D O L STARTER (SINGLE PHASE INDUCTION MOTOR)

A Project Report Submitted

In Partial Fulfilment of requirement of the award of
Diploma
In
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
By
(E19271732800008) ALOK KUMAR

(E19271732800032) MAHESH YADAV

(E19271328700012) AMIT BIND

(E19271732800062) SHUBHAM KUMAR

(E19271732800011) AMBRISH KUSHAWAHA

(E19271732800023) DINESH KUMAR YADAV

Submitted To
Mr. Satyam Prakash (assigned per time table…..capitalize each word)
Lecturer
Electrical engineering department

GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC KENAURA, SULTANPUR

SULTANPUR, 227816
MAY 2022
 UNDERTAKING

_______________________________________________________

We declare Electrical Engineering, Government Polytechnic Kenaura, Sultanpur,

(India) for the award of Diploma STARTER (SINGLE PHASE) ” submitted to the
Department of Electrical in Engineering in that the work presented in this project report
entitled “D O L Engineering is my original work . All presented work carried and executed
by me. All the statements are correct as per my best knowledge.

Date: (Signature of Candidate)

Place: (E19271732800008) ALOK KUMAR

(E19271732800032) MAHESH YADAV

(E19271328700011) AMIT BIND

(E19271732800000) SHUBHAM KUMAR

(E19271732800000) AMBRISH KUSHAWAHA

(E19271732800000) DINESH KUMAR YADAV

 DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
GOVERNMENT POLYTECHNIC, KENAURA
SULTANPUR (U.P.)

_______________________________________________________

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled “(DOL STARTER)” is being submitted by
Alok kumar (E19271732800008), Mahesh yadav (E19271732800032 ), Ambrish
kushwaha(E19271732800011), Amit bind(E19271732800012) , Shubham kumar
bind9E19271732800062), Dinesh kumar yadav9E1927173280023) in partial fulfilment of
the requirement for the award of the Diploma in Engineering in Electrical Engineering to
the Department of Electrical Engineering, Government Polytechnic Kenaura, Sultanpur
during the academic year 2019-2022. The results or work embodied in this project have not
been submitted for the award of any other place. I approve his submission for the above
mentioned degree.

(R. B. Singh) (Satyam prakash) (J.P. Sonkar)

Principal Head of Department, Supervisor/Guide
Government Polytechnic Electrical Engineering
Kenaura, Sultanpur
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

________________________________________________________

Here is an example: I take this opportunity to express my deep sense of

gratitude to my project supervisor, J P Sonakar, Designation, in the Department of Electrical
Engineering, Government Polytechnic Kenaura, Sultanpur for his constant guidance and
insightful comments during the course of work. I shall always cherish my association with
them for their constant encouragement and freedom to thought and action that rendered to me
throughout the thesis work.
I am grateful to Head (J P Sonkar) for their encouragement, valuable suggestions
during my project work. I would like to thank all the faculty members of the Department of
elecrtrical Engineering at Government Polytechnic Kenaura, Sultanpur, for maintaining a
congenial research environment.
I am thankful to all my friends for their constant help and encouragement for
my successful completion of thesis work.
Finally I am obliged to my parents for their constant and generous support for my
Diploma
 Table of Contents

UNDERTAKING..............................................................................................................................ii
CERTIFICATE................................................................................................................................iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...............................................................................................................iv
LIST OF FIGURES..........................................................................................................................6
LIST OF TABLES..............................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
LIST OF SYMBOLS..........................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
CHAPETR 1 INTRODUCTION.......................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
HEADINGS-1.1-Examples...............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
CHAPETR 2 COMPONETS..............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
HEADING 2.1 Examples..................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
CHAPETR 3 FUNCTIONS OF COMPONETS...............................Error! Bookmark not defined.
CHAPETR 4 SPECIFICATION OF COMPONETS.......................Error! Bookmark not defined.
CHAPTER 5 COST OF COMPONETS...........................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
CHAPTER 6 ADVANTAGES OF PROJECT..................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
CHAPTER 7 DISADVANTAGES OF PROJECT...........................Error! Bookmark not defined.
CHAPTER 8 CONCLUSIONS..........................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
CHAPTER 9 FUTURE SCOPE OF PROJECT...............................Error! Bookmark not defined.
REFERENCES....................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Online learning [1] ...................................................................................................................1

Figure 2 Books [2] ...................................................................................................................................
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO INDUCTION MOTOR STARTER

__________________________________________________________________
1.1 General Introduction
The primary function of a motor starter is to start and stop the motor to which it is
connected. These are specially designed electromechanical switches similar to relays. The main
difference between a relay and a starter is that a starter contains overload protection for the
motor. So the purpose of the starter is twofold, i.e., to switch the power automatically or
manually to a motor and at the same time protect the motor from overload or faults.
Motor starters are available in different ratings and sizes depending on the motor’s
(AC motor) rating and size. These staters safely switch the necessary power to the motor and
also prevent the motor from drawing heavy currents. Let us see more details about the need for a
Motor Starter, different types of Motor Starters and also their wiring diagrams. In this article we
are going to deal only with AC motor starters, as they are the work horses in industries and
commercial applications.
Why Motors Need a Motor Starter?

A stator is needed for an induction motor (three phase type) in order to limit the starting current.
In a three phase induction motor, the rotor induced emf is proportional to the slip (it is the
relative speed between stator and rotor) of the induction motor. This rotor emf drives the current
through rotor.

When the motor is at standstill condition (at the start), the speed of the motor is zero and hence
slip is at the maximum. This induces very high emf in the rotor at starting condition and thereby
a very high current flows through the rotor.

As the rotor needs a high current, stator winding draws a very high current from the supply. This
initial drawing current can be of the order of 5-8 times the full load current of the motor.
This huge current at the starting of a motor can damage the motor windings and also this current
can cause a large voltage drop in the line.

These voltage spikes may affect the other appliances connected to the same line. Therefore, a
starter is necessary to limit this starting current to avoid damage to the motor as well as to other
adjoining equipment.

A starter is a device that reduces initial high current of the motor by reducing the supply voltage
applied to the motor. Such reduction is applied for very short duration and once the motor
accelerates, slip value decreases and hence a normal voltage is then applied.

In addition to the starting current protection, motor starter also provides the protection against
overload, single phasing and low voltage protection.

The overload protection is necessary because motor draws more current during overload
condition and it causes to produce excessive heat in the windings. This extra heat reduces the
motor’s life and may cause burning of windings and hence fire.

All starter devices are provided with some overheating protection element to limit high current
during overload. Most of these devices work on timed overload concept in which overload
current is allowed for a short time (very few seconds) and then stops the motor if the current
exists for beyond that time.

Most starters are equipped with bimetallic strips to achieve this operation.

Some motors that are rated below 5 HP are directly connected (using DOL starter) without
reducing the supply voltage (at initial condition), but they are provided with overload, low
voltage protection and single phasing protection. This is because such motors can withstand high
starting current for short duration.
How a Motor Starter Operates
Basically, a starter is a switching device that consists of electrical contacts (both incoming and
outgoing). Based on the operation, starters are primarily divided into hand operated and
electrically operated devices.

Hand operated starter consists of a lever on the side of it that can be turned on or off. Usually
these are used for smaller motors as they are incapable of operating remotely.

This type of motor starters causes the motors to restart immediately after a power interruption.
This instant operation of the motor after power failure may leads to flow of dangerous currents
into the motor and hence the motor will be damaged. This is the reason why most of the starters
are equipped with electrical switches.

In case of electrically operated starters, electromechanical relays are used for switching the
power carrying conductors. These relays are called as contactors. When the coil in the contactor
is energized, it produces the electromagnetic field and that pulls the switch contacts.

And when the coil is de-energized, contacts are pulled back to normal position by the spring
arrangement. Usually, the motor starters are provided with push buttons (start and stop buttons)
in order to energize and de-energize the coil so that contacts will be operated. These electrically
operated starters will not restart after a power failure until the start button is pressed.

