PROJECT REPORT On Auto

VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
“JNANA SANGAMA”, BELAGAVI – 590 018
MINI PROJECT REPORT (18MEMP68)

On
“ELECTRO MAGNETIC BRAKING SYSTEM FOR

AUTOMOBILE”
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
Requirements for the award of the degree of
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
In
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Submitted By:
HEERA K M 4GL18ME011
NITHYA S M 4GL18ME021
RANJITH M R 4GL18ME032
SHREYAS M C 4GL18ME040
SUDARSHAN H T 4GL18ME042
Under the Guidance of
Vasanth Kumar H S
Assistant professor
Dept. of Mechanical Engineering GEC
Kushalnagar-571234
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE KUSHALNAGAR – 571 234, KARNATAKA
2020-21
GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
KUSHALNAGAR – 571 234, KODAGU 2020-21
CERTIFICATE
Certified that the mini project entitled “ELECTRO MAGNETIC BRAKING
SYSTEM FOR AUTOMOBILE” carried out by HEERA K M,NITHYA S M,
RANJITH M R,SHREYAS M C,SUDARSHAN H T is a bonafide student of
Government Engineering College, KUSHALNAGAR – 571234 in partial
fulfillment for the award of Bachelor of Engineering, in Mechanical
Engineering of the Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi –
590018, during the year 2020–2021.The Seminar report has been approved as it
satisfies the academic requirements in respect of Project Work prescribed for the
said Degree.
Signature of the guide Signature of the HOD Signature of principal
PROF. Vasanth Kumar H S Dr.SRINIVASA MURTHY M.E,PhD

_________________________
Assistant professor Dept.of Mechanical Engineering
_________________________
Dept.of Mechanical Engg Dept.of Mechanical Engg
Govt Engg. College
Govt Engg. College Govt Engg. College
Kushalnagar
Kushalnagar Kushalnagar
DECLARATION
We, Ms.HEERA K M(4GL18ME011), Ms.NITHYA S M(4GL18ME021),Mr.
RANJITH M R (4GL18ME032), Mr.SHREYAS M C (4GL18ME040) ,Mr.SUDARSHAN H
T(4GL18ME042) student of sixth semester B.E., Mechanical Engineering, Government
Engineering College, Kushalnagar, hereby declare that the Project Work entitled,
“ELECTRO-MAGNETIC BRAKING SYSTEM FOR AUTOMOBILE” has been carried
out by us under the guidance of PROF.VASANTH KUMAR H S Dept. of Mechanical
Engineering, GEC, Kushalnagar. In the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award
of Degree, B.E. in Mechanical Engineering by Visvesvaraya Technological University,
Jnana Sangama, Belagavi- 590 018, during the academic year 2020-2021.
We also declare that, to the best of our knowledge and belief, the matter embodied in
this Project Report has not been submitted previously by us for the award of any Degree or
Diploma to any other university.
PLACE: Kushalnagar
DATE
…………………………………………………
HEERA K M 4GL18ME011
NITHYA S M 4GL18ME021 …………………………………………………
RANJITH M R 4GL18ME032 …………………………………………………
SHREYAS M C 4GL18ME040 …………………………………………………
SUDARSHAN H T 4GL18ME042 …………………………………………………

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It is with the profound feeling of gratitude, we would like to express our sincere thanks
to our situation, Government Engineering College, Kushalnagar for providing excellent
infrastructure for the successful completion of this project.
We express profound gratitude and regards to PROF.VASANTH KUMAR H S

Department of Mechanical Engineering, Government Engineering College, Kushalnagar, for
his exemplary guidance, monitoring and constant encouragement throughout the course of this
project.
We are very greateful for all the support and guidance we received from head of the
Department, Dr. Srinivasa Murthy M. The blessing, help and guidance given by them time to
time shall carry us a long way in the journey of life on which we are about to embark.
We thank our beloved Principal, _____________________________, Government

Engineering College, Kushalnagar, for having provided all the facilities that helped us in
timely completion of this project.
We are obliged to thank all Teaching and Non-Teaching staff of Department of

