Fourth

edition

An Integrated Approach

Nelson Thornes
Text © David W augh 2009
Original illustrations © Nelson Thornes Ltcl 2009
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Fourth edition published in 2009 by
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Third edition published by Thom as Nelson 2000
ISBN 978 0 17 444706 1
Fourth edition
ISBN 978 1 4085 0407 9
lllustratioSfe by Hardlines and Dave Russei
O riginal picture research for third edition by Zooid Pictures
Picture research for fourth edition by Sue Sharp
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J.A. Steers, The Coast o f E ngland a nd Waies in
P ictures (1960): page 140 (opening quotation).
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Earthscan Ltd, www .earthscan.co.uk for extracts
3r'" J o y d Timberlake, Only One Earth, BBC
=c-:*-s 1987): page 418 (opening quote); page
-6 5 3 a ce s6 1 ).
K ^a pp for an extract from Soil P rocesses
C : - ' s oage 260 (opening quotation).
V .- - 'e s s îor an extract from W illy Brandt, North-
- ~rogram for Survivai (1980): p age 344
quotation).
c< Nelson for an extract from 'New
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>8' page 130 (opening quotation).
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1992: page 532 (opening quotation).
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David Phillips for an extract from T h e
E pidem iological Transition in H ong K ong’,
Centre o f Asian Studies O ccasionai Papers and
M onographs, 75, (1988) University o f Hong
Kong: 21.28.
The Random House G roup Ltd fo r extracts from
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W ith thanks to the following for permission to
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photograph of Soufriere Hills V olcano is a
pro d u ct of the program m e o f w ork carried out in
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16.11, 16.12, 16.13, 18.22, 18.29a, 19.43, 19.44.
19.47; Chris R ow ley/ David W augh: 6.21. 12.44,
13.66, 13.69. 16.33: Civil Engineering
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C o rb is/C a ri Purceii: 16.29; C o rb is /Charles
Lenars: 15.44; C o rb is/ Charles O 'Rean 13.50;
C orbis/ D Robert Franz: 17 16; C o rbis/ David
Meunch: 12.18; C orbis/ Dean C onger: 16.14;
C o rb is /E c o s c e n e /Julie Meech: 12.23: C o rbis/
G alen Rowell: 2.25. 4.42: C o rb is /Jam es L
Am os: 3.32; C o rb is/ Jerem y Horner: 15.33;
C o rb is/ Justin G uariglia: 21.55; C o rb is/ Liba
Taylor: 18.18; C orbis/ Lowell G eorgia: 4.46b,
12.58. 18,13; C o rb is/ M ark S tephenson: 15 54;
C o rb is/M ic h a e l Busselle: 14.7: C o rb is/M ic h a e l
S Yarnashita1 15.14; C o rbis/ Patrick Bennett:
15.36: C orbis/ Patrick Ward: 14.13; C o rb is/ Phil
Scherm eister: 12.59: C orbis/ Philip Perry: 16.77a;
C orbis/ R aym ond G ehm an: 12.27; C o rbis/
Reuters: 2.20; C o rb is/ Reuters/ Jagadeesh:
21.67; C o rb is/ Ric Ergenbright: 1.27, 21.72;
C o rb is/ Robert Estall: 16.37; C o rbis/ Robert
Holm es: 2.3; C o rb is/ Roger Antrobus: 4 20;
C o rb is/ R uggero Vanni: 9.62; C orbis/ Shai
G inott: 7.22; C o rbis/ Steve Kaufm an: 7.3. 7.7;
C o rb is/ V ince Streano: 1.28; C o rb is/W illia m A
Bake: 9.26; C o rb is/W olfg a n g Kaehler: 12.43;
C o rb is /Yann Arthus-Bertrand: 1 47. 13.56, 15.43;
David W augh: 1.24, 1.35. 2.1, 2 2, 2 5, 2.6, 2.7,
3.23, 3.25, 3.27, 3.35, 3.45, 3.49, 4 4, 4.21. 4.26,
4.33, 5.16, 6.10. 6.15, 6.18, 6.33, 6.34, 6.48,
6.51, 7.10, 8.4, 9.23, 11.6. 11.7, 11.16. 11.31,
II,3 2 , 11.33, 12.6, 12.9. 12.24, 12.37, 12.46,
12.47, 12.51, 12.52, 12.53, 13.54, 13.64, 14.44.
14.48, 14.49, 15.19 (C 1. C3, D3), 15.37, 15.39,
15.40, 15.41, 15.49, 15.50, 15.51. 16.5, 16.8,
16.26, 16.31, 16.41, 16.42, 17.11, 17.13, 17 14.
17.18, 17.19, 17.20, 18.16. 19.22, 20.18d. 20.19,
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15.63; G eophotos Picture Library/ Tony W althanv
2r,9, 2.14, 2.18, 3.8, 4.8, 4.13, 4.17, 4 18, 4.23,
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6.54, 8.3, 8.5, 8.14, 9.20 (2), 10.25, 10.35, 12.4,
12.33; G eoscience Features Picture Library:
2,19, 4.15, 4.46a, 6.32, 10.24, 10.26, 10.27,
12.29, 12.36, 12.39; G eoscience Features
Picture Library/ Landform Slides: 1.37, 3.2, 3.39,
4.22, 5.9, 6.19, 6.23, 6.26, 6.35, 7.6, 7.12, 7.15,
7.16, 7.18, 7.25, 7.30a, 8.6, 8.7, 8.10, 11.10,
11.14; G etty Im ages: 3.30; G etty Im ages/ AFP'
1.13; G etty Im ages/ Daniel Berehulak: 3,66;
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Roger Viollet: 2.21; G etty Im ages/ Telegraph
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Charles Coates: 20 18b: Im pact Photos/
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(6): National M eteorological Library/ C S
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9.20 (4); N a turepl.com / A drian Davies1 6 73:
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N ick Rose: 13.43: Nigel Press A ssociates Ltd-
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M ichael Kinnon: 16.43; P hotolibrary/O S F /
M ichael Leach: 7.5: Photolibrary/ O SF/ W arren
Faidley: 9.51: Photolibrary/ Scott W Smith: 17.21
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P hotoshot/ Reporters W orld lllustrated: 21.71;
P ho to sh o t/W orld Pictures: 21.62 (left);
P h o to s h o t/Xinhua: 21.64; Planet Earth Pictures:
1.29; Practicai Action: 15.47, 18 29f, h; Practicai
A ctio n /Je re m y Hartley: 18.29b, d, g, 19.35;
Practicai A ctio n / Lindel Câine: 18.29c, e, i;
Practicai A ctio n / Zul: 19.36, 19.37: R Hum phries:
6.63b: Reuters: 3.62; Reuters/ S tephen Hird:
3.67; R euters/Tony Melville: 6.59b; Rex
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Science Photo Library/ Earth Satellite
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NASA: 3 33; Science Photo Library/ NASA/
G oddard S pace Flight C enter Scientific
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II.4 2 , 16.66. 16.67, 16.68, 17.17; Solar Cookers
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Pictures/ Bryan & Cherry A iexander: 16.49; Sî:-
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(B3); Still Pictures/ Diane Blell: 12.54; Still
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Cooking: 19.51 (concentrating cooker); Top^a--
PA: 2.35; University o f Dundee, NERC S atelke
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20.21; Zooid Pictures: 3.14
Every effort has been m ade to trace the
Copyright holders but if any have been
inadvertently overlooked the publishers wih c-r
pleased to m ake the necessary a rrangem e^' =
the first opportunity.
Cover photograph: Masai w arrior in the
landscape o f Lewa Conservancy, Kenya (A s
V isions o f A m erica. LLC)
Title page photograph: Yu Yuan G arden in
Shanghai, C hina (C orbis/ Jose Fuste Raga
Contents

11 Pla te tecto n ics. ea rth q u ak es an d vo lca n o es 8 14 Glaciation 102 I

The history of the Earth 8 Ice ages 104
Places 1 The Earth: a simplified history 9 Places 14 Antarctica and Greenland: previous climatic change 104
Earthquakes 9 Glaciers and ice masses 106
Places 2 South-west China: an earthquake 77 Transportation by ice 109
Plate tectonics 12 Glacial erosion 109
Places 3 Iceiand: a constructive plate margin 76 Framework 5 Mean, median and mode 772
Places 4 Indian Ocean: the 2004 tsu.nami 78 Places 15 Snowdonia: glacial landforms 775
Piaces 5 The Himaiayas: a collision plate margin 20 Glacial deposition 116
Places 6 The San Andreas Fault: a conservative plate margin 27 Glacifluvial landforms 119
Framework 1 Using the Internet for studying geography 22 Piaces 16 Arran: glacial landforms 120
Volcanology 24 Other effects of glaciation 122
Places 7 Solfatara, Italy: an area ofdeclining volcanic activity 26 Places 17 The Vale of Pickering, North Yorkshire: a glacial lake 123
Framework 2 Natural hazards 37 Case Study 4 Avalanches and the effects ofmelting ice 724
Case Study 1 Volcanic eruptions - Mount Pinatubo 33
I 5 Periglaciation 130 1
12 Weatheringandslopes 40
Periglacial processes and landforms 132
Weathering 40 Places 18 Alaska: periglacial river regimes 736
Framework 3 A systems approach 45 Case Study 5 The melting permafrost 737
Mass movement and resultant landforms 46
Places 8 South-east Brazii: landslides 49
i
6 Coasts 140 I
Development of slopes 50
Waves 140
Case Study 2 Slope failure and mass movement 52 Beaches 143
Tides 146
|3 Drainagebasinsandrivers 58 Plnre><: 1Q Th e N n rth Sen nnrl thp Rn\/ nf Rpnnnh ţtn rm sitmpţ 748
Places 9 River Don, Yorkshire and River Torridge, Devon: Processes of Coastal erosion 149
river discharge 64 Places 20 Hoiderness: coasta/ processes ISO
Morphometry of drainage basins 65 Erosion landforms 151
Framework 4 Quantitative techniques and statistica1 Transportation of beach material 153
methods of data interpretation 67 Coastal deposition 154
River form and velocity 68 Places 21 Eastern and Southern USA: barrier islands 756
Transportation 71 Framework 6 Sampling 759
Erosion 72 Changes in sea-level 162
Deposition 73 Places 22 Devon and Norway: a ria and a fiord 764
Piaces 10 Afon Glaslyn, North Wales: river processes 73 Piaces 23 Arran: raised beaches 766
Fluvial landforms 75 Rock structure 167
Places 17 Iguagu Falls, Brazii: a waterfall 76 Framework 7 Classification 767
Places 12 Boscastle, Cornwall: a flash flood 80 Future sea-level rise and its effects 168
Base level and the graded river 81 Case Study 6 Coastal management in the UK 170
Places 13 River Grefe. Yorkshire Dales National Park:
0 'e/hvenerez river 82 7 D eserts 178
C ' i ' -26 " ~ r r''£ 84
What is a desert? 178
• ~~e neeâfor river management 87 Location and causes of deserts 179
O'Geog’aphy ’ 98 Places 24 The Atacama Desert: climate 180
lesert landscapes: what does a desert look like? 180 Processes of soil formation 271
-' d processes and landforms 181 Zonal, azonal and intrazonal soils 273
: j :es 25 Wadis: flash floods 188 Places 34 Arran: a soil catena 276
~iatic change 190 Framework 9 Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 277
I~se Study 7 Desertification: fact or fiction? 191 Case Study 10 Soil erosion and soil management 279

8 Rock t y p e s a n d la n d fo rm s 194 11 Biogeography 286

. :~ology and geomorphology 194 Seres and climax vegetation 286
- -estone 196 Places 35 Krakatoa: a lithosere 289
; ::es 26 Li Valley, south China: karst scenery 198 Places 36 Arran: secondary plant succession 293
l- * 2 lk 199 Ecology and ecosystems 295
: ;~dstone 201 The ecosystem 295
3-=nite 201 Framework 10 Scientific enquiry: hypothesis 299
5253It 203 Places 37 Flaller Park, Mombasa, Kenya: creating
Z:z= Study 8 Quarrying in northern india 2 03 an ecosystem 302
Biomes 304
9 Weather a n d c lim a te 206 Case Study 11 The forests of south-west Australia 307

S«wcture and composition of the atmosphere 206 Issues Analysis Management of the Serengeti 311