Different Techniques used in Motor Starters

Most of the industrial operation uses three-phase induction type motors as compared to any other
type of motor. There are different techniques used to start a three-phase induction motor. Before
knowing various types of starters, let us first discuss about the techniques used for induction
motor starters.
Full Voltage Technique
This method often referred as direct on-line (DOL) starting and it is the most common way of
starting three-phase induction motor. In this technique, a full voltage (or rated voltage) is applied
across the motor as it is inherently a self starting motor that requires full voltage to start it.

This technique is applied only for a motor which are rated less than 5HP as described above. The
motor starters employing this method are called DOL starters.

Reduced voltage technique: This method is employed for large motors rated in the range of
100HP and above (or for a motor that takes very high starting currents). As discussed earlier that,
these high rated motors draw a very high starting currents and also may cause voltage drop in the
line.

In such cases reduced voltage technique is used, where voltage to the motor is reduced initially
for a few seconds until the motor rotates and then applied voltage is increased to its rated supply
voltage thereby motor rotates to its rated speed.

Motor starters employing the technique of reducing voltage are called reduced voltage starters.
Commonly used reduced voltage starters include stator resistance starter, auto transformer starter
and start-delta starter.

Bidirectional Starter Technique

In some processes, it is necessary to operate the motor in both forward and reverse directions.
Generally, three-phase motor direction can be reversed by changing any two wires (i.e., altering
the sequence of RYB) of the three phase supply.

In this method, two contactors are employed with suitable connection and interlocking
mechanism between them in order to achieve bidirectional operation.
Multispeed Technique
In this method, motor starters are made to deliver different voltages to the motor for operating
the motor at different speeds.

Typically, these starters are designed to operate the motor at two or three different speeds using
two or more contactors. Most of these starters are made with full and reduced voltage versions.

Types of Motor Starters

Based on the above techniques, the most common types of starters are listed below.

1. Stator Resistance Starter

2. Auto Transformer Starter
3. Star-Delta Starter
4. Direct on-line Starter
5. Soft Starter
These motor starters are discussed in detail in the following section.

Stator Resistance Starter

In this method, a reduced voltage is applied to the induction motor by connecting external
resistances in series with each phase of the stator winding.

During the motor start, these resistances are kept at maximum position such that a reduced
voltage is applied across the motor due to large voltage drop across resistances. The schematic
diagram for this type of starter is shown in figure below.

Once the motor picks up the speed, the resistance connected to each phase is gradually reduced
from the stator circuit. When these resistances are removed from the circuit, a rated voltage (full
voltage) is applied to the motor and hence it runs at rated speed.
In this method, it is important to maintain the starting torque to the motor while minimizing the
starting current. This is because current varies in proportion to the voltage whereas the torque
varies square of the applied voltage.

Suppose if the applied voltage is reduced by 50 percent, the current will be reduced to 50 percent
while the torque reduced by 25 percent.

The construction of this starter is simple and it is the most economical method than all methods.
Also, this starter can be used for motor whether they are a star or delta connected. However, due
to high power dissipation in the resistors, a large power loss takes place in the motor.

In addition, a reduced voltage causes a reduced torque at start of the motor. Due to these
limitations, resistance method is limited for some applications.

Auto Transformer Starter

In this method, a three-phase auto transformer is connected in series with the motor. This
transformer reduces the voltage applied to the motor and hence the current. The schematic
diagram for this type of starter is shown in figure below.

This starter consists of changeover switch that switches the motor between reduced voltage and
full voltage conditions. When this switch is in the start position, a reduced voltage is applied to
the motor.

This voltage depends on the fractional percentage of tapings and is controlled by changing the
position of autotransformer slider.

When the motor attains 80 percent of its rated speed, the changeover switch is connected to RUN
position automatically using relays. Due to this, a rated voltage is then applied to this motor.
These transformers are , also provided with overload, no-load and time delay circuits.
In this method, the motor terminal voltage is higher for a given starting current on the line side as
compared to other reduced voltage methods. Therefore, this method gives highest starting torque
per line ampere current.

This stator can be connected to both star and delta connected three –phase motors. However,
these starters are more expensive than stator resistance starter.

Star Delta Starter

The Star Delta Starter is the most commonly used reduced voltage starter as it is the cheapest
starter among all. In this method, induction motor is connected in star during start and delta
while running with rated speeds.

These starters are designed to run on delta connected stator of an induction motor. The schematic
diagram of this starter is shown in figure below.

This starter uses a TPDT (triple pole double throw) switch and it connects the stator winding in
star during the starting condition. Due to this star connection, the applied voltage to the motor is
reduced by the factor 1/√3. This reduced voltage results the less current through the motor.

When the motor picks up the speed, the TPST switch is thrown automatically on the other side
by using relays such that the winding is now connected in delta across the supply. So the normal
voltage is applied to the motor (because in delta connection voltage is same, VL =VP) and hence
the motor runs at normal speed.

This method is cheap and maintenance free as compared to other methods. However, this is
suitable only for delta connected motors and also the factor by which starting voltage reduced,
i.e., 1/√3 cannot be altered.
Direct On-Line Starter
As discussed earlier that small capacity motors (below 5 HP) doesn’t have very high starting
currents. And without using any starter, such motors can withstand the starting currents.

There is no need to reduce the voltage to the motor at start and hence motor can be connected
directly to the supply lines. This type of arrangement employed in a starter is referred as direct
on-line starter or simply DOL starter.

Although, this starter does not reduce the starting voltage, it provides the protection to the motor
against overloading, single phasing and low voltage. The schematic diagram of direct online
starter is shown in figure below.

During start condition, normally open contact (NO) is pushed for fraction of a second and this
makes the magnetizing coil becomes energized. This magnetic flux produced by the coil attracts
the contactor so that the motor is now connected to the supply.

The contactor maintains this position while the coil gets supply from the additional switch. When
a normally closed (NC) switch is pressed, the coil becomes de-energized and the contactor get
separated by spring arrangement there by the supply to the motor is removed.

Under any overload condition, motor draws a heavy current that causes overheating. This
excessive heating operates the thermal relays using overload sensors. Overload contacts then
operates to remove the supply to the motor.

It is the simplest, cheapest and most reliable method and hence widely used. The main
disadvantage of DOL starter is that the motor draws a very high current during start for a short
period.
Soft Starter
In this method, semiconductor power switches are employed for reducing the starting current to
the induction motor. It is another type of reduced voltage starter and it connected in series with
the line voltage applied to the motor. The schematic diagram of soft starter is shown in figure
below.

This starter consists of back to back thyristors or TRIACs in each phase of the stator winding. By
controlling the firing angle to these thyristors, the voltage applied to the motor will be reduced
stepless. This type of voltage reduction gives a smoother operation as compared to other methods
discussed above.

This results the absence of torque pulsations and hence there no jerking when starting of the
motor. Once the motor gets the normal speed, the firing angle to the thyristors is applied such
that they allow full voltage to the motor.

Such drives control the starting current as well as the speed of the motor to a desired value.

These starters are also provided with additional protections, such as overload, low voltage and
single phasing.

Conclusion For larger motors, a variable frequency drives are used that incorporates the
soft start function.
A introductory guide of Motor Starters. They are an essential part of modern motor drives for a
safe and protective operation of motors. We learned about the need for a Motor Starter, Different
Types of Motor Starters and also the wiring diagrams of some popular motor starter techniques.
 CHAPTER-2

D O L STARTER (SINGLE PHASE)

__________________________
INTRODUCTION OF D O L STARTER

As discussed earlier that small capacity motors (below 5 HP) doesn’t have very high
starting currents. And without using any starter, such motors can withstand the starting currents.

There is no need to reduce the voltage to the motor at start and hence motor can be
connected directly to the supply lines. This type of arrangement employed in a starter is referred
as direct on-line starter or simply

Although, this starter does not reduce the starting voltage, it provides the protection to
the motor against overloading, single phasing and low voltage. The schematic diagram of direct
online starter is shown in figure below.

During start condition, normally open contact (NO) is pushed for fraction of a second
and this makes the magnetizing coil becomes energized. This magnetic flux produced by the coil
attracts the contactor so that the motor is now connected to the supply.

