains are constructed to D onan
CROs ORAIN:
emergency the vehicles co su ch sh ap e
uld utilize this space for crossing at low speed or for parking. SECTION ON AB
usual types of side drains are angle, saucer and kerb and channel drains tem
Fig. 12.12. Ministry of Transport recommends the use of kerb and channel type of sid¢ 4 . :
In hard rock the gutters need not be paved; but in soft soil rough stone paving is necess Fig. 12.11 Layout of Drainage i SYS jided inlets in ofrocks the
ary: our . In cut s cat ch pits oo t sep et at ihe sil “ve n 3
Cross Drainage subbish and to prevent sc ‘The floor
roc ky catch Pi ros s dra in 8 8
as shown in Fig. 12.13. level of the Ge of the ct
As far as possible, cross drainage should be taken under the road and at right ang culvert or cross drain by at least 0.3 ™.
it. At the head of small cross drains catch pits must be provided to collect the stones longitudinal slope of | in 7.
 $52
HILL ROADS
DRAINAGE
IN iLL ROAD
S
$33

STONE PiTCHing
(a) Angle Drain

STONE PITCHING (a). PLAN (0). SECTION OM 4B

(b) Saucer Drain
Fig. 12.13 Cross Drainage in Rock Cuts

R040 SURFACE

15em ORY Stone

PITCHING
(© Kerb and Channel Drain
Fig. 12.12 Types of Side D
rains on Hill Side
The waterway required for c
ross draina, ge works may be ca
usual formulas. As far as possib lculated by any
le single span bridges are cons
structures are provided upstre tructed.
am and di ‘own stream of the cross d
rainage work.
In hill roads where rain fall is heavy,
it is recommended that culverts ca
SO Tone
to facilitate drainage of water cross the road
s. This S e c t i o n o f S c u p p e r
to 10 scuppers Fi g . 1 2 . 1 4 C r o s s

Su b - s u r f a c e D r a i n a g e

the road level depending upon several

inclination, quantity of u nder Lae the weakening age drainage syst
Scuppers and Causeways are usually
provi 'd for cross drainage in unimport
Problems of slope stability as wel su it ab le su b- su t
Cause ways are submersible bridge an t ie Seepage flow may be controlled by s
s, with a di ip in the road profile to allow ;
Fig. 11.7 under the chapter ‘Highway Dra!nage”
across the road surface during floods.
 554 HILL ROADS

12.6 MAINTENANCE PROBLEMS IN HILL ROADS MAINTENAN

CE PROBLEM
S 1 N HILLL
Maintenance of Drainage Structures ROADS,
prev c e n t i o n o f Land Slides $ 3 5
ides and slips are most j
ee so
Catch water drains, side drains, catch pits and culverts
are Periodically
all blockages to prevent overflowing during rains,
Planting of trees on the upper slopes in
ground due to rains is often resorted to as
order to reduce the Scouring
ki
act;
The
0 tt pject by itselfis Ver
'
y vast. However, 's briefly
= land-slide denotes downwar d e a l w i t h h e rea
a precautionary measure. tion, i 15 composed of "
natural rock, soils. ant
d a n d o u t w a r d movement ot ;
The earth for repairing berms is taken by dressing the hill slopes into es move along surface of sepa ificiat fills oF combinatio
n s
lowest terrace should not be more than 1.8 m in height,
sli r a t i o n by falling. Slidinagnd flowing Pee: band
Snow Clearance Land slide is classified into :
The total accumulation o
(a) falls
f compacted snow during
6 m in the Himialayan region, At ava winter Months may be (b) slides
l anche sides, the depth of snow
be much more. Because of snow accumul ation most of hill Toads at (©) flows and
are closed for traffic in winter. very
(a) complex land slides.
The first problem in sn
other structures under snow
ow clearance is to corr
ectly locate the Positio Falls include free fall and rolling of rocks and debris without interaction of one
markers which are wooden p Cover, for mov ements.
n of the
This is Overcome by erectin
road. fragment with another.
clearance is done wit th mach
o l e s w i t h metre marked on it, before Slide is movement caused by finite shear failure along one or several surfaces wich
ines; but care must be t, faken when u the winter,
surfaces not to damage
them. sing them on are visible or whose presence may reasonably be infered.
are used. If the ice crust is thick. Wheel dozers, snow bla
sts, ‘motor gr
«is the moveme
é nt witithinhin disdi placed mass such thatthe form taken by the moving
blasting by explo: sives may be do aders or manual
structures. ne without wicca tenant that of viscous fluid and the slip surface can not be located.
Control of Avalanches Complex land slide : In this, moveme vement
nt isis by by aa c combination of oneor more of the
On some sections, special protectiv iypes of failures stated above.
the road which permit the snow e structures called galleries are con
impact loads. The galleries are the m a s s t o s l i d e s t r u c
Over the gallery roof without ind t e d a Factors Producing Slide Movements
r e f
Covered with earth in order to cont ore located on the bench of a cutting and the Where shear stresses exceed the atts
i sregh ipa sokil, scemovement oi.
occurs
inue the natural slope. See Fig. 12 Instability results only when shear failures have onyss mentee rae =
.15. mass more or less constituting a surface along which : secs: Antes
contributes towards a decrease in shear strength or an increase
slide.

Some causes of increased stress conditioaren listed below :

i) Increase in water content.
Si
on fiat loads due to traffic, increase in weight due mec
(iii) Removal of part of mass by excavation, removal of reta oe »
slope angle. in in g
.
(Vi) Undermining caused by excavation or erosion. b
() Shocks and vibrations caused by earthquoablkeasstn
Some causes for decrease in strength are 5
(®) Increase
w e e and inerease
in pore
in water content and consequent swellNE
Pressure.
jokage ofthe soil: “rs bok
(ii) Hair-cracking due to alternate swelling
ia,
structures. Gil) Disturbance of intergranular 7 bond vit
s by
Planes of strata.
 s HILL ROADS
Civ)e Fiesssyaurnineyg ofin saprtue-racotensd olstidatate eddecrcleaaysingdueeffetoctivreelease of lateral restrain PROBLEMS
intergranular s3it a - $37
fro m Vk a i
4, piseuss the maienanc problems i it rat
ati ng gro und wat er res ult ing :
(v) Seepage pressu res of per col
'Scous. g,. Write sh o r t n o t e s o n
the liquid and the soil grains.
( a ) R e s i s t i n g l e n g t h
Techniques of prevention and correction of land slides are listed below
(b) H a i r p i n b e n d
(a) Relocation of the highway. w o r k
(«) Precipi c e
(b) Effective drainage measures to intercept and divert water,
(d) Scupper
(c) Construction of buttress at toe and providing retaining structure, n o f l a n d s l i d e
(c) Preve n t i o
(d) Slope treatment to minimise the erosion, and to improve the stability

REFERENCES

1. IRC “Road Drainage Practice Around the World” Special Publication,

Congress. vs
2. Bobkov, V. and Zamakhayev, M., “Highway Engineering” Mir Publishers,
3. Chaudhry, B., “Location of Roads in Hilly & Mountainous Country”
Indian Roads Congress, Vol. XVIII 3 & 4.
4. Sharma, G. G., “Land Slide Investigation and Treatment in Assam”, Jou
Roads Congress, Vol. XXIII- 3 & 4. x
‘e
5. Khaire, V. A., “Geology in the Design and Construction of Hill Roads", J
Indian Roads Congress, Vol. XXX-2.
6. Bhirud, L. L., “Geometric Design of Hill Roads”, Journal, Indian Roads
Vol. XXXI-2 & 4.

PROBLEMS

1. Explain why design, construction and maintenance of hill roads

considerations.
2. What are the special points to be considered in the alignment of hill road x
3. Specify the details of geometric design and standards of hill roads incl
bends. rt
4. Explain briefly various problems in hill road construction’
and how
overcome,

5. Discuss the importance of hill road drainage. With the aid of neat
the surface drainage system for effective drainage and disposal of water.
6. Design all geometric design elements of horizontal and vertical
road for a design speed of 50 kmph at (a) horizontal curve of minimum
and (b) vertical summit and valley curves formed due to change in gradi
9.0%. Assume all other data suitably.
 ROAD SIDE DEVEL
OPMENT & ARBORIC
ULTURE:
(%) Chapter 13 .a ROAD SIDE DEV
ELOPMENT & AR
BORICULTURE, 3
359

lopment deals with the devel

ad side devel
Road Side Development een the abutting ioe the right
a of Wa clopme nt of ae st he
y. Proper planning isti c an d
remtopment right from the stages of preliminary suveys for highasy Alignment and
other‘famorent nitaieps eof

pers constr uction.