. -rgy in the atmosphere 207

12 World climate, soils and vegetation 314
- zzes 27 The atmosphere: ozone 209
' ;al factors affecting insolation 210 Classification of climates 314
-’ -ospheric moisture 213 1 Tropical rainforests 316
- j zes 28 An alpine valley: aspect 213 2 Tropical grasslands 319
- ;:ability and instability 216 3 Hot deserts 321
: ecipitation 219 4 Mediterranean (warm temperate, western margins) 323
ospheric motion 224 5 Temperate grasslands 325
: _~etary scale: atmospheric circulation 226 6 Temperate deciduous forests 328
î'ro-scale: synoptic systems 229 7 Coniferous forests 330
- zzes 29 Storms in Southern England 2 32 8 The tundra 332
: ::es 30 Hong Kong: typhoon warning, 1May 1999 237 Case Study 12 The management of grasslands 335
- zzes 31 The West Indies and Myanmar: tropical storms 2 38
- zzes 32 Delhi: the monsoon climate 240 13 Population 344
'o-scale: local winds 240
Distribution and density 344
"oclimates 242
Framework 11 Scale and generalisation 347
5=îher maps and forecasting in Britain 244
Places 38 Brazii: population densities at the naţional level 347
- rmework8 Measures of dispersion 246
Population changes in time 349
I “ atic change 248
Population structure 352
Cme Study 9 Short-term and long-term climatic changes 2 50 Framework 12 Models 352
Trends in population growth 355
10 Soils 260
Places 39 Singapore: family planning 358
formation 260 Places 40 Japan: an ageing population 360
soil profile 262 Migration: change in space and time 361
soil system 263 Places 41 China: rural-urban migration 363
properties 263 Places 42 Tunisia: migration patterns 366
ezes 33 The soil pit: soil study in the field 270 Places 43 The world: refugees 368
Places 44 UK: Polish migrant workers 369 I l 6 Farming and food supply 462 1
Places 45 South Africa: a multicultural society 372
Environmental factors affecting farming 462
Places 46 The USA and Brazii: multicultural societies 374
Places 61 Northern Kenya: precipitation and water supply 465
Places 47 Singapore: raclai and religious harmony 3 75
Places 62 The former Soviet Union: physical Controls
Optimum, over- and underpopulation 376
on farming 466
Places 48 Bangladesh and Canada: overpopulation and
Cultural (human) factors affecting farming 466
underpopulation 377
Places 63 China: land tenure 468
Theories relating to world population and food supply 378
Economic factors affecting farming 469
Links between population growth, use of resources and
Places 64 China: farming 470
economic development 379
Von Thunen's model of rural land use 471
Case Study 13 Population in China 3 80
The farming system 476
Issues Analysis Population policies - the pros and cons of
World distribution of farming types 478
trying to limitpopulation growth 386
Places 65 Northern Kenya: nomadic herders 479
Places 66 Amazon Basin: shifting cultivation 480
14 Settlement
Places 67 The Ganges valley: intensive subsistence
Origins of settlement 388 agriculture 481
Functions of settlements 392 Places 68 Malaysia: tropical commercial (plantatlon)
Differences between urban and rural settlement 393 agriculture 483
Rural settlement 394 Places 69 The Pampas, South America: extensive
Places 49 Carlisle: site, morphology and functions 396 commercial pastoralism 484
Places 50 Bickinton, Devon: a village 399 Places 70 The Canadian Prairies: extensive commercial
Places 5 1 Britain: evoiution of settlement 400 arabie farming 486
Measuring settlement patterns 402 Places 71 The western Netherlands: intensive commercial
Case Study 14 Settlement change 412 farming 487
Places 72 The Peloponnese, Greece: Mediterranean farming 489
15 Urbanisation Places 73 The Nile valley: irrigation 490
Farming types and economic development 492
Urban growth - trends and distribution 418
Farming and the environment 494
Models of urban structure 420
Framework 16 Sustainabie development 499
Places 52 Chicago: a concentric urban structure 421
Food supplies 500
Places 53 Tokyo: a multiple-nuclei urban structure 424
Places 74 Niger: famine 502
Funcţional zones within a city 426
Places 75 Sub-Saharan Africa: foodshortages 503
Framework 13 Stereotypes 427
Places 54 The CBD 4 30 Case Study 16 Farming 506
Places 55 Gateshead: the MetroCentre 433
437
117 Rural land use 516 I
Framework 14 Values and attitudes
Places 56 London: regeneration and the 2012 Olympics 440 The urban-rural continuum 516
Cities in developing countries 442 Forestry 518
Places 57 Kolkata and Rio de Janeiro: shanty settlements 443 Places 76 Ethiopia, Amazonla and Malaysia: forestry in
Places 58 Nairobi, Kenya: funcţional zones 444 developing countries 520
Places 59 Cairo, Egypt: problems resulting from rapid Places 77 South-east Asia: forest fires 521
urban growth 447 Mining and quarrying 522
Framework 15 How reliable are statistics? 448 Places 78 North Wales: slate quarrying 523
Places 60 Singapore: a housing success story 450 Places 79 Malaysia: tin mining 523
Case Study 15 Living in developed cities 452 Framework 17 Standard error calculations 524
Issues Analysis Tfce Westfield Centre, Shepherd's Bush 458 The need for rural management 525
: 'aces80 Mafia Island, Tanzania: rural management 526 Tourism and the environment 591
Case Study 17 Rural conflicts in south-western USA 527 Places 92 The Peak District: a National Park 592
The tourist resort/area life-cycle model 594
118 Energy resources 532 Places 93 The Spanish 'costas': the life-cycle of a tourist area 594
Places 94 The Cairngorms: a mountainous area under threat 595
.. hat are resources? 532
Other types of tourism 596
■Yorld energy producers and consumers 533
Places 95 Xcaret, Mexico: ecotourism 598
-ecent global trends 535
Framework 18 Personal investigative study 599
5ources of energy 536
' aces 8 1 California and the UK: wind farms 540 Case Study 20 Tourism in Goa, India 600
E~ergy conservation through greater efficiency 544
flfcces 82 China: changes in energy production and consumption 544
levelopm ent and energy consumption 546 The concept of economic development 604
Zzse Study 18 Appropriate technology: micro-hydro in Nepal 54 7 Criteria for measuring the 'development gap' 606
Places 96 Kenya: women and development 608
I l 9 Manufacturing industries 552 Living in extreme poverty 609
Places 97 Malawi and Ethiopia: WaterAid 611
"'adiţional locations of industry 553
Framework 19 Correlation and development: scattergraphs,
I-anging approaches to industrial geography 557
Spearman's rank correlation, and chi-squared 612
“ "eories of industrial location 557
Stages in economic growth 615
: 'oduction process technologies 561
Places 98 China: core-periphery 618
-r jstrial location: changing patterns 562
Health and development 619
- ; zes 83 Sweden: wood puip and paper 562
Places 99 Hong Kong: the epidemiological transition 621
- ::es 84 UK: iron and Steel 563
Places 100 Sub-Saharan Africa: HIV/AIDS 623
: zzes 85 Japan: carassembly 565
International trade 624
- zzes 86 The M4 and M 11 corridors: high-tech industries 566
Places 101 South Korea: Samsung - a TNC 630
- ::es 87 South Wales: industrial growth, decline and
Places 102 Ghana: Fairtrade 631
'egeneration 570
Overseas aid and development 632
- -ustry in economically less developed countries 573
Places 103 Sri Lanka: aid after the 2004 tsunami 633
- zzes 88 Pune, India: a hub for transnationals 574
World transport 643
- zzes 89 Nairobi, Kenya: jua kali workshops 575
Places 104 Singapore: an ocean port 636
: zzes 90 Kenya: Practicai Action projects 577
Places 105 London Heathrow and Dubai: 'hub' internaţional
.6.'.ly industrialised countries (NICs) 578
airports 637
- zzes 91 Malaysia: a newly industrialised country 578
Places 106 Hong Kong: an integrated traffic system 640
Iz-eStudy 19 Special Economic Zones and open coasta! Information and Communications technology (ICT) 642
z ries in China 580 The global value chain 643
Places 107 India: call centres 643
120 Tourism 586
Case Study 21 China and India: globalisation in the textile
e, recreation and tourism 586 and fashion industry 644
T i growth in tourism 587
zi, tourism 588
■ tourism 589
Index 650
Introduction
Geography.An Integrated Approach (affectionately referred to as
GAIA) has been written as much for those students who have an
interest in Geography, an enquiring mind and a concern forthe
future of the planet upon which they live, as for those specialising
in the subject. The text has been written as concisely as seemed
practicai in order to minimise the time needed for reading and note-
taking, and to maximise the time available for discussion, individual
enquiry and wider reading. Photographs, sketches and maps are
used throughoutto illustrate the wide range of natural and human-
created environments. Annotated diagrams are included to show
interrelationships and to help explain the more difficult concepts
and theories. A wide range of graphical skills has been used to
handle geographical data - data that are as up to date as possible at
the time of writing and which you can continue to update for your-
self by referring to relevant websites and other sources.
It is because Geography is concerned with interrelationships
that this book has included, and aims to integrate, several fields of
study.These involve physical environments (atmosphere, lithos-
phere and hydrosphere) and the living world (biosphere); economic
development (or lack of it); the frequent misuse of the environment,
the long-overdue concern over the resultant consequences, and
the need for careful management and sustainable development;
together with the application, where appropriate, of a modern scien-
tific approach using statistical methods in investigations.
It is intended that this single book will:
E satisfy the requirements of the latest Advanced Subsidiary (AS),
A2, Advanced GCE, IB and other main Geography specifications
■ allowyou to read more widely in Geography than just to be
limited to the core and option modules in your examination
specifications.
What it is not intended to do is to match the specifications,
or methods of assessment, of individual syllabuses, as these are
subject to change over periods of time. Rather the book aims to
show the scope, width and everyday relevance of Geography in
an ever-changing world.
By coincidence, the iniţial letters of the title of this bookform
the word GAIA. In Ancient Greece, Gaia was the goddess of the
Earth. Today the term has been reintroduced to mean 'a new
look at life on Earth’, an approach that looks at the Earth in its
ent'rety as a living organism. It is hoped that this book reflects
aspects of this approach.
There is no rigid or prescribed sequence in the order either
e; : ne chapters themselves or in their structure. Each is open to
=5.eral rc jtes of enquiry. Terminology can be a major problem,
=5 zeographers may use several terms, some borrowed from
c:-sr disciplines, to describe the same phenomenon. When a
: s '~ is ntroduced for the first time it is shown in bold type,
6
has a list of alternatives (one of which is subsequently retained
for consistency), and is defined. Alternative terms and specific
examples often appear in brackets in order to save space. The
detailed index, to allow you to cross-reference, has the key page
reference for each entry in bold type.
The book sets out to provide an easily accessible store of
information which will help you understand basic processes
and concepts, to enter discussions and to develop your own
informed, rather than subjective, values and attitudes. Theory is,
whenever possible, supported by specific examples, which have
been highlighted in the text as Places. Although there are over
one hundred Places, limited space means these may be shorter
than is ideal. Nevertheless they should enable you either to build
upon your earlier knowledge or to stimulate you into reading more
widely. At the end of each chapter is a more detailed Case Study.
These include natural hazards, problems created by population
growth, and by the misuse of the natural environment, and the
attempts - or lack of - to manage the environment and the Earth's
resources. Further references given at the conclusion of each
chapter are those to which the author has himself referred, but they
are not intended to be a comprehensive bibliographical list. In this
edition, they include suggested reliable and useful websites.
As the reader, it is essential you appreciate that Geography
is a dynamic subject with data, views, policies and terms which
change constantly. Consequently, your own research must not be
limited to textbooks, which in any case are out of date even before
their publication, but should be widened to include the use of
the Internet, CD-ROMs, newspapers, journals, television, radio and
many 'non-academic' media.
GAIA also includes 19 Frameworks whose function is to
stimulate discussion on methodological and theoretical issues.
They illustrate some of the skills required, and the problems
involved, in geographical enquiry, e.g. the uses, limitations and
reliability of models; quantitative techniques; the collection of
data, including using the Internet; Geographical Information
Systems (GIS); maps; making classifications; and the dangers of
stereotyping and of making broad generalisations. Geography
is also concerned with the development of graphical skills. The
media show an increasing amount of data in a graphical form,
and this is likely to grow as Geographical Information Systems
develop. It is assumed that the reader already understands those
skills covered by current GCSE and Standard Grade examination
specifications and therefore only new skills are explained in this
book. Quantitative and statistical techniques are incorporated at
appropriate points, although each may be relevant elsewhere in
many of the physical and human/economic chapters. Following
an explanation of each technique, there is a worked example.
 _ ~e questions at the end of each chapter have been revised
~ 5 new edition. They are not written to be 'in the style o f any
:r-ecification or awarding body; rather they aim to provide all
r ’:s, irrespective of the exam that they will be sitting, with
:;e c practice, working towards the general style of questions
i'.'rs y might expect to face in their AS, A2, A Level, Baccalaureate
: ■::- e r exam being sat at the end of their course. The questions
;~arged into four sections, which are graded in difficulty
T-:snts move towards structuring and planning their own
s. These sections are:
■ Activities - highly structured sets of questions, designed
- =inly to test comprehension of key ideas and to be answered
- ainly by extracting relevant material from the text.
■ Exam practice: basic structured questions - contain fewer
;-=-sections than the previous Activities, and are designed to
~ similar to the type of structured questions to befound on
• -~ e AS papers.
■ Exam practice: structured questions - contain fewer sub-
;i::io n s than the basic structured questions and generally
- : . e on to test more complex and sophisticated knowledge
and understanding.
■ Exam practice: essays- designed to provide the 'stretch
i~z challenge'that is such an important feature of the latest
. sed A Level specifications, following the agenda set by
;C A A minimum of structure is provided here, as A2 candi-
za-.ss are expected to plan extended essays on their own and
i "O'.v their ability to bring together knowledge and under-
=:=nding from different areas of their study of Geography. It is
"cced that these essay questions will provide opportunities
students of average ability to show evidence that they have
b=rned good geographical skills. However, the essays are also
-:ended to allow higher-ability students to demonstrate what
:~ey know and understand from their studies of Geography,
a'id these students are expected to respond to the stretch and
challenge provided by producing excellent answers.
—nis, the Fourth edition of GAIA, was written when advances
• Esace-shrinking technologies and the speed of globalisation
: xesses mean that events taking place in one part of the world
3 ' either be seen by people across the planet almost as they
the earthquake in south-east China or sporting events such
:-s :ne Olympic Games) or have an immediate impact on every
:: _ntry (changing oii prices, climate change or the collapse of world
r-;"King). During the writing of the previous (Third) edition of this
rook in 1998-99, the most up-to-date data I could find was often
br r-vo or three years earlier and was, at best, updated annually. At
time, only 13 per cent of the world's population had access to
î'dline telephones and 1.4 per cent to the Internet, while 2.5 per
had a mobile phone. In 2009, data is now readily available not
>-iy for the current year but is often updated monthly or even more
~equently. Over 50 per cent of people now have access to landlines
B~d the Internet is now available to nearly 60 per cent in developed
=r d over 10 per cent in developing countries. Over 90 per cent
-■'the population in developed and 30 per cent in developing
countries have a mobile phone (or something far more advanced!).
Apartfrom adding new, more relevant and appropriate Places,
Case Studies and topics (Goa and Dubai, Fairtrade and WaterAid)
and giving more depth to the emerging countries of China and
India, this edition also introduces new terms (such as globalisation,
ecological footprint, carbon credit and value-added chain), and
updates information (often using 2007 or 2008 data), definitions
and Places and Case Studies (climate change, Coastal management,
types of energy, famine, transnaţional corporations and HIV/AIDS).
Best wishes with your studies
David Waugh
Author's acknowiedgemerits
To help with the writing of this Fourth edition of Geography: An
IntegratedApproach, several leading geographers were asked
to comment on the current accuracy and relevance of the Third
edition, and to advise on recent changes in terminology, concepts
and approach. I am, therefore, most grateful to the following for
their advice on the content of specific chapters in this book:
Dr David Chester (University of Liverpool) and Professor Angus
Duncan (University o fBedfordshire) for 'Plate tectonics, earth­
quakes and volcanoes'; Professor Andrew Goudie (University
of Oxford) for 'Weathering and slopes', 'Periglaciation', 'Deserts'
and 'Rock types and landforms'; Dr Mike Bentley (University
ofDurham) for 'Glaciation'; Mr Nick Gee (UEA) for 'Coasts',
'Farming and food supplies' and 'Rural land use'; Dr Antoinette
Mannion (University of Reading) for 'Drainage basins and rivers',
'Biogeography' and 'Population'; Dr Grant Bigg (University of
Sheffield) for 'Weather and climate'; Dr Steven Trudgill (University
of Cambridge) for 'Soils'; Bob Digbyfor'Urbanisation'; DrNick
Middleton (University of Oxford) for 'Energy resources'; Dr Louise
Crewe (University ofNottingham) for 'Manufacturing industries';
Dr Jan e Dove (St Paul's Girls'School) for 'Tourism'; Dr Alisdair
Rogers (University of Oxford) and Dr Richard Knowles (University
ofSalford) for 'Development and globalisation'.
My thanks also to the following contributors: Pete Murray
for questions in Chapters 1-12, written originally for the Third
edition, some of which have been re-used in this new edition;
John Smith forthe revision, updating and restructuring of the
questions throughout the book, and for the Issues Analysis on the
Serengeti in Chapter 11 (pages 311-312); Mike Brown for local
knowledge, information and photographs forthe Goa tourism
Case Study (pages 600-601) and Places 88 on Pune (page 574);
Bob Digby for the Issues Analysis on the Westfield Centre (pages
458-459); Roger Jeans (Education, OS) for advice and assistance
on the updating and revision of Framework 9 on GIS (pages 277­
278); Alison Raefor the Issues Analysis on population policies in
India and China (pages 386-387); Simon Rossfor Framework 1
(pages 22-23) on the use of the internet in study and research,
and for the new feature on mapping (pages 98-99); John Rutter
for updating Framework 9 on GIS (pages 277-278).
My special thanks go to the following who have helped with
the production of this new edition: Barry Page, who has no equal
as a project manager; Katherine James, who must have corrected
thousands of my mistakes over almost 20 years of editing my
books; Sue Sharp, for finding so many stunning photos; Lynne
Adams, for her hours researching both new and updated mate­
rial; Melanie Grey, for her help with the proofreading of such a
long book; my very good friend John Smith, for again writing and
revising the many questions; my wife Judith, who had to put up
with my absence at the computer. Without them, a book as big
and detailed as GAIA could never have been produced.
7
 Plate tectonics, earthquakes
and volcanoes
. . how does a supercontinent begin to rift and how do T h e h is to r y o f t h e E a r th
the pieces move apart? W hat effects do such movements It is estim ated th a t th e Earth was form ed about
have on the shaping o f the continental landscapes, on hot 4 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 years ago. Even if th is figure is
climates and ice ages, on the evolution oflife in general sim plified to 4 6 0 0 m illio n years, it still presents
a tim escale far beyon d our und erstand ing. Nigel
and on humanity's relationship with the upper crust o f the
Calder, in his book T h e R estless E arth, made
Earth in particular?' a m ore com p reh en sib le analogy by reducing
R. Redfern, The M a k in g o f a C o n tin e n t, 1983 th e tim esp an to 4 6 years. He ignored th e eight
Figure 1.1 n ou g hts and com pared th e 4 6 years w ith a
The geological timescale h u m an lifetim e (Piaces 1).

millions of years before the present present day

4600 3800 3300 600 0

(enlarged below)

origin of oldest approximate fossils

the Earth known origin oflife
rocks

lical Millions of years

Era Epoch before present Conditions and rocks in Britain Maior world events
Cenozoic Quaternary Holocene 0.01 Post ice age. Alluvium deposited, peatformed Early civilisations

Pleistocene 1.8 Ice age, with warm periods Emergence of the human

Tertiary Pliocene 5 Warm climate: Crag rocks in East Anglia

Miocene 24 No deposits in Britain Formation of the Alps

Oligocene 33 Warm shallowseas in south of England Rockiesand Himalayas begin toform

Eocene 54 Nearly tropical: London day Volcanic activity in Scotland

Mesozoic Cretaceous 136 Chalk deposited: Atlantic ridge opens End of the dinosaurs/Age of the dinosaurs

Jurassic 195 Oxford daysand limestones: warm Pangaea breaksup

Triassic 225 Desert: sandstones First mammals

Palaeozoic Permian 280 Desert: New Red Sandstones, limestones Formation of Pangaea

Carboniferous 345 Tropical coast with swamps: coal Firstamphibiansand insects

Devonian 395 Warm desert coastline: sandstones First land animals

Silurian 440 Warm seas with coral: limestones First land plants

Ordovician 500 Warm seas: volcanoes (Snowdonia) sandstones, shales First vertebrates

Cambrian 570 Cold attim es: sea conditions Abundant fossils begin

Pre-Cambrian Igneous and sedimentary rocks

8 Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes

 T h e E a rth : a s im p lifie d h is to ry
.. Or we can depict Mother Earth as a lady of 46,
if her"years"are megacenturies.Thefirst seven of
those years are wholly lostto the biographer, but
the deeds of her later childhood are to be seen in
old rocks in Greenland and South Africa. Like the
human memory, the surface of our planet distorts
the record, emphasising more recent events and
letting the rest pass into vagueness - or at least into
unimpressivejoints in worn down mountain chains.
Most of what we recognise on Earth, including all
substantial animal life, is the product of the past six
years of the lady's life. She flowered, literally, in her
middle age. Her continents were quite bare of life
until she was getting on for 42 and flowering plants
did not appear until she was 45 - just oneyear
ago. At that time, the great reptiles, including the
dinosaurs, were her pets and the break-up of the
last supercontinent was in progress.
G eologists have been able to study rocks and
fossils form ed during th e last 6 0 0 m illio n years,
equ iv alen t to th e last 'six years o f th e lady's life',
and have produced a tim e ch art, or g e o lo g ica l
tim e sca le . N ot o n ly have th e y b een able to add
dates w ith in creasin g co n fid en ce, b u t th e y have
m ade progress in d escribing and a cco u n tin g for
th e m a jo r changes in th e Earth's surface, e.g.
sea-level flu ctu atio n s and lan d form d evelop­
m e n t, and in its clim ate. T h e tim escale, show n in
Figure 1.1, should be a useful reference for later
parts of th is book.
E a r th q u a k e s
Even th e earliest civilisations were aware th a t th e
crust of the Earth is n o t rigid and im m obile. The
first m ajor European civilisation, th e M inoan,
based in Crete, constructed buildings such as
the Royal Palace at Knossos w h ich w ithstood a
succession o f earthquakes. However, this civilisa­
tio n m ay have b een destroyed by the effects of a
huge volcan ic eruption on th e nearby island of
Thera (Santorini). Later, inhabitants o f places as
far apart as Lisbon (1755), San Francisco (1906),
Tokyo (1 923), M exico City (1985), Los Angeles
(1 9 9 4 - Case Study 15A), Kobe (1995), Sri Lanka
and Sum atra (2 0 0 4 - Places 4) and C h ina (2 0 0 8
- Places 2) were to suffer from the effects o f m ajor
earth m ovem ents.
The dinosaurs passed away eight months ago and
the upstart mammals replaced them. In the middle
of last week, in Africa, some man-like apes turned
into ape-like men and, at the weekend, Mother
Earth began shivering with the latest series of ice
ages. Just over four hours have elapsed since a
new species calling itself Homo sapiens started
chasing the other animals and in the last hour it has
invented agriculture and settled down. A quarter of
an hour ago, Moses led his people to safety across
a crack in the Earth's shell, and about five minutes
later Jesus was preaching on a hill farther along the
fault line. Just one minute has passed, out of Mother
Earth's 46"years", since man began his industrial
revolution, three human lifetimes ago. During
that time he has multiplied his numbers and skills
prodigiously and ransacked the planet for metal
and fuel.'
N .C a\d e r,T h e R e stlessE a rth , 1972
It was by studying earthquakes th a t geologists
were first able to determ ine the structure o f the
Earth (Figure 1.2). At th e M o h o ro v icii or 'M oh o'
d isco n tin u ity , it was found th a t shock waves
begin to travel faster, indicating a change o f struc­
ture - in this case, th e ju n ctio n o f th e Earth's cru st
and m a n tie (Figure 1.2). The 'M oh o' d iscontinuity
is the ju n ctio n betw een the Earth's crust and the
m antie where seism ic waves are m odified. The
M o h o is at about 3 5 -4 0 km b eneath con tin en ts
(reaching 70 km under m o u n tain chains) and at
6 -1 0 km below th e oceans.
Earthquakes result from a slow build-up of
pressure w ithin crustal rocks. If this pressure is
suddenly released th e n parts o f th e surface m ay
experien ce a jerking m ovem ent. W ith in th e crust,
th e p o in t at w h ich th e release in pressure occurs
is know n as th e focus. Above this, on th e surface
and usually receiving th e w orst of th e shock or
seism ic w aves, is th e ep icen tre. U nfortunately,
it is n o t on ly th e im m ediate or prim ary effects
o f th e earthquake th a t m ay cause loss o f life and
property; o ften th e secondary or after-effects are
even m ore serious (Places 2). These m ay include
fires from broken gas pipes, disruption o f trans­
port and other services, exposure caused by a
lack o f shelter, a shortage of food, clean water
and m edical equ ipm en t, and disease caused by
polluted water supplies. These problem s m ay be
exacerbated by after-shocks w h ich often follow
th e m ain earthquake.
Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes 9
Figure 1.2 The streng th o f an earthq u ak e is m easured
The internaistructure on th e R ich ter scale (Figure 1.3). To cover th e
ofthe Earth huge range o f earthquakes, th e m agnitu de of
th e scale is log arith m ic, each u n it representing
a ten fo ld increase in stren g th and around a
30-fold increase in energy. This m eans th a t the
1755 Lisbon earthquake was 10 tim es stronger
and released 3 0 tim es m ore en ergy th a n th e 1985
M exico C ity earthquake, and was nearly 100
tim es stronger and released alm ost 9 0 0 tim es
m ore energy th a n th e 1 9 8 9 San Francisco e arth ­
quake (Figure 1.3).

Figure 1.3

The Richter scale

di "8
C
c fi 0/
o c _ _c a
o
>s OJ I 1
possible 75 S a; n _Q
t -o d)
effects
£ -£
C .ir na cn q=
L 1 I
earthquake size 0 10
(magnitude - log scale)
O
0
_>- 5.7 6.4 6.9 7.2 7.8 8.2 K
2 3 Ol
CO Ol
Ol Ol
U
CT1 &
V
rara
_
'—'
<u ^ u-,
1 £ X
c | <
n S

10 Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes

 S o u th -w e s t C h in a : a n e a rth q u a k e

12 M a y 2 0 0 8 were lost and people were left without power, fresh

Just before 1430 hours local time, an earthquake
measuring 7.9 on the Richter scale hit Sichuan
province in south-west China. It was the worst to
affect the country since the city ofTangshan was
levelled with the loss of over 220 000 lives in 1976.
The epicentre was at Wenchuan, 80 km north of
Chengdu. Sichuan, known asthe'rice-bowl of
China', is one of the most densely populated and
poorest of the country's provinces.The earthquake,
which lasted 20 seconds, occurred in a region where
the fertile plains of Sichuan give way to high cliffs,
steep gorges and forests of pine and bamboo - the
last being the sole remaining natural habitat forthe
giant panda - near to theTibetan Plateau.
Apart from the collapse of thousands of buildings,
giant landslides of mud and rubble blocked roads
and rivers. A huge emergency plan was immediately
put into effect, including the marching of parts of the
army for 30 hours over the mountains to try to help
survivors. At least six schools were destroyed, their
teachers and students buried under the rubble -
indeed it was in schools where poor-quality cement
had been used that a high proportion of deaths
occurred. Telephone links, including those for mobiles,
water and shelter.Two large dams developed wide
cracks and the seemingly endless heavy rain following
the quake caused further landslides that killed several
relief workers and created over 40 new lakes.
26 M ay 2008
Whereas after most earthquakes the aftershocks
decrease in magnitude and frequency fairly rapidly,
in Sichuan they continued.Two weeks after the
main event, during which there had been several
hundred shockwaves, a tremor of 5.9 magnitude
killed six people, injured over a thousand more, and
demolished many of the already severely damaged
buildings. By this time the official death toii had been
put at 67 000 people with another 20 000 still missing.
Some 5 million people - equivalent to the combined
populations of Manchesterand Birmingham - were
reported to be homeless.The newly created'quake'or
'barrier'lakes, together with upto400 purpose-built
reservoirs, became a major concern as they continued
tofill following the heavy rains.The talk was of
completely abandoning towns such as Wenchuan
and Beichuan, where virtually all of the buildings had
been destroyed, and creating new settlements.