The contactor maintains this position while the coil gets supply from the additional
switch. When a normally closed (NC) switch is pressed, the coil becomes de-energized and the
contactor get separated by spring arrangement there by the supply to the motor is removed.

Under any overload condition, motor draws a heavy current that causes overheating.
This excessive heating operates the thermal relays using overload sensors. Overload contacts
then operates to remove the supply to the motor.

It is the simplest, cheapest and most reliable method and hence widely used. The
main disadvantage of DOL starter is that the motor draws a very high current during start for a
short period.
COMPONENT OF D O L STARTER

1) Magnetic contactor
2) M C B
3) Over load relay
4) Copper wire
5) N O Switch (On Push Button )
6) N C Switch (Stop Push Button )
7) Connector

Tool Required
 1. Screw driver
2. Hacksaw
3. Pliers
4. Tester
5. Nut bolt
6. Screw

Function of component

a) Magnetic contactor

This Square D™ Magnetic Definite Purpose Contactor is  an

open style, 2-pole contactor. It has double-break contacts to help improve safety.
Auxiliary contact modules snap onto either side for fast expansion. For convenience, the
coils can be changed out swiftly without the need for tools.
Magnetic contactors are a form of electrical relay found on most electrically powered
motors. They act as a go-between for direct power sources, and high-load electrical
motors in order to homogenize or balance out changes in electrical frequency which may
come from a power supply as well as to act as a safeguard
b) MCB
c) In this article, we are going to see a single pole MCB connection diagram. MCB
means Miniature Circuit Breaker. MCB is an electrical protective device that can
protect the electrical circuit or equipment from two major dangerous electrical
faults - 1. Overload fault 2. Short Circuit fault. Single pole MCBs are available
in different current ratings such as - 6A, 10A, 16A, 32A, etc. 
d)
e) Single pole MCBs are used where the neutral of all individual loads are
connected together and the single pole MCB is connected with the phase wire.
Although single-phase MCBs have limited applications, but they used some
small and important applications. Some applications of single-pole MCBs are -
outdoor street lights, the input of control circuits, testing boards, domestic
distribution boards, etc.
OVER LOAD RELAY

Overload relays protect the motor, motor branch circuit, and motor branch circuit
components from excessive heat from the overload condition. Overload relays are part of the
motor starter (assembly of contactor plus overload relay). They protect the motor by monitoring
the current flowing in the circuit.

Overload Relay Tripping

The tripping time of an overload relay will decrease when the current
increases. This function is plotted on the inverse time curve below, and is termed as the
trip class. The trip class also indicates the time taken by the relay to open in an overload
condition.

Trip Classes 5, 10, 20, and 30 are common. These classes suggest that the overload
relay will trip in 5, 10, 20, and 30 seconds. This tripping usually occurs when the motor
is running 720% of its full load. Trip Class 5 is suited for motors that demand fast
tripping, whereas Class 10 is usually preferred for motors of low thermal capacity like
submersible pumps. Class 10 and 20 are employed for general purpose applications,
whereas Class 30 is employed for loads with high inertia. Class 30 relays help avoid
nuisance tripping.

We hope that this short paper has given you a good, basic understanding of overload relays. Look
for other informative papers from c3controls at c3controls.com/blog.
has been used in electrical wiring since the invention of the electromagnet and
 for wires up to about 10 AWG
 Wire wrapping – used in older circuit boards

the telegraph in the 1820s.[1][2] The invention of the telephone in 1876 created

further demand for copper wire as an electrical conductor. [3]
Copper is the electrical conductor in many categories of electrical wiring. [3][4] Copper wire
is used in power generation, power transmission, power
distribution, telecommunications, electronics circuitry, and countless types of electrical
equipment.[5] Copper and its alloys are also used to make electrical contacts. Electrical
wiring in buildings is the most important market for the copper industry. [6] Roughly half of
all copper mined is used to manufacture electrical wire and cable conductors. [5]

Properties of copper[edit]
Electrical conductivity[edit]
Electrical conductivity is a measure of how well a material transports an electric charge.
This is an essential property in electrical wiring systems. Copper has the highest
electrical conductivity rating of all non-precious metals: the electrical resistivity of copper
= 16.78 nΩ•m at 20 °C.
The theory of metals in their solid state [7] helps to explain the unusually high electrical
conductivity of copper. In a copper atom, the outermost 4s energy zone, or conduction
band, is only half filled, so many electrons are able to carry electric current. When
an electric field is applied to a copper wire, the conduction of electrons accelerates
towards the electropositive end, thereby creating a current. These electrons encounter
resistance to their passage by colliding with impurity atoms, vacancies, lattice ions, and
imperfections. The average distance travelled between collisions, defined as the "mean
free path", is inversely proportional to the resistivity of the metal. What is unique about
copper is its long mean free path (approximately 100 atomic spacings at room
temperature). This mean free path increases rapidly as copper is chilled. [8]
Because of its superior conductivity, annealed copper became the international
standard to which all other electrical conductors are compared. In 1913,
the International Electrotechnical Commission defined the conductivity of commercially
pure copper in its International Annealed Copper Standard, as 100% IACS = 58.0 MS/m
at 20 °C, decreasing by 0.393%/°C.[9][10] Because commercial purity has improved over
the last century, copper conductors used in building wire often slightly exceed the 100%
IACS standard.[11]
The main grade of copper used for electrical applications is electrolytic-tough pitch
(ETP) copper (CW004A or ASTM designation C11040). This copper is at least 99.90%
pure and has an electrical conductivity of at least 101% IACS. ETP copper contains a
small percentage of oxygen (0.02 to 0.04%). If high conductivity copper needs to
be welded or brazed or used in a reducing atmosphere, then specially-pure oxygen-free
copper (CW008A or ASTM designation C10100) may be used; [12] it is about 1% more
conductive (i.e., achieves a minimum of 101% IACS).[9][10]
Several electrically conductive metals are less dense than copper, but require larger
cross sections to carry the same current and may not be usable when limited space is a
major requirement.[8][4] Aluminium has 61% of the conductivity of copper. [13] The cross
sectional area of an aluminium conductor must be 56% larger than copper for the same
current carrying capability. The need to increase the thickness of aluminium
wire restricts its use in many applications, [4] such as in small motors and automobiles.
However, in some applications such as aerial electric power transmission cables,
aluminium predominates, and copper is rarely used. [citation needed]
Silver, a precious metal, is the only metal with a higher electrical conductivity than
copper. The electrical conductivity of silver is 106% of that of annealed copper on the
IACS scale, and the electrical resistivity of silver = 15.9 nΩ•m at 20 °C.[14][15] The high
cost of silver combined with its low tensile strength limits its use to special applications,
such as joint plating and sliding contact surfaces, and plating for the conductors in high-
quality coaxial cables used at frequencies above 30 MHz
Tensile strength[edit]

F connectors attached to coaxial cables are used for TV aerial and satellite dish
connections to a TV or set top box.
Tensile strength measures the force required to pull an object such as rope, wire, or a
structural beam to the point where it breaks. The tensile strength of a material is the
maximum amount of tensile stress it can take before breaking.
Copper’s higher tensile strength (200–250 N/mm 2 annealed) compared to aluminium
(100 N/mm2 for typical conductor alloys[16]) is another reason why copper is used
extensively in the building industry. Copper’s high strength resists stretching, neck-
down, creep, nicks and breaks, and thereby also prevents failures and service
interruptions.[17] Copper is much heavier than aluminum for conductors of equal current
carrying capacity, so the high tensile strength is offset by its increased weight.
Ductility[edit]
Ductility is a material's ability to deform under tensile stress. This is often characterized
by the material's ability to be stretched into a wire. Ductility is especially important
in metalworking because materials that crack or break under stress cannot be
hammered, rolled, or drawn (drawing is a process that uses tensile forces to stretch
metal).
Copper has a higher ductility than alternate metal conductors with the exception of gold
and silver.[18] Because of copper’s high ductility, it is easy to draw down to diameters
with very close tolerances.[19]
Strength and ductility combination[edit]
Usually, the stronger a metal is, the less pliable it is. This is not the case with copper. A
unique combination of high strength and high ductility makes copper ideal for wiring
systems. At junction boxes and at terminations, for example, copper can be bent,
twisted, and pulled without stretching or breaking. [17]
Creep resistance[edit]
Creep is the gradual deformation of a material from constant expansions and
contractions under “load, no-load” conditions. This process has adverse effects on
electrical systems: terminations can become loose, causing connections to heat up or
create dangerous arcing.
Copper has excellent creep characteristics that minimizes loosening at connections. For
other metal conductors that creep, extra maintenance is required to check terminals
periodically and ensure that screws remain tightened to prevent arcing and overheating.
[17]