The following are some of the points to be considered for this -
i) Consistent and smooth horizontal and vertical alignments,
@ t a
-. wide right of way and shoulders in rural highways. Wide right of way in urban
ci) Wits to screen adjoining propery by plantation
(iiii)i Flat side slopes in embankme' nt and cut, rounded to blend to or: iginal surface
(ivi ) Suitable planting of road side trees and shrubs and proper maintenance.
13.1 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS IN PLANNING AND Di VELOPMENT; (v) Tu rf ing on si de sl op es an d on sh ou ld er s of ru ra l ro ad .
HIGHWAYS
(vi) Developing pleasant views and parking places.
While planning development of roads and transportation facilities, apart from aining ing of trees on the road i
side, or the roa id arbo ricu ;
ltur e is one of the impo rtan t
operational efficiency, it is also necessary to consider the quality of the enviro ie vn goad side development, Tree s prov ided on both sides of urba n and rural road
nmen
duetta w i n g p u r p o s e s :
the development. It is important to prepare an Environmental Impact Statement at serve th e f o l l o
planning stage itself. Good results could be achieved if the aesthetic
aspects of the roads a (i) to provide att r a c t i v e l a n d s c a p e of r o a d si de s
given due consideration at the time of highway planning. Other aspects which desene us er s
attention are planning road side avenues, preservation of natural (ji). to p r o v i d e s h a d e to th e r o a d
scenery and water
reservation of recreational areas and Provision of various road side (iii) to protect again s t m o v i n g s a n d in de se rt ar ea s
amenities to the
users. The air pollution and noise pollution aspects are also to be considered. ui t be ar in g tr ee s an d ti mb er
(iv) to provid e fr
In order to ensure better environment on new highways, environmental studies should
be carried out considering all the above aspects. A multi-disciplinary approach maybe | ly
needed to make a cumu lative assessment of land suitability for highway devel In urban areas, the ro ad i
si d e de p! pl an ti ng i is ma in y an
m e n t a l an d fl ow er in g sp ec ie s ar e ge ne t
causing minimum adverse effects to the surroundings. therefore, tests .of orna
On existing highways, an environmental evaluation study may be undertaken to assess
urban roads, the planting nf se S ae “a — Tat glare during night driving
trees on read sides. These shrubs
the quality of the environment pl an ti‘ i n g
ng i
is sh ow n iin
n Fi g. F i g . 13 .1 .
and also to quantify the functional and Typi ca l ar ra ng em en t of ro ad
components. Two pressing problems faced on the existing highways in the country
(i) encroachments and (ii) ribbon development. Suitable legislation and P
enforcement measures are needed to deal with these
problems:
oa
A.
The factors to be considered in the environmental bomen x
studies are :
(i) highway factors such as land width, carriageway, foot path, cycle track,
shoulders, median, sight distance, hori zontal curves, intersections, verti ol
bridge and other structures Fig. 13.1 Trees and Shrubs on Urban Row
nt prefered bec Be
(ii) highway operation factors such as control and regulation, Wide crowned trees on road sides are ee nigh Mee carriageway. (See Fig
marking and other traffic cont si gn s, signals, } day tight and make the roads bated mado ot cover the compl
rol devices
the trees planted on both sides of a 1084 0
ii) maintenance aspects like borrow pits, stacking of materials and equipm PE i c u s t y
32a). Arrangement shown in Fig: 13.08 © ould bes0 wispyed onin Fig, 1320.
ent. et: 25.35
(iy) road user amnities such as parking facilities, by passes, road side plantations: Sarriageway, It is recommended that the Ir
werent
lines and general amenities like fueling st Stown of trees do not extend beyond the P=
ations, restaurants etc.

558
560 ROAD SIDE DEVELOPMENT
SPECIES AND
THEIR SELECT
ION
$6)

}OAD CENTRE UNE

7;
——
Fig. 13.3 Arrangement of Roadside Trees and Renovation
13.4 SPECIES AND THEIR SELECTION
13.4.1 Choice of Species
(b) Carriageway Clear to Sky Species are selected on the basis of following considerations :
Fig. 13.2 Types of Tree Crowns (i) Species should be such as to providea large and dense crown.
to establish, fast i
developing ‘and should be strong to resist
(ii) Species should be easy
desirable that the trees should be at least 12 metre away from the centre of the the heavy storms and strong winds.
carriageway.
(iii) Species should be able to withstand lopping and pruning.
13.3, PLANNING PLANTATION OF TREES Types of Species

Itis necessary to draw out a plan of planting road side trees thoughtfully ‘Species are selected depending onthe factors like
Purposes as indicated above. Proper planning of planting would avoid wastage to
(0 Soil types
deterioration of trees through diseases or felling. This may be due to po
arrangements. Many varieties of trees become real shade only when they or PI (i) Watering conditions
grow
(ii) Locations
()1) Raini fall and other climi atici factors.
species are geal preferred :
Based on the above factors following is, judged om the basis of
(i) Each section of road is taken as an independent unit. exit on soil types. The suitability of MEEEr.T ae recommend act
taken for about 3 Annual planting wins Plantations etc. For clayey soils Jamurs TNS. iggy sol, aos 8 :
to 4 km length. Blank or poor sections are assigned P 22s, Shi sha m Kanj i, Kan ju and Arro o are st
Pecies are suitable
Gi) Section with overmatured and established tees are for growing.
as
Felling and renovation are also taken up for these secon signed the neXt
 6 ROAD SIDE DEVELOPMENT
562 SPECIES AND THEIR
e tn , SELECTION
d i and T
Tara t
chai l
rbi are a fou nd suj ta bl
In water - logged area s, Jam un, Arj un ‘$63

pl an t tr ee s; N e e m an d Im li ar e s pecies for these area 134.3 Planting of Trees on Road Sides

it is difficult to p r e p a r e d at s i
ccellent avenues can be made from Shisham, Imi, Jamun, Mango, The necessary locations are Prepared at site at the transverse
and
and fre que nt wat eri ng in the ‘n ia se chown it Fig, 13.20 4 133. The pts fr panting ae pe prada spacings
pated in the matcer shown
tee peti eae proper protection are selected which
every kilometer stones on highways, flowering species viz. Amaltas, re fig. 13:5. Sturdy and healthy plants ast 1 to 8S metre high
and ca mp in g are as, Bar gad ang ’ these dimensions i one
‘Qshok ete. may be planted, Near wells 3
planted.
ae is placed at the bottom of the pit before placing the seedling 1a psiion The
13.4.2 D e v e l o p m e n t of N u r s e r y edling need proper protection during their growth. Necessary protection is provided by
» is a plot of land where plants are grown for road side p| (i) Iron or RCC. guard
and cli mat es etc. are car efu lly stu die d to dev elo p stu rdy
sutueee ae (ii) Brick work
the m for fina l pla nti ng on the roa d sid es.
the selected species for using (iii) Used (bitumen) drum
nurser ies are the ref ore req uir ed for dif fer ent se ct io of
ns Toa ds. An
n and for tra nsp lan tat ion . Sin ce soil typ e and (iv) Trench
conveniently locate d for ins pec
Conditions control the health and
tio
gro wth of pla nts , it is ess ent ial to cont .
pla nti ng. Wel l dra ine d san dy
sl
eager
conditions favourable to the gro wth of the
considered very suitable for this purpose.
—————ie ——————_}

|
PAIn
—

L Pte 15m sm
—> Patn
PLAN
BED se
PATH =f hese
Pts sm sm
a SECTION AT KX

Fig. 13.4 Typical Layout of Nursery

Best manure is prepared either in compost pits or form a mixture © l a n t i n g T r e e
sulphate and bone-meal or superphosphate of lime. Normally, the Pe Fig . 1 3 . 5 A P i t f o r P
these chemicals are used to form a mixture. The manure is applied when $# Pa?
e enofdetrdench is illustrated in Fig. 135, Tm ey one of the fi tee
Usmm
is is the most
come up to 15 cm height. A nursey is established 2 to 3 years 9 Teco for use in rural areas. For s f fine
transplantation. It is recommended that the following number of plant can be used depending upon the availabi lity of conditions.
available for the use : ic conditions. three years.
Depending upon the soil types, plant and Sih espel forprot fist 10 ip provide
Locations No. of plants needed Wateri ng is de ci de d. No rm al ly car e is re n sed , Wh er
i Site after which most of the trees are well estab sare placed baried 10 the eels
|New avenues 180 Buard or similar devices, earthen pitchers BA yy, ‘The Po
Old avenues 100 ! 150 Water to the plant. The water is allowed (0
Excess number of plants required at nursey is to account for seedling ™ When required,
out during their early growth and soon after transplanting.
ra ROAD SIDE DEVELOPMENT