E a rth q u a k e s , v o lc a n o e s 1946 West Indies, Japan 1999 Turkey, Taiwan

a n d y o u n g fo ld 1949 Alaska 2001 India, El Salvador
1950 Japan, Assam 2002 Alaska, Mexico
m o u n ta in s 1953 Turkey, Japan 2003 Japan, Iran
T hese do n o t occu r at rand om 1956 California 2004 Morocco, Sumatra
1957 Mexico 2005 Pakistan
over th e Earth's surface but have
1958 Alaska 2006 Java
a clearly id en tifiab le p attern. 1960 Chile, Morocco 2007 Peru
This can be seen by w orking 1962 Iran 2008 China
1963 Yugoslavia
th rou g h th e follow in g activities.
1964 Alaska, Turkey, Mexico, 2 On a tracing overlay, mark and
Japan, Taiwan name the following volcanoes:
1 On an outline map of the world, 1965 El Salvador, Greece Aconcagua, Chimborazo, Cotopaxi,
mark by a dot (there is no need to 1966 Chile, Peru,Turkey Nevado del Ruiz, Paricutfn,
name the places) the location of 1967 Colombia, Yugoslavia, Java, Popocatepetl, Mount St Helens,
the following earthquakes: Japan Fuji, Mount Pinatubo, Mayon,
1968 Iran Krakatoa, Merapi, Ruapehu, Erebus,
1924 Philippines 1970 Peru Helgafell, Surtsey, Azores archipel-
1925 California 1971 New Guinea, California ago, Ascension, St Helena.Tristan
1926 Rhodes 1972 Nicaragua da Cunha, Vesuvius, Etna, Pelee
1927 Japan 1976 Guatemala, Italy, China, Montserrat, Mauna Loa, Kilauea.
1928 Chile Philippines, Turkey
1929 Aleutians, Japan 1978 Japan 3 On a second overlay, mark and
1931 New Zealand 1980 Italy name the following fold
1932 Mexico 1985 Mexico, Colombia mountains:
1933 California 1988 Armenia Andes, Rockies, Atlas, Pyrenees,
1935 Sumatra 1989 San Francisco, Iran Alps, Caucasus, Hindu Kush,
1938 Java 1993 Java, Japan, India, Egypt Himalayas, Southern Alps.
1939 Chile, Turkey 1994 Los Angeles
1940 Burma, Peru 1995 Japan, Greece 4 Use the Internet (see Framework
1941 Ecuador, Guatemala 1996 China, Indonesia 1, page 22) to find the names of
1943 Philippines, Java 1997 Afghanistan, Italy, Iran more earthquakes and volcanic
1944 Japan 1998 Iraq, Afghanistan eruptions, after 2008.

Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes 11


P la te te c to n ic s
As early as 1 6 2 0 , Francis B acon n oted th e jigsaw-
like fit b etw een th e east coast o f Sou th A m erica
and th e w est coast o f Africa. O thers were later
to p o in t out sim ilarities betw een th e shapes of
coastlin es o f several a d ja ce n t co n tin e n ts.
In 1912, a G erm an m eteorologist, Alfred
W egener, published his theory th a t all th e c o n ­
tin ents were o n ce jo in ed together in one large
supercontinent w h ich he nam ed P an g aea. Later,
this landm ass som ehow split up and the various
con tin en ts, as we know them , drifted apart.
W egener collated evidence from several sciences:
■ B io lo g y M esosaurus was a sm all reptile
liv in g in Perm ian tim es (Figure 1 .1 ); its
rem ain s have b een found o n ly in South
Africa and Brazii. A p lan t w h ich existed w hen
coal was b ein g form ed has on ly b een located
in In d ia and A ntarctica.
■ G e o lo g y Rocks o f sim ilar type, age, fo rm a ­
tio n and stru cture occu r in so u th -ea st Brazii
and Sou th Africa, and th e A p p alach ian
Thewandering
continents
a Pangaea: The supercontinent of 200 million years ago
b Sub-oceanic forces send the landmasses wandering
c Tomorrow's world - 50 million years hence
North America Europe
South
America Australasia
Antarctica
12 Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes
M o u n ta in s o f th e ea stern USA corresp ond
g eo lo g ica lly w ith m o u n ta in s in n o rth -w est
Europe.
■ C lim a to lo g y Coal, form ed under warm, wet
con d ition s, is found b en ea th th e A ntarctic
ice-cap, and evidence o f glaciation had been
noted in tropical Brazii and central India.
Coal, sand stone and lim eston e could n o t have
form ed in Britain w ith its present clim ate.
W egener's th eo ry o f c o n t in e n ta l d rift com b in ed
in fo rm a tio n from several su b ject areas, b u t his
ideas were rejected by specialists in those
disciplines, partly because he was n o t regarded
as an expert h im self bu t perhaps m ain ly because
he cou ld n o t exp lain how solid co n tin e n ts
had chang ed th eir p o sitions. He was u n able to
suggest a m ech a n ism for drift.
Figure 1 .4 a show s W egen er’s Pangaea
and how it b eg an to divide up in to tw o large
co n tin e n ts, w h ich he nam ed L a u ra sia and
G o n d w a n a la n d ; it also suggests how th e world
m ay lo o k in th e future if th e c o n tin e n ts co n tin u e
to drift.
direction of plate
movement
Since W egener first put forward th is theory, th ree
groups o f new evidence have b eco m e available to
support his ideas.
1 T he d isco v e ry a n d stu d y o f th e M id-
A tla n tic Ridge W h ile in vestig atin g islands
in th e A tlan tic in 1948, M aurice Ewing noted
th e presence o f a co n tin u o u s m o u n ta in range
e xten d in g th e w h ole len g th o f th e ocean
bed. T h is m o u n ta in range, nam ed th e Mid-
A tlantic Ridge, is ab ou t 1 0 0 0 km wide and
rises to 2 5 0 0 m in h eig h t. Ewing also noted
th a t th e rocks o f th is range were v o lca n ic and
recen t in origin - n o t a n c ie n t as previously
assum ed was th e case in m id -oceans. Later
in vestig ation s show sim ilar ranges o n oth er
o cean floors, th e one in th e eastern Pacific
exten d in g for nearly 5 0 0 0 km (Figure 1.8).
2 Studies of p ala e o m a g n e tism in th e
1 9 5 0 s D uring underw ater v o lcan ic eruptions,
basaltic m agm a is intruded in to th e crust and
cools (Figure 1.31). During th e coo lin g process,
individual m inerals, especially iron oxides,
align them selves along th e Earth's m agnetic
field, i.e. in th e direction o f th e m agnetic
pole. R ecent refinem ents in dating tech niqu es
enable th e tim e at w h ich rocks were form ed
to be accurately calculated. It was know n
before th e 1950s th a t th e Earth's m agnetic
pole varied a little from year to year, but only
th e n was it discovered th a t th e m agnetic field
reverses periodically, i.e. the m agnetic pole is
in th e south for a period o f tim e and th e n in
the n o rth for a further period, and so on. It
Mid-Atlantic Ridge
North
South
N S N
f
1 f ţ \l
/
/ / / crust
increasingly older basalts
upper
lower
Figure 1.5
The repeated reversal of the Earth's
magnetic field - the timings are
irregular but show a mirror image
is claim ed th a t th ere have b een 171 reversals
over 76 m illio n years. If form ed w hen the
m agnetic pole was in th e n orth, new basalt
would be aligned to th e n orth . After a reversal
in the m agnetic poles, new er lava would be
oriented to th e south. After a further reversal,
th e alig n m en t would again be to th e north.
Subsequent investigations have show n that
these alternations in alig nm en t are alm ost
sym m etrical in rocks on eith er side o f th e Mid-
A tlantic Ridge (Figure 1.5).
3 Sea flo o r sp read in g In 1962, Harry Hess
studied th e age o f rocks from th e m iddle o f
th e A tlantic outwards to th e coast o f N orth
Am erica. He confirm ed th a t th e new est rocks
were in th e cen tre o f the ocean, and were still
b ein g form ed in Iceland, and th a t th e oldest
rocks were th ose nearest to th e USA and the
C aribbean. He also suggested th a t th e A tlantic
could be w id ening by up to 5 cm a year.
O ne m ajor d ifficu lty resulting from th is co n cep t
o f sea floor spreading was th e im p lica tio n th at
th e Earth m ust be in creasing in size. Since this is
n o t so, evidence was needed to show th a t else-
w here parts o f th e crust were b ein g destroyed.
Such areas were found to correspond to the
fringes o f th e Pacific O cean - th e region where
you plotted som e m ajor earthquakes and vol­
can ic eruptions (page 11). These discoveries led to
th e d ev elopm en t o f th e th eory o f p late te cto n ics
w h ich is now virtually universally accepted, but
w hich m ay still be m odified follow in g further
investigation and study.
North
South
N S N
1 \ \ \
increasingly older basalts
mantie lithosphere
mantie asthenosphi
Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes 13
 Differences in Differences in
composition physical state
oceanic
Two oceanic plates moving j-crust lithosphere
apart (constructive) continental J ■(behaves in
a rigid fashion)
upper mantie
„e?
remainder asthenosphere
of mantie (which is ductile)

* t \
% Vi
\v %
cr convection cell

plate movement
O V» o

\ % % %

hot hot
spot spot

Figure 1.6
Continental crust (sial) Oceanic crust (sima)
How plates move
Thickness 35-40 km on average, reaching 60-70 km under mountain chains 6-1 0 kmon average

Age of rocks very old, mainly over 1500 million years very young, mainly under 200 million years

Figure 1.7 Weight of rocks lighter, with an average density of 2.6 heavier, with an average density of 3.0
Differences between Nature of rocks light in colour; many contain silica and aluminium; numerous types, dark in colour; many contain silica and magnesium;
continental and
graniţe is the most common few types, mainly basalt
oceanic crust

The theory of plate tectonics m ove tow ards, away from or sideways along
ad ja cen t plates. It is at plate boun d aries th a t
The lith o sp h e re (the Earth's crust and th e rigid
m ost o f th e world's m ajor lan d form s occur, and
upper part o f th e m an tie) is divided in to seven
w here earthquake, v o lca n ic and m o u n tain -
large and several sm aller p lates. T he plates,
build in g zones are located ("Figure 1.8). However,
w h ich are rigid, float like rafts on th e u n d erlyin g
b efore try ing to a cco u n t for th e fo rm atio n of
sem i-m o lten m a n tie (th e a sth e n o sp h e re ) and
these landform s, several points should be noted .
are m oved by currents w h ich form c o n v e c tio n
1 Due to its relatively low density, con tin en tal
cells (Figure 1.6). Plate te cto n ics is th e study of
crust does n o t sink and so is perm anent; being
th e m o v em en t o f these plates and th eir resu ltant
denser, oceanic crust can sink. O cean ic crust is
landform s.
being form ed and destroyed continuously.
There are tw o types o f plate m aterial:
2 C o n tin e n ta l plates, such as th e Eurasian
c o n tin e n ta l and o c e a n ic . C o n tin en ta l crust is
Plate, m ay consist o f b o th co n tin e n ta l and
com posed of older, lighter rock o f g ran itic type.
o ce a n ic crust.
O cean ic crust con sists o f m u ch younger, denser
3 C o n tin e n ta l crust m ay exten d far beyon d th e
rock o f basaltic co m p o sitio n . However, as m ost
m argins o f th e landm ass.
plates con sist o f areas o f b o th co n tin e n ta l and
4 Plates c a n n o t overlap. This m eans th a t either
ocea n ic crust, it is im p o rta n t to realise th a t th e
th e y m ust be pushed upwards o n im p act to
tw o term s do n o t refer to our nam ed c o n tin e n ts
form m o u n ta in s (AB o n Figure 1.6) or one
and oceans. The m a jo r differences betw een th e
plate m u st be forced dow nw ards in to the
two types o f crust are sum m arised in Figure 1.7.
m a n tie and destroyed (C o n Figure 1.6).
5 No 'gaps' m ay occur o n th e Earth's surface so,
Plate movement
if tw o plates are m ovin g apart, new o cean ic
As a result of th e c o n v e ctio n cells generated by
crust orig in atin g from th e m a n tie m u st be
h eat from th e centre o f th e Earth, plates m ay being form ed.

14 Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes

 earthquake foci X * ' constructive margins-spreading ( 2) rate of movement (cm per year) Plates
ridge offset by transform faults A Adriatic
collision zones destructive margins - uncertain plate boundary B Aegean
subduction zone C Turkish
D Juan de Fuca
movement of plates % conservative margins E Cocos

gure 1.8 6 T h e Earth is n e ith er exp an d in g n or shrink in g M ost sig n ifica n t landform s (fold m o u n tain s,
: boundaries and i n s i z e - Thus w h en new o ce a n ic crust is bein g v olcanoes, island arcs, deep-sea tren ch es,
- .e zones of the form ed in o n e place, older o cea n ic crust m ust and b a th o lith in tru sions) are found at plate
^ "- îs crust be being destroyed in another. bound aries. Very little ch an g e occurs in plate
7 Plate m o vem en t is slow (th ough n o t in geolog­ centres (shield lands). Figure 1.9 sum m arises
ical terms) and is usually con tinu ou s. Sudden th e m a jo r landform s resulting from d ifferent
m ovem ents are detected as earthquakes. types o f p late m o vem en t.

: gure 1.9
Type of plate boundary Description of changes Examples
major landforms
A Constructive margins tw o plates move awayfrom each other; new Mid-Atlantic Ridge (Americas moving awayfrom
ting from plate
(spreading or divergent oceanic crust appearsforming mid-ocean Eurasian and African Plates)
- : .ements
plates) ridges with volcanoes East Pacific Rise (Nazca and Pacific Plates moving apart)

B Destructive margins oceanic crust moves towards continental Nazca sinks under South American Plate (Andes)
(subduction zones) crust but, being heavier, sinks and is destroyed Juan de Fuca sinks under North American Plate (Rockies)
forming deep-sea trenches and island arcs with Island arcs of the West Indies and Aleutians
volcanoes

Collision zones two continental crusts collide and, as neither Indian Plate collided with Eurasian Plate, forming Himalayas
can sink, are forced up into fold mountains African Plate collided with Eurasian Plate, forming Alps

C Conservative or two plates move sideways past each other San Andreas Fault in California
passive margins - land is neither formed nor destroyed
(transform faults)

Note: centres of plates are rigid plate centres form

rigid... a shields lands (cratons) of ancientworn- Canadian (Laurentian) Shield, Brazilian Shield
down rocks
b depressions on edges of the shield which Mississippi—Missouri, Amazon
develop into large river basins

...with one main exception Africa dividing to form a rift valley and African Rift Valley and the Red Sea
possibly a new sea

Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes 15

 L a n d fo rm s a t c o n s tru c tiv e p la te in tim e grow above sea-level, e.g. Surtsey, sou th of
m a rg in s Iceland on th e M id-Atlantic Ridge (Places 3) and
Easter Island on th e East Pacific Rise. The A tlantic
Constructive plate m argins occur where two plates
O cean did n o t exist som e 15 0 m illion years ago
diverge, or m ove away, from each other and new
(Figure 1.4) and is still w idening by som e 2 -5 cm
crust is created at th e boundary. This process,
annually. W here there is lateral m ovem ent along
know n as sea-floor spreading, occurs in th e mid-
the m id-ocean ridges, large cracks called tran s­
A tlantic where the N orth and South Am erican
fo rm faults are produced at right-angles to the
Plates are being pulled apart from the Eurasian and
plate boundary (Figure 1.8).
African Plates by con v ectio n cells. As th e plates
T he Iargest visible product o f constructive
diverge, m o lten rock or m a g m a rises from the
divergent plates is Iceland w here on e-th ird o f th e
m an tie to fiii any possible gaps betw een th e m and,
lava em itted o n to th e Earth's surface in th e last
in doing so, creates new ocean ic crust. The m agm a
5 0 0 years can be found (Figures 1 .1 0 b and 1.26).
in itially forms su b m arin e v o lca n o e s w hich m ay

Ic e la n d : a c o n s tr u c tiv e p la te m a r g in

On 14 November 1963, th e cre w o fa n Icelandic
fishing boat reported an explosion under the
sea south-west of the Westman islands. This was
followed by smoke, steam and emissions of pumice
stone. Having built up an ash cone of
130 m from the seabed, the island of Surtsey
emerged above the waves. On 4 April 1964, a
lava flow covered the unconsolidated ash and
guaranteed the island's survival.
Just before 0200 hours on 23 January 1973, an
earth tremor stopped the clock in the main Street of
Heimaey, Iceland's main fishing port. Once again the
North American and Eurasian Plates were moving
apart (Figure 1.10b). Fishermen at sea witnessed the
crust of the Earth breakopen and lava and ash pour
outofafissure2 km in length (page 25). Eventually
the activity became concentrated on the volcanic
Figure 1.10 cone of Helgafell and the inhabitants of Heimaey
were evacuated to safety. By the time volcanic
A constructive plate
margin: Iceland
activity ceased six months later, many homes nearby
had been burned; others farther afield had been
buried under 5 m of ash; and the entrance to the
harbour had been all but blocked.
A large volcanic eruption in a fissure under the
Vatnajokull icecap melted 3000 m3 of the glacier
above it in October 1996.The resultant meltwater
collected under the ice in the Grimsvotn volcanic
crater (caldera) until, in November, an eruption
spewed a 4270 m high column of ash into the air
and released the trapped water.The subsequent
torrent, which contained house-sized blocks of ice
and black sulphurous water, demolished three of
Iceland's Iargest bridges and several kilometres of
the south coast ring road (Figure 1.25). A further
event in December 1998 resulted in five craters
within the caldera becoming active along a 1300 m
long fissure and the creation of an eruption plume
10 km in height.

a Location of Iceland on Mid-Atlantic b Cross-section of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge

the Mid-Atlantic Ridge Ridge
volcanic islands,
e.g. iceland
North American Plate
North American Plate Eurasian Plate
Krafla: continuous eruptions since 1975;
(continental crust) AtlanticOcean (continental crust)
since this time the two plates have moved
apart by 4 m
AAskja 1875
N Mid-Atlantic Ridge
i (new oceanic crust)

Reykjavik • ^Vatnajokull 1983,199b

A Hekla 1970,1980
-4
Heimaey 1973 A Eurasian Plate V
* Surtsey 1963-67 upper mantie

▲ volcanic eruption branch of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge lower mantie magma from mantie
volcanic zone 0 100 km