Corrosion resistance[edit]
Corrosion is the unwanted breakdown and weakening of a material due to chemical
reactions. Copper generally resists corrosion from moisture, humidity, industrial
pollution, and other atmospheric influences. However, any corrosion oxides, chlorides,
and sulfides that do form on copper are somewhat conductive. [13][17]
Under many application conditions copper is higher on the galvanic series than other
common structural metals, meaning that copper wire is less likely to be corroded in wet
conditions. However, any more anodic metals in contact with copper will be corroded
since they will essentially be sacrificed to the copper.
Coefficient of thermal expansion[edit]
Metals and other solid materials expand upon heating and contract upon cooling. This is
an undesirable occurrence in electrical systems. Copper has a low coefficient of thermal
expansion for an electrical conducting material. Aluminium, an alternate common
conductor, expands nearly one third more than copper under increasing temperatures.
This higher degree of expansion, along with aluminium’s lower ductility, can cause
electrical problems when bolted connections are improperly installed. By using proper
hardware, such as spring pressure connections and cupped or split washers at the joint,
it may be possible to create aluminium joints that compare in quality to copper joints. [13]
Thermal conductivity[edit]
Thermal conductivity is the ability of a material to conduct heat. In electrical systems,
high thermal conductivity is important for dissipating waste heat, particularly at
terminations and connections. Copper has a 60% higher thermal conductivity rating
than aluminium,[17] so it is better able to reduce thermal hot spots in electrical wiring
systems.[8][20]
Solderability[edit]
Soldering is a process whereby two or more metals are joined together by a heating
process. This is a desirable property in electrical systems. Copper is readily soldered to
make durable connections when necessary.
Ease of installation[edit]
The strength, hardness, and flexibility of copper make it very easy to work with. Copper
wiring can be installed simply and easily with no special tools, washers, pigtails, or joint
compounds. Its flexibility makes it easy to join, while its hardness helps keep
connections securely in place. It has good strength for pulling wire through tight places
(“pull-through”), including conduits. It can be bent or twisted easily without breaking. It
can be stripped and terminated during installation or service with far less danger of
nicks or breaks. And it can be connected without the use of special lugs and fittings.
The combination of all of these factors makes it easy for electricians to install copper
wire.[17][21]

Types[edit]
Solid and stranded[edit]
Further information: Wire §  Forms of wire
Stranded copper lamp cord, 16 gauge
Solid wire consists of one strand of copper metal wire, bare or surrounded by an
insulator. Single-strand copper conductors are typically used as magnet wire in motors
and transformers. They are relatively rigid, do not bend easily, and are typically installed
in permanent, infrequently handled, and low flex applications.
Stranded wire has a group of copper wires braided or twisted together. Stranded wire is
more flexible and easier to install than a large single-strand wire of the same cross
section. Stranding improves wire life in applications with vibration. A particular cross-
section of a stranded conductor gives it essentially the same resistance characteristics
as a single-strand conductor, but with added flexibility. [22]
Cable[edit]
Further information: Electrical cable
A copper cable consists of two or more copper wires running side by side and bonded,
twisted or braided together to form a single assembly. Electrical cables may be made
more flexible by stranding the wires.
Copper wires in a cable may be bare or they may be plated to reduce oxidation with a
thin layer of another metal, most often tin but sometimes gold or silver. Plating may
lengthen wire life and makes soldering easier. Twisted pair and coaxial cables are
designed to inhibit electromagnetic interference, prevent radiation of signals, and to
provide transmission lines with defined characteristics. Shielded cables are encased in
foil or wire mesh.

Applications[edit]
Electrolytic-tough pitch (ETP) copper, a high-purity copper that contains oxygen as
an alloying agent, represents the bulk of electrical conductor applications because of its
high electrical conductivity and improved annealability. ETP copper is used for power
transmission, power distribution, and telecommunications.[5] Common applications
include building wire, motor windings, electrical cables, and busbars. Oxygen-free
coppers are used to resist hydrogen embrittlement when extensive amounts of cold
work is needed, and for applications requiring higher ductility (e.g., telecommunications
cable). When hydrogen embrittlement is a concern and low electrical resistivity is not
required, phosphorus may be added to copper.[8]
For certain applications, copper alloy conductors are preferred instead of pure copper,
especially when higher strengths or improved abrasion and corrosion resistance
properties are required. However, relative to pure copper, the higher strength and
corrosion resistance benefits that are offered by copper alloys are offset by their lower
electrical conductivities. Design engineers weigh the advantages and disadvantages of
the various types of copper and copper alloy conductors when determining which type
to specify for a specific electrical application. An example of a copper alloy conductor
is cadmium copper wire, which is used for railroad electrification in North America.[5] In
Britain the BPO (later Post Office Telecommunications) used cadmium copper aerial
lines with 1% cadmium for extra strength; for local lines 40 lb/mile (1.3 mm dia) and for
toll lines 70 lb/mile (1.7 mm dia).[23]
Some of the major application markets for copper conductors are summarized below.
Electrical wiring[edit]

Mineral insulated copper clad cable (pyro).

Electrical wiring distributes electric power inside residential, commercial, or industrial
buildings, mobile homes, recreational vehicles, boats, and substations at voltages up to
600 V. The thickness of the wire is based on electric current requirements in conjunction
with safe operating temperatures. Solid wire is used for smaller diameters; thicker
diameters are stranded to provide flexibility. Conductor types include non-metallic/non-
metallic corrosion-resistant cable (two or more insulated conductors with a nonmetallic
outer sheath), armored or BX cable (cables are surrounded by a flexible metal
enclosure), metal clad cable, service entrance cable, underground feeder cable, TC
cable, fire resistant cable, and mineral insulated cable, including mineral-insulated
copper-clad cable.[24] Copper is commonly used for building wire because of its
conductivity, strength, and reliability. Over the life of a building wire system, copper can
also be the most economical conductor.
Copper used in building wire has a conductivity rating of 100% IACS [10][25] or better.
Copper building wire requires less insulation and can be installed in smaller conduits
than when lower-conductivity conductors are used. Also, comparatively, more copper
wire can fit in a given conduit than conductors with lower conductivities. This greater
“wire fill” is a special advantage when a system is rewired or expanded. [17]
Copper building wire is compatible with brass and quality plated screws. The wire
provides connections that will not corrode or creep. It is not, however, compatible with
aluminium wire or connectors. If the two metals are joined, a galvanic reaction can
occur. Anodic corrosion during the reaction can disintegrate the aluminium. This is why
most appliance and electrical equipment manufacturers use copper lead wires for
connections to building wiring systems.[21]

Power cable 5G16 (5 wires, green-yellow ground wire, 16mm 2.