13.8 C A R E O F T R E E S
e
Following operations are carri od u t o n t r e e s fo r t h e i r W e l l b e i n g t h r o y p y _
span: &) Chapter 1 4
(i) Pruning and deforking, Highway Economics & Finance
i) Lopping
(ii) Felling
Pruning is req uir ed for pla nts afte r the y are pla ced in pos iti on. Thi s pro
them to be more dense and growing straight. Pruning is done in cold weather on
d for this pur pos e. The wou nds are cov ere d:
knife or a pair of scissors is use p y
coating. The cut is made vertical and the bar k is not pee led off in the pru nin g
Lopping is done to drain the trees to develop a certain shape during it
a process by which extra branches of tree are removed which otherwise
traffic or other trees in the vicinity. Branches are cut carefully, flush to the s 14.1 INTRODUCTION
trunk of the tree. To prevent decay of the tree, bitumen coating is applied
portions. This operation is done either in the months of February or in Better highway syst em pro vid es var ied ben efi ts to the soc iet y. Imp rov eme nts in
highway results in several ben efi ts to the roa d use rs suc h as: (i) red uct ion in veh icl e
Felling is a process of removing the trees. This is done only when there roa d (i) sav ing in tra vel tim e and res uka rt be ef s in
matured trees or trees which are too closely spaced. In felling of tree, the perational cost per.unit length of sen ger s (if ) red uct ion in acc ide nt rat es (iv)
the tree is removed, upper roots are exposed and cut observing the inclination teens of time cost of vehicles and theof pasdriving (v) increased comfor to passengers
improved level of service and easroa e ben efi ts to the
of the tree. Ther ef or e the lev el of ser vic e of a d sys tem may be ass ess ed fro m the
Control of Erosion road users. ding beter
A al so be ne fi ts th e la nd ow ne r by prov idin g
Providing Turf. Providing turf on the side slopes of embankments, The improvements in road net work land value. The cost of improvemeris it *
access and co ns eq ue nt ly en ha nc in g th e
drains and shoulders gives a pleasing appearance of the road side, and also uction work
land, materials, constr
an d fo r th e ot he r fa ci li ti es p e n a
soil from erosion. There is also an appreciable reduction in dust nuissance 0 highway fo
From the point of view of economic
ju st if ic at io n fo r th e im pr ov er
side. However turf shoulders are not always preferred as the grass cannot resi worked out,
and there is a possibility of shoulders getting softened during rains.
Ground Cover. Growing herbaceous or woody plants or shrubs, not
metre in height at maturity, is an alternative for controlling the erosion by water! wh en va ri ou s al te rn at iv es ar e be in g co mp ar ed . Hh
improv em en ts , pa rt ic ul ar ly
em en t or de ve lo pm en t S i t > ju st if ie s
fo r hi gh wa y im pr ov
REFERENCES ‘Thusany new proposal d. In h e s g t a i b e B i t e
in terms of cost incurred and benefitscurrdeedrivefor improvement of Oe ee of
Spec ial Publ icat ion : 21 - justif ic at io n fo r an y ex pe nd it ur e in
1. IRC, "Ma nua l,o n Lan dsc api ng of Roa ds" , mm e, 11 5 p e a } a p e s
finalisi ng a- hi gh wa y de ve lo pm en t pr og ra
Roads Congress. Variou s al te ma ti ve s of al ig nm en t, pa ve me nt su rf ac es ba h a pu bl i ab ou t th e ne ed fo r
. IRC, ‘Guidelines for Environmental Impact Assessment of only means for fi na li si ng th e pr op os al an d co nv in ci ng
i)

IRC : 104-1988. Indian Roads Congress. certain investment.

d b e c a r e f u l l y PI t a n n e d
3, Madras Highways Manual. i g h w a y e c o n o m y s t u d i e s s h o u l e r a t e p r o p o s a l s
H a n t a s p e c t s a r e t h e f o r e c a s t i n g i d e a s c o n s e
t h e i m p o r t
Some tmoefnts in highway improvements and the competioFn aa sear The fds tx
PROBLEMS inves
r a g e n c y f i n a n c e ‘of and indir
t n
The governmen or a ed om the rent. © y o t h e
1. Explain the objects or road side development. e r a l l y r e c o v e r f r of raising
g e n
sateionarse. ighway: Finance deals with vari
2. Wh ae the pre cau tio ns to be tak en in pla nni ng the pla nta tio n of 38 tax H
"
iscuss, Money for the h i g h w a y p r o j e c t s .
5
3. Write a note on development of a nursery.
|. Discuss the special maintenance and care required for road side plant
 HIGHWAY E C O N O M I C S & F I N A N C E
566
HIGHWay U
SER BENEFIT
USER BENEFITS S,
14.2 HIGHWAY
e benefits to other than road users incy $6
14.2.1 General Benefits
) Hee mployment opportunities and relate pedecivaron
Several benefits are brought to highway users and others due to the Ch able Benefits "
new highway or by improving a highway. Road user benefits are the
privileges or savings that accrue to drivers or owners through the USE Of one.
‘A oy ravel, increase in
facility as compared with the use of another. Benefits are Measured in terme ehmprovement in general amenities, social an ® in comfor
decrease in road user costs and the increase in road user services. Road user Oh, }ational and met ical services, » imprImpovroveded mo mobil
bility of essentia, l servi
an
the advantages or privileges accruing to the vehicle driver or owner through fear, reefes, aesthetic Values, etc. Yet another important intangible nat we va
safety, comfort, convenience etc. In some cases these can be evaluated Be forced suffering and pain of those involved in highway accdens te
vehicle-kilometre. in
Pes :
14.2.2 Motor Vehicle Operation Cost
A reduction in transportation cost as a result of highway improvements, wou d =
in the reduction in the cost of almost every commodity which is transported from ae The fac tor s to be con sid ere d for eva lua tin
depending on the purpose of the analysis. g motor vehicle operation cost would differ
Place before being delivered to the consumer. The impact of transportation eat) The vehicle may be classified in diferest
cost of various commodities is conspicuous when there is ane such as passenger cars, buses, light commercial vehicles, single uni trucks
transportation cost due to any reason, such as hike in price of petrol and diesel, ‘combination vehicles etc., for the purpose of cost analysis. The motor vehicle operation
<tats depend on several factors which may be groupedas given below :
The various benefits due to highway improvement may be classified into two
categories : (i) quantifiable or tangible benefits in terms of market values and (i) Cost dependent on time expressed as cost per year suchge asrent,interest on capital,
(s cost, registra tion fee, insu ranc e charg es, gara driver' s licens e,
nonquantifiable or intangible benefits. Jane depreciation driver's license,
salaries etc. as applicable.
Quantifiable Benefits The
(ii) Cost depending on distance driven expressed as cost per vehicle-kilometre.
Various benefits which can be quantified include benefits to road user s
items which may be included here are fuel, oil, tyres, maintenance and repairtc.
(ii) Cost dependent on speed include cost of fuel, oil and tyre per vehile-km-time-cost
reduction in vehicle operation cost, time cost and accident cost. The other
include enhancement in land value. These are briefly explained below :
of vehicles, travel time value of passengers, etc. ia aloes
(i) Saving in vehicle operation cost is due to reduction in fuel and oil consump "icle and its. conditmSion. Operation cast of l a r g e
iv) Cost dependent on typ e of veh
reduction in wear and tear of tyres and other maintenance costs. A road with: y hig her . The ope rat ion cos t of old veh icl es mai nta ine d in
iia vehicles are comparativel
curves and steep grades require frequent speed changes; presence of inter poor condition is also higher.
require stopping idling and accelerating; vehicle operation on road stretches cs su ch as ye sa co
le nd it ic
iti ons =
of
(¥) Cost dependent on road condition an d ge om et riri
high traffic volume or congestion necessitates speed changes and stoppings 2 of gr ad ie nt s, a e e r e
pavement surface, magnitude an d le ng th
increased travel time; all these factors result in an increase in every compote cos t c l e a t s a r i
horizontal curves etc. The vehicle op er at io n
vehicle operation cost. Uneven pavement surface condition with ruts, pot! Th es e fa ct or s are als o af pograpt to
inde x of pa ve me nt su rf ac e. lains.
undulations, waves and corrugations increases the vehicle operation cost 4
s the vehi cle oper 4
atio n is hi
cost is highe r than on pl
region. On hill road
increase in fuel consumption, tyre wear and the general maintenance cost it y ra ti o, fl ow
t traf fi c fa ct or su ch as co ng es ti on
i , ‘v ol um e to ca pa ci
vehicles. (Apart from this, there is considerable increase in fatigue and (vi) Cost dependen on
to drivers and passengers due to travel on such bad road surfaces, which characteristics, composition of traffic etc.
quantified). (Vii) Value of occupant’s time and
(ii) Saving in travel time is of direct consequence to commercial vehicles ‘ (iii) Accident costs.
Possible increase in their trip length and earning per unit time. Benefits : ; i t di st an ce may be taken25::
saving in travel time may be assigned in terms of time cost of vehicles. The costs of vehicle operation and time for unit dis va
Value may also be assigned for the saving in travel time of passengers. A T= at
(b+0)
the time saved by the Passengers or commuters may be used for some speed
Purpose and a value can be assigned for the saving in travel time.
where ras ‘ independent of journey time
(iv) per unit distance, " !
running cost ou
fT

m n
s

cost, dependent © wee

a fixed hourly
os
i

g, cost which Is:

Proceedings etc. © = the portion of the runnin
 568 HIGHWAY ECONOMICS & FINANCE
.
HIGHWAYAY UgUSER BENE: |}
fF EFITS, is |
Therefore the operation costs may be considered to consist various
tyre costs, vehicle repair ‘an
motor fuel cost, lubricating oil consumption, fn i |
stage tn i
depreciation, cost due to slowing, stopping, idling and standing delays, PS
pavement surface and its condition, grades, curves and traffic Volumes. ai ms P
costs and accident costs are taken into consideration. A major esearch proj the tng rd z
India at the Central Road Research ee on Roa z a
User Cost Studies’ was taken-up in é F
stitute, ‘
Delhi with the assistance of the World Bank.
s .
Some of the variable cost components which are dependent on speed are ilk ae :
the form of charts for hypothetical cases in Fig. 14.1 to 14.6. Figure. 144 Ustad jy 3 pe
relationship of fuel consumption with speed on various road gradients, one s : |
optimum speed for minimum fuel consumption for every motor vehicle, Fi is, = & |
shows the relationship of tyre life with speed for some typical Pavement sce 3 a1 }
condition. As the speed increases, the tyre wear increases and the tyre life dens? 4 5 }
Figure 14.3 shows the variation of time cost of vehicle with speed for differ o & Fy
Values per vehicle-hour. Figure 14.4 shows the variation in additional operating * 3 |
vehicle for stopped and unstopped delays for different approach speeds, Fisean é a a aa
shows the additional operating cost due to speed change cycles for different ig “speeestatn i
speeds. If similar chants are developed for typical road vehicles ffom extensive fide See en re |
the motor vehicle operation cost could be easily estimated for various conditions, Figue Fig. 14.3 Time Cost per Fig, 14.4 Additional Operation
14.6 shows variation of total running cost of vehicle with speed and the details of some Vehicle kilometre Cost per Stop |
component factors. 7 t
navement surface condition good
Fuel cost 2 Rs, 8.50 per litre
-
Tire cost + Rs. 950/- per tyre
s.
Nu of stops enroute + 10 stops without delay. 5 with 45 seconds delay and 4
z with 60 seconds delay
.
E Tune cost per vehicle hour; Rs. 3.00
Depreciation cost of velucle +S paise per km
FS “
e
2a Solution
5 (Fuel Cost sat
& [Gradient Economical operation | Length | Fuel ceasetion Gi
lit al fuel
é
% speed kmph | km | ___(Fi te
‘.s (Level | 2 {251 oor 4954
= o2 i1 42 | 35a aés [1.80] 7
Running Speed .kmpn Lay 40 | oo aT I as i j
Fig. 14.1 Fuel Consumption Chart 6 458 {| 3 9. i
Fig. 14.2 Tyre Life Chart 7 700
Calculation of motor vehicle oj . 1 l i r e f r o m t a b l e ) .
Examples 14 .1 and 14.2. eration cost using the chartsare illus’ Total fuel consumption for 100 km lens! th = 9
3 5
= R S . 7 7 .
e l co st . =
= 91x 8.50
Total f u
Example 14.1
) Tyre Cost 442 kmph. the te life on
Calculate the operating cost of a Passenger car for 100 km length of a rural hig * ‘of about
with no sharp curvrves es fofi r most economical speed Adopting an a v e r a g e e c o n o m i c a l r u n n i t e e t
data and ch arts given in Figs. 14.1, 14.2, 143 and dd i es operatiojon n usinusing g
of vehicl
the 800d pavement surface (Fig. 14.2) = 32.000 km.
Cost of 4 tyres on 100 km. Stretch of Rs. 950
p e r t i
Gradients level for 25 km, 0 to 2% for 55 km, 4% for P=
and 6% for 5 km.
570 HIGHWAY ECONOMICS & FINANCE
MIGHWAY USER
950x4x100 BewErrys
=Rs. 11.88 Brit
32,000 uel cost 15 * 8.60 = Rs. 129.09
(iti) Time Cost for Vehicle (iy Tyre Cost
Using the time cost curve of Rs. 3.00 per vehicle-hour (Fig. 14.3) the ost per ‘Tyre life at 60 kmph on good surfa (
km at 42 kmph speed at 16 paise, time cost for 100 km = Rs. 16.00,
ce = Fi2g4. , 4.2) 000 km
(iv) Additional Cost for Stopping
tyre cost for 4 tyres @ Rs. =Rs. 18.80
For average approach speed of 42 kmph using Fig, 14.4 additional operating cas 940.00 = a
10 stops with no delay at 14 paise = Rs. 1.40 Fet cs ii ) T i m e C o s t of V e h i c l e
5 stops of 45 seconds delay at 18 paise = Rs. 0.90 Time cost @ Rs. 4,50 per vehicle km at 60 kmph (Fig. 142 3)

4 stops of60 seconds delay at 19 paise = Rs. 0.76 = 12 paise per km

Cost of 120km = 0.12% 120=Rs.1
Total Stopping cost = Rs 3.06 4.40
(iy) Speed Reduction Cost (Fig. 14.5)
(v) Depreciation Cost
Depreciation cost at 5 paise per km for 100 km Rs, 5.00
From 60 kmph to 40 kmph = 4 paxis
5=Rs,0e.20
(vi) Total Vehicle Operation Cost for 100 km From 60 kmph to 20 kmph = 10 pai
x 8=se
Rs, 0.80
Total = Rs. 1.00
At economical operating speed
Rs 113.29

Cycle Paise
Example 14.2
The distance between two towns is 120 km, Calculate the average operation co

38
vehicle-km for a desired average running speed of 60 kmph from the following data:

Change
Fuel cost Rs. 8.60 per litre
Tyre cost Rs. 940.00 per tyre

per Speed
Gradients = 5 km level, 55 km 0 to 3 percent grade and I
5% grade
Pavement surface condition = good.
Speed reduction to 40 kmph at five curves and to 20 kmph to 8 congested zones.

Cost
°
Total 12 stops with average 60 seconds, delay and time cost per vehicle-hour

2S|

5
°
kmph a
and Returned
Depreciation cost of vehicle = 6 paise per km Speed Reduced
:
i o n a l O p e r a t i n
C g
o s t d u e t o S p e e d Change
Charts (Fig. 14.1 to 14.5) may be used. Fig. 14.8 Ad d i t it

Solution (0) Additional Cost For Stopping

(i) Fuel Cost at 60 kmph From a speed of 60 kmph 12 stops of 60 secs. delay
Road details Fuel consumption, lit. (Fig , 14 .4 ) = 2 4 1 2 = R 5 2 8 8
Level 55 x 0.1 (Fig. 14.1) (vy Depreciation Cos
5.5 t
0 to 3% grade55 x 0.14 Depreciation @ 6 paise per km
x 120 km=Rs.720
3 to 5% grade 10 x 0.18 ("i Total vehicle operation cost for 120 ki length go + 1440+ 1.00 +2.88+7.20
Total five! consumption = Rs. 129.00+ 184
372 HIGHWAY ECONOMICS & FINANCE
NIGHWay
= Rs. 173.28 COSTS
1115 difficult 10 estimate the service tives of
ples sus ch as soil. climate topography and mage ny SENS a6 there ao
Av er ag e ve hi cl e op er at io n co st pe r km =
vaMfriablelis ves Of P
avements, bridges and o1 a
concrete
is commrete 1)
site 310 1 year Tne
Int surfaces 2 10 4

Generally life of 75 t0 100 years is assum, ed for land for ight of way.40
for earth work grading and structures, $0 fo 7 S y e ta 5
ars for major bridges and § ta 260 s e a r s
for iratf i c c o n t r o l d e v i c e s . j a n
rhe cost of highway agencies towards construction a ind maintenance may be included

Rupees
in economic studies. where appropriate. Interest on cap ital is treated as one of the costs
The interest is either charged at the current rate at whic! h the highway agency can borrow
or at a rate representing minimum attractive retum.
Cost pe Vehicie.km
14.3.2 Annual Highway Cost
The items to be included while computing annual highway cost are j
(i Administration (a portion) : Personal service, building. equipment operation, office.
insurance ete.
(ii) Highway operation ; Equipment, building vehicle operation including capital coxes
of vehicle
iii) Highway maintenance
\v) Highway capital cost : Cost of highway components such as right of way, damages.
arthwork, drainage system, pavement bridges and traffic services depreciation cost
100 and interest on investment
Running Speed kmph
Ww Probable life and salvage value at the end of this period.
Fig. 14.6 Vehicle Running Cost (Passenger car at uniform speed on level ta
The average annual highway cost for a foad system may be summed up by the forma
14,3 HIGHWAY COSTS Gp = HeT=M=G, (s.20