Mechanical Engineering, for their valuable help and support.
Finally, we thank almighty, our family and friends for their constant encouragement
without which this assignment would not be possible.
ABSTRACT
This project aims to create a electromagnetic braking system model capable of

applying brakes without any friction loss and without losing the energy supplied.
It uses a two electromagnets which runs by the supply of power from the circuit.
Also, there is a wheel which is attached to the motor so when the power the
supplied, by the help of motor the wheel rotates. Then a fan is attached near
electromagnets to cool the electromagnets from excessive heating. A metal bar is
inthe vicinity of the electromagnets and wheel so when the electromagnets
produces eddy currents which stops the rotating wheel or rotor.This model helps
in a way to be a used a retardation equipment in vehicles.
CONTENTS
CHAPTERS PAGE
NO
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 01-03
1.1 Background and rational
1.2 History
CHAPTER 2: OBJECTIVES 02
2.1 Objectives
2.2 Significance and scope
CHAPTER 3: LITERATURE 05
CHAPTER 4: METHODOLOGY 06
CHAPTER 5: COMPONENTS AND DISCRIPTION 07-10

5.1 Driving unit
5.2 Braking unit
CHAPTER 6 : WORKING MECHANISM 11
CHAPTER7 :FABRICATION 12-15
CHAPTER8 :CALCULATIONS 16
CHAPTER 9: ADVANTAGES,APPLICATIONS 18-19
9.1 Advantages
9.2 Applications
CHAPTER 10: COSTING AND ESTIMATION 20
 CONCLUSION 21
 FUTURE SCOPE 22
 REFERENCE 23
LIST 0F FIGURES
Figure No Figure Name Page No
Figure 1.1. Schematic Diagram of Principle of EMBS 3
Figure 5.1. Electric DC motor 7
Figure 5.2. Wheel 8
Figure 5.3. Electromagnet 9
Figure 5.4. Brake shoe 9
Figure 5.5. Spring 10
Figure 5.6. Bearing 10
Figure 6.1 Flowchart of the working Mechanism 11
Figure 7.1 Base Plank 12
Figure 7.2 Electric Motor 12
Figure 7.3 Connecting chains 13
Figure 7.4 chain ring 13
Figure 7.5 Metallic disc 14
Figure 7.6 Electromagnet 14
Figure 7.7 Speed controller 14

LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO TABLE NAME PAGE NO
Table 6 Budget Estimation 20
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
Bhp Brake horse power

Cm Centimeter
EMBS Electromagnetic braking system
mhp Miles per hour
RPM Revolution per minute
LIST OF SYMBOLS
A Ampere [A]
R Radius [L]
V Voltage [M L2 T 3 A−1]
ELECTROMAGNETIC BRAKING SYSTEM FOR AUTOMOBILE
CHAPTER- 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background and Rational
Electromagnetic brakes (also called electro-mechanical brakes or EM brakes)
slow or stop motion using electromagnetic force to apply mechanical resistance
(friction). The original name was "electro-mechanical brakes" but over the years
the name changed to"electromagnetic brakes", referring to their actuation
method. Since becoming popular in the mid-20th century especially in trains
and trams, the variety of applications and brake design increased dramatically,
but the basic operation remains the same. Electromagnetic brakes are the brakes
working on the electric power and magnetic power. They works on the principle
of electromagnetism.These brakes are an excellent replacement on the
convectional brakes due to their many advantages. The reason for implementing
this brake in automobiles is to reduce wear in brakes as it
frictionless.Electromagnetic brakes are of today’s automobiles.The working
principle of this system is that when the magnetic flux passes through
and perpendicular to the rotating wheel the eddy current flows opposite to
the rotating wheel/rotor direction. This eddy current trying to stop the rotating
wheel or rotor. This results in the rotating wheel or rotor comes to rest/ neutral.
Page 1
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING ,GECK
1.2 History
It is found that electromagnetic brakes can develop a negative power which
represents nearly twice the maximum power output of a typical engine, and at
least three times the braking power of an exhaust brake(Reverdin 1994).
These performance of electromagnetic brakes make them much more
competitive candidate for alternative retardation equipments compared
withother retarders. By using by using the electromagnetic brakes are
supplementary retardation equipment, the friction brakes can be used less
frequently, and therefore practically never reach high temperatures. The brake
linings would last considerably longer before requiring maintenance and the
potentially “brake fade” problem could be avoided. In research conducted by
a truck manufacturer, it was proved that the electromagnetic brake assumed
80% of the duty which would otherwise have been demanded of the regular
service brake (Reverdin 1974).Further more the electromagnetic brakes
prevents the danger that can arise from the prolonged use of brake beyond their
capability to dissipate heat. This is most likely to occur while vehicle
descending a long gradient at high speed. In a study with a vehicle with 5 axles
and weighting 40tones powered by a powered by an engine of 310 b.h.p
travelling down a gradient of 6% at asteady speed between 35 and 40 m.h.p, it
can be calculated that the braking power necessary to maintain this speed ot the
order of 450hp. The brakes, therefore, would have to absorb 300 hp,meaning
Page 2
that each brake in the 5 axels must absorb 30 hp, that a friction brake can
normally absorb with self destruction. The magnetic brake is wall suited to such
conditions since it will independently absorb more than 300 hp (Reverdin
1974). It therefore can exceed the requirements of continuous uninterrupted
braking, leaving the friction brakes cool and ready for emergency braking in
total safety. The installation of an electromagnetic brake is not very difficulty if
there is enough space between the gearbox and the rear axle. If did not need a
subsidiary cooling system. It relay on the efficiency of engine components for
its use, so do exhaust and hydrokinetic brakes. The exhaust brake is an on/off
device and hydro kinetic brakeshave very complex control system.
Page 3
Fig 1.1 Schematic Diagram of Principle of Electromagnetic Braking