"All-copper" building wiring refers to buildings in which the inside electrical service is
carried exclusively over copper wiring. In all-copper homes, copper conductors are used
in circuit breaker panels, branch circuit wiring (to outlets, switches, lighting fixtures and
the like), and in dedicated branches serving heavy-load appliances (such as ranges,
ovens, clothes dryers and air conditioners).[26]
Attempts to replace copper with aluminium in building wire were curtailed in most
countries when it was found that aluminium connections gradually loosened due to their
inherent slow creep, combined with the high resistivity and heat generation of aluminium
oxidation at joints. Spring-loaded contacts have largely alleviated this problem with
aluminium conductors in building wire, but some building codes still forbid the use of
aluminium.
For branch-circuit sizes, virtually all basic wiring for lights, outlets and switches is made
from copper.[17] The market for aluminium building wire today is mostly confined to larger
gauge sizes used in supply circuits.[27]
Electrical wiring codes give the allowable current rating for standard sizes of
conductors. The current rating of a conductor varies depending on the size, allowable
maximum temperature, and the operating environment of the conductor. Conductors
used in areas where cool air is free to circulate around the wires are generally permitted
to carry more current than the small sized conductor encased in an underground
conduit run with many similar conductors adjacent to it. The practical temperature
ratings of insulated copper conductors are mostly due to the limitations of the insulation
material or of the temperature rating of the attached equipment.
Communications wiring[edit]
Twisted pair cable[edit]
Twisted pair cabling is the most popular network cable and is often used in data
networks for short and medium length connections (up to 100 meters or 328 feet).
[28]
 This is due to its relatively lower costs compared to optical fiber and coaxial cable.
Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables are the primary cable type for telephone usage. In
the late 20th century, UTPs emerged as the most common cable in computer
networking cables, especially as patch cables or temporary network connections.
[29]
 They are increasingly used in video applications, primarily in security cameras.
UTP plenum cables that run above ceilings and inside walls use a solid copper core for
each conductor, which enables the cable to hold its shape when bent. Patch cables,
which connect computers to wall plates, use stranded copper wire because they are
expected to be flexed during their lifetimes.[28]
UTPs are the best balanced line wires available. However they are the easiest to tap
into. When interference and security are concerns, shielded cable or fiber optic cable is
often considered.[28]
UTP cables include: Category 3 cable, now the minimum requirement by the FCC
(USA) for every telephone connection; Category 5e cable, 100-MHz enhanced pairs for
running Gigabit Ethernet (1000Base-T); and Category 6 cable, where each pair runs
250 MHz for improved 1000Base-T performance.[29][30]

Cat5e Ethernet cable, showing the twisted pairs of copper wires.

In copper twisted pair wire networks, copper cable certification is achieved through a
thorough series of tests in accordance with Telecommunications Industry
Association (TIA) or International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards.
Coaxial cable[edit]
Coaxial cables were extensively used in mainframe computer systems and were the
first type of major cable used for Local Area Networks (LAN). Common applications for
coaxial cable today include computer network (Internet) and instrumentation data
connections, video and CATV distribution, RF and microwave transmission, and
feedlines connecting radio transmitters and receivers with their antennas.[31]
Semi-rigid coaxial cable for microwave transmission
While coaxial cables can go longer distances and have better protection from EMI than
twisted pairs, coaxial cables are harder to work with and more difficult to run from
offices to the wiring closet. For these reasons, it is now generally being replaced with
less expensive UTP cables or by fiber optic cables for more capacity.[28]
Today, many CATV companies still use coaxial cables into homes. These cables,
however, are increasingly connected to a fiber optic data communications system
outside of the home. Most building management systems use proprietary copper
cabling, as do paging/audio speaker systems. Security monitoring and entry systems
still often depend on copper, although fiber cables are also used. [32]
Structured wiring[edit]
Most telephone lines can share voice and data simultaneously. Pre-digital quad
telephone wiring in homes is unable to handle communications needs for multiple
phone lines, Internet service, video communications, data transmission, fax machines,
and security services. Crosstalk, static interference, inaudible signals, and interrupted
service are common problems with outdated wiring. Computers connected to old-
fashioned communications wiring often experience poor Internet performance.
“Structured wiring” is the general term for 21st century On-premises wiring for high-
capacity telephone, video, data-transmission, security, control, and entertainment
systems. Installations usually include a central distribution panel where all connections
are made, as well as outlets with dedicated connections for phone, data, TV and audio
jacks.
Structured wiring enables computers to communicate with each other error-free and at
high speeds while resisting interference among various electrical sources, such as
household appliances and external communications signals. Networked computers are
able to share high-speed Internet connections simultaneously. Structured wiring can
also connect computers with printers, scanners, telephones, fax machines, and even
home security systems and home entertainment equipment.
Female socket connector for coaxial cable.
Quad-shielded RG-6 coaxial cable can carry a large number of TV channels at the
same time. A star wiring pattern, where the wiring to each jack extends to a central
distribution device, facilitates flexibility of services, problem identification, and better
signal quality. This pattern has advantages to daisy chain loops. Installation tools, tips,
and techniques for networked wiring systems using twisted pairs, coaxial cables, and
connectors for each are available.[33][34]
Structured wiring competes with wireless systems in homes. While wireless systems
certainly have convenience advantages, they also have drawbacks over copper-wired
systems: the higher bandwidth of systems using Category 5e wiring typically support
more than ten times the speeds of wireless systems for faster data applications and
more channels for video applications. Alternatively, wireless systems are a security risk
as they can transmit sensitive information to unintended users over similar receiver
devices. Wireless systems are more susceptible to interference from other devices and
systems, which can compromise performance. [35] Certain geographic areas and some
buildings may be unsuitable for wireless installations, just as some buildings may
present difficulties installing wires.
Power distribution[edit]

Cross-section of copper high-voltage cable rated at 400 kV

Copper is widely used for power distribution bus bars because of its high conductivity
Power distribution is the final stage in the delivery of electricity for an end use. A power
distribution system carries electricity from the transmission system to consumers.
Power cables are used for the transmission and distribution of electric power, either
outdoors or inside buildings. Details on the various types of power cables are available.
[36]

Copper is the preferred conductor material for underground transmission lines operating
at high and extra-high voltages to 400 kV. The predominance of copper underground
systems stems from its higher volumetric electrical and thermal conductivities compared
to other conductors. These beneficial properties for copper conductors conserve space,
minimize power loss, and maintain lower cable temperatures. [citation needed]
Copper continues to dominate low-voltage lines in mines and underwater applications,
as well as in electric railroads, hoists, and other outdoor services. [5]
Aluminium, either alone or reinforced with steel, is the preferred conductor for overhead
transmission lines due to its lighter weight and lower cost. [5]
Appliance conductors[edit]
Appliance conductors for domestic applications and instruments are manufactured from
bunch-stranded soft wire, which may be tinned for soldering or phase identification.
Depending upon loads, insulation can be PVC, neoprene, ethylene propylene,
polypropylene filler, or cotton.[5]
Automotive conductors[edit]
Copper wiring is strong enough to remain in place in an automotive alternator, subjected
to constant vibration and mechanical shock.
Automotive conductors require insulation that is resistant to elevated temperatures,
petroleum products, humidity, fire, and chemicals. PVC, neoprene, and polyethylene are
the most common insulators. Potentials range from 12 V for electrical systems to
between 300 V - 15,000 V for instruments, lighting, and ignition systems. [36]
Magnet wire[edit]
Main article: Magnet wire
Magnet wire or winding wire is used in windings of electric
motors, transformers, inductors, generators, headphones, loudspeaker coils, hard drive
head positioners, electromagnets, and other devices.[5][8]
Most often, magnetic wire is composed of fully annealed, electrolytically refined copper
to allow closer winding when making electromagnetic coils. The wire is coated with a
range of polymeric insulations, including varnish, rather than the thicker plastic or other
types of insulation commonly used on electrical wire. [5] High-purity oxygen-free
copper grades are used for high-temperature applications in reducing atmospheres or in
motors or generators cooled by hydrogen gas.