Is: 1 General | Where, = average annual cost of ownership and operation

The total Highway Cost for road user benefit analysis is the sum of the capital H_ = average cost for administration and managementat ead quarters
expressed on an annual basis and the annual cost of maintenance. The total. cost
highway improvement is obtained from the estimate prepared from the preliminary T = average annual highway operation cost
The total cost of each highway engineering improvement proposal is calculated from M = averag e annual highwa y mainte nance cost:
in ‘es tme nt plu s int ere st om
following five components : an nu al cap ita l c os t of de pr ec iai t
tii o n on of
of
C, = av er ag e
(i) right of way turn on capital
ee d d : of highway ial
(ii) grading drainage, minor structures ; The annual cost is considered in i eet om a ama ep fapcapeitaes
stead o| f considerini g the overall cost of a pro} ann ual at ts alt
(iii) major structures like bridges Plus the in ; d per id 1 impr
of time
ifm
(iv) pavement and appurtenances
the ang terest over a specifie ovemofentthe is Come sped i
‘alysis, The first cost of a capital
wv annual cost of maintenance and operation annual cost bs the fe (43)
la:
Computation of total annual hi way cost
sg pig me ivi} p(crey
based on summation of the ant a
individual items of improvements a ind their average useful lives is consid (cae E p er-t
cei"
proper and accurate approach.
$74 HIGHWAY ECONOMICS & FINANCE
ECONOMIC
ANALYSIS,
rn pe ri od s (0 co ve r P at a ra te . or ig
where C, = receipt ina uniform series to 578
12 «0.06018 -
P = first cost of im pr ov em en t of an el em en t of a hi gh wa y hw or k a KS.0.72216 takns
0) ‘Ann ua l co st of ea rt
i = rate of interest per unit period 9+ CRF 08 54
9 0.08386 Rs. 0.75474 lakhs
n= period of ti me in nu mb er of in te re st pe ri od s:
bridges
(il) ‘Annual coofst = TSX CRFvsounneto,
(
i(l 75 x 0.08080 = Rs. 0.606 tains
CRE = capital recovery factor =
1 = 4X CREGcotge
(iw) Annual cost of pavement
15)
At the end of the service life of road pavement, some of the items could be
14x 0.13147 = Rs, 1.840
some salvage value, However the salvage value of some other items may be negli () Average annual mainten
58 lakhs
* ance cost = Rs. 1.5 lakhs
The average annual capital cost Cy for a project considering salvage value y
(vi) Total annual highway cost = 0.72216 + 0.75474 +0
estimated by the use of the formula (for the capital-recovery with salvage value) .606 + 1.84058 + 1.50
= Rs, 5.42348 lakhs
q (C-v9 [22] +iVs Example 14.4
4 (+i"+1 Compare the annual costs of two ty
pes of pavement structures, (i) WBM with
(C-V,) CRF +i Vs thin
bituminous surface at total cost of Rs. 2.2 lakhs per km, life of 5 years, interest at 10%,
salvage value of Rs. 0.9 lakhs after 5 years; annual average maintenance cost of Rs. 0.35
where C = total investment on construction lakhs per km and (ii) Bituminous Macadam base and bituminous concrete surface, total
Ve = salvage value at the end of n years
cost of Rs. 4.2 lakhs, life of 15 years interest at 8%, salvage value of 2.0 lakhsat the end
of 15 years; annual average maintenance cost Rs, 0.25 lakhs per km.
i = interest rate applicable
Solution
n = number of years of expected use of the facility Annual average cost taking salvage value into consideration,
The compound amount accumulated sum S on the principal sum of p i(+i®
improvement cost or single payment P, including interest rate, +i V¢+ average annual maintenance cost, M
em CVO ini
S = PC+i)"
(C- Vs ) C R F ( +
, i V
n s
) + M
Example 14.3
v e m e n t w i t h W E M ba se an d th in b i t u m i n o u s su rf ac e co ur se .
(Annual cost of pa 9 + 0 3 5
n = 5 ) + 0 . 1 x 0
= (2.2-0,9) CRFi=o1,
Tem Total cost Rs. In lakhs | Estimated life, years | Rate of i 35 = R s , 0. 78 29 4 la kh s
Land 12.0 100 6 = 1,3 0.2638 + 0,09 + 0.
Earth work 9.0 40 S (il) Annual cost of the bituminous pavement
Bridges and culverts 7.5 60 C R F ( = 0. 08 , 2= 15 ) * 0. 08 x2 .0 + 0.25
Pavement 14.0 15 = (4.2-2.0)
e e e
+ 0 . 1 6 + 0 . 2 5 = R s . n i e
The average cost of maintenance of the Road is Rs. 1.5 lakhs per year. = -2.2 x 0,11683
The average annual cost of the bituminous pavement ® "1 att sce course.k
Solution
‘be more economical when compared with the pavementWil

Annual cost C, = ‘44 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS

I 44.1 Basis of Analysis
sins ot deen fe Lage
(i) Annual cost of land = 12x 2.06(1+0,06)!° Economic analysis of a highway, improvee™
1 ao els ©
(1+0.06)' 1 efit due to the additional expenditure:
= 12x CRFG=6, pe, n= 100)
S76 HIGHWAY ECONOMICS & FINANCE,
ECONOMIC AN
ALYSIS
geonomical proposal among yarious altematives: In the analysis for Gi
justification af the propased improvement, itis required to use judgment vat Road esearch
Resear Laboratory (London ) has ed
quantitative selection of the factors in which annual highway cost dey a 4 grein method. The percentage rate of ren Rae 1 ole paced of
gstimation of AADT of each class of vehicle considering the normal increase in Ss
and the generated traffic R= OemPp * 100
33 pt oi. (146)
ysis
Anals where O * savings in annual road user costs
14.4.2, Methofod
The procedure for the economic evaluation of highway projects ¢ ‘A = annual savi
in acci
ng dents cost,
qualification for cost component and the benefits arising out of the project and to evaly M = additional maintecost
naperncannu
em
by one of the methods of analysis. p = capital cost of improvement
There are several methods of economic analysis. Some of the common methods
Annual-cost Method, Rate-of-Return Method and Benefit-Cost Method, rt Benefit c o s t r a t i o m e t h o d
Annual-Cost Method ‘The principle of this method isto asses the merit of «particular scheme
the annual benefits with the increase in annual cost by corpacieg
the appropriate CRF value calculated for the assume fife span. ‘The annual cost annual benefits from
Benefit cost ratio = §———_——<_0a provement
improvement
be found using the relation = (Eq. 14.3). annual cost of the improvement
i+"
G= PB =P (CRF) =e R-R
\-H 47)
(+n"=1
The total annual cost of an improvement is the sum of all annual costs of cap wher e: R= tot al ann ual roa d use r cos t for éxi sti ng hig hwa y
recovery (Cr) plus annual maintenance and road user costs. Table 14.1 gives the
values for various values of i and n obtained from equation 14.4. R, = total annual road user cost for proposed highway improvement