16 Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes

Ml
• : » Rift Valley
.ocation
Africa
^calised cross-section
Western Rift
Valley with large
■■''canoes, e.g.
— Pmvenzori Tanganylka
'2
~ .e plate margin
3 and South
- ate boundary
: .a reaches surface to
Lawoes 6000 m high, e.g.
iz o and Cotopaxi
r deep sea trench «
Coastal
/ Range
cdithqudke toci
subduction zone, oceanic
plate breaks up producing
earthquake fod
The A tlantic O cean was form ed as th e c o n ­
tin e n t o f Laurasia split in to two, a process th at
D e a d Sea
(-396 m) m ay be repeating itself today in East Africa. Here
th e brittle crust has fractured and, as sections
Red Sea m oved apart, th e central p o rtio n dropped to form
Arabia
th e G reat African Rift Valley (Figure 1.11) w ith
its associated v o lcan ic activity. In Africa th e rift
valley extends for 4 0 0 0 km from M ozam bique
to th e Red Sea. In places its sides are over 6 0 0 m
L. V ic to ria A@ 5 1 9 9 m
▲ mountain in h eig h t w hile its w idth varies betw een 10 and
A( T ; 5895 m ( j ) Kilimanjaro 50 km . W here th e land has been pulled apart and
L T a n g a n y ik a (2) Kenya dropped sufficiently, it has b een invaded by the
L. M a la w i
plate movement sea. It has b een suggested th a t th e Red Sea is a
new ly form ing ocean. Looking 5 0 m illion years
Rift Valley in to th e future (Figure 1.4c), it is possible th at
0 1000 km Africa will have m oved further away from Arabia.
In d ia n O cean
L a n d fo rm s a t d e s tru c tiv e p la te m a rg in s
D estructive m argins occu r w here co n tin e n ta l
central plateau Eastern Rift volcanoes, e.g.
and o cea n ic plates converge. The P acific O cean,
subsided to Valley with Kilimanjaro
form Lake small lakes and Kenya w h ich extend s over five o ce a n ic plates, is sur-
lakes,e.g. Victoria (Kenyan Rift) rounded by c o n tin e n ta l plates (Figure 1.8). The
P acific Plate, th e Iargest o f th e o ce a n ic plates,
and th e P hilip pines Plate m ove n orth -w est to
/ collid e w ith eastern Asia. In con trast, th e sm aller
Nazca, C ocos and Ju a n de Fuca Plates travel east-
wards towards South Am erica, C entral A m erica
and N orth A m erica respectively. Figure 1 .1 2
show s how th e N azca Plate, m ade o f o cean ic
crust w h ich c a n n o t override c o n tin e n ta l crust,
is forced to dip dow nw ards at an angle to form
a su b d u ctio n zo n e w ith its associated deep-sea
tre n c h . As o ce a n ic lith o sp h ere descends, th e
increase in pressure ca n trigger m a jo r e a rth ­
saline lakes (e.g.Titicaca),remnants of quakes, w hile d eh yd ratio n o f th e subducted
disappearing former oceans o ce a n ic crust, caused by th e increase in pressure,
young fold mountains of the results in th e release o f w ater in to th e overlying
Western Andes, separated bythe
Cordillera Eastern Cordillera Altiplano (High Plateau) m an tie w h ich p rom otes parţial m eltin g and the
gen eratio n o f m agm a. Being less dense th a n the
m an tie, th e new ly form ed m agm a will try to rise
Amazon and Parana to th e Earth's surface. W here it does reach th e
V lowlands (sedimentary
surface, v o lcan o es will occur. These vo lcan o es
aa\ rocks) Atlantic
Ocean are likely to form e ith er a lon g ch a in o f fold
Brazilian Plateau,an ancient m o u n ta in s (e.g. th e Andes) or, if th e erup tions
shield having always been part
take place offshore, an islan d a rc (e.g. Jap an ,
w ith in the of a stable continental plate
crust fo rm in g C aribbean ). Estim ates claim th a t 8 0 per ce n t of
th e g ra n iţe
th e w orld’s presen t active v o lcan o es are located
A ndean
b a th o lith above su b d u ction zones. As th e rising m agm a
at d estructive m argins is m ore acidic th a n th e
American Plate
lava o f con stru ctive m argins (page 2 4), it is m ore
(continental cnust) viscous and flows less easily. It m ay solidify
w ith in th e m o u n ta in m ass to form large
friction from the subduction zone in tru siv e features called b a th o lith s (Figure 1.31).
gives extra heat producing either
(i) or (ii) above
Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes 17
Figure 1.13

The 2004 tsunami [

as ith it the coast of
Thailand

T sunam is are giant waves, o ften generated at
destructive plate margins, th a t can cross oceans
- indeed th e four tsunam is th a t follow ed th e erup­
tio n o f Krakatoa in 1883 travelled three tim es
around th e world. Tsunam is are rare events, but
they can cause enorm ous damage and consider-
able loss o f life. They occur w h en a sudden, large-
scale change in th e area of an ocean bed leads to
th e d isplacem ent of a large volum e o f water and
th e subsequent form ation o f on e or m ore huge
waves. A lthough tsunam is can result from a m ajor
coasta! landslide (e.g. Alaska 1958), their origin is
m ore likely to be seism ic - eith er follow ing a v o l­
ca n ic erup tion (Krakatoa 1 8 8 3 - Places 35, page
2 8 9 ) or a shallow subm arine earthquake (Ind ian
O cean 2 0 0 4 - Places 4).
Tsunam is have exceptionally long wave-lengths
of up to 100 km, unlike wind-driven waves where
the distance betw een consecutive wave crests is
only a few metres (page 141). Tsunam is can cross
oceans at speeds of up to 700 km/hr yet their small
height, perhaps only h alf a m etre, makes them
alm ost im perceptible. On approaching a coastline,
their speed m ay rapidly decrease to only 30 km/hr
(still faster th an people can run) while their height
can increase to 2 0 m or m ore.

In d ia n O c e a n : t h e 2 0 0 4 ts u n a m i

- Andaman
Islands 1hour tsunami waves
South
1 , hours travelling outwards
* China Sea
T h a ila n d and time taken
In d ia
"v\. ’* | eT ’ hour ’iPhuketand
Phi Phi Island

Sri 1n d i a n Ocean
Lanka Banda Aceh •
M a la y s ia
Galle r hour
J j hours I hour Sumatra
epicentru
27 hours 2 hours
C i)
* - Eurasian Plate
N_r ' (mainly continental crust)
focus /—v

Indian Plate
(mainly oceanic crust) ^seabed forced to rise, pushing
water upwards and outwards
forming a giant wave
tsunamis

seawater seawater
displaced displaced

/ "
Figure 1.14

seabed distorted Track of the Indian

earthquake focus
Ocean tsunami

18 Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes

The Indian Ocean tsunami of 26 December 2004
■vas caused by a horizontal movement of some 15 m
along a 1200 km section of fault line where the mainly
oceanic crust of the north-eastwards moving Indian
Plate issubducted under the mainly continental
crust of the Eurasian Plate. The magnitude of the
earthquake that triggered this movement was
-'leasured as 9.0 on the Richter scale and had its
epicentre just off the west coast of Sumatra in
ndonesia. As part of the seabed directly above the
epicentre was forced to rise locally, water above it was
pushed upwards and outwards forming the tsunami.
Part of the resultant wave travelled eastwards to
devastate, first, those parts of Banda Aceh in Sumatra
that had not been destroyed a few minutes earlier
by the earthquake, and, later, several Coastal resorts
inThailand (Figure 1.1 B).The remainderofthe wave
travelled westwards across the Indian Ocean where
it affected, without warning, the Andaman Islands,
Sri Lanka and Southern India (Figure 1.14). In all those
places the 15 m wave, preceded by a retreat of the sea,
raced inland carrying people and property with it and
then rushing back to the ocean dragging bodies and
debris. In all 300 000 people died, including 200 000 in
Indonesia and 30 000 in Sri Lanka, and nearly 2 million
were left homeless. Hundredsof kilometres of roads
were destroyed, as were many schools and hospitals,
fishing boatsand coastal crops (Places 103, page 633).

L a n d fo rm s a t c o llis io n
a oceanic crust undergoes 0 = earthquake foci j p la te m a rg in s
island dehydration, reieasing
water into the overlying T h e fo rm ation o f fold m o u n tain s
arc
sediments from land mantie, which melts is o ften extrem ely com p lex. As
deposited on seabed
has already b een explained in the
deep sea
continental trench co n te x t o f th e Pacific, fold m o u n ­
l i p
crust oceanic crust tains o ften occur w here o cean ic
crust is subducted by co n tin e n ta l
’© +
crust (Figure 1.1 5 ). A second,
th o u g h less frequent, occu rrence
is w h en tw o plates com posed of
® = earthquake foci 1 co n tin e n ta l crust m ove together.
b
In Places 5 th e Ind ian subconti-
island arc n e n t, form ing part o f th e Indo-
migrates
A ustralian Plate, is show n to have
^ 1 . towards land
m oved north-eastw ards and to
have collid ed w ith th e Eurasian
rigid plate
oceanic crust 1 Plate. Because c o n tin e n ta l crust
continental .
crust ca n n o t sink, th e subsequent
collisio n caused th e intervenin g
©
sedim ents, w h ich con tain ed sea-
shells, to be pushed upwards to
1c young fold form th e Him alayas - an uplift
mountains
th a t is still con tin u in g . It is where
these c o n tin e n ta l collisio n s occur
th a t fold m o u n tain s form and
continental th e Earth's crust is at its thickest
crust oceanic crust (Figures 1.6 and 1.7).

intruded
graniţe
batholith

Figure 1.15

A collision plate margin - the formation

of fold mountains (orogenesis)

Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes 19

 The Himalayas: a collision plate margin
Measurements of current convergence rates suggest
that the Indo-Australian Plate is moving towards the
Eurasian Plate at a rate of 5.8 cm/year. Although the
convergence of two plates of continental crust has
pushed up the Himalayas and caused the formation of
theTibetan Plateau, in parts the Indian Plate is being
pushed underTibettoform the mountain roots upto
70 km deep shown on Figure 1.16.
This movement causes great stresses which are
released by periodic, often extremely violent and
destructive, earthquakes. Earthquakes this century
have included:
• Gujarat in northern India in 2001 when over
30000 people were killed in an earthquake
lasting 45 seconds
former sediments of the Tethys Sea (Figure 1.4a)
folded upwards to form the Himalayas
roots
upper
mantie
Figure 1.16
Mountain building
- th e Himalayas
La n d fo rm s at co n s e rva tiv e p la te m a rg in s
C on servative m argins occu r w here tw o plates
m ove parallel or nearly parallel to each other.
A lthough freq u en t sm all earth trem ors and
o ccasion al severe earthquakes m ay occur as a
co n seq u en ce o f th e plates try in g to slide past
each other, th e m argin b etw een th e plates is
20 Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes
• northern Pakistan in 2005 when more than
78 000 died in a quake that measured 7.8 and
lasted 32 seconds
• Sichuan in south-west China in 2008 when the
death toii in an earthquake of 7.9 was in excess
of 80 000 (Places 2).
Recent measurements have led scientists to
believe that this plate movement is causing Mount
Everest to rise by up to 3 cm a year (Figure 1.17).
The Himalayas are not only the world's highest
mountain range, they are also one of the youngest.
In the 1950s, the height of
Mount Everest was given as
29 002 feet (8840 m) but this was
revised later in the century to
29 U29 feet (8848 m). Was this
difference in height due to the
uncertainty of the rock summit
which was covered in ice and
snow to a then estimated depth of
20 feet (6 m); to plate movement
having caused the mountain to be
pushed up higher during that
time; or to the fact that earlier
measurements were inaccurate?
In 1999 a team of researchers,
on reaching the summit. used an
ice-coring drill to reach down to
solid rock, and the global
positioning system (GPS) to help
fix the height, which was given as
29 035 feet (8850 m). Apart from
suggesting that Everest is rising
by up to 1.2 inches (3 cm) a year,
the team hoped that, by
monitoring the position of the
summit, they might be able to
predict when future earthquakes
in the region might occur.
Figure 1.17
Is Mount Everest
still rising?
said to be co n s e rv a tiv e because crustal rocks are
being n e ith er created nor destroyed here. The
bound ary betw een th e tw o plates is characterised
by p ronou n ced tran sform faults (Figure 1.18a).
The San Andreas Fault is th e m ost notoriou s
of several hundred know n tran sform faults in
C aliforn ia (Places 6 and Case Study 15A).
 ■ The San Andreas Fault: a conservative piate margin
The San Andreas Fault forms a junction between
the North American and Pacific Plates. Although
both plates are moving north-west, the Pacific Plate
moves faster giving the illusion that they are moving
in opposite directions.The Pacific Plate moves about
6 cm a year, but sometimes it sticks (like a machine
a A transform fault
transform fault, where plates
slide past each other
continental crust
Plate A
Plate B
lithosphere
asthenosphere
Figurel.18
A conservative plate
m argin-California
S an Francisco: e a rth q u a k e s
1906
At 0512 hours on the morning of 18 April, the
ground began to shake.There were three tremors,
each one increasingly more severe.The ground
moved by over 6 m in an earthquake which
measured 8.2 on the Richter scale. Many apartment
buildings collapsed, bridges were destroyed - the
Golden Gate had not then been built - and water
pipes fractured.The worst damage was'downtown'
where the housing density was greatest. Although
many people were trapped within collapsed
buildings there were relatively few deaths.
Then came the fire! It started in numerous places
resulting from overturned stoves or sparked by
electricity or the ignition of gas escaping from the
broken mains. As the water pipes had been fractured,
it hardly mattered that there were only 38 horse-
drawn fire engines to cope with 52 fires. As the fire
spread, houses were blown up with dynamite totryto
create gaps to thwart the flames, but the explosions
only caused further fires. It took over three days to put
out the fires, by which time over 450 people (mainly
those previously trapped) had died, 28 000 buildings
without oii) until pressure builds up enabling itto
jerkforwards as it did in San Francisco in 1906 and
1989 and is predicted to do again before 2032.
Should these plates continue to slide past each other,
it is likely that Los Angeles will eventually be on an
island off the Canadian coast.
b The San Andreas Fault
100 km
San Francisco
North American Plate moves
north-westwards by 1 cm a year
but appears to be moving
Pacific Plate south-eastwards in relation to
moving north the faster-moving Pacific Plate
westwards by
6cm a year U S A
Los
Angeles
The Pacific Plate has moved
about 560km relative to San
Diego
the North American Plate in
20 million years
Mexico
in 500 blocks had been destroyed, and an area six
times greater than that destroyed by the Great Fire of
London had been ravaged.
1989
During the early evening rush-hour on 17 October
1989, an earthquake measuring 6.9 on the Richter
scale shook the city for 15 seconds.The early-
warning system had given no clues. Skyscrapers
swayed 3 m, fractured gas pipes caused fires in one
residential area, and parts of a downtown shopping
centre collapsed. The greatest loss of life occurred
when 1.5 km of the upper section of the two-tier
Interstate Flighway 880 collapsed onto the lower
portion, killing people in their vehicles.
The final casualty figures of 67 dead and 2000
homeless were, however, low compared with an
earthquake of similar magnitude in Armenia, a less
developed country, which had killed 55000 people
11 months earlier. San Francisco has the money
and technology to enable it to take precautions to
reduce the effects of an earthquake and to train
and fully equip emergency services. Armenia lacks
these resources, which is why the death toii and the
damage incurred there were so much greater.
Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes 21
 P la te te c to n ic s a n d th e B ritis h Isles
During th e C am brian period (Figure 1.1),
n orth ern Scotland lay o n th e A m erican Plate
w hile th e rest o f Britain was on th e Eurasian Plate,
as it is today. B oth plates are th o u g h t th e n to have
b een in the latitude of present-day South Africa.
In th e O rdovician and Silurian periods, th e two
plates began to converge causing vo lcan ic activity
and th e fo rm ation o f m o u n tain s in Snow donia
and th e Lake D istrict (a collision zone). Being c o n ­
tin en ta l crust, sedim ent betw een th e plates was
pushed up to form the C aledonian M ountains
w h ich linked Scotland to th e rest of Britain.
D uring the D evonian period, th e locked plates
drifted northw ards th rough a desert en viron m en t
(the present Kalahari Desert) w hen the Old Red
Sandstones were deposited (page 2 0 1 ). This north-
ward m o vem en t continu ed in Carboniferous
tim es, accom pan ied by a sinking of th e land
w hich allow ed th e lim estones o f th a t period to
form in warm, clear seas (page 196).
As the land began to emerge from these seas,
m illstone grit was formed from sediments in a
F ra m e w o rk 1 U sin g th e In te r n e t fo r s tu d y in g g e o g ra p h y
The Internet is a rich global resource base. For
geographers it offers enormous potential but it
does need to be treated with caution.
A source of facts and figures
Geography is full of facts and figures and the
Internet is a good resource for such information.
Several encyclopaedias, such as Wikipedia (www.
wikipedia.org), offer information on a range of
topics and issues. Government agencies, such as the
Environment Agency (www.environment-agency.
gov.uk) and the Office for National Statistics (www.
statistics.gov.uk), are now more likely to provide
Figure 1.19
The websitefor the British Geological Survey has useful worldwide information
22 Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes
shallow sea, and then coal measures were laid down
under the hot, wet, swampy conditions usually
associated with equatorial areas. It was during the
Permian and Triassic periods th at the continents
collided to form Pangaea (Figure 1.4a). Africa moved
towards Europe, and Britain's New Red Sandstones
(page 201) were laid down under dry, h o t desert
conditions (in the position of the present-day
Sahara Desert). A further submergence during
Jurassic/Cretaceous tim es enabled th e Cotswold
lim estones and then the chalk of the Downs to form
- again in warm, clear seas (page 196).
During the Tertiary era, th e N orth American
and Eurasian Plates split apart form ing a construc­
tive boundary and the volcanoes o f north-w estern
Scotland (page 29). At the same tim e, the African
Plate moved further north pushing up the Alps
and the hills of Southern England. Subsequently,
although Britain has been located away from
the volcanoes and severe earthquakes associated
with various plate margins, its landscape has been
modified both during and since the ice ages. These,
however, have been due to clim atic change rather
th an plate m ovem ent.
information online than as hard copy.Through such
sites, geography students have easy and immediate
access to huge quantities of information.
Providing up-to-date case studies
Geographers are interested in studying places,
which is why you are asked to support your work
with case studies. Fiere the Internet offers many
opportunities. Global media organisations such
as the BBC (www.bbc.co.uk) use the immediacy of
their websites to post up-to-date information on
events such as earthquakes, pollution incidents and
extreme weather events.
Photolibrary
The Internet enables you to bring your studies
to life by including photographs. Most photo-
journalists and agencies make their material
available online and a carefully directed search (be
specific and include'-i- photo'in your search) will
reveal a wide range of possible illustrations.
GIS
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a
reiaţively recent innovation but you are expected
to understand what it is and how it can be used in
geography (Framework 9, page 277). Put simply,
GIS is the integrated use of digital information
in the form of statistical data, maps and photos.
Digital technology enables data to be presented
spatially using a series of'layers'.The operator
(user) has considerable control over the use and
interpretation of this information. Some useful
sites provide a portal on GIS information and
applications, such as the Royal Geographical
Society (www.gis.rgs.org) and the Staffordshire
Learning Net (www.sln.org.uk/geography/gis.htm).
In te r n e t issues
Authenticity
Geography books (such as this one!) take very
many months to write. Experienced geographers
write them and they undergo all sorts of editorial
checks before being published. For the most part
you can be assured of their accuracy. This assurance
does not necessarily apply to the Internet and you
need to exercise care when using sites. You should
always refer to the source of information (give its
web address) and be aware of possible bias. Follow
recommendations from your teacher or from other
trustworthy sources such as ibe Geography Review.
As a general rule, government sites (which have'gov'
in the URL) and universities (with'ac'in the URL) are
likely to provide authentic information.The same
is true of major media websites such as the BBC
and newspapers such asThe Independent (www.
independent.co.uk), Guardian (www.guardian.co.uk)
andTheTimes (www.timesonline.co.uk). Including
reference to a known authentic site in a search (e.g.
'global warming + bbc') can streamline a search and
ensure quality of information.
Timeconsuming
Searching the Internet can be rewarding but takes
up time, too.The key is to make specific searches,
narrowing down your field by using, for example,
'and'or'+'and adding specific aspects such as
dates, locations or websites. So, for example, when
looking for information about the 2008 Chinese
earthquake, a search on'earthquakes'will be much
less productive than'chinese earthquake 2008 +
bbc', which will take you straight to a special report
published by a recognised authentic source.
Information overload
Even a fairly specific search such as'chinese
earthquake 2008 + bbc'reveals nearly 1 million
sites. Flow often do you look at more than the
first two or three sites let alone the second page?
Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes
Figure 1.20
The Mei Office: a valuable source of climatic information
^ Met Office
W orld w eathcr
Streamline your search as much as possible and
skip sites to look at recognised URLs (see above).
U sing th e In te r n e t
Flaving found some potentially useful information, you
need to decide how to use it. All too often students
rely on'copy, paste'.This is inappropriateand to be
discouraged unless you wish to capture information to
work on at a later stage.The'copy, paste'function will
not help you to leam material and may well result in
inappropriate information being retained.
Use the Internet as a source of information rather
than as the end product of your research:
• Select only that which is of direct relevance to
your research. Selectivity is a key geographical
skill at AS/A level.
• Only include detail you can understand. Academic
sites and even Wikipedia often contain information
that is of a much higher level than AS/A level.There
is no benefittoyou in including terminology or
concepts that you do not understand.
• Re-write text in your own words.
• Add labels or annotations to diagrams and
photos. By doing this you are showing initiative,
which will be rewarded.
Do use the Internet to support your studies - but do
not rely on it.
S ocial n e tw o rk in g sites
You might expect social networking sites to be
frowned upon. Far from it- th ey have much to
offer in geographical research.The opinions of
individuals are increasingly important in academic
geography. Flearing first hand from people affected
by an earthquake ora hurricane is valuable. Videos
on YouTube can capture events and provide
interesting portrayals of people's sense of place.
Just bear in mind the issue of authenticity.
23
 V o lc a n o lo g y
T he term v o lc a n o lo g y inclu des all th e processes
by w h ich solid, liquid or gaseous m aterials are
forced in to th e E a rth ’s crust or are ejected o n to
th e surface. A lthough m aterial in th e m an tie
has a h ig h tem perature, it is kept in a sem i-solid
state because o f th e great pressure exerted upon
it. However, if th is pressure is released lo cally by
folding, fau ltin g or o th er m o v em en ts at plate
bound aries, som e o f th e sem i-solid m aterial
b ecom es m o lte n and rises, fo rcin g its way in to
w eaknesses in th e crust, or o n to th e surface,
w here it cools, crystallises and solidifies.
The m olten rock is called m a g m a w hen it is
below th e surface and lav a w h en on th e surface.
W h en lava and other m aterials reach the surface
they are called extru siv e. The resulting landform s
vary in size from tin y cones to widespread lava
flows. M aterials in jected in to the crust are referred
to as in trusive. These m ay later be exposed at the
surface by erosion of th e overlying rocks. B oth
extrusive and intrusive m aterials cooled from
m agm a are know n as ign eou s rocks.
Extrusive landforms
There are several types o f extrusive landform
w hose natu re depends o n how gaseous and/or
viscous th e lava is w h en it reaches th e Earth's
surface (Figure 1.21).
■ Lava produced by th e upward m o vem en t
o f m aterial from th e m an tie is b a sa ltic and
tend s to be located along m id -ocean ridges,
over h o t spots and alongside rift valleys.
Figure 1.21 Basic
Basic and acid lava
Basaltic (fluid)
Silica
content 45%
Has low viscosity, is hot (1200°C) and runny,
like warm treacle
Has a lower silica content
Takes a longer time to cool and solidify, so flows
considerable distances as rivers of molten rock
Produces extensive but gently sloping landforms
Eruptions are frequent but relatively gentle
Lava and steam ejected
Found at constructive plate margins where
magma rises from the mantie,
e.g. fissures along the Mid-Atlantic
Ridge (Heimaey); over hot spots (Mauna Loa,
Hawaii)
24 Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes
■ Lava th a t results from th e process o f subd uc­
tio n is described as a n d e sitic (after th e Andes)
and occurs as island arcs or at destructive
plate boun d aries w here o ce a n ic crust is being
destroyed.
■ P y ro cla stic m a te ria l (m ean in g 'fire b ro k e n ’)
is m aterial ejected b y v o lcan o es in a frag-
m en ted form . Tephra, fragm ents o f different
sizes, inclu d e ash, lapilli (small stones) and
b om b s (larger m aterial) w h ich are throw n
in to th e air before fallin g back to earth.
P yroclastic flows m ove dow n th e side o f a
v o lca n o as a fast-m ov ing cloud (Figure 1.46).
Subsequ en t heavy rainfall, e.g. M o u n t
P inatu b o (Case Study 1) or th e m eltin g of
ice and snow, e.g. N evado del Ruiz (Case
Study 2A) can rework th e fragm ented p yro­
clastic m aterial to form m udflow s (or lahars).
How can volcanoes be classified?
Because o f th e large n u m ber o f vo lcan o es and
wide variety o f erup tions, it is c o n v e n ie n t to
group to g eth er th o se w ith sim ilar ch aracteristics
(Fram ew ork 7, page 167). U n fortunately, there
is n o un iv ersally accepted m e th o d o f classifica-
tio n . O ne o f th e tw o m o st qu oted groupings
is accord ing to th e sh ap e o f th e v o lcan o and
its ven t w h ich , because it describes landform s,
is arguably of m ore value to th e geographer
(page 2 5 ). T h e oth er is th e n a tu re o f th e
eru p tio n , w h ich has trad itio n ally b een th e
m eth o d used by v o lcan o lo g ists (page 28).
Acid
Andesitic Rhyoiitic (viscous)
52% 66% 75%
Viscous, less hot (800°C), flows more slowly and
for shorter distances
Has a higher silica content
Soon cools and solidifies, flowing very short
distances
Produces steep-sided, more localised features
Eruptions are less frequent but violent due to
the build-upofgases
Ash, rocks, gases, steam and lava ejected
Found at destructive margins where oceanic crust
is destroyed (subductedl, melts and rises,
e.g. subduction zones (Mount St Helens);
as island arcs (M t Pelee, Martinique)
 The s h a p e o f th e v o lc a n o a n d its v e n t
1 Fissure eru p tio n s W h en tw o plates m ove
apart, lava m ay be ejected through fissures
rath er th a n via a central v en t (Figure 1.22a).
The H eim aey erup tion o f 1 9 7 3 (Places 3,
page 16) began w ith a fissure 2 km in length.
This was sm all in com parison w ith th a t at
Laki, also in Iceland, where in 1 7 8 3 a fissure
exceeding 3 0 km opened up. T he basalt m ay
form large plateaus, filling in hollow s rather
th a n build ing up in to th e m ore typical cone-
shaped v o lca n ic peak. The rem ains o f one
such lava flow, form ed w h en th e Eurasian
and N orth A m erican Plates began to m ove
a Fissure basaltic lava flows a b Basic or shield
considerable distance gently sloping sides built up by
over gentle slopes numerous basaltic lava flows
: Ash and cinders e Composite
alternate layers of acidic
; _tly layers of fine ash lava (gentle eruptions) and
:ave sides and larger cinders crater, ash (violent explosions)
cone
shape
,-e 1.22
ationof 3 A cid o r d o m e v o lca n o e s Acid lava quickly
;■Des based on solidifies on exposure to th e air. This pro­
■ape (notto duces a steep-sided, con v ex co n e as in m ost
cases th e lava solidifies near to th e crater
(Figure 1 .2 2 c). In on e extrem e in stan ce, th a t
o f M t Pelee, th e lava actu ally solidified as it
cam e up th e v en t and produced a spine rath er
th a n flow ing dow n the sides.
4 Ash an d cin d e r co n es (Figure 1.22d)
P aricu tin, for exam p le, was form ed in the
1 9 4 0 s b y ash and cinders b u ild in g up in to
a sym m etrical cone.
5 C o m p o site co n e s M any o f th e larger,
classically shaped v o lcan o es result from alter-
n a tin g types o f eru p tio n in w h ich first ash
and th e n lava (usually acidic) are ejected , e.g.
M t Etna and Fujiyam a (Figure 1.22e).
apart, can be seen in N orthern Ireland. n orth-
w est Scotland, Iceland and G reenland. The
colu m n ar jo in tin g produced by th e slow
coo lin g o f th e lava provides tourist attractions
at th e G iant's Causeway in N orthern Ireland
(Figure 1.27) and Fingal's Cave on the Isle of
Staffa.
2 B asic o r sh ield v o lc a n o e s In v o lca n o es
such as M au na Loa o n Hawaii, lava flow s
o u t o f a cen tra l v e n t and ca n spread over
w ide areas b efo re solid ify in g . T h e result is
a 'c o n e ' w ith lon g , g en tle sides m ad e up
o f m an y layers o f lava from repeated flow s
(Figure 1 .2 2 b ).
c Acid or dome
spine forms if lava solidifies in
vent and is pushed upwards
steep, convex sides
due to viscous lava
soon cooling
f Caldera
sides subside due to more recent mainly acidic lavas
earth movements new cone possibly some ash
crater fills with
water to form a
lake or, if below
sea-level, a lagoon
6 C a ld era s W h e n th e build-up o f gases
b ecom es extrem e, huge exp losion s m ay clear
th e m agm a ch am b er b en e a th th e v o lcan o
and rem ove th e su m m it o f th e con e. This
causes th e sides o f th e crater to subside, thus
w id en ing th e o p en in g to several kilo-
m etres in diam eter. In th e cases o f b o th Thera
(Santorin i) and Krakatoa, th e enlarged craters
or calderas have b ee n flooded b y th e sea and
later erup tions have form ed sm aller cones
w ithin th e resu ltan t lagoons (Figures 1 .2 2 f
and 1.29).
Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes 25
 M in o r extrusive fe a tu re s
These are often associated w ith, but are n o t exclu- include solfatara, fum aroles, geysers and m ud vol-
sive to, areas o f declining v o lcan ic activity. They canoes (Figure 1.24, Places 7 and Figure 17.1b).