Splice closures for copper cables[edit]

A copper splice closure is defined as an enclosure, and the associated hardware, that is
intended to restore the mechanical and environmental integrity of one or more copper
cables entering the enclosure and providing some internal function for splicing,
termination, or interconnection.[37]
Types of closures[edit]
As stated in Telcordia industry requirements document GR-3151, there are two principal
configurations for closures: butt closures and in-line closures. Butt closures permit
cables to enter the closure from one end only. This design may also be referred to as a
dome closure. These closures can be used in a variety of applications, including branch
splicing. In-line closures provide for the entry of cables at both ends of the closure. They
can be used in a variety of applications, including branch splicing and cable access. In-
line closures can also be used in a butt configuration by restricting cable access to one
end of the closure.
A copper splice closure is defined by the functional design characteristics and, for the
most part, is independent of specific deployment environments or applications. At this
time, Telcordia has identified two types of copper closures:
1. Environmentally Sealed Closures (ESCs)
2. Free-Breathing Closures (FBCs)
ESCs provide all of the features and functions expected of a typical splice closure in an
enclosure that prevents the intrusion of liquid and vapor into the closure interior. This is
accomplished through the use of an environmental sealing system such as rubber
gaskets or hot-melt adhesives. Some ESCs use pressurized air to help keep moisture
out of the closure.
FBCs provide all of the features and functions expected of a typical splice closure that
prevents the intrusion of wind-driven rain, dust, and insects. Such a closure, however,
permits the free exchange of air with the outside environment. Therefore, it is possible
that condensation will form inside the closure. It is thus necessary to provide adequate
drainage to prevent the accumulation of water inside the closure.

Future trends[edit]

Multiple copper coils are used in an induction cooker

Copper will continue to be the predominant material in most electrical wire applications,
especially where space considerations are important. [3] The automotive industry for
decades has considered the use of smaller-diameter wires in certain applications. Many
manufacturers are beginning to use copper alloys such as copper-magnesium (CuMg),
which allow for smaller diameter wires with less weight and improved conductivity
performance. Special alloys like copper-magnesium are beginning to see increased
usage in automotive, aerospace, and defense applications. [38]
Due to the need to increase the transmission of high-speed voice and data signals, the
surface quality of copper wire is expected to continue to improve. Demands for better
drawability and movement towards “zero” defects in copper conductors are expected to
continue.
A minimum mechanical strength requirement for magnet wire may evolve in order to
improve formability and prevent excessive stretching of wire during high speed coiling
operations.[citation needed]
It does not seem likely that standards for copper wire purity will increase beyond the
current minimum value of 101% IACS. Although 6-nines copper (99.9999% pure) has
been produced in small quantities, it is extremely expensive and probably unnecessary
for most commercial applications such as magnet, telecommunications, and building
wire. The electrical conductivity of 6-nines copper and 4-nines copper (99.99% pure) is
nearly the same at ambient temperature, although the higher-purity copper has a higher
conductivity at cryogenic temperatures. Therefore, for non-cryogenic temperatures, 4-
nines copper will probably remain the dominant material for most commercial wire
applications.[3]

Connector

Electrical connector
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Schematic symbols for male and female connectors (see  Gender of connectors and fasteners)

This rear panel of an integrated amplifier features a variety of electrical connectors

 Connectors on the back of a 2018 computer

Components of an electrical circuit are electrically connected if an electric current can

run between them through an electrical conductor. An electrical connector is
an electromechanical device used to create an electrical connection between parts of
an electrical circuit, or between different electrical circuits, thereby joining them into a
larger circuit.[1] Most electrical connectors have a gender – i.e. the male component,
called a plug, connects to the female component, or socket. The connection may be
removable (as for portable equipment), require a tool for assembly and removal, or
serve as a permanent electrical joint between two points. [2] An adapter can be used to
join dissimilar connectors.
Thousands of configurations of connectors are manufactured for power, data,
and audiovisual applications.[3] Electrical connectors can be divided into four basic
categories, differentiated by their function: [4]
 inline or cable connectors permanently attached to a cable, so it can be plugged into
another terminal (either a stationary instrument or another cable) [5]
 Chassis or panel connectors permanently attached to a piece of equipment so users
can connect a cable to a stationary device
 PCB mount connectors soldered to a printed circuit board, providing a point
for cable or wire attachment.[6]: 56  (e.g. pin headers, screw terminals, board-to-board
connectors)
 Splice or butt connectors (primarily insulation displacement connectors) that
permanently join two lengths of wire or cable
In computing, electrical connectors are considered a physical interface and constitute
part of the physical layer in the OSI model of networking.

Contents
 1Physical construction
o 1.1Materials
o 1.2Failure modes
o 1.3Circular connectors
o 1.4Hybrid connectors
 2Mechanical features
o 2.1Pin sequence
o 2.2Keying
o 2.3Locking mechanisms
o 2.4Backshells
o 2.5Hyperboloid contacts
o 2.6Pogo pins
o 2.7Crown spring connectors
 3Methods of connection
o 3.1Plug and socket connectors
 3.1.1Jacks and plugs
o 3.2Crimp-on connectors
 o 3.3Soldered connectors
o 3.4Insulation-displacement connectors
o 3.5Binding posts
o 3.6Screw terminals
o 3.7Ring and spade connectors
o 3.8Blade connectors
o 3.9Other connection methods
 4See also
o 4.1Connectors
 5References
 6External links

Physical construction[edit]
In addition to the classes mentioned above, connectors are characterised by
their pinout, method of connection, materials, size, contact resistance, insulation,
mechanical durability, ingress protection, lifetime (number of cycles), and ease of use.
It is usually desirable for a connector to be easy to identify visually, rapid to assemble,
inexpensive, and require only simple tooling. In some cases an equipment manufacturer
might choose a connector specifically because it is not compatible with those from other
sources, allowing control of what may be connected. No single connector has all the
ideal properties for every application; the proliferation of types is a result of the diverse
yet specific requirements of manufacturers.[7]: 6 
Materials[edit]
Electrical connectors essentially consist of two classes of materials: conductors and
insulators. Properties important to conductor materials are contact
resistance, conductivity, mechanical strength, formability, and resilience.[8] Insulators
must have a high electrical resistance, withstand high temperatures, and be easy to
manufacture for a precise fit.
Electrodes in connectors are usually made of copper alloys, due to their good
conductivity and malleability.[7]: 15  Alternatives include brass, phosphor bronze,
and beryllium copper. The base electrode metal is often coated with another inert metal
such as gold, nickel, or tin.[8] The use of a coating material with good conductivity,
mechanical robustness and corrosion resistance helps to reduce the influence of
passivating oxide layers and surface adsorbates, which limit metal-to-metal contact
patches and contribute to contact resistance. For example, copper alloys have favorable
mechanical properties for electrodes, but are hard to solder and prone to corrosion.
Thus, copper pins are usually coated with gold to alleviate these pitfalls, especially for
analog signals and high reliability applications. [9][10]
Contact carriers that hold the parts of a connector together are usually made of plastic,
due to its insulating properties. Housings or backshells can be made of molded plastic
or metal.[7]: 15 
Failure modes[edit]
The majority of connector failures result in intermittent connections or open contacts: [11][12]

Failure mode Relative probability

Open circuit 61%

Poor contact 23%

Short circuit 16%

Connectors are purely passive components – that is, they do not enhance the function
of a circuit – so connectors should affect the function of a circuit as little as possible.
Insecure mounting of connectors (primarily chassis-mounted) can contribute
significantly to the risk of failure, especially when subjected to extreme shock or
vibration.[11] Other causes of failure are connectors inadequately rated for the applied
current and voltage, connectors with inadequate ingress protection, and
threaded backshells that are worn or damaged.
High temperatures can also cause failure in connectors, resulting in an "avalanche" of
failures – ambient temperature increases, leading to a decrease in insulation resistance
and increase in conductor resistance; this increase generates more heat, and the cycle
repeats.[11]
Fretting (so-called dynamic corrosion) is a common failure mode in electrical connectors
that have not been specifically designed to prevent it, especially in those that are
frequently mated and de-mated.[13] Surface corrosion is a risk for many metal parts in
connectors, and can cause contacts to form a thin surface layer that increases
resistance, thus contributing to heat buildup and intermittent connections. [14] However,
remating or reseating a connector can alleviate the issue of surface corrosion, since
each cycle scrapes a microscopic layer off the surface of the contact(s), exposing a
fresh, unoxidised surface.
Circular connectors[edit]
Many connectors used for industrial and high-reliability applications are circular in cross
section, with a cylindrical housing and circular contact interface geometries. This is in
contrast to the rectangular design of some connectors, e.g. USB or blade connectors.
They are commonly used for easier engagement and disengagement, tight
environmental sealing, and rugged mechanical performance. [15] They are widely used in
military, aerospace, industrial machinery, and rail, where MIL-DTL-5015 and MIL-DTL-
38999 are commonly specified. Fields such as sound engineering and radio
communication also use circular connectors, such as XLR and BNC. AC power
plugs are also commonly circular, for example, Schuko plugs and IEC 60309.
NMEA 2000 cabling using M12 connectors