Table 14.1 Capital Recovery Factor (CRF) for Various Life and Interest Rat H = total annual cost of existing road
Hy = total annual cost of proposed highway improvement
The benefit-cost ratios are determined between alternate proposals and those plans
Which are not attractive are discarded. Then the benefit cost ratios fr various increetts
\Life. n| Interest rate, | of added investment are computed to arrive at the best propos fetemeanb s rer of
Years| 0% 2% 3% 4% s% 6% Proposed improvement, the ratio should be greater than 10. H tf |
5 _|[0.20000]0.21216|0.21835| 0.2243 |0.25097|0.23740/0.: interest rate would affect the results ofthe benefit-cost solutions.
[0.11723 /0.12329]0.12950/0.13587/0.14903
10 _|0.10000]0.11133
Example 14.5
15 [0.06667 | 0.77083 |0.08377| 0.08994 |0.09634|0.10296| 0.11683. lanes at
20 [0.05000 |0.06116| 0.06722] 0.07358]0.08024 [0.08718] 0.10185 Itis proposed to widen a stretch of a single lane road ‘The aralcos
25 |0.04000| 0.05122] 0.05743 0.06401 |0.07095|0.07823| 0.09368 ‘ocotstaoflRs, 6.5 lakhs per km and the rate of interests HORE od waoftthe
30 [0.03333 |0.04465|0.05102| 0.05783 | 0.06505 |0.07265| 0. of maintenance of the existing single lane road is RS 7.0002
cost0onthe
35 |0.02857|0.04000| 0.04654 |0,05358]0.06107|0.06897 | 0.08580) improved two lane road is Rs. 9,000 per km. The avertBe Te i acimtedto be RE
40_|0.02500]|0.03656 | 0.04326 |0.05052]0.05828|0.06646|0.08386 ¢xisting road is Rs. 1.30 per vehicle-km and that on the IP TC ty the e n dof 1$
50 [0.02000 |0.03182{0.03887 0.04655 0.05478 |0.06344| 0.08174
\.1S per vehckm If pres tr
, ent affic is 2000 motor vehicls PAT rine whether te
f
ie design period the traffic is 7
60 {0.01667 |0.02877 [0.03613 | 0.04420 | 0.05283 |0.06188 noe on the improvement of the road is
80 |0.01250|0.02516|0.03311|0.04181 | 0.05103 |0.06057, 0.08017 |0.10005)-
100 |0.01000|0.02320]0.03165|0.0 4081 |0.05 038]0 .0601 8[0.0 8004| (0.10 001
Son
Rate-of-Return Method i (eno 8
300 son
n0y2= 4, x 130
@ 1) PeAverage traffic during the design period =(20007°"""
improvement. In the rate of return method, the interest rate at which two 3! Average road user cost on existing road Pet bat 4
Rs. 569.4 lakhs ‘
solutions have equal annual cost is found. If the rate of return of all proposed
known, the priority for the improvement could be established.
578 HIGHWAY ECONOMICS & FINANCE
ECONOMIC ANALY
0° ) SIS.
ro ad pe r ye ar = 36 5 x 40 x 30 sw
(ii) Average road user cost on improved
Rs. 503.7 lakhs
or From Eq. 14.1, cre = 104i" _ 0081s 008%
569.4 ~ 503.7 = Rs. 65.7 lakhs
Total benefits = (+i)"-1 (1s 0.0%)"
Total cost of improvement, P= 6. 5 x 40 = Rs. 260.0 lakhs = 0.08004 or say, CRF» 0.08
CRF (forn = 15 and i= 10%) = 0.13147 Therefore annual cost Cy = 270,000 + 0.08 = Rs 21,600 i
The details of the highway cost and the road
Present annual cost of improvement, Cr = P.CRF proposals,in the Table 14.2. worked
‘oad User Gon kave been wodkd out forstree
260 x 0.13147 = Rs, 34.182 lakhs Table 14.2 Solution of Example 14.5
Additional maintenance cost per year = Rs. (9000 — 7000) x 40 = Rs. 0.80 j 1, Highway Cost
(iii) Total cost = present annual cost of improvement and additional mainter Cost elements Proposal A | __ ProposalB ie
an Ames ost fright of way at Reo 77,000 + 0.08
per year = 34.182 + 0.80 = Rs. 34.982 lakhs i= 8%, n=
Tae st |
100 yrs. CRF = 0.08 = Rs. 21,600 hs 1450 |
65.7 lo ‘Annual cost gradient at 150,000 » 0.0817) 280.000
(iv) Benefit cost ratio = = 1.878 i= 8%, n= 50 yrs. CRF = 0.0817 = Rs. 12.255
« 0.0817 | 330,000
= Ais 23.700
- c.cet?
=a 27.900 |
34,982 ied ‘Annual cost of structures at 160,000 » 0.0817| 250,000 « 0.0817 me oa
As this is greater than 1.0, the project is economically viable.
i= 8%, n= 50 yrs. CRF = 0.0817 = Ris. 13,072 = Ris. 20,400. = As 23.800
‘Annual cast of pavement at 310,000 « 0.148 | 1890,000 « 0.149 | 1450.00 - Gag
i= 8%, n= 10 yes. CRF= 0.149 = Rs 46,200 = Ais. 228,700 = Rs 216.500
Example 14.6 el Naa sietece
21 « 5000 17.5 « 5000 167 « $000
=As. 105.000 | _=Rs.87500 | =A e2500
‘An existing road link of length 21 km connecting a tourist centre has a bad 1._ Total cost. H
annual highway w= 176527 [| m=38.900 | q=351cC |
inadequate width and poor surfac condition, Proposal A is to increase pa 2, Road User Cost
and re-surface the road on the existing road, Two other alternatives B and C have |
proposed along new alignment, their road lengths being 17.5 and 16.7 km respective Cost elements
desgn le}
ProposalA [Proposal B Pragess
[Average traffic during
The present traffic is 400 passenger cars per day with negligible commercial (400 + 800/2 - G00 vebiclesiéay Total Gy kon, ws.0.55 | 75kmph
Rs. 0.86 | 7Skmpt, ROSE
‘The traffic is expected to be doubled by the end of the 60 year period. The average 5 vehicle operat RsiVeh, kmAt .sped]
cost ion
of vehicles on alignment A is 40 kmph and that ‘on alignments B and C is 75 ot (Fig. 14.8),
[An ual running cost Yor the oad length DSS ~ 600 x 365 x| O56 » G00 « 365 +] 096 » £00» 365 +)
charts for vehicles Running Cost (Fig. 14.6) and time cost Rs. 4.50 per vehicle 21=7529.450| _17.5=2146.200) 167 7ose.u8s!
curve (Fig. 14.3) for estimating the vehicle operation cost. ie Frme cost por_veh. im at speed al a
Rs. 4.50 curve of Fig. 14.3) alanine cia
The estimated details of cost and life for the three proposals are given’ lig) Time cost of all the vehicles for the “oa! 0.12 x 600 = 365 | 0.09» 600 » 385 -'
Assuming the rate of interest as 8% and annual maintenance cost Rs. 5,000 p Jength j__avmspr.gno) 175 = 244925)
analyse the economics by (i) annual cost method and (ii) Benefit cost ratio method. [2._ Total ennual oad user Cost. R BOSE TE Se
p ‘Grand total annual cost of proposal ~ mrs URME |
Estimated useful Cost in thousand rup ‘sum of total annual highway cost and) 3257.857
Element | life years Proposal A toad user cost = 1 + 2
An nu al
Right of way 100 0 li ne of th i
is Ta bl e it
it ma y be se en th at th e gr an d tot al of f the
a
From th e bo tt om r p i p a
Grading 50 150 Cost values fo r th e
Th
Pr
er
op
ef
os
or
al
e,
s
pr
A,
op os
B
al
an
s C
d
wi
C
th
ar
th e
e
lo
Rs
we
. S2
st v
5)
a l u
85
e
), Be
ol annual
[Structures 30 160 250 2752,345 respectively.
Pavement 10 310 1550 is the best or most economical proposal.
Solution (ii) Benefit-cost method