Figure 1.23
a Mud volcano: hot b Solfatara: created c Geyser: water in the lower crust is d Fumaroles: superheated
Minor extrusive water mixes with mud when gases, mainly heated by rocks and turns to steam; water turns to steam as its
landforms and surface deposits sulphurous, escape pressure increases and the steam and pressure drops when it
onto the surface water explode onto the surface emerges from the ground

j
| /
/
r
magma <h4mb«r
Iprobably solid i>ythis stage)

S o lfa ta ra , Ita ly : a n a re a o f d e c lin in g v o lc a n ic a c tiv ity

Solfatara is a small volcano on the outskirts of
Naples. Its crater is 2 km in diameter, making it
larger than that of nearby Vesuvius, but there is
no volcanic cone. Solfatara takes its name from
the gases which escape to the surface; they are
mainly sulphurous and can be smelled from a
considerable distance. Many rocks are coated with
sulphur. Solfatara has given its name to all similar
features of this type. Fumaroles, resulting from
superheated water being turned to steam as it
cools on its ejection through the thin crust, are
numerous in the area (Figure 1.24). Evidence of the
thinness of the crust (magma is only 3 m below
the surface) is provided by a guide who throws
a boulder onto the surface and makes groups of
touristsjump in harmonyto hearthe hollowness
Figure 1.24
of the ground. The guide, who is needed to keep
visitors safely away from bubbling mud volcanoes
and areas too hot to walk on, also shows volcanic
activity by lighting twigs and stirring loose
material to cause a miniature eruption.
The only minor feature missing is the geyser, an
intermittent fountain of hot water (e.g. Old Faithful,
Yellowstone National Park, USA, Figure 17.16).
During the mid-1980s the temperature (160°C),
pressure and surface of Solfatara all increased,
giving rise tofears of a new eruption - the last
was in 1198. Despite the appearance of a small
fissure near to the observatory, which led to its
abandonment, activity appears to have stabilised.

Inside the Solfatara

crater, near Naples,
Italy

26 Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes

figure 1.25

Results of the 1996 Grimsvotn figure 1.26

eruption, Iceland Theboundarybetween
the North American and
Eurasian Plates in Iceland,
showingthesplitand
a volcano along the
boundary margin

Vesuvius: noticethe new

cone within the old crater
of Monte Somma

Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes 27

Nature of the
explosion 1 Icelandic 2 Hawaiian 3 Strombolian

Type of lava
(Figure 1.21) basaltic lava andesitic lava

lava

pyroclastic
X T v fragments
H
4 Vulcanian 5 Krakatoan 6 Pelean 7 Plinian
or Vesuvian

andesitic lava rhyolitic lava

Figure 1.30 The n a tu re o f th e e ru p tio n H y d ro m a g m a tic refers to any eruptive

Classification of This classificatio n o f v o lcan o es is based o n th e process in w h ich m agm a and lava in te ract w ith
volcanoes according degree o f v io len ce o f th e exp losion w h ich is a extern ai water. A ccording to P arfitt and W ilson
to the nature of the (2 0 0 8 ), such in tera ctio n s can take place in a wide
con seq u en ce o f th e pressure and a m o u n t o f gas
explosion
in th e m agm a (Figure 1.3 0 ). Its categories m ay be range o f en v iro n m en ts, inclu din g:
sum m arised as follow s: ■ deep m arin e lo ca tio n s w here v o lcan o es grow
1 Iceland ic, where lava flows g ently from on th e ocean floor, m ain ly at m id -ocean
a fissure ridges w here th e pressure o f th e overlying
2 H aw aiian, where lava is em itted g en tly b u t w ater helps to suppress th e exp losivity o f
from a ven t th e eru p tio n and th e lava undergoes rapid
3 S tro m bo lian , w here sm all b u t very freq u en t co o lin g to form pillow lavas
erup tions occur ■ where lava flows in to th e sea either w ith or
4 V ulcanian, or Vesuvian, w h ich is m ore w ithout an explosion, e.g. Kilauea in Hawaii
v io le n t and less freq u en t (Figure 1.28) ■ shallow m arine locations (e.g. Surtsey - Places 3)
5 K rakatoan, w h ich has an excep tion ally or a crater lake (e.g. Taal in the Philippines)
v io le n t exp losion th a t m ay rem ove m u ch where th e eruptions m ay be highly dramatic
o f th e original con e (Figure 1.29) ■ subglacial lo catio n s w here an erup tion occurs
6 Pelean, w here a v io le n t eru p tio n is accom pa- under an ice cap or a glacier, e.g. V atnajokull
nied by pyroclastic flow s th a t m ay inclu d e a in Iceland '
nu£e ard ente ('glow in g cloud ') ■ where magma com es into contact with ground-
7 P lin ian , w here large am o u n ts o f lava and water before erupting, e.g. Ukinrek, Alaska.
pyroclastic m aterial are ejected . T he m o st explosive in tera ctio n s occu r w hen
water m akes up about 2 5 - 3 0 per cen t of th e
Figure 1.31 volum e o f th e exp lod in g m ixture.
Diagrammatic model
showing intrusive
SURFACE
landforms: batholith,
dyke and sills Bedding planes in metamorphic
DYKE: A vertical sheet rock
sedimentary rocks "
intrusion with horizontdl
which form the crust. igneous
cooling cracks. Cools
intrusion
rapid'y on contact with
surrounding colder rock.
Contracts and cracks. Cuts
across bedding planes. cooling cracks

SILL: A horizontal sheet intrusion

along bedding planes with BATHOLITH: Being deep-seated
vertical cooling cracks.Cools and surrounded by hot rock, the
rapidly on outside on contact magma cools slowly so that:
with surrounding rocks. a large crystals form
Contracts and cracks. b there is a large metamorphic
contact zone.

several hundred kilometres

28
 Intrusive landforms fine crystals), contracted and cracked resulting in a
series of joints. The magm a also produced a large,
Usually, o n ly a relatively small am o u n t of
deep-seated, dom e-shaped b ath o lith as it solidified.
m agm a actu ally reaches th e surface as m o st is
Surrounding th e b a th o lith is a m e ta m o rp h ic
intruded in to th e crust, w here it solidifies. Such
au reo le w here th e original sed im entary rocks
in tru sions m ay in itia lly have little im p act upon
have b een ch an g ed (m etam orphosed ) b y the
th e surface g e o m o rp h o lo g y , b u t if th e overlying
h e a t and pressure o f th e in tru sio n from sand­
rocks are later w orn away, d istinctive landform s
stones in to sch ists. Since th e n , th e overlying
m ay th e n develop (Figure 1.32).
rocks have b ee n rem oved by water, ice and even
D uring th e Tertiary era, an u p thru st of
th e sea to leave th e graniţe b a th o lith w ith its
m agm a was in tru d e d in to th e sed im entary rocks
jo in tin g exposed (Figure 1.3 2 ). These jo in ts
o f Arran to form th e N orthern G raniţe. As the
have b een w idened b y ch em ica l w eathering
m agm a slowly cooled , it form ed large crystals
(pages 4 2 -4 4 ) to form th e large graniţe slabs and
(unlike on th e surface w here rapid co o lin g form s
tors surrou nding G oatfell (com pare Figure 8 .1 4 ).

re 1.32

•-*1transect original original covering of

:■ northern dome rocks removed
/ />
✓ X
north-west Goatfell
coast ■V X Vn N-
Brodick
/ / /
/ / /
✓ / "—
/ /
/ /
✓ exposed graniţe batholith (when first
/
* \ intruded it formed a dome)
__________ sea-level
i ţ i . 33 sedimentary sedimentary
sandstones schists forming a schists rocks with
■;:ch of a dyke metamorphic aureole dykes and sills
‘ an, Arran

Ailsa Craig:an old_ Pladdara sili planed by the sea

volcanic plug

horizontal joints formed as

magma cooled and contractedr
nagm a intruded vertically , recently eroded by sea dyke (large crystals)
across bedding planes

sandy beach from weathered sandstone

J joints (shrinkage cracks)

A dyke (includes B and C)
B large crystals where dyke cooled slowly
C chilled margin with smaller crystals
shrinkage cracks across
where dyke cooled more rapidly
shortest distance (horizontal)
D metamorphic contact zone
E sandy beach on country rocks

: gure 1.34

agrammaticcross-section
" a dyke, Arran

Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes 29

 althou gh th o se parts th a t com e in to co n ta ct
Figure 1.35
w ith th e surrounding rock will coo l m ore rapidly
Dyke at Kildonan, Arran to produce a chilled m argin (Figure 1.34). M ost
dykes o n Arran were form ed after, and radiate
from , th e b a th o lith in tru sion ; th e y are so
num erous th a t th e y have b een term ed a 'dyke
swarm '. M ost o f th e dykes are m ore resistant to
erosion th a n th e surrounding sandstones and so
w here th ey cross th e island's beaches th ey stand
up like groynes (Figure 1.3 5 ). A lthough averaging
3 m, these dykes vary from 1 to 15 m in w idth.
A s ili is fo rm ed w h en th e ig n eo u s ro ck is
in tru d ed a lo n g th e b ed d in g p lanes b etw een th e
e x istin g sed im en ta ry rocks (Figure 1 .3 1 ). The
m ag m a co o ls and c o n tra c ts b u t th is tim e th e
re su lta n t jo in ts w ill be v ertical and th e ir h e x ­
ag on al shapes ca n be seen w h en th e lan d form
is later exp o sed as on h ead lan d s such as th a t at
If, in trying to rise to th e surface, m agm a cuts D ru m ad o o n o n th e w est co ast o f Arran (Figures
across th e bedding planes o f th e sedim entary 1 .3 6 and 1 .3 7 ) and th e G ia n t's C ausew ay in
Fieldsketch of a rock, it is called a d y k e (Figures 1.31 and 1.33). N o rth ern Irelan d (Figure 1 .2 7 ). T h e sili at
sili exposed at m a ţ e r j a j w h ich form s th e dyke cools slowly D ru m ad o o n is 5 0 m th ick .
Drumadoon, Arran

original covering of sandstone removed

magma intruded horiztally

vertical joints (columnar)
between bedding planes 50 m
jointing) formed as magma
cooled and contracted metamorphic
contact zone under
Tsn
talusjscree) covering . 30 m
vţandstone (11 rrt) ■

Ci Figure 1.37
raised beach
•. Sili at Drumadoon, Arran ^
^ .'- v -

Benefits Hazards

Ash weathers into a fertile soil ideal for farming. Basic lava may also Earthquakes destroy buildings and result in loss oflife.
produce fertile soils (the region surrounding Mount Etna) but needs
very careful management. Thefertility of acid lava is low.

Igneous rock contains minerals such as gold, copper, lead and silver. Violent eruptions with blast waves and gas may destroy life and
property (M t Pelee, Mount St Helens).

Extinct volcanoes may provide defensive settlement sites Mudflows/lahars may be caused by heavy rain and melting snow
(Edinburgh). (Armero in Colombia and Pinatubo in the Philippines).

Igneous rock is used for building purposes (Naples, Aberdeen). Tidal waves/tsunamis (Indian Ocean tsunami and following the eruption of
Krakatoa).