System
CHAPTER- 2
OBJECTIVES
2.1 Objectives
Primary Objective
 The main objective of our project is to design and fabricate an
Electromagnetic Braking System model.
 To understand project planning and execution
 To understand the fabrication techniques in a mechanical workshop
 To understand the usage of various mechanical machine tools and also
measuring tools
Page 4
 To make day to day human life more easier by proper use of technology
2.2 Significances and Scope:

 Electromagnetic brakes satisfy all the energy requirements of braking
without the use of friction. They have better heat dissipation capability to
avoid problems that friction brakes faces times.
 They can also be used as a supplementary retardation equipment in
addition to the regular friction brakes on heavy vehicles.
 These brakes’s component cost is less so these brakes are cheap.
 They can be used as an alternative method for the future crisis of the
crude oils.
CHAPTER- 3
LITERATURE
3.1 Literature review

Jae-Woong Lee, Seoul, Rep. of Korea Disclosed is a magnetic brake
system for a vehicle. comprising: a plurality of brake disk solenoids for
generating the magnetic force; a plurality of brake pad solenoids for generating
the magnetic force; a braking sensor for detecting whether a brake pedal is
applied; a wheel speed sensor for detecting wheel speed; a magnetic polarity
sensor for detecting magnetic polarity of the brake disk solenoids; and a control
unit for controlling the brake pad solenoids using signals from the braking
sensor. The wheel speed sensor and the magnetic polarity sensor.
Page 5
CHAPTER- 4
METHODOLOGY
Basically, this project was to study and analyze electromagnetic

braking system as a secondary measure for the hydraulic braking system. First, the
base for the electromagnets and the stand for fitting the wheel, is made. Then, a wheel
is made and attached to the spook whereas the spook is attached to the stand by the
help of bearings.
An electromagnet is made by winding the copper wire with the
cylindrical body and attached to it’s base. Furthermore, an U shaped metal rod
is welded with a L shaped metal bar forming a brake shoe and then its end are rest
inside the electromagnet.Also a fan is also attached to motor and the motor is attached
Page 6
to the base. So the electromagnet and the motors of wheel and fan are circuited to an
external battery and by turning it on, they work respectively.
CHAPTER 5
COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION
Our model is divided mainly into two different units :