(i) Annual Cost Method From Table of Annual Cost : (Table 14.2)
Rs. 176.527
The annual cost of each element may be found by multiplying first cost Ay Total Annual highway cost of proposal A = Ha =
appropriate CRF value. The CRF value corresponding to the specified rate ol i A = R a = 3081,330
st fo r p r o p o s a l
and number of interest periods n may either be taken from the Table 14-1 Total annual road user co
o p o s a l B = He* Rs, 381,900
calculated using Eq. 14.4. As an example, the annual cost of right of way o c o s t of p r
Total annual highway
with P = 270,000, n= 100 yrs. and i = 8% may be calculated, as follows 3
From Table 14.1, CRF = 0.08004;
580 HIGHWAY ECONOMICS & FINANCE
B = Rp = Rs, 2491125
‘Total annual road user cost for proposal ; REFERENCES
sa
Benetit-cost ratio, Special taxes on commercial vehicl
es
B_ Ra—Rp _, 3081,330-2491,125 590,205
= 2.874 Other road user taxes
A Hg-Na 381,900-176,527 205,373
Property taxes
Total annual highway
cost of proposalC = Hc = Rs. 3,75,100 Toll taxes
Total annual road user cost proposal C Re = Rs. 2377,245 Other funds set apart for highways
Benefit — cost ratio, There should be an equitable distribution of revenues available for highways
Highway financing in India
= 704,085
deta So ce sete oe
C _ R a - R e _ 3 0 8 1 , 3 3 0 - 2 3 7 7 , 2 4 5
= 3,546
A Hc-Ha 375,100—176,527 198,573
Therefore, alternative C is the best one with higher benefit-cost ratio. and Panchayats.
g :
Taxes levied by Central Government for highway financinare
14.5 HIGHWAY FINANCE Duties and taxes on motor fuel
Basic principle in highway financing is that the funds spent on highways are Excise duty on vehicles and spare parts, tyre etc.
from the road users. The recovery may be both direct and indirect. Excise duty on oils, grease, etc
Two general methods of highway financing are Taxes levied by the State Governments include :
Pay-as-you-go method Registration fees for vehicles and road tax
Credit financing method Permits for transport vehicles
In pay-as-you-go method, the payment for highway improvements, maints Passenger tax on buses
Sales tax on vehicle parts tyre etc.
highway improvement is made from borrowed money and this amount and the
are re-paid from the future income, * Fees on driving licenses
Distribution of highway cost Taxes levied by local bodies are mainly the toll tax.
Ever since the int rod uct ion of Cen tra l Roa d Fun d (CR F) in the yea r 192 9 by tax ing
The question of distributing highway cost among the Government, road-user and the mai n sou rce of fin anc e for the Sta te Gov ern men t to meet the
motor fuel, this has been
has been a disputed task in several countries. Many economists are of the view that
road development needs, wit hou t hav ing to go thr oug h the tim e con sum ing pro ces s of
financial responsibility for roads should be assigned only among the beneficiaries special sanctions each time. Howeve r of lat e the CR F is als o be in g me rg ed wit h the
basis of the benefit each one receives. 5 In March 1976 the Lo k Sa bh a has pa ss ed th e re so lu ti on of th e Mi ni st ry
general revenue. d e e r
ofTransport ensuring the existence of th e CR F se pa ra te ly wit h the sp ie
There are several theories suggesting the method of distribution of highway ou at u a y y of cu st om s e e
amount of not less than 3.5 paise per tn e
between passenger cars and other commercial vehicles like the trucks. However in An
the CRF for
the annual revenue from transport has been much higher than the expenditure on. motor spirit would be set apart towards s of a e en The
nt io n wo ul d be gi ve n (0 sc he me
utilising this fund, greater atte s
development and maintenance. Therefore there is no problem of distributing the high
the fu nd wo ul d be re ta in ed by the cen tra l Go ve rn me nt #8 e
cost among other agencies. Also the taxation on vehicles is being considered sepat Tw en ty pe rc en t of pe
fund will also be used for road research schemes, traffic a
by the states and there seems to be no theory followed for the distribution of en gi ne er s. Th e ‘ e e e o u e e
between various classes of vehicles. training arrangements for yo un g Rupees
India du ri ng the si xt h pl an pe ri od 19 78 -8 3, 19 80 -8 5 wa s
Sources of Revenue
The’ various sources from which funds necessary for highway develo} REFERENCES
maintenance may be made available, are listed below :
Taxes on motor fuel and lubricants 1. Oglesby C. H, Highway Engineering, John Willy & So Hill BookCo. In.
Duties and taxes on new vehicles and spare parts including tyres 2. Woods, K. B., Highway Engineering Hand Book MeGr=™
Vehicles registration tax
 HIGHWAY ECONOMICS & FINANCE
PROBLEMS
3. Indian Roads Congress, Road Transport Operation Cost on Various Types of Pavement surface condition = yoo sad
Sur fac es in Hil ly Reg ion s, I. R. C. Spe cia l Pub lic ati on : 7
Speed reduction to 30 kmph at Curves and to 20 kph at cong
Wells, GR. “Highway Planning Techniques ~ The balance of Cost and B,
Griffin, London. 3 ‘Total 12 stops with average 60 sec. delay and time
cost per wditehess 450
|. Justo, CE. G. and Reddy K. C., “Improvement in Level of Service for 7 Depreciation cost of vehicle = 6 paise per km,
operation — A Case Study", Paper No. 325, Journal of Indian Roads Con, Figures 14.1 to 14.5 may be used.
Volume 39-3, 1979. BY e posals for stren
. The details of three alternatpro ve me nt
“Presidential Address to 39th Annual Session of Indi given below : Determine which one is figs come poy panos
journal of I.R.C. Volume 39-4, 1979. payable in all the cases is 10% per annum and
ute ofS30 . ne OM E 2500 meee
. AASHO, “Road User Benefit Analysis for Highway Improvements”, Part
Vehicles perday, with annual grovih
Passenger Cars in Rural Areas. American Association of State Highway Officials, al [Des: ign] Construction [Av erage maintenance] Vel
Vehl ie operation toa)
No] Overlaytype | life, Joos Rs. t,
(laks)) cost.Rs. per km Rs pericham |
. Ministry of Transport (Roads Wing), “Road Development Plan for years | _perkm | (during design life) |_dunc desis ite) |
1981-2001", Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi, 1984. @ |WBM + PMC 3 45 15000 132 |
(iy|BM+PMC_| 8 68 8.000 asst
(ii]BM + AC ra 92 4.000 13s j
PROBLEMS ). An road link of length 21 km connecting @ tourist centre bas 2 bed
alignment, inadequate width and poor surface condition, Proposal X is to increase
. Discuss the importance of highway economy studies. width and resurface pavement on the existing road. Two other altemauves ¥ and Z
have been proalong pos ed t, the
new alignmen roadir lengths being 17.$ and 16:7 kes
. Explain briefly various factors affecting the vehicle operation cost. respectively.
3. How is the cost of highways analysed ? The present traffic is 500 passenger cars per day with negligible commercial
_ Write a note on economics of highway pavements. vehicles. The traffic is expected to be doubled by the end of the 10 year period.
‘The average speed of vehicles on alignmen t X is 45 kmph and that on alignment s Y
. Explain benefit-cost analysis and its significance. and Z is 60 kmph. Use charts for vehicle Running Cost and Time Cost per vebicie
. Write a note on Highway financing. hour curve. These are given in Fig. 14.3 and 14.6.
‘The estimated details of cost and life for the three proposals are given below
. Calculate the operation cost of passenger car for 150 km length of a rural higt
ao

Assuming the rate of interest as 8% and annual maintena nce cost Rs. 7000 per km
with no sharp curves for most economical vehicle operation using the follo analyse the economics by (i) Annual cost method and (ji) Benefit cost ratio
data and charts given in Fig. 14.1. 14.2. 14.3 and 14.4 method. ‘
km, 0 to 2% for 60 km, 4 per cen t for 40 km and 6% fo 20
r kms
Gradients: level for 30 Element Estimated useful
of
Pavement surface con n : good _| life, years
' [Right of way 100
Fuel cost : Rs. 8.80 per litre Grading 50
50.
Tyre cost : Rs. 910 per tyre ‘Structures
jo
[Pavement
No. of stops enroute : 10 stops without delay 5 with 45 secs. delay and
60 secs. delay.
Time cost per vehicle-hour = Rs. 3.00
Depreciation cost of vehicle = 5 paise per km
‘The distance between two towns is 200 km. Calculate the average operation
per vehicle-km for a desired average running speed of60 kmph from the foll
data =
Fuel cost = Rs. 8.90 per litre
‘Tyre cost = Rs. 900 per tyre
Gradients = 80 km level, 80 km 0-3% grade, and 40 km 3-5 percent grade:
 A stripping of
ratio
test on C h e m i c a l s t a b i l i z a t i o n
Abrasion test Bituminous CKE
Act, National Highways carpet Clam shell
Accident, concrete Classification
analysis of emulsion of highways
causes materials of soils-
cost mix design Clearance,
investigation mixes distance
records pavements lateral
studies Black cotton soil stabilization Cliff galleries
Adhesion test Bleed Clover leaf
Additive Boussinesq’s theory Coefficient,
Aerial survey Bradbury formula
of subgrade restraint
of roughness
Aggregate ‘Brake reaction time
Cohesiometer
crushing test Braking distance Cohesion of soil.
impact test ‘Built-up spray grout Cold mix
spreaders Bulldozer Collision diagram
stone Burmister method Combination of stress
Alignment elastic layered system analysis Compacting equipment
Alligator cracking. By pass Compaction
Alternate bay method Compensation in gradient
Alternate system Cc Condition diagram
Analysis of accidents Concrete
Anionic bitumen mixer
California Bearing Ratio
Angularity number test pavement
vibrator Desert sand stabilization
Annual average daily traffic CBR method of design Conflicts Design factors
Annual cost method CBR cumulative standard axle load ~ 3.
Appian way
area Design speed
California resistance value method - '3; crossing. Desire lines
Arboriculture Camber 6 points Deviator stress
Asphalt concrete Capacity Consistency limits Deval abrasion test
mastic practical Consolidation deformation Design wheel load
sheet Capillary” Construction, highway Diagonal crown method
Attrition test cut off Construction joint Dimension of vehicles
Avalanche rise Construction of bitumen Direct shear test
Axle loads Capital recovery factor bound macadam Distillation test
Casagrande classification system bituminous carpet District road
Carriageway bituminous concrete Diverging,
Carpet cement concrete pavement
Base course 334,366,474 Category analysis earth roads
281 Catch water drain embankment
Bearing tests
205 Cationic bitumen Sravel road
Before and after studies
506,509 Causeway Penetration macadam
Bankelman beam Surface dressing
Benefit cost ratio 577 Cement concrete pavement
Bitumen 302 Cementing agents WBM road
adhesion test 300 Central Road Fund Contact pressure
428,435 Centrifuge moisture equivalent Continuous bay method
bound macadam Comer loading
stabilization 478,480 Centrifugal Corrugation, waves
straight run 302 force
 INDEX
586
Filter, design of INDEX
Drainage Financial studies Headway
cross: Financing highway Heat treatment WH sighe Sustamce
highway Fixed time signal Highway
MA. Seectgachord
Sshands