Geothermal power is being developed (Iceland, New Zealand). Ejection of ash and lava ruins crops and kills animals.

Figure 1.38 Geysers and volcanoes are tourist attractions (Yellowstone Interrupts Com m unications.
National Park), generating revenue for local communities.
Benefits and hazards
Volcanic eruptions may produce spectacular sunsets (Krakatoa). Short-term climatic changes occur as volcanic dust absorbs solar
resulting from
energy, loweringtemperatures and increasing rainfall.
tectonic processes

30 Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes

 F ra m e w o rk 2 N a tu ra l h a za rd s
W h a t a re n a tu ra l hazards?
Natural hazards, which include earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, floods, drought and storms, result
from natural processes within the environment
(Figure 1.39).They are, therefore, different from
environmental disasters, such as desertification,
ozone depletion and acid rain, which are caused
by human activity and the mismanagement of the
environment. It is important, however, to stress the
difference between a natural hazard and a hazard
event. Natural hazards have the potential to affect
gure 1.39
NATURAL HAZARDS
:es of
ru ral hazard
: - ? r Burton
■d Kates)
r
CLIMATIC
e.g. blizzards, drought, ice, lightning, GEOMORPHIC and GEOLOGICAL
storms (hurricanes, typhoons and e.g. earthquakes, volcanic
tornadoes),floods (coastal and river), eruptions, tsunamis, landslides
fire, heat waves, cold spells
T h e In te rn a tio n a l S tra te g y fo r
D is a s te r R e d u c tio n (ISD R )
The United Nations, through the ISDR, tries to
reduce loss of life, property damage and social
and economic destruction caused by natural
disasters, especially those occurring in less well-off
developing countries.There is, however, a problem
in classifying the type of hazard and in quantifying
data after the event (Figure 1.40).
Data provided by the ISDR suggests that about 60
per cent of natural disasters and over 80 per cent of
deaths occur in developing countries, especially those
in the South-east Asia/Pacific Rim region. Developing
countries are less likely to have the equipment needed
to predictthe occurrence of a hazard and less money
either for planning how to reduce its impact or for
organising a rapid and effective response after it.
Figures 1.41 and 1.42 show that despite the incidence
of occasional severe earthquakes/tsunamis, and
even with the introduction of early storm- and flood-
warning systems in places like Bangladesh and the
Caribbean, globally over 80 per cent of deaths are still
caused by tropical storms and flooding.
H o w m a y p e o p le re a c t to n a tu ra l
hazards?
Geographers need to ask the following questions
when studying either the riskof a potential natural
hazard or a specific hazard event.
people and the environment; it is the hazard event
that causes the damage. An event only becomes a
hazard if it affects, orthreatens, people and property.
For example, the submarine volcanic eruption
which created the new island of Surtsey (Places 3,
page 16) was hardly a hazard event, whereas the
China earthquake of 2008 killed over 80 000 people,
destroyed towns and for a time ended normal
human activities.The impact of a hazard event may
be felt over a wide area; the effects may be long-term
as well as immediate;and the event can be costly to
property and dangerous to people.
I 1
BIOLOGICAL
Floral diseases, e.g. fungal (Dutch
elm) and infestations (water
hyacinth)
and avalanches Faunal diseases (e.g. malaria)
and infestations (e.g. locusts)
1 Many natural disasters result from a combination
of events, meaning that it becomes impossible to
attribute the losses to a single cause. For example.
in Sumatra following the Indian Ocean tsunami of
2004 (Places 4). how many deaths were due to the
iniţial earthquake and how many to drowning
caused by the subsequent flooding? Again, how
many deaths in New Orleans in 2005 were the
result of tropical storm Katrina or the flooding
that followed? Classifying events under specific
headings can Iead to double counting after
extreme events.
2 Even direct deaths and damage may be difficult to
quantify accurately in some developing countries
due to a lack of reliable census data or population
registers. Hence iniţial reports of ‘hundreds killed’
or ‘damage estimated in millions of dollars’ may
be grossly exaggerated. while those recorded as
‘missing' or who die later from disease or
malnutrition caused by the disaster may be
under-estimated.
Adapted from an article by Keith Smith in Teaching
Geography, Sept 1996
Figure 1.40
The problems of defining natural disasters
1 What are people's perception of the natural hazard?
Perception is how individuals or groups of people
view the hazard risk.This often depends on their
knowledge and experience of the potential event.
The inhabitants of Pompeii, prior to the eruption
of Vesuvius in AD 79, had not realised that the
Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes 31
 Figure 1.41

Number of natural
disasters bytype,
1970-2005

tropical storms
-O
E

earthquakes/tsunamis

landslides
volcanoes

Figure 1.42 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

year
Natural disasters

Type Peryear
Events

2004 2005 Per year

Oeaths

2004
S b
1967-71
Peryear
2004 2005
2005

4;
1967-91 1967-91
jt£ A

Damage
Earthquakes 32 29 21 27000 882 76241 »
Volcaniceruptions 4 5 7 117 2 3

Tsunamis. 1 2 0 267 226435 0

Tropical storms (hurricanes/tyDhoons) 37 81

<
69 37400 6513 4672

fel

affected
People
Floods (rivers/coasts) 57 107 168 12 750 6957 6135

Storms {depressions/tornadoes/
lightning)
34 27 17 2300 827 269
#/ 78

V
Cold wave (blizzards/heatwaves) 5 7 15 204 239 923
12
Drought 18 15 22 55570 149 11100 26

Deaths
Avalanches

Landslides
1

10
2

16
1

12
54

1750
42

357
12

649 :'W #
Fires (bush) 30 8 10 420 14 47 percentage figures
floods
^ ■ 1 tropical storms
drought
■ ■ earthquakes/tsunamis
disaster
landslides
event improvement

other
normality
o-,

deterioration
• have the capital and technology to cope with
%.
the hazard event.
%
2 What are the immediate and long-term effects of the
search, temporary permanent event?
ai rescue, care housing,etc. building, etc.
3 Howdopeoplerespondtotheevent(Figure 1.43)?
Pre" relief rehabilitation reconstruction
o disaster 4 How might people adjust toand plan for a future even t?
time ■ It has been suggested that people have six options.
They may try to: prevent the event; modify the
hazard; lessen the possible amount of damage;
Figure 1.43 mountain was in reality a volcano. Since then it has
spread the losses caused by the event; claim for
The responses to a erupted on numerous occasions.The question is,
Why do people continue to live in this and other losses;ordonothing but pray that the event will not
hazard event (after
Chris Park) hazardous areas? It may be because they: occur again (atleast not in their own lifetime).

5 Can a future event be predicted?

• perceive the area as providing the best of
This involves predicting where the next event will
opportunities to earn a living
take place, when it is likely to occur and how big it is
• are too concerned with day-to-day problems to
likely to be.
consider the hazard risk

32 Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes

 China S ou th
Japan C h in a N
Sea Luzon ▲
(main island)

Eurasian Plate
continental crust)

P acific
Philippines Plate O cean
Pacific Plate
(oceanic crust)
(oceanic crust)
A see *
M t P in a tu b o A M t P in a tu b o
enlargement Clark air base
•Angeles
Philippines

• Manila (capital)

Subic B a y ,
(naval station)
Indonesia
M t M ayonA
(volca n o )
Figure 1.44
- 30 -Australian Plate Location of Mount Pinatubo
:ontinental crust)
Figure 1.45
Australia
Eyewitnessaccountof
W h y is M o u n t P in a t u b o in the islands, practised subsistence farming the eruption
. M,mixtuteofsearinggas,ash
a h a z a r d r is k a r e a ? (slash and bum agriculture, Places 66, page
Seismologists sai . ed doWn the
480). Near the foothills was the rapidly and molten rock qm and mt0 the
Pinatubo is located in the Philippines growing city of Angeles, together with mountain' s west ai nnd rivers
ş t e 1.44).The Philippines lie on a destruc- Marella, Maraunot an ^ ^ tQ„ <he
an American air base and a naval station
1.461. Ash also rain ^ near&
1o*ate margin where the Philippines Plate, (Figure 1.44b). region and trace* - [gQ km] t0 the
■Htcsed of oceanic crust, moves towards Subic Bay naval base ffleasuring up to
s subducted bythe Eurasian Plate, which south-west-» fa g * south. west

■■::s of continental crust. As the oceanic W h a t w e re th e n a tu re , ! 2 inches 13 c m ] l o n g f d l o ^ aongapo>

of the volcano. £ « „ „ t of the volcano,
■ 5subducted, it is converted into magma e ffe c ts a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s about 35 miles [5b k n fl dark ^
.' ';ses to the surface and forms volca- o f t h e e r u p tio n ? survivois said they sa ■ followed by a
“ he Philippines owe their existenceto
- "equentejection of lava overa period of 7 Im m e d ia te effects „ i , „i «i. « -« tS îs ^
other reporter*^ - ]Westock 0Ver roads
i million years. Even before Pinatubo The volcano began to show signs of erupting with their belonging ^ Refugees wore
ed in 1991, there were over 30 active in early June 1991. Fortunately, there were nade slippery by the epVl0les to protect
' oes in the Philippines. several advance-warning signs which
allowed time for the evacuation of thousands

■Vhy d id p e o p le liv e in of people from Angeles and the 15 000

th is h a z a r d r is k a r e a ?
: jn t Pinatubo had not erupted since
' people living in the area no longer
■: dered it to be a hazard. During that
•e ash and lava from earlier eruptions
■ .eathered into a fertile soil, ideal for
t growing. By 1991, people no longer
e.ved Pinatubo to be a danger. On the
ilopes of the mountain, the Aeta,
■.: gmsed as the aboriginal inhabitants of
personnel from the American air base.The
number and size of eruptions increased after
9 June. On 12 June, an explosion sent a cloud
of steam and ash 30 km into the atmosphere
- the third-largest eruption experienced
anywhere in the world this century (Figure
1.45). Up to 50 cm of ash fell nearby, and over
10 cm within a 600 km radius.The eruptions
were, characteristically, accompanied by
earthquakes and torrential rain - except that
the rain, combining with the ash, fel! as thick
the debris.
Adapted from The In d e p e n d e n t,
13 June 1991
mud.The ash destroyed all crops on adjacent
farmland and its weight caused buildings to
collapse, including 200 000 homes, a local hos-
pital and manyfactories. Power supplies were
cut off for three weeks and water supplies
became contaminated. Relief operations were
hindered as many roads became impassable
and bridges were destroyed.

Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes 33

 Volcanic eruptions-M ount Pinatubo

2 Longer-term effects
The thick fall of ash not only ruined the
harvestofl 991, but macle plantingimpo

sible for 1992. Over one million farm

animals died, many through starvation
due to the lack of grass. Several thousand
farmers and their families had to take
refuge in large cities.The majority ^
forced to seekfood and sheiter
: refugee camps. Disease, especially
ma^ar^a chickenpox and diarrhoea, sP re^
rapidly and doctors had to treat hundreds
of people for respiratory and stomach
dlsorders. Soon after the event, and
,n 1993, typhoonsbrought heavy ra.nfall
w h ich caused flooding and lahars (mu ^
Figure 1.47
flows). Lahars form when surface
picks up large amounts of volcanic ash
A laharat Angeles, near
Mount Pinatubo
mountainous areas and dep05't^ t
over lower-lying areas (Figure . •
ash that was ejected into the atmosphere
fb e .ie .e d .o have catised changes in the
Earth’s climate, including the lowering of
wodd teittpetateires and ozone depietton

^Th'ee.iaption and its after-effects weie

blan,edforabont700deaths.0 fth e se^

only six were believed to have been a dire

result of the eruption itself. Over 600 peop
were to die from disease a n d a further 70
from suffocationby lahars.

IT HAS been described as the world’s greatest climatic experiment,
but unlike most scientific endeavours it was unplanned. When the
tropical tranquillity of the Philippines was shattered last June by a
volcanic explosion, Mount Pinatubo was a relatively obscure
volcano, known in the scientific community only to a handful of
geologists, Having sent more than 20 million tonnes of dust and ash
into the atmosphere, altering its heat balance and accelerating ozone
depletion over a large part of the globe, Pinatubo has become the
focus of several far-reaching studies.
Climatologists now use the term ‘Pinatubo effect' to describe
how volcanic ash and debris, if sent high enough into the
atmosphere, can influence temperature and weather for several years
afterwards. The dust from Pinatubo was ejected as high as 20 miles
[32 km] above the Earth. From the haven of Earth orbit, satellites
observed the plume of volcanic ash as it girdled the globe at speeds
approaching 75 miles [120 km] per hour. A month after the eruption
which killed 350 people, a 3000 mile [4800 km] cloud of ash and
sulphur compounds circled the Earth.
Satellite temperature measurements confirmed that the dust had
effectively shaded the surface of the Earth from the sun’s rays,
resulting in a lowering of the average global temperature. A NASA
team at the Goddard Institute for Space Studies in New York, led by
James Hansen. tried to assess what effect the cooling caused by the
dust of Mount Pinatubo would have on global warming caused by
man-made emissions of carbon dioxide. They concluded that
Pinatubo would in effect delay global warming by several years.
While global warming experts argue about the effect of Pinatubo’s
eruption on average temperatures, ozone specialists are interested in
the effect the volcano has had and will have on the ozone layer. The
volcano has spewed out huge quantities of sulphate aerosols,
particles containing sulphur that remain suspended in the atmo-
sphere for several years, These sulphate particles are important in
the chemistry of ozone destruction for two reasons: first. they act as
sites where ozone-destroying reactions take place; and secondly,
they mop up nitrogen-containing compounds that help to prevent
ozone destruction. This winter American and European scientists
undertook the most intensive investigation of ozone depletion over
the northern hemisphere, including Europe and North America.
More than 300 scientists from 17 countries were involved and their
work has shown that ozone levels fel 1 by 10 to 20 per cent more
than expected. 'The eruption of Mount Pinatubo has increased the
abundance of natural sulphate particles, potentially enhancing ozone
losses due to chemical reactions that occur on partide surfaces,’ the
NASA ozone monitoring team said earlier this month.
Figure 1.48

The climatic effects

A d a p te d from The In d e p e n d e n t o n Sunday, 10 May ig 92 of the eruption .................. ............

tectonics, earthq u ak es and volcanoes

34 Plate
 Figure 1.49 HAZARD

Typesofresponse
(adaptedfrom Chris
Park, 1991)
I
BIOMEDICAL
__ L . . _

PSYCHO-SOCIAL
_______!_______

I" f
Im m e d ia te im pacts Long-term impacts Behaviour patterns Perceptions

t
Direct Indirect
I i J______

Basic
Medical
?
Anxiety Loss of
? ▼
Attitude of
t
During
I

t
After
Death Sheiter Food hygiene blaming
injury injury care (worry) community event event
amenities others

V____________
V Y
TEMPORAL SHORTTERM LONGTERM
SCALE (Concentrated effects; localised in area and time) (Affects more people; over a wider area; for a longertime)

H o w d id p e o p le r e s p o n d
to t h e h a z a r d e v e n t?
5 Park has divided human responses
jf ng and after any hazard event into two
-:egories (Figure 1.49).
thin a few weeks of the major Pinatubo
~:on, groups of evacuees from the
~T::ed area began to consider theirfuture
options and their next move.Their range of
responses included the following:
1 Som em em bersoftheA etatribe
(Figure 1.50) decided notto return to
their former homes. As a spokesperson
explained: 'Everything we have planted
has been destroyed.There is no point in
going back.The government will have
to put us somewhere else.'
2 In contrast, the majority of the Aeta
tribe decided to return.To them, the
mountain slopes, although vastly
changed, were still their home and the
hard way oflife in the hills was prefer-
able to the foreign habits of the low-
landers and to living in urban areas.
3 Most of the people w ho fled from the
city of Angeles have, so far, opted
against returning home.To them, life

■gure 1.50 in the shanty refugee camps is safer

than returning to an area where
!embers of the Aeta tribe
eruptions and earthquakes are stil
occurring and w here the heavy rain is
likely to cause lahars for several years
until the regrowth of vegetation stabi-
lises the slopes.

C a n f u t u r e e r u p t io n s b e
p r e d ic te d ?
At present, although it may be possible
to predict fairly accurately w here volcanic
eruptions are likely to occur (i.e. at con­
structive and destructive plate margins,
Figure 1.8), there is less prospect of sci­
entists being able to predict accurately
either the precise time or the scale of a
specific event. Prediction is easier in places
where volcanoes erupt regularly, as they
will be better monitored (Figure 1.51),
than in places where eruptions have not
occurred for several centuries (Mount St
Helens and Mount Pinatubo) and where
people's perception of the hazard risk is
less. Monitoring potential eruptions is
also more likely in an economically more
developed country with its greater wealth
and technology, or in places where a high
population density is a risk.

Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes 35

 V o lc a n ic e ru p tio n s - M o u n t P in a tu b o

a Coiour-coded alert levels b Numerical alert levels

Colour Implication Indicative phenomena Volcano status

Green No eruption. Volcano is quiet/dormant. 0 Typical background surface activity; low levels of seismic Dormantorquiescent
deformation and heat flows
Yellow Eruption possible in nextfew weeks (with little or no
additional warning). Local earth tremors and/or increased 1 Apparent seismic, geodic, thermal and other unrest indicators No eruption threat
levels of volcanic gas emissions.
2 Increase in number/intensity of unrest indicators including Eruption threat
Orange Explosive eruption possible within a few days (with little heat flows, seismicity and deformation
or no additional warning). Increased number/strength
3 Minor steam eruptions; high/increasing trends in indicators of Minor eruption started; real
of local earth tremors/quakes. Non-explosive extrusion
unrest; significant effects on volcano and possibly beyond threatofam ajorevent
of a lava dome and/or lava flows. Any ash plume will be
under9km. 4 Eruption of new magma; sustained high levels of unrest indi­ Hazardous local eruption;
cators on both the volcano and beyond threat of a serious event
Red Major explosive eruption expected within a day. Strortg
earthquake activity detected even at a distance. Ash 5 Destruction/major damage beyond the volcano; significant Large hazardous eruption
plumeexceeds9km. hazard risk over a wide area in progress

Figure 1.51

Two volcano alert systems
(abridged from Parfitt and Wilson)
These procedures are easierto adopt in
volcanoes that erupt frequently as they
are monitored partly to learn more about
their internai structure and partly for signs
of activity. Continuous monitoring instru-
ments are both expensive and vulnerable.
Data can be collected:
• on the volcano using seismometers
to record minor seismic tremors, any
inflation or tilt, an increase in pressure
or the release of volcanic gases
• using satellites that can detect changes
in temperature, vegetation (caused
b yth e release of gases) and the local
magnetic field
• by studying previous timescales of cycles
of eruptions and maps showing paths
taken by earlier lava or pyroclastic flows.
P r e d ic tin g a n d p la n n in g
fo r e a rth q u a k e s
jumped out of water and the giant panda has
Scientists can use sensitive instruments to
measure increases in earth movements and
a build-upofpressure.They can also mapthe
epicentres and frequency of previous earth­
quakes to see if there is either a repeat location
oratime-interval pattern. In Kanto,the region
surroundingTokyo, there has been a severe
earthquake,on average, every 70-80years
forthe lastfivecenturies. As the last event
was in 1923, with an estimated 14 000 deaths,
then an equally severe earthquake might be
expected to occur early in the 21 st century.
Even so, such methods can predict neitherthe
precise timing nor the exact location of the
earthquake. A less scientific method, but
successfully used in China, has been the
observation of unusual animal behaviour
shortly before a major earth movement
(though not before the 2008 event), e.g. mice
have fled houses, dogs have howled, fish have
moaned.
In earthquake-prone areas, especially
in more wealthy countries, buildings can
be constructed to withstand earthquakes.
They are built with steel (which can sway
during earth movement) and fire-resistant
materials - never with bricks or reinforced
concrete blocks. Foundations are sunkdeep
into bedrock and are separated from the
superstructure by shock-absorbers. Open
spaces should be provided for people to
assemble, and roads made sufficiently wide
to allow rapid access by emergency serv-
ices.The em ergency services themselves
need to be trained and well-equipped,
while local residents need to be made
aware as to how they should respond both
during and after the event.