The M12 connector, specified in IEC 61076-2-101, is a circular electrical plug/receptacle

pair with 12mm OD mating threads, used in NMEA 2000, DeviceNet, IO-Link, some
kinds of Industrial Ethernet, etc.[16][17]
A disadvantage of the circular design is its inefficient use of panel space when used in
arrays, when compared to rectangular connectors.
Circular connectors commonly use backshells, which provide physical and
electromagnetic protection, whilst sometimes also providing a method for locking the
connector into a receptacle.[18] In some cases, this backshell provides a hermetic seal, or
some degree of ingress protection, through the use of grommets, O-rings, or potting.[15]
Hybrid connectors[edit]
Hybrid connectors allow the intermixing of many connector types, usually by way of a
housing with inserts.[19] These housings may also allow intermixing of electrical and non-
electrical interfaces, examples of the latter being pneumatic line connectors, and optical
fiber connectors. Because hybrid connectors are modular in nature, they tend to simplify
assembly, repair, and future modifications. They also allow the creation of composite
cable assemblies that can reduce equipment installation time by reducing the number of
individual cable and connector assemblies.

Mechanical features[edit]
Pin sequence[edit]
Some connectors are designed such that certain pins make contact before others when
inserted, and break first on disconnection.[1] This is often used in power connectors to
protect equipment, e.g. connecting safety ground first. It is also employed for digital
signals, as a method to sequence connections properly in hot swapping.
Keying[edit]
Examples of keyed connectors

XLR connector, showing the notch for alignment

A 4-pin Mini-DIN S-Video cable, with notches and a rectangular alignment pin

Many connectors are keyed with some mechanical component (sometimes called

a keyway), which prevents mating in an incorrect orientation. [20] This can be used to
prevent mechanical damage to connectors, from being jammed in at the wrong angle or
into the wrong connector, or to prevent incompatible or dangerous electrical
connections, such as plugging an audio cable into a power outlet. [1] Keying also prevents
otherwise symmetrical connectors from being connected in the wrong orientation
or polarity. Keying is particularly important for situations where there are many similar
connectors, such as in signal electronics. [7]: 26  For instance, XLR connectors have a notch
to ensure proper orientation, while Mini-DIN plugs have a plastic projection that fits into
a corresponding hole in the socket (they also have a notched metal skirt to provide
secondary keying).[21]
Locking mechanisms[edit]
Some connector housings are designed with locking mechanisms to prevent inadvertent
disconnection or poor environmental sealing.[1] Locking mechanism designs include
locking levers of various sorts, jackscrews, screw-in shells, push-pull connector, and
toggle or bayonet systems. Some connectors, particularly those with large numbers of
contacts, require high forces to connect and disconnect. Locking levers and jackscrews
and screw-in shells for such connectors frequently serve both to retain the connector
when connected and to provide the force needed for connection and disconnection.
Depending on application requirements, housings with locking mechanisms may be
tested under various environmental simulations that include physical shock and
vibration, water spray, dust, etc. to ensure the integrity of the electrical connection and
housing seals.
Backshells[edit]
Backshells are a common accessory for industrial and high-reliability connectors,
especially circular connectors.[18] Backshells typically protect the connector and/or cable
from environmental or mechanical stress, or shield it from electromagnetic interference.
[22]
 Many types of backshells are available for different purposes, including various sizes,
shapes, materials, and levels of protection. Backshells usually lock onto the cable with a
clamp or moulded boot, and may be threaded for attachment to a mating receptacle.
[23]
 Backshells for military and aerospace use are regulated by SAE AS85049 within the
USA.[24]
Hyperboloid contacts[edit]
To deliver ensured signal stability in extreme environments, traditional pin and socket
design may become inadequate. Hyperboloid contacts are designed to withstand more
extreme physical demands, such as vibration and shock. [20] They also require around
40% less insertion force[25] – as low as 0.3 newtons (1 ozf) per contact,[26] – which extends
the lifespan, and in some cases offers an alternative to zero insertion force connectors.
[27][25]

In a connector with hyperboloid contacts, each female contact has several equally
spaced longitudinal wires twisted into a hyperbolic shape. These wires are highly
resilient to strain, but still somewhat elastic, hence they essentially function as linear
springs.[28][29] As the male pin is inserted, axial wires in the socket half are deflected,
wrapping themselves around the pin to provide a number of contact points. The internal
wires that form the hyperboloid structure are usually anchored at each end by bending
the tip into a groove or notch in the housing. [30]
Whilst hyperboloid contacts may be the only option to make a reliable connection in
some circumstances, they have the disadvantage of taking up greater volume in a
connector, which can cause problems for high-density connectors. [25] They are also
significantly more expensive than traditional pin and socket contacts, which has limited
their uptake since their invention in the 1920s by Wilhelm Harold Frederick. [31] In the
1950s, Francois Bonhomme popularised hyperboloid contacts with his "Hypertac"
connector, which was later acquired by Smiths Group. During the following decades, the
connectors steadily gained popularity, and are still used for medical, industrial, military,
aerospace, and rail applications (particularly trains in Europe). [28]
Pogo pins[edit]
Main article: Pogo pin

Pogo pin connectors

Pogo pin or spring loaded connectors are commonly used in consumer and industrial

products, where mechanical resilience and ease of use are priorities. [32] The connector
consists of a barrel, a spring, and a plunger. They are in applications such as
the MagSafe connector where a quick disconnect is desired for safety. Because they
rely on spring pressure, not friction, they can be more durable and less damaging than
traditional pin and socket design, leading to their use in in-circuit testing.[33]
Crown spring connectors[edit]
Typical crown spring plug and its female socket

Crown spring connectors are commonly used for higher current flows and industrial
applications. They have a high number of contact points, which provides a more
electrically reliable connection than traditional pin and socket connectors. [34]

Methods of connection[edit]
Plug and socket connectors

Male MIL-DTL-5015 plug

Female VGA connector

Male serial port connector

Mating surfaces of a hermaphroditic connector

Whilst technically inaccurate, electrical connectors can be viewed as a type of adapter

to convert between two connection methods, which are permanently connected at one
end and (usually) detachable at the other end. [7]: 40  By definition, each end of this
"adapter" has a different connection method – e.g. the solder tabs on a male phone
connector, and the male phone connector itself. [3] In this example, the solder tabs
connected to the cable represent the permanent connection, whilst the male connector
portion interfaces with a female socket forming a detachable connection.
There are many ways of applying a connector to a cable or device. Some of these
methods can be accomplished without specialized tools. Other methods, while requiring
a special tool, can assemble connectors much faster and more reliably, and make
repairs easier.
The number of times a connector can connect and disconnect with its counterpart while
meeting all its specifications is termed as mating cycles and is an indirect measure of
connector lifespan. The material used for connector contact, plating type and thickness
is a major factor that determines the mating cycles.[35]
Plug and socket connectors[edit]
See also: Gender of connectors and fasteners and Pinout
Plug and socket connectors are usually made up of a male plug (typically pin contacts)
and a female socket (typically receptacle contacts). Often, but not always, sockets are
permanently fixed to a device as in a chassis connector (see above), and plugs are
attached to a cable.
Plugs generally have one or more pins or prongs that are inserted into openings in the
mating socket. The connection between the mating metal parts must be sufficiently tight
to make a good electrical connection and complete the circuit. An alternative type of
plug and socket connection uses hyperboloid contacts, which makes a more reliable
electrical connection. When working with multi-pin connectors, it is helpful to have
a pinout diagram to identify the wire or circuit node connected to each pin.
Some connector styles may combine pin and socket connection types in a single unit,
referred to as a hermaphroditic connector.[6]: 56  These connectors includes mating with
both male and female aspects, involving complementary paired identical parts each
containing both protrusions and indentations. These mating surfaces are mounted into
identical fittings that freely mate with any other, without regard for gender (provided that
the size and type match).
Sometimes both ends of a cable are terminated with the same gender of connector, as
in many Ethernet patch cables. In other applications the two ends are terminated
differently, either with male and female of the same connector (as in an extension cord),
or with incompatible connectors, which is sometimes called an adapter cable.
Plugs and sockets are widely used in various connector systems including blade
connectors, breadboards, XLR connectors, car power outlets, banana connectors,
and phone connectors.
Jacks and plugs[edit]
Male phone plug