1) Driving Unit.
2) Braking Unit.
1) Driving Unit
a) Electric Motor
An Electric motor is an electrical device that converts electrical energy
into mechanical energy. In normal motoring mode, most electric motors operate
through the interaction between an electric motor's magnetic field and
Page 7
winding currents to generate force within the motor. Electric motors may be
classified by electric power source type, internal construction, application, type
of motion output, and so on.
Fig 5.1.: Electric DC motor
b) Wheel
Wheel gets in motion with the help of running motor. Both motor and wheel is
connected with the help of connecting chain and chain ring.
Page 8
Fig 5.2.: Wheel
c) Power control
This division consists of power supply to whole system and a separate
power control system to control the motion.
2) Braking Unit
a) Electromagnet
An electromagnet is a type of magnet in which the magnetic field is
produced by an electric current .The magnetic field disappears when the current
is turned off. Electromagnets usually consist of insulated wire wound into a coil.
Page 9
A current through the wire creates a magnetic field which is concentrated in the
hole in the center of the coil. The wire turns are often wound around a magnetic
core.
Fig 5.3.: Electo magnetic
b) Brake Shoe
It is part that will stop the main wheel when the electromagnet is turned on.
Fig 5.4.: Brake Shoe
3) Other parts
Spring:
A coil spring, also known as a helical spring, is a mechanical device which is
typically used to store energy and subsequently release it, to absorb shock, or to
maintain a force between contacting surfaces. : Two compression springs are
used to push back the brake shoe back in its position.
Page 10
Fig 5.5.: Spring
Bearing:
The purpose of Ball Bearing is to reduce rotational friction and support radial
and axial loads.In this project 608 2RS type of bearing is used.
Fig 5.6.: Bearing
CHAPTER 6
WORKING MECHANISM
Page 11
6.1 Flowchart of the working mechanism

Electro-mechanical disk brakes operate via electrical actuation, but
transmit torque mechanically. When electricity is applied to the coil of an
electromagnet, the magnetic flux attracts the armature to the face of the brake.
When electricity is removed from the brake, the armature is free to turn with the
shaft.
CHAPTER 7
FABRICATION
a) Base plank
Page 12
It consists of rectangular wooden plank which acts as a base for all the
component of EMBS. It will have dimension of 80*50*1 cm
Fig 7.1.: Base Plank
b) Electric motor
DC Wiper motors is used to move the wheel .
Fig 7.2.: Electric motor
c)Connecting chains
Two connecting chains will be used.One will be used to deliver
motion from motor to wheel and other will use that motion to run magnetic disc.
Page 13
Fig 7.3:Connecting chain
d)Chain Ring
Two chain rings will be either side of rotating wheel which will act as support
for connecting chains.
Fig 7.4:Chain ring
e)Metallic disc
This disc will be stopped with the help og electromagnet.
Page 14
Fig 7.5:Metallic disc

f)Electromagnet
In this project, we used electromagnet to stop the wheel. Basically, it made by
winding the copper wire round the cylindrical body to required strength.
Fig 7.6:Electromagnet
g)Speed Controller
we will be using one speed controller for driving motor.
Fig7.7:Speed controller
Overall Fabrication of the System
Methodology to Fabrication of electromagnetic braking system model

Page 15
1. Analyze the problems in the fabrication of electromagnetic braking system
2. Designing the required components.
3. Selection of required materials.
4. Purchasing the materials.
5. Fabrication of the electromagnet.
6. Preparation of report and submit.
CHAPTER 8
CALCULATIONS
Page 16
1.Magnetic force produced (B)=µIN
=4π*107*2*550
=0.00138 T which is magnetic force produced
by one electromagnet as we are using two electromagnets so our total force will
be
Total Magnetic force(B)=2*B
=0.00276 T.
2. Total Force produced(F)=(B*B*A)/(µG*G)
=0.00276*226.194/50.265
=171.396 N
3. Resistance of wire(R)=ρL/A
=1.7*10 *13.8/0.503
=0.466 Ω
4. Heat produced(H)=I*I*R*T
=2*2*0.466*60
=112 J
Page 17
Where I is current,
N is number of turns,
A is cross sectional area,
G is the gap between magnet and iron,
R is the resistance of copper wire,
L is the length of copper wire,
ρ is the resistivity of copper,
T is the time in seconds
CHAPTER-9
ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS
9.1 ADVANTAGES
Page 18
 This is reduced significantly in electromagnetic disk brake systems.
 Potential hazard of tire deterioration and bursts due to friction is
eliminated.
 There is no need to change brake oils regularly.
 There is no oil leakage.
 The practical location of the retarder within the vehicle prevents the
direct impingement of air on the retarder caused by the motion of the
vehicle.
 The retarders help to extend the life span of the regular brakes and
keep the regular brakes cool for emergency situation.
 The electromagnetic brakes have excellent heat dissipation efficiency
owing to the high temperature of the surface of the disc which is
being cooled.
9.2 APPLICATIONS
 Already in use under some railway system.