F u rth e r re fe re n c e
k
Aiexander, D. (2001) Confronting Marti, J. and Ernst, G.G.J. (2008) Volcanoes Plate tecton ics:
Catastrophe, Terra Publishing. and the Environment, Cambridge http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Glossary/
Buranakul, S. (2005) 'Asian Tsumani: the University Press. PlateTectonics/framework.html
Afterm ath' in Geography Review Voi 19 Parfitt, L. and W ilson, L. (2008) http:/eos.higp.hawaii.edu/volcanolis.
No 1 (September). Fundam entals o f Physical Volcanology, html
Calder, N. (1973) The Restless Earth, BBC Blackwell. http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/
Publications. Park, C.C. (1991) Environmental Hazards, understanding.htm l
Chester, D. (1993) Volcanoes and Society, Nelson Thornes. http://eos.higp.hawaii.edu/volcanolist.
Hodder Arnold. Petley, D. (2005) 'Tsunam i' in Geography htm l
Francis, P. and Oppenheimer, C. (2003) Review Voi 18 No 5 (May). Further links:
Volcanoes, Oxford University Press. www.physicalgeography.net/
Earthquake in form ation :
Goudie, A.S. (2001) The N ature o f the http://quake.wr.usgs.gov/ fundam entals/lOi.html
Environment, WileyBlackwell. www.rcep.dpri.kyoto-u.ac.jp/~sato/ http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Servers/
Keller, E.A. and Pinter, N. (1995) Active tottori/index.htm l earth_servers .htm l
Tectonics: Earthquakes, u p liftan d
landscape, Prentice Hali.

36 Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes

 Questions & Activities

A c tiv itie s

1 Study Figure 1.3 (page 10). For either a volcanic eruption or an earthquake you have
a What is an earthquake? (3 marks) studied:

b Why is an earthquake that measures 7.0 on the Richter scale a Drawasketch mapto show the location of the area
100 times more severe than one that measures 5.0? (3 marks) where it occurred. (3 marks)

c How severe was the earthquake in San Francisco b Describe the hazard event. (3 marks)
in 1989? (1 mark) c Explain, with the aid of a diagram, the causes of the
d How much bigger was the earthquake in San Francisco event. (4 marks)
in 1906 than the one in Kobe in 1972? (3 marks) d How big was the event? (2 marks)
e Describe one way in which buildings may be made e How frequently do such events occur in this area?
'earthquake proof'. (4 marks) (2 marks)
f List tw o rules that you would need to follow if your f How large an area was affected by the event? (3 marks)
home was in an earthquake area. Explain why they g Describe the effects of the event on the area. (4 marks)
would be important. (4marks)
h What lessons for the future were learned from
g How do local and naţional authorities try to prepare for this event? (4 marks)
earthquakes in areas where they may occur? (7marks)

2 Create a table using the headings in the left column of

the table below. Use it to provide details of a volcanic or
earthquake event you havestudied. (marks as shown)

1 Heading Description from case study

.ocation Identify where the disaster occurred (2 marks)

Dre-disaster Description of geology of the area to identify the (3 marks)

rotential reason for an event to occur

jsasterevent Timing, size and nature of the disaster (3 marks)

j'sruption Details of immediate damage (3 marks)

-eiief Types of immediate relief needed (3 marks)

-ejovery Nature of the required recovery programme (4 marks)

~me Timescale of the continuing impact of the event (3 marks) Figure 1.52

: ;construction Typeandam ountoflong-term aid required (4 marks) A section through

the Earth

E x a m p r a c tic e : b a s ic s t r u c t u r e d
q u e s tio n s

4 a Study Figure 1.52 and identify the internai structure i What is lava? (2 marks)
of the Earth by naming A, B, C and D. (4 marks) ii What happens to lava when it is exposed on the
b Identify the tw o types of crust of the Earth and ground surface? (1 mark)
describe the differences between them. (4 marks) iii Why does some lava flow quickly and some flow
c Explain why crustal plates move. (5 marks) more slowly? (4 marks)
d Choose one of the following types of plate margin: Making use of annotated diagrams, describe tw o
• constructive (spreading) margin different kinds of volcano. Name an example of each
of your kinds of volcano. (8 marks)
• destructive (subduction) margin
With reference to one or more areas that you have
• conservative (slip) margin.
studied, explain why people continue to live close to
Describe the distinctive landforms that develop there, active volcanoes. (10 marks)
and explaintheirdevelopment. (12marks)

Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes 37

 shield lands (cratons)

fold mountains
6194 m Canadian
A l Shield Iceland deep-sea trenches

Aleutian Islands
transform faults
Rockies

'^eutianTreo^' ▲ volcanoes

Sierra f 1 1 Mt McKinley
Madre Milwaukee ,/ „ . . _ 2 Mt St Helens
Deep 9200 m / Atlantic Ocean 3 Paricutin
Tropic of Cancer
4 Popocatepetl
*1 4
5 Mt Pelee
Pacific Ocean
*5 l Mid-Atlantic Ridge 6 Cotopaxi

Equator
V 7 Chimborazo
▲6
8 El Mişti
A7 Brazilian Vkio 9 Aconcagua
Shield Ascension 10 Ascension Island
East Pacific Rise Island
*8 Andes 11 Tristan da Cunha
Tropic of Capricorn 12 Galapagos Islands
1 *1 3 13 Easter Island
Figure 1.53

Landforms and major relief

T 6950 m
A9
1*11
14 Hawaiian Islands

features resulting from plate

tectonics in the Americas

6 Study Figure 1.53 and answer the following questions. 7 a Draw a labei led diagram to show the features of a
a i N am eanexam pleofeachofthefollow ingfrom the composite volcano. (4 marks)
map: shield lands (cratons); fold mountains; deep-sea b Name one intrusive landform and explain how it was
trenches. (3 marks) formed. (5 marks)
ii Explain the meaning of each of these terms: shield c With reference to the photographs on page 34 (Figures
lands (cratons); fold mountains; deep-sea trenches. 1.46 and 1.47):
(6 marks)
i describe a pyroclastic cloud and explain why it is a
b i Identify the com passdirection for the movement of threat to people living nearby (8 marks)
the Earth's crust at each of Ascension Island (number ii describe a lahar and explain why it is a threat to
10) and Easter Island (number 13). people living nearby. (8 marks)
(13 marks)
ii For each of these places, explain why you think the
crust moves in that direction. (4 marks)
c Choose one volcano marked on the map and, referring to
plate movements, explain why it occurs there. (10marks)

E x a m p r a c tic e : s t r u c t u r e d q u e s tio n s

8 a In areas where there are volcanic eruptions, earthquakes 9 a i Draw an annotated diagram and describe the features
also occur. Suggest how volcanoes and earthquakes are which may be found associated with a constructive
linked to each other. (5 marks) plate margin. (8 marks)
b Earthquakes occur in areas where there is no eviden ii For one of these features, explain the processes that
ce of volcanic eruption. For one area where there are have led to its formation. (8 marks)
earthquakes but no volcanoes, explain the causes of b i Explain one way in whichareas closeto a constructive
earthquake activity. (10 marks) plate margin may be of economic value.
c Name an area where earthquakes have occurred. ii Suggest how people can exploit the economic
Describe one landscape feature found in that area that resource you have identified. (9 marks)
was formed by earthquake activity. c With reference to one or more areas that you have
Explain how it was formed. (10 marks) studied, explain how people can exploit the economic
resources that can be found at constructive plate
margins. (9marks)

38 Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes

10 a i Draw an annotated diagram and describe the 13 Study Figure 1.54.
features associated with a destructive plate margin. a Choose one geological factor from the table. Explain how
(8 marks) that geological factor influences the assessment of the
ii For one of these features, explain the processes dangerfrom a volcanic hazard in an area. (7marks)
that have led to its formation. (8 marks) b Explain two ways in which a volcanic eruption could
b i Explain one way in which an area closeto a affect an urban area outside the zone of direct lava and
destructive plate margin may be of economic value. pyroclastic outfall. (6 marks)
ii Suggest how people can exploit the economic c With reference to examples that you have studied,
resource you have identified. (9 marks) explain how people in areas at different stages
c With reference to one or more areas that you have development can prepare for the hazards of volcanic
studied, explain how people can exploit the economic eruptions. (12marks)
resources that can be found at destructive plate margins.
Figure 1.54
(9 marks)
Range of factors affecting
Danger factor Assessment of danger
11 Look at Figure 1.53 and make use of Figure 1.8 (page 15). volcanic hazards
a Describe the distribution of cratons (shield areas) and of Geological factors
young fold mountain ranges in the Americas. (8 marks) Plate margin type There will be more explosive activity on a destructive margin than
b Explain, with the use of diagrams, the origins of: ona
i Ascension Island (number 10 on Figure 1.53) (7marks) constructive margin.

ii the Chile-Peru trench and the volcanic mountains Volcano type A shield volcano will be less explosive than a stratovolcano.
(numbered 7,8 and 9 on Figure 1.53). (10marks) Extruded material A lava eruption is less dangerous than a pyroclastic eruption.

12 a Identify tw o different ways in which volcanoes may be
classified. For one of the ways you have identified, explain
how one type of volcano fits into the classification.
(8 marks)
b Why do people continue to live close to active volcanoes?
(7 marks)
Silica content Silica-rich magmas produce more explosive eruptions than silica-
poormagmas.
Dormancy period Volcanoes with longer periods of dormancy tend to be more explo­
sive than those with shorter dormancy periods.
Environmental and topographical factors

c Using an example of a real upland area, explain what Wind direction Pyroclasticflows arethickerdownwind from an active vent.
happens to a volcanic area once volcanic activity ceases. Topography Valleysfunnel pyroclastic and otherflows. Ridgesacrossthe route of
(10 marks) flows can sheiter areas within a blast zone.

Social and economic factors

Settlement density More densely settled areas will be at greater risk of immediate
damage.

Economic status Total cost will be greater in more economically developed areas but
response will befasterand more effective. Loss of life will belower.
In less developed areas, loss oflife will be greater and economic
damage will be greater in proportion to the total.

14 a i What is a natural hazard? (2 marks)

ii Under what circumstances can a volcanic eruption
be described as a hazard event? (4 marks)
b For any volcanic event that you have studied:
i identify the causesofthe volcanic event (7marks)
ii evaluate the severity of the effects of the event on
the surrounding area and its inhabitants. (12 marks)

E x a m p r a c tic e : e s s a y s

15 Describe the theory of plate tectonics and explain three 17 'The extent to which earthquakes represent hazards
pieces of evidence which provide support for the theory. depends on where they occur.'Discuss this statement.
(25 marks) (25 marks)

16 For any one area that experiences volcanic and/or
earthquake hazards that you have studied, explain how
people perceive and manage the hazard. (25 marks)
18 'In the last 30 years or so natural hazards caused by tectonic
pressures have led to an increased death rate around the
world.This increase is due more to an increase in world
population than to an increased frequency of tectonic
events.' Discuss this statement. (25 marks)

Plate tectonics, earthquakes and volcanoes 39

 Weathering and slopes

'Every valley shall be exalted, and every mountain and hill is m ore likely to take place in warmer, m ore
m o ist clim ates w here th ere is an associated
shall be made low: and the crooked shall be made straight,
veg etation cover.
and the rough places plain.' It should be appreciated th a t alth ou gh in any
The Bible, Isaiah 40:4
given area eith er m ech a n ica l or ch em ical w eath ­
ering m ay be locally d o m in a n t, b o th processes
W e a t h e r in g usually op erate to g eth er rath er th a n in iso lation .

T h e m a jo rity o f rocks have b een form ed at high M e c h a n ic a l w e a th e r in g

tem peratures (igneous and m an y m etam o rp h ic
F ro s t s h a tte rin g
rocks) and/or under great pressure (igneous,
This is th e m ost w idespread form of m ech an ical
m eta m o rp h ic and sed im entary rocks), b u t in th e
w eathering. It occurs in rocks th a t co n ta in crev-
absen ce o f oxy g en and water. If, later, these rocks
ices and jo in ts (e.g. jo in ts form ed in graniţe as
b eco m e exposed o n th e Earth's surface, th ey will
it cooled , bed d ing planes found in sed im entary
exp erien ce a release o f pressure, be subjected
rocks, and pore spaces in porous rocks), where
to flu ctu atin g tem peratures, and be exposed to
th ere is lim ited v eg etation cover and where
oxygen in th e air and to water. T h ey are th erefore
tem peratu res flu ctu ate around 0°C (page 134).
vu ln erable to w e a th e rin g , w h ich is th e d isinte-
In th e daytim e, w h en it is warmer, w ater enters
g ration and d eco m p o sition o f rock in sitn - i.e.
th e jo in ts, b u t during cold n ig h ts it freezes. Frost
in its original p o sition . W eathering is, th e re ­
leads to m ech a n ica l breakdow n in tw o ways:
fore, th e natu ral breakdow n o f rock and can be
1 As ice occu pies 9 per ce n t m ore volu m e th an
distinguished from erosion because it need n o t
water, it exerts pressure w ith in th e jo in ts. '
involve any m o vem en t o f m aterial. W eathering
2 W h e n w ater freezes w ith in th e rock it attracts
is th e first stage in th e d e n u d a tio n or w earing
sm all particles o f water, creating increasingly
dow n o f th e landscape; it loosens m aterial w h ich
large ice crystals.
can su bseq u ently be tran sp orted b y such agents
In each case th e a ltern atin g fre e z e -th a w
o f erosion as ru n n in g w ater (C hapter 3), ice
p ro cess, or fro st sh a tte rin g , slow ly widens
(C hapter 4), th e sea (C hapter 6) and th e wind
th e jo in ts and, in tim e, causes pieces o f rock
(C hapter 7). The degree o f w eathering depends
to shatter from th e m ain body. W here this
u p on th e structure and m in eral co m p o sitio n
b lo ck d is in te g ra tio n occurs o n steep slopes,
o f th e rocks, local clim ate and v eg etation , and
large angular rocks co lle ct at th e fo o t o f th e
th e len g th o f tim e during w h ich th e w eath erin g
slope as scree or talu s (Figure 2.1 ); if th e slopes
processes operate.
are gentle, how ever, large b lock field s (felsen-
T here are tw o m ain types o f w eathering:
m eer) tend to develop. Frost sh attering is m ore
1 M e c h a n ica l (or p h y sical) w e a th e rin g is th e
co m m o n in upland regions o f B ritain w here
d isin teg ration of rock in to sm aller particles
tem peratu res fluctuate around freezing p o in t
b y m ech a n ica l processes b u t w ith o u t any
for several m o n th s in w inter, th a n in polar areas
ch an g e in th e ch em ica l co m p o sitio n o f th a t
w here tem peratu res rarely rise above 0°C.
rock. It is m ore likely to occur in areas devoid
o f veg etation , such as deserts, h ig h m o u n ­ S a lt c ry s ta llis a tio n
tain s and arctic regions. P hysical w eathering If water entering the pore spaces in rocks is slightly
usually produces sands. saline th en , as it evaporates, salt crystals are likely
2 C h e m ica l w e a th e rin g is th e d eco m p o sition to form . As th e crystals becom e larger, they exert
o f rock resulting from a ch em ical chang e. It stresses upon th e rock, causing it to disintegrate.
produces ch ang ed substances and solubles, This process occurs in h o t deserts where capillary
and usually form s clays. C h em ical w eathering action draws water to th e surface and w here the

40 Weathering and slopes


s
. -
r > -.
;^e2.1
ro ck is sandstone (page 182). Individual grains of
■■ mation of sand are broken off by g ran u lar disin tegration .
resulting from
Salt crystallisation also occurs on coasts where the
'Utering:
: e Lake, Banff
co n stan t supply o f salt can lead to the develop­
ai Park, Canada m en t o f w eathering pits (Figure 2.2).
P ressure re le a s e
As stated earlier, m any rocks, especially intrusive
jointed granites, have developed under consider­
able pressure. The con fin in g pressure increases the
strength of th e rocks. If these rocks, at a later date,
are exposed to the atm osphere, th e n there will be
a substantial release o f pressure. (If you had 10 m
of bedrock sitting on top of you, you would be
considerably relieved were it to be removed!) The
release of pressure weakens th e rock allow ing other
agents to enter it and other processes to develop.
W here cracks develop parallel to th e surface, a
process called sh eetin g causes the outer layers of
..-2 .3 rock to peel away. This process is now believed to
?tion dome: be responsible for th e form ation o f large, rounded
: af Mountain rocks called e x fo lia tio n d om es (Figures 2.3 and
.aneiro, Brazii
Figure 2.2
<î*>.
- Weathering pits caused by
•' salt crystallisation, Arran
'' * r v w • > * ^
* %
*«•
%
. ^ W
7.6) and, in part, for th e graniţe tors o f D artm oor
and the Isle o f Arran (Figures 8 .1 4 and 8.15).
Jo in tin g , caused by pressure release, has also
accentuated th e characteristic shapes o f glacial
cirques and troughs (Figures 2.4, 4 .1 4 and 4.15).
T h e rm a l e x p a n s io n o r in s o la tio n
w e a th e r in g
Like all solids, rocks expand w hen heated and
contract w hen cooled. In deserts, where cloud and
vegetation cover are m inim al, the diurnal range of
tem perature can exceed 50°C. It was believed that,
because the outer layers of rock warm up faster
and cool m ore rapidly th an th e inn er ones, stresses
were set up th a t would cause the outer thickness
to peel off like the layers of an on io n - the process
of exfo liatio n (page 181). Initially, it was thought
th at it was this exp an sion -con tractio n process
w hich produced exfoliation domes. Changes in
tem perature will also cause different m inerals
w ithin a rock to expand and contract at different
rates. It has been suggested that this causes g ran ­
u lar d isin tegration in rocks com posed o f several
m inerals (e.g. graniţe w hich consists of quartz, feld-
spar and mica), whereas in hom ogeneous rocks it is
m ore likely to cause block disintegration.
Laboratory exp erim en ts (e.g. by Griggs in
1 9 3 6 and G oudie in 1 9 7 4 ) have, how ever, cast
d ou bt o n th e effectiveness o f in so la tio n w eath ­
ering (page 181).
B io lo g ic a ! w e a th e rin g
Tree roots m ay grow alon g bedding planes or
exten d in to jo in ts, w id ening th e m u n til blocks
o f rock beco m e d etached (Figure 2 .5 ). It is also
claim ed th a t burrow ing creatures, such as worm s
and rabbits, m ay play a m in o r role in th e excava-
tio n o f partially w eathered rocks.
Weathering and slopes 41
 Ancient b New
Figure 2.4
e.g.Cairngorms (Scotland)
The process of pressure
release tendsto perpet­ jointing pre-glacial (Tertiary) surfaces
pressure glacial cirque
uate landforms: as new exposed by erosion
release (compare
surfaces are exposed, Figure 4.14)
glacial
the reduction in pressure cirque
causes further jointing
parallel to the surface

jointing
glacial trough parallel to the glacial
surface trough/fjord

C h e m ic a l w e a th e r in g ■ occu r m o stly at th e base o f slopes w here it is

likely to be w etter and warmer.
C h em ical w eathering tends to:
This type o f w eath erin g involves a n u m ber of
■ attack certain m inerals selectively
sp ecific processes w h ich m ay op erate in isola-
■ occu r in zones o f altern ate w ettin g and
tio n b u t w h ich are m ore likely to be fo u n d in
drying, e.g. w here th e level of th e water
c o n ju n c tio n w ith o n e an oth er. Form ulae for th e
table fluctuates
various ch e m ica l rea ctio n s are listed at th e end
o f th e chapter, page 57.

O x id a tio n
This occurs w hen rocks are exposed to oxygen
in the air or water. The sim plest and m ost easily
recognised exam ple is w hen iron in a ferrous
state is changed by th e addition o f oxygen into
a fe rric state. The rock or soil, w hich m ay have
been blue or grey in colour (characteristic of a lack
o f oxygen), is discoloured in to a reddish-brow n
- a process better know n as ru stin g (Figure 2.6).
O xid ation causes rocks to crum ble m ore easily.
In waterlogged areas, oxid ation m ay operate
in reverse and is know n as re d u ctio n . Here, the
am o u n t of oxygen is reduced and the soils take on
a blue/green/grey tinge (see gleying, page 272).