254
hill roads Flash and fire point tests alignment
slope Flakiness index. cost channetin
2
sub-surface Float test construction Siel
surface Floating, concrete pavement cross section elements
system Floating car method development 1S rotary sate
transverse Flexible overlays
drainage S18 trathie
water logged areas finance Index properties
m e n
Flexible pavement design lighting
$80,565
250 Inflation pressure
Due t i l i t y t e s t o n b i t u
Flexible progressive system maintenance 498,488 Interchange ramps
Dummy joint Fly ash materials 268 Interchanges
Durability Formation, widih of pavements 330
Dust palliative
Dust nuissance
Foot path
Freeze and thaw
planning
project
3
2 4
Friction national 22 Jayakar
Frictional stresses Research Board wean jeatho
Frost action state Joint sealer
Earth roads Frost heav user benefits 566 Joints
Earth work Fuel cost HRB classification of soil Joints, arrangement of
535
Economic studies Fuller's formula Hill roads contraction
alignment of
Edge loading Full grout design & construction
$36 construction
Education measures Future traffic S44 expansion
Elongation index drainage of
geometrics of
$50 Jongitudinal
Embankment G $40 maintenance, of
Emotion time
maintenance problems 554 transverse
312.302 Hoe 413° warping
Emulsion, bituminous Galleries
En f o r c e m e n t m e a s u r e s 205
g h w a y
Home interview method iM Joints in concrete pavement
g m e a s u r e s 205 Geometri c d e s i g n o f h i Horizontal alignment 04 Joint spacing
E n g i n e e r i n
29 Goldbeck’s formula curves
Engineering sudies 55 Grade Horizontal transition curves (24 c
Engineering surveys 172 compensation Hot-mix 426 i
Enoscope 532,564 separation Hubbard-ficld test 322 Kansas method
Erosion control Gradient, Hyeem method 323° Kerb
338,339 Hydrologic analysis
ESWL 358 critical length 521 Kerb, parking
Equivalent C-value Hydrophillic aggregates 301 drain
Kerb and channel
341 exceptional Hydrophobic aggregates
Eq u i v a l e n t l o a d f a c t o r s
floating.
301
E v a l u a t i o n , so il s t r e n g t h 280 L
506 limiting
Evaluation, pavement
4 minimum Lag distance
Excavation ruling
Equipment
ail Impact test 297 Lamp
361 Gravel roads Informatory 217 Landstides
Expansion pressure ign
180 Group index Intellection time 89 Land width
Expressway
Exudation pressure 361 Grouted, Interface treatment 426 Lane width
macadam Intersections, Lateral
F full at grade 235 frichor
semi channelized 236 placement of bight
27 design 334 Lomniseate uve
Fact finding survey License
Failures, pavement 489 rade separated 235.44
Feather edge construction 419 rotary 238 Lighting
Felling 564,560 Hair pin bend
Filter material 531 Hardness of stone aggregate
 588 INDEX

Liquid limit Modal speed

Lopping Modal split Patch repair Prohibility sign
Los Angeles Modified Hubbard method Patterns, road Pruning
abrasion test Modifying agents Pavement Psychological widening
Loss on heating test Modulus of deformation design
Lumen Modulus of subgrade reaction evaluation R
Luminaire Mohr’s theory failure
Lux Moisture content, optimum flexible Radial pattem
Motor vehicles act markings Radius,
Motor vehicle operation cost rigid of horizontal curve
Mud jacking serviceability of relative stiffness
Macadam, John Mud pumping semi rigid of resisting section
Macadam, Multiple regression analysis surface ruling
bitumen bound 428,435
unevenness Rammers
Penetration 427
Multi-storeyed parking widening on curves Rapid curing cutback
water bound width Rate of return method
Maintenance, N Pay-as-you-go method Rational method
of bituminous surface
Penetration, Ravelling
cement concrete roads
Nagpur road conference macadam Reaction time
Nagpur road plan test on bitumen Reconnaissance
management system National highway act test on soil Realignment
of earth roads
National highways Perception time Reflection cracks
of water bound macadam
National Transport Policy Commit Periodic maintenance Regulatory sign
Major district roads Native asphalt Phasing road programme Reinforced concrete pavement
Manning's formula Non-passing Pie charts Relative stiffness
Map cracking Nursery
Pierve Tresaguet Repetition ofloads
Map study PIEV theory Resisting length
Markings, Piping Resisting section,
kerb Plan Nagpur equivalent radius of
object Obligatory points Second 20-year Resurfacing
pavement Planning, Retaining wall
Off-street parking necessity of Return post card method
reflector unit
road
Off-tracking survey Reverse silhoutte
On-street parking Plant mix Revetment wall
traffic One-way street
Marshall method of mix design Plantation of trees Revised PRA
Operation cost, motor vehicle Plastic deformation system
Mass haul diagram Origin and destination studies Plastic limit Right of way
Master plan Other district roads Plasticity index Rigid overlays
Mastic asphalt Overlay Plate bearing test Rigid pavement
Materials, highway design of Pneumatic tyred roller Rigid factor
Maximum, flexible Pot holes Road arboriculture
dry density rigid Power shovel Road margin
superelevation types
Pozzolanic materials Road mix
wheel load Overpass PRA classification, revised Road patterns
McLeod method Overtaking sight distance persis work Roadside development
Mechanical stabilization Overtaking zone liminary survey Road delineator
Mechanical widening Premix method Road side interview method
Mechanics of stabilization Present serviceability rating Road use studies
Medium curing cutback P Prestressed concrete pavement Road-user characteristics
Mehra’s method Parking facility design of
Prime coat Rock cutting
Merging Primer Rolled concrete
Metcalf, John
Parking garages
Proportioning roller
Parking studies
Minimum superelevation Passenger car units
 INDEX
590
+6 informatory INDEX
macadam 416 regulatory
pneumatic tyred 416 warning Stabilization 463 Yo
sheepsfoot traffic 463,465
416 Stabilized roads
smooth whee! 416 Silhoutte Stabilometer 292 Tack coat
tandem Staggered system 254 Tag on car method
i Simultaneous system.
Roman roads tate highways 23. Tandem roller
238 Skid
Rotary intersection
resistance Star and grid patter 26 Tar
Rothfutch’s method. 468 35 Telford construction
Slides Star and grid formulae
Routine maintenance 500
Stone aggregate 292 Telford Thomas
Ruling Slip Stopping distance 88 Temperature stresses
gradient 140 Slow curing cutback
at slopes on Textural classification m
18 Smooth wheeled roller Straight edge 445 Third 20-Year Road Development plan 19
radius
Running cost 367 Snow clearance Strengthning of existing pavement $07 Thirtieth highest hourly volume 169
52 Soft aggregates Thomlinson’s analysis
Run-off ‘Stress,
494 Softening point test coefficient 375 Tie bar
Ruts. formation of 382
Soil, combination of
characteristics due to friction 382
classification due to temperature 379 clearance
374 intellection
Safety drive stabilization due to wheel loads
warping 379 perception
‘Saturation system strength 300 total reaction
Scaling of cement concrete survey Stripping of binder volition
‘Studies
Scrapers Soil-aggregate mixtures
economic
28 Toll taxes
Screenings Soil-bitumen
engineering 29 Traffic,
Scuppers Soil-cement 23 accidents analysis
financial actuated signal
Seal coat 2
road use
Sealers Solubility test traffic
29: assignment
Second 20-year road plas. Soundness test Structural cracks 495 capacity
334 characteristics
Seepage flow. control of ‘Sub-base
Semi-grout Spalling of contraction j Subgrade soil 335.268 control devices

Serviceability, pavement Spalling of joint Subsurface drainage 531,528

Species of trees ‘Summit curves 143,
Set-back distance 106
Shape of aggregate Specific gravity test, Superelevation
on aggregate analysis of 107
Shape test MS
Shear test on bitumen attainment of
Speed, design wt
Sheepsfoot roller 110
Sheet asphalt average maximum:
110
Shovel, power design minimum
430.427
Shrinkage cracks overall Surface dressing
521,519
Shrinkage limit running Surface drainage
502
space mean Surface treatment
Sight distance Surveys.
absolute minimum spot 39
studies aerial
at intersection alignment 539
time mean 38
head light
travel engineering volume
intermediate 60
overtaking or passing Speed and delay study detailed
27.30 volume study
Spiral curve planning Trace out
Skidding. pavemen* preliminary 55.57
Signals, Spot test sy! Transition curve.
reconnaissance horizontal
genéral principles Spreaders, aggregate $8.29
traffic Stability, soil
453 object of providing
of foundation Sympathttic cracks types of
isolated
Signs, of slope
 592 INDEX

Transportation, Village roads

characteristics of road 4 Viscosity of cutbacks
importance 1 Viscosity test on bitumen
modes 3 Visibility
planning 257 Volition time
_ Travel time 171 Volume study, traffic
Trench type construction 419 VMA (Voids in min
Tresaguet construction 10 : Se Ses)
Tresaguet, Pierre 10 Ww
Trial cycle method 222
Triangular chart 468 Warning sign
Triaxial compression test 333,282 Warping cracks
Triaxial design method 363 Warping joints
Tripq distribu“3tion 259 Warping stress .
Trip generation 258 — Water absorption test 379,449
Tyre life chart 0
268 — Water content test
oeaty year road plan, igs Water proofing agents
fit dee Water repelling agents
Water retaining agents
third 44° Water logged areas
Waves and corrugations
U Work spot method
WBM road construction
Unconfined compression test 284 maintenance
Under pass 246 ~~ Weaving,
Uneven-ness index 75 angle
Uneveness indicator 15 distance
Unified soil classification 271 Webster's method
Urban road classes distance 24 Wheel barrow
Urban transportation planning 257 Wheel load stresses
Utility 32 Weight of vehicles
Westergaard’s equations
Vv modulus of subgrade reaction
Wet-dry
Valley, curves 147 Widening mechanical
Vehicle, psychological
dimension of 163 Widening of pavement
operation cost 367 Width,
registration tax 580 of carriage way
weight 164 of formation (roadway)
Vehicular characteristics 162 of land (right of way)
braking 165 of pavement
dimensions 163 of vehicle ;
, dynamic 163 i:
ies
speed 16s162
static
weight 164
Vertical curves 1430 *
Vibrator 417