 Can be used for any road vehicles.
Page 19
 Equally applicable to heavy and light vehicles.
 Can be used as additional retarder for aircrafts.
 Used in lift controlling.
 Used in automatic purpose.
 May also find application in virtually any rotating system which have
metallic parts.
CHAPTER 10
COSTING AND ESTIMATION
SI.NO COMPONENTS NOS. COST
Page 20
1. Limit switches 2 100.00
2. DC Motor(12V) 1 350.00
3. Electromagnetic Solenoid 1 1750.00
4. Battery(12V,7.5Ah) 1 600.00
5. Control Relay 1 250.00
6. Firing Circuit 1 400.00
7. Micro Controller 1 350.00
8. Disc plate 1 600.00
9. Aluminum wheel & mild steel shaft 1-1 175.00
10. Free wheel 2 100.00
11. Frame and machining 1 1500.0
Total cost 14 6175.00
CONCLUSION
With every one of the upsides of electromagnetic brakes over grating brakes,
they have been generally utilized on overwhelming vehicles where the 'brake
fading' issue exists. A similar idea is being created for application on lighter
vehicles. The concept designed by us is just a prototype and needs to be more
developed. These electromagnetic brakes can be used as an auxiliary braking
Page 21
system along with the friction braking system to avoid overheating and brake
failure. ABS use can be ignored by just utilizing a smaller scale controlled
electromagnetic plate slowing mechanism.
These find endless applications in overwhelming vehicles where high warmth
(heat) dissemination is required. In rail mentors it can utilized as a part of mix
of plate brake to acquire the trains moving rapid. When these brakes are
combined it increases the life of brake and act like fully loaded brakes. These
electromagnetic brakes can be used in wet conditions which eliminate the anti-
skidding equipment, and cost of these brake are cheaper than the other types.
Consequently the braking power created in this is not as much as the plate
brakes if can be utilized as an optional or crisis slowing mechanism in the
vehicles.
FUTURE SCOPE
Electromagnetic brakes have numerous preferences over frictional slowing
mechanism. The blend of swirl present and attractive powers makes this brake
more successful. This brake can be utilized as assistant stopping mechanism in
vehicle. The utilization of abs can be dismissed by utilizing a smaller scale
Page 22
controlled electromagnetic framework. It can be utilized as a part of rail
mentors to decelerate the prepare moving in fast. Mix of these brakes expands
the brake life and act like completely stacked brakes. These brakes can be
utilized as a part of wet condition, so there is no utilization of against slipping
instrument. it is completely electrically controlled which brings about less
mishaps. The braking power delivered in this brake is not as much as the plate
brakes. Subsequently, it can be utilized as an auxiliary or crisis slowing
mechanism in the autos.
REFERENCES
1. H. Van Oostveen and R. Siezen, ErfahrungenmitPermanentmag- net-
Schienenbremsen, GlasersAnnalen, Nr 12, S. 613-617, 1997.
Page 23
2. Gagarin, G., Kroger, U. and Saunweber, E., Eddy-current magnetic
track brakes for high-speed trains, Joint ASME/IEEE/AAR Railroad
Conference, pp. 9599, 1987.
3. Ohyma, T., Adhesion at higher speeds, its basic characteristic, its
improvement and somerelated problem, Japanese Railway
Engineering, Vol. 108, 1988.
4. Mcconnell, H.M., Eddy-current phenomena in ferromagnetic material,
AIEE Transactions, Vol. 73, part I, pp. 226234, July, 1954.
5. Kesavamurthy, N., Eddy-current in solid iron due to alternating
magnetic flux, The Institution of Engineers Monograph, No. 339U, pp.
207 213, June, 1959,
6. Biro, O. and Preis, K., Finite element analysis of 3-D eddy current,
IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 418423, Mar,
1990.
7. Heald, M.A., Magnetic braking: improved theory, American Journal of
Physics, Vol. 56,No. 6, pp. 521522, 1988
Page 24