H y d ra tio n
C ertain rocks, especially those co n tain in g salt
m inerals, are capable of absorbing water in to their
structure, causing th em to swell and to becom e
vulnerable to future breakdown. For exam ple,
gypsum is the result of water having been added
to anhydrite (C a S 0 4). This process appears to be
m ost active follow ing successive periods o f wet
and dry weather and is im portant in form ing clay
particles. Hydration is in fact a physio-chem ical
process as th e rocks m ay swell and exert pressure
as well as changing th eir chem ical structure.

H yd ro ly s is
This is possibly th e m ost significant chem ical
process in th e d ecom position of rocks and form a­
tio n o f clays. Hydrogen in water reacts w ith m in ­
erals in the rock or, m ore specifically, there is a
Figure 2.6 co m b in a tio n of th e H+ and O H - ions in the water
Oxidation in Geltsdale, and th e ions o f th e m ineral (i.e. the water com -
Cumbria bines w ith th e m ineral rath er th a n dissolving it).

42 Weathering and slopes

 The rate o f hydrolysis depends on the
am o u n t o f H+ ions, w h ich in tu rn depends
o n th e co m p o sitio n o f air and w ater in th e
soil (Figure 10 .4 ), th e activity o f organism s
(page 2 6 8 ), th e presen ce o f org anic acids
(page 2 7 1 ) and th e ca tio n exch an g e (page 2 6 9 ).
An exam p le o f hydrolysis is th e breakdow n of
feldspar (Figure 2 .7 ), a m ineral found in igneous
rocks such as graniţe, in to a residual clay deposit
know n as k aolin ite (ch in a clay). G ran iţe consists
o f three m inerals - quartz, m ica and feldspar
(Figure 8 .2 c) - and, as th e table below shows,
each reacts at a different rate w ith water.
-'ected by water, May be affected by water under Readily attracts water
ksunchangedas more acid conditions releasing producing a chemical
-igure 2.7) aiuminium and iron change which turns the feldspar
into clay (kaolin or china clay)
C a rb o n a tio n
R ainw ater co n ta in s carb on d ioxide in solu tion
w h ich produces carb o n ic acid (H X O -j). This
w eak acid reacts w ith rocks th a t are com posed
o f calciu m carb on ate, such as lim esto n e. The
lim eston e dissolves and is rem oved in solu­
tio n (calciu m b icarb o n ate) b y ru n n in g water.
C arboniferous lim eston e is w ell-jo in ted and
bedded (C hapter 8), w h ich results in th e devel­
op m en t of a d istin ctive group o f landform s
(Figure 2 .8 ).
S o lu tio n
Som e m inerals, e.g. rock salt, are soluble in water
and sim ply dissolve in situ. T h e rate o f solu tion
can be affected by acidity since m an y m inerals
b eco m e m ore soluble as th e pH o f th e solvent
increases (page 2 6 9 ).
O rg a n ic w e a th e rin g
Humic acid, derived from the d ecom position of
vegetation (humus), contains im portant elem ents
such as calcium , m agnesium and iron. These
are released by a process know n as ch elatio n
(page 271). The action of bacteria and the respira-
tio n of plant roots tends to increase carbon dioxide
levels w hich helps accelerate solution processes,
especially carbonation. Lichen can also extract iron
from certain rocks through th e process o f reduc­
tion. Recent research suggests that lichen and blue-
green algae, w hich form th e pioneer com m unity
in the developm ent o f a lithosere (page 288), play
a far greater w eathering role th an was previously
thought. However, it should be rem em bered that
the presence o f a vegetation cover dram atically
reduces the exten t o f m echanical weathering.
A c id ra in
H um an e co n o m ic activities (such as power gen-
eration and transport) release increasingly m ore
carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide and n itrogen
oxide in to th e atm osphere. These gases th en form
acids in solu tion in rainw ater (page 2 2 2 ). Acid
rain readily attacks lim estones and, to a lesser
exten t, sandstones, as show n by cru m bling b u ild ­
ings and statues (Figure 2.9 ). The increased level
o f acidity in water passing th rou g h th e soil tends
to release m ore hydrogen and so speeds up the
process o f hydrolysis. An in d irect con seq u en ce of
acid rain is th e release from certain rocks o f to xic
m etals, such as aium inium , cadm ium , copper
and zinc, w h ich can be harm ful to plants and soil
b iota (page 2 6 8 ).
Weathering and slopes 43
 Som e au thorities, in clu d in g Andrew G oudie,
prefer to divide w eath ering in to th ree categories
rath er th a n th e tw o described here. T h eir a ltern a ­
tive classificatio n inclu des, as a third category,
b io lo g ic a l w e a th e rin g . Instead o f in clu d in g
'b io lo g ica l' un der m ech a n ica l w eatherin g and
'o rg an ic' under ch e m ica l w eathering, they
w ould group these tw o types to g eth er under the
h ead ing 'b io lo g ical w eath ering '.
C lim a tic c o n tro is o n w e a th e r in g
Mechanical weathering
Frost sh a tte rin g is im p o rta n t if tem p eratu res
flu ctu a te around 0°C , b u t w ill n o t op erate if
Figure 2.9
Acid rain damage to
stone statues, Exeter
Cathedral
th e clim a te is to o cold (p e rm a n en tly frozen ),
to o w arm (n o freezing), to o dry (n o m o istu re
to freeze), or to o w et (covered b y v e g e tatio n ).
M e ch a n ica l w ea th erin g w ill n o t take p lace at X
o n Figure 2 .1 0 a w here it is to o w arm and th ere
is in su ffic ie n t m oistu re, w h ile at Y, th e h igh
tem p eratu re and heavy ra in fa ll w ill give a th ick
p ro tectiv e v e g e ta tio n cov er ag ain st in so la tio n .
Chemical weathering
T his increases as tem peratu res and rainfall totals
increase. It has b een claim ed th a t th e rate of
ch em ica l w eathering doubles w ith every 10°C
tem peratu re increase. R ecen t theories suggest
th at, in hu m id trop ical areas, d irect rem oval by
solu tion m ay be th e m a jo r facto r in th e low ering
of th e landscape, due to th e co n tin u o u s flow of
water th rou g h th e soil. C h em ical w eathering
will be rapid at S (Figure 2 .1 0 b ) due to h u m ic
acid from th e v eg etation . It w ill be lim ited at P,
because tem peratures are low, and at R , w here
th ere is in su fficien t m oistu re for th e ch em ical
d eco m p o sitio n o f rocks. C arbon dioxide is an
exce p tio n in th at, b ein g m ore soluble at lower
as opposed to h ig her tem peratures, it can acce l­
erate rates o f so lu tio n in cold clim ates.

W e a th e r in g re g io n s
Peltier, an A m erican physicist and clim atolo-
gist, attem pted to predict th e type and rate of
w eathering at any given place in th e world from
its m ean annu al tem perature and m ean annual
rainfall (Figure 2 .1 0 c). It should be realised th at
Figure 2.10 m ech an ical and ch em ical w eathering usually
operate together at th e same tim e and at th e same
Climatic Controls
on w e a th e rin g
place, but it is likely th a t in each situation one
(a/fer Peltier) type or th e other will be th e m ore significant.

a Mechanical weathering b Chemical weathering c Peltier's weathering regions

mean annual rainfall (mm) mean annual rainfall (mm) mean annual rainfall (mm)
2000 1500 1000 500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 2000 1500 1000 500 0

^ -15 moderate -
U mechanical
T-10 weathering

a / moderate
E chemical weathenng
<b with frost action v

absent or insignificant moderate

sirong / - . . /
chemical weathenng / veryslight
Y X
weathering / / weathenng
l l_______ I

44 Weathering and slopes

 F ra m e w o rk 3 A system s a p p ro a c h
One type of model (Framework 12, page 352)
widely adopted by geographers to help explain
phenomena is the system. The system is a method
of analysing relationships within a unit and consists
ofa number of components between which
there are linkages.The model is usually illustrated
schematically as a flow diagram.
Systems may be described in three ways:
a closed: domestic central
heating system
->
\7
.gure 2.11
Examples of the systems approach used and referred
osed and open to in this book (chapter number is given in brackets):
.'tem s in the house
Geomorphological Climate, soils and vegetation
Slopes (2) Atmosphere energy budget (9)
Drainage basins (3) Hydrological cycle (9)
Glaciers (4) Soils (10)
Ecosystems (11)
Nutrient cycle (12)
When opposing forces, or inputs and outputs,
are balanced, the system is said to be in a state
of dynam ic equilibrium . If one element in
the system changes because of some outside
influence, then it upsets this equilibrium and
affects the other components. For example,
equilibrium is upset when:
• prolonged heavy rainfall causes an increase
in the discharge and velocity ofa river or a
lowering of base level (page 81), both of which
lead to an increase in the rate of erosion
• Isolated: there is no input or output of energy
or matter. Some suggest the universe is the sole
example of this type; others claim the idea is not
applicable in geography.
• Closed: there is input, transfer and output of
energy but not of matter (or mass).
• Open: most environmental systems are open
and there are inputs and outputs of both energy
and matter.
b open: domestic water supply
Human and economic
Population change (13)
Farming (16)
Industry (19)
an increase in carbon dioxide into the
atmosphere causes global temperatures to rise
(global warming, Case Study 9)
drought affects the carrying capacity of animals
(or people) grazing (living) in an area as the
water shortage reduces the availability of grass
(food supplies) (page 378)
an increase in the number of tourists to places
of scenic attraction harms the environment
(especially where it is fragile) that was the
original source of the attraction (page 591).
Weathering and slopes 45
 gravity raindrop on flat iand, soil
type of surface particles are
precipitation
and vegetation rainspiash equally distributed
in all directions;
evapotranspiration on slopes, particles partide/
on downhill side
temperature/insolation of splash are
/ radiation . contraction
P1 "*^7 after thaw
soil depth / P2
and type

+ +

infiitration
of water
■runoff
/J_ human influence: e.g. buildings,
geology
road, quarries, waste tips

im
(i) rock type (porous, impermeable)
(ii) rock structure (jointing)

river removes material

inputs ---- »- frost atfoot of slope

processes nterception ! vegetation: type

outputs -► radiation and amount of cover
channel flow

Figure 2.12
The slope as a
M a s s m o v e m e n t a n d r e s u lt a n t
dynamic open system la n d f o r m s
The ferm m ass m o v e m e n t describes all dow nhill
m ovem ents o f w eathered m aterial (re g o lith ),
inclu ding soil, loose stones and rocks, in response
to gravity. However, it excludes m ovem ents where
the m aterial is carried by ice, water or wind. W h en
gravitaţional forces exceed forces of resistance,
slope failure occurs and m aterial starts to m ove
downwards. A slope is a d y n a m ic o p e n sy stem
(Fram ework 3) affected by biotic, clim atic, gravi­
taţional, groundw ater and te cto n ic inputs w hich
vary in scale and tim e. T he am ount, rate and type
o f m o vem en t depend up on th e degree o f slope
failure (Figure 2 .1 2 ).
A lthough by d efin itio n mass m o vem en t
refers o n ly to th e m o v em en t dow nh ill o f m a te ­
Figure2.13
rial under th e force o f gravity, in reality water
A classification of is usually presen t and assists th e process. W h e n
mass movement Carson and Kirkby (1 9 7 2 ) attem p ted to group
processes (after
mass m ovem ents, th e y used th e speed o f m o v e­
Carsonand Kirkby,
1972)
m e n t and th e a m o u n t o f m oistu re p resen t as a
flow
basis for distinguishing betw een th e various types
(Figure 2 .1 3 ). The follow ing classification is based
on speed o f flow related to m oisture co n te n t and
angle o f slope (Framework 7, page 167).
S lo w m o v e m e n ts
S o ilc re e p
This is th e slow est o f d ow n hill m o vem en ts and
is d ifficu lt to m easure as it takes place at a rate
o f less th a n 1 cm a year. However, unlike faster
m o vem en ts, it is an alm ost co n tin u o u s process.
Soil creep occurs m ainly in hu m id clim ates
w here th ere is a v eg etation cover. There are
tw o m a jo r causes o f creep, b o th resulting from
repeated exp an sion and co n tra ctio n .
1 W e t-d ry p erio d s D uring tim es o f heavy
rainfall, m oisture increases the volu m e and
w eight o f th e soil, cau sing exp an sion and
allow ing th e reg olith to m ove dow nhill
under gravity. In a subsequen t dry period, the
soil will dry ou t and th e n co n tract, especially
if it is clay. An extrem e case o f co n tra ctio n in
clays occurred in sou th-east England during
th e 1 9 7 6 drought w h en buildings sited on
alm ost im p ercep tible slopes suffered m ajor
structural dam age.
2 F re e z e -th a w W h e n th e regolith freezes, the
presen ce o f ice crystals increases th e volum e
o f th e soil by 9 per cen t. As th e soil expands,
particles are lifted at right-angles to th e slope
in a process called h e a v e (Figure 2 .1 2 and
page 132). W h en th e ground later thaw s and
th e regolith con tracts, th ese particles fall back
vertically under th e in flu e n ce o f gravity and
so m ove dow nslope.

(slow movements) (fast movements)

 periglacial con d ition s (C hapter 5) where vegeta­
tio n cover is lim ited. During th e w inter season,
b o th th e bedrock and regolith are frozen. In
summer, th e surface layer thaw s bu t th e under-
lying layer rem ains frozen and acts like im per-
m eable rock. Because surface m eltw ater can n o t
infiltrate downwards and tem peratures are too
low for m u ch effective evaporation, any topsoil
will soon b eco m e saturated and will flow as an
a ctiv e lay er over th e frozen subsoil and rock
(page 131). This process produces soliflu ction
ttes in Wharfedale,
sh eet or lobes (Figure 5.1 2 ), rounded, tongue-like
re Dales
features reaching up to 5 0 m in w idth, and h ead,
a m ixture of sand and clay form ed in valleys and
telegraph fences at the fo ot o f sea cliffs (Figure 5.1 3 ). Soliflu ction
pole tilted broken
was widespread in Southern Britain during the
base of tree Pleistocene ice age; covered m ost o f Britain fo l­
gashes turned downslope low ing th e Pleistocene; and con tin u es to take
place in th e Scottish Highlands today.
terracettes

soil piled up behind wall F lo w m o v e m e n ts

forcing it to bulge and break
E a rth flo w s
W h en th e regolith on slopes o f 5 -1 5 ° becom es
saturated w ith water, it begins to flow dow nhill at
a rate varying betw een 1 and 15 km per year. The
m o vem ent o f m aterial may produce short flow
track s and sm all bulging lobes or tongues, yet
m ay n o t be fast enou gh to break th e vegetation.

Soil creep usually occurs o n slopes o f about 5°
T of soil and produces te rra c e tte s (Figure 2 .1 4 ). These
are step-like features, o ften 2 0 - 5 0 cm in h eight,
w h ich develop as th e v eg etation is stretched and
to rn : th e y are o ften used and accen tu ated by
grazing anim als, esp ecially sheep. T he effects of
soil creep are show n in Figure 2 .1 5 .
S o liflu c tio n
This process, m eaning 'soil flow ', is a slightly
faster m o vem ent usually averaging betw een
5 cm and 1 m a year. It o ften takes place under
M u d flo w s
These are m ore rapid m o vem en ts, occu rring on
steeper slopes, and exceed ing 1 km/hr. W h en
N evado del Ruiz erupted in C o lo m bia in 1985,
th e resultan t m udflow reached th e tow n of
Armero at an estim ated speed o f over 4 0 km/
hr (Case Study 2A). M udflow s are m o st likely
to occur follow in g periods o f in ten siv e rainfall,
w hen b o th vo lu m e and w eight are added to the
soil giving it a h ig h er water c o n te n t th a n an
earthflow . M udflow s m ay result from a com bin a-
tio n o f several factors (Figure 2 .1 6 ).

graniţe slabs (impermeable): bare rock results in rapid runoff

(influence of geology and vegetation)
■■^causes
Glen BEINN A CHLIABHAIN
unusually heavy rainfall for 48 hours: extra moisture caused
hillside to swell,and added extra weight (influence of climate)

scar of an earlier
mudflow ~
steep valley sides of over 40‘
resulting from a valley
glacier (influence of slope)
^ thin soils overlying
impermeable bedrock - easily
saturated (influence of soils)

flowtrackov.er lOOm in length:

slope decreasing to 10' material presumably flowed
downhill at over 10 m/sec ■ ’

_____L GLEN ROSA

lobe or debris fan: soil, loose rock, large boulders

deposited when mud lost its momentum
 Figure 2.17

Landslides and rockfalls

a Planar landslide b Rotational landslide c Rockfall
sanc
bare rock,over 40"
(in this case, it is vertical)
glide plane

flat rupture surface scree ortalus slope:

unstable and unvegetated if
landslide over 38°;stable and vegetated
if under 35"

curved scree slope:

rupture
earlier vegetated and
slump
surface stable if under
lalus builds up
redudng size of
free face (Iargest
^ / b o u ld e r s at foot
of slope)
rocks from earlier slides

R a p id m o v e m e n ts
Slides
The fundam ental difference betw een slides and
flows is that flows suffer internai derangem ent
whilst, in contrast, slides m ove 'en masse' and
are n ot affected by internai derangem ent. Rocks
that are jointed or have bedding planes roughly
parallel to the angle o f slope are particularly sus-
ceptible to landslides. Slides m ay be planar or rota­
tional (Figure 2.17a and b). In a planar slide, the
weathered rock moves dow nhill leaving behind it
a flat rupture surface (Figure 2 .1 7a). W here rota­
tional m ovem ent occurs, a process som etim es
referred to as slu m p in g , a curved rupture surface
is produced (Figure 2.17b ). Rotational m ovem ent
can occur in areas o f hom ogeneous rock, but is
m ore likely where softer m aterials (clay or sands)
overlie m ore resistant or im perm eable rock (lim e­
Figure 2.18
stone or graniţe). Slides are com m on in m any
Landslides on the Coastal areas o f Southern and eastern England. In
Norfolk coast
Figure 2.18, the cliffs, com posed of glacial deposits,
are retreating rapidly due to frequent slides. The
slumped material can be seen at the foot o f the cliff.

V e ry ra p id m o v e m e n ts
R o c k fa lls
These are spontaneous, thou g h relatively rare,
debris m ovem ents o n slopes th a t exceed 40°. They |
m ay result from extrem e physical or chem ical
w eathering in m ountains, pressure release, storm-
wave action on sea cliffs, or earthquakes. M aterial,
on ce broken from th e surface, will either bounce
Figure 2.19
or fall vertically to form scree, or talus, at the foot
Rockfalls in the crater
o f a slope (Figures 2 .1 7 c and 2.19).
of Vesuvius, Italy
 S o u th -e a s t B ra z ii: la n d s lid e s

P e tro p o lis Rio d e J a n e iro

The town of Petropolis, named after a former king of
Brazii, Nes in the Serro do Mar Mountains some 60 km
north of Rio de Janeiro (Figure 2.21).Today, with a
population of 300 000, it is one of Rio's two main
mountain resorts to which people escape in summer
to avoid the heat and humidity of the coast. But the
steep-sided mountains can also prove to be a hazard,
as in 2001 when 50 people were killed in a series of
landslides (Figure 2.20).
As shown below, December of that year was an
exceptionally wet month for Petropolis.The result
was a series of more than 20 significant landsides, 14
of which were between them responsible for the 50
fatalities.
Rio de Janeiro experiences the same problems of
mass movement, but on an even larger scale, as
Petropolis. Figure 15.34 shows one of Rio's many
favelas (shanty settlements) that have been built
on the steep hillsides. One flash flood in 1988 led to
mudslides which carried away many of the flimsy
houses that had probably been built from waste
materials such as wood, corrugated iron and broken
bricks.The mudslides were responsible for the
deaths of more than 200 people.

1to 16December upto250mm

17to 23 December upto125mm

24December (in 12hours) upto200mm

The area, with its steep hillsides and heavy

seasonal rainfall, is prone to natural landslides
but investigations following this event suggested
that the two main causes, on this occasion at least,
resulted from human activity:

1 The construction of poor-quality, unauthorised

building: many of the shanty settlements had
been built on steep hillsides, often