A jack is a connector that installs on the surface of a bulkhead or enclosure, and mates
with its reciprocal, the plug.[36] According to the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers,[37] the stationary (more fixed) connector of a pair is classified as
a jack (denoted J), usually attached to a piece of equipment as in a chassis-mount or
panel-mount connector. The movable (less fixed) connector is classified as
a plug (denoted P),[37] designed to attach to a wire, cable or removable electrical
assembly.[38] This convention is currently defined in ASME Y14.44-2008, which
supersedes IEEE 200-1975, which in turn derives from the long-withdrawn MIL-STD-16
(from the 1950s), highlighting the heritage of this connector naming convention. [36] IEEE
315-1975 works alongside ASME Y14.44-2008 to define jacks and plugs.
The term jack occurs in several related terms:
 The registered jack or modular jack in RJ11, RJ45 and other similar connectors
used for telecommunication and computer networking
 The telephone jack of manual telephone switchboards, which is the socket fitting
the original 1⁄4 inch (6.35 mm) telephone plug
 The 1⁄4 inch (6.35 mm) phone jack common to many electronic applications in
various configurations, sometimes referred to as a headphone jack
 The RCA jack, also known as a phono jack, common to consumer audiovisual
electronics
 The EIAJ jack for consumer appliances requiring a power supply of less than
18.0 volts
Crimp-on connectors[edit]

A wire and connector being crimped together with a crimping tool

Main article: Crimp (electrical)
Crimped connectors are a type of solderless connection, using mechanical friction and
uniform deformation to secure a connector to a pre-stripped wire (usually stranded).
[1]
 Crimping is used in splice connectors, crimped multipin plugs and sockets, and
crimped coaxial connectors. Crimping usually requires a specialised crimping tool, but
the connectors are quick and easy to install and are a common alternative to solder
connections or insulation displacement connectors. Effective crimp connections deform
the metal of the connector past its yield point so that the compressed wire
causes tension in the surrounding connector, and these forces counter each other to
create a high degree of static friction. Due to the elastic element in crimped
connections, they are highly resistant to vibration and thermal shock.[39]
Crimped contacts are permanent (i.e. the connectors and wire ends cannot be reused).
[40]

Crimped plug-and-socket connectors can be classified as rear release or front release.

This relates to the side of the connector where the pins are anchored: [20]
 Front release contacts are released from the front (contact side) of the connector,
and removed from the rear. The removal tool engages with the front portion of the
contact and pushes it through to the back of the connector.
 Rear release contacts are released and removed from the rear (wire side) of the
connector. The removal tool releases the contacts from the rear and pulls the
contact out of the retainer.
Soldered connectors[edit]
See also: Soldering
Many plug and socket connectors are attached to a wire or cable
by soldering conductors to electrodes on the back of the connector. Soldered joints in
connectors are robust and reliable if executed correctly, but are usually slower to make
than crimped connections.[1] When wires are to be soldered to the back of a connector,
a backshell is often used to protect the connection and add strain relief. Metal solder
buckets or solder cups are provided, which consist of a cylindrical cavity that an installer
fills with solder before inserting the wire.[41]
When creating soldered connections, it is possible to melt the dielectric between pins or
wires. This can cause problems because the thermal conductivity of metals causes heat
to quickly distribute through the cable and connector, and when this heat melts plastic
dielectric, it can cause short circuits or "flared" (conical) insulation.[40] Solder joints are
also more prone to mechanical failure than crimped joints when subjected to vibration
and compression.[42]
Insulation-displacement connectors[edit]
Main article: Insulation-displacement connector
Since stripping insulation from wires is time-consuming, many connectors intended for
rapid assembly use insulation-displacement connectors which cut the insulation as
the wire is inserted.[1] These generally take the form of a fork-shaped opening in the
terminal, into which the insulated wire is pressed, which cut through the insulation to
contact the conductor. To make these connections reliably on a production line, special
tools accurately control the forces applied during assembly. On small scales, these tools
tend to cost more than tools for crimped connections.
Insulation displacement connectors are usually used with small conductors for signal
purposes and at low voltage. Power conductors carrying more than a few amperes are
more reliably terminated with other means, though "hot tap" press-on connectors find
some use in automotive applications for additions to existing wiring.
A common example is the multi-conductor flat ribbon cable used in computer disk
drives; to terminate each of the many (approximately 40) wires individually would be
slow and error-prone, but an insulation displacement connector can terminate all the
wires in a single action. Another very common use is so-called punch-down blocks used
for terminating unshielded twisted pair wiring.

Binding posts on a bi-amplified loudspeaker

Binding posts[edit]
Main article: Binding post
Binding posts are a single-wire connection method, where stripped wire is screwed or
clamped to a metal electrode. Such connectors are frequently used in electronic test
equipment and audio. Many binding posts also accept a banana plug.
Screw terminals[edit]
Main article: Screw terminal
Screw connections are frequently used for semi-permanent wiring and connections
inside devices, due to their simple but reliable construction. The basic principle of all
screw terminals involves the tip of a bolt clamping onto a stripped conductor. They can
be used to join multiple conductors,[43] to connect wires to a printed circuit board, or to
terminate a cable into a plug or socket. [7]: 50  The clamping screw may act in the
longitudinal axis (parallel to the wire) or the transverse axis (perpendicular to the wire),
or both. Some disadvantages are that connecting wires is more difficult than simply
plugging in a cable, and screw terminals are generally not very well protected from
contact with persons or foreign conducting materials.
Terminal blocks of various types

Terminal blocks (also called terminal boards or strips) provide a convenient means of

connecting individual electrical wires without a splice or physically joining the ends.
Since terminal blocks are readily available for a wide range of wire sizes and terminal
quantity, they are one of the most flexible types of electrical connector available. One
type of terminal block accepts wires that are prepared only by stripping a short length
of insulation from the end. Another type, often called barrier strips, accepts wires that
have ring or spade terminal lugs crimped onto the wires.
Printed circuit board (PCB) mounted screw terminals let individual wires connect to a
PCB through leads soldered to the board.
Ring and spade connectors[edit]

Ring style wire-end crimp connectors

The connectors in the top row of the image are known as ring terminals and spade
terminals (sometimes called fork or split ring terminals). Electrical contact is made by
the flat surface of the ring or spade, while mechanically they are attached by passing a
screw or bolt through them. The spade terminal form factor facilitates connections since
the screw or bolt can be left partially screwed in as the spade terminal is removed or
attached. Their sizes can be determined by the gauge of the conducting wire, and the
interior and exterior diameters.
Blade connectors[edit]
Blade connectors (lower half of photo). Ring and spade terminals (upper half). Bullet terminals, male and
female (right-center, with blue wires)

A blade connector is a type of single wire, plug-and-socket connection device using a

flat conductive blade (plug) that is inserted into a receptacle. Wires are typically
attached to male or female blade connector terminals by either crimping or soldering.
Insulated and uninsulated varieties are available. In some cases the blade is an integral
manufactured part of a component (such as a switch or a speaker unit), and the
reciprocal connector terminal is pushed onto the device's connector terminal.
Other connection methods[edit]
 Crocodile (alligator) clips – conductive clamps used for temporary connections,
e.g. jumper cables
 Board to board connectors – e.g. card-edge connectors or FPGA mezzanine
connectors
Twist-on wire connectors (e.g. wire nuts) – used in low-voltage power circuits