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VISVESVARAYA TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

“JNANA SANGAMA”, BELAGAVI – 590 018

MINI PROJECT REPORT (18MEMP68)

“ELECTRO MAGNETIC BRAKING SYSTEM FOR

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

GOVERNMENT ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Signature of the guide Signature of the HOD Signature of principal

PROF. Vasanth Kumar H S Dr.SRINIVASA MURTHY M.E,PhD

We, Ms.HEERA K M(4GL18ME011), Ms.NITHYA S M(4GL18ME021),Mr.

RANJITH M R (4GL18ME032), Mr.SHREYAS M C (4GL18ME040) ,Mr.SUDARSHAN H

T(4GL18ME042) student of sixth semester B.E., Mechanical Engineering, Government

“ELECTRO-MAGNETIC BRAKING SYSTEM FOR AUTOMOBILE” has been carried

out by us under the guidance of PROF.VASANTH KUMAR H S Dept. of Mechanical

of Degree, B.E. in Mechanical Engineering by Visvesvaraya Technological University,

Diploma to any other university.

NITHYA S M 4GL18ME021 …………………………………………………

RANJITH M R 4GL18ME032 …………………………………………………

SHREYAS M C 4GL18ME040 …………………………………………………

SUDARSHAN H T 4GL18ME042 …………………………………………………

We express profound gratitude and regards to PROF.VASANTH KUMAR H S

We thank our beloved Principal, _____________________________, Government

We are obliged to thank all Teaching and Non-Teaching staff of Department of

This project aims to create a electromagnetic braking system model capable of

CHAPTER 5: COMPONENTS AND DISCRIPTION 07-10

CHAPTER7 :FABRICATION 12-15

CHAPTER 9: ADVANTAGES,APPLICATIONS 18-19

Figure 1.1. Schematic Diagram of Principle of EMBS 3

Figure 5.1. Electric DC motor 7

Figure 5.2. Wheel 8

Figure 5.3. Electromagnet 9

Figure 5.4. Brake shoe 9

Figure 5.5. Spring 10

Figure 5.6. Bearing 10

Figure 6.1 Flowchart of the working Mechanism 11

Figure 7.1 Base Plank 12

Figure 7.2 Electric Motor 12

Figure 7.3 Connecting chains 13

Figure 7.4 chain ring 13

Figure 7.5 Metallic disc 14

Figure 7.6 Electromagnet 14

Figure 7.7 Speed controller 14

TABLE NO TABLE NAME PAGE NO

Table 6 Budget Estimation 20

Bhp Brake horse power

1.1 Background and Rational

Electromagnetic brakes (also called electro-mechanical brakes or EM brakes)

slow or stop motion using electromagnetic force to apply mechanical resistance

the name changed to"electromagnetic brakes", referring to their actuation

method. Since becoming popular in the mid-20th century especially in trains

of electromagnetism.These brakes are an excellent replacement on the

this brake in automobiles is to reduce wear in brakes as it

frictionless.Electromagnetic brakes are of today’s automobiles.The working

and perpendicular to the rotating wheel the eddy current flows opposite to

least three times the braking power of an exhaust brake(Reverdin 1994).

These performance of electromagnetic brakes make them much more

competitive candidate for alternative retardation equipments compared

withother retarders. By using by using the electromagnetic brakes are

supplementary retardation equipment, the friction brakes can be used less

potentially “brake fade” problem could be avoided. In research conducted by

a truck manufacturer, it was proved that the electromagnetic brake assumed

service brake (Reverdin 1974).Further more the electromagnetic brakes

capability to dissipate heat. This is most likely to occur while vehicle

and weighting 40tones powered by a powered by an engine of 310 b.h.p

2. Total Force produced(F)=(BBA)/(µG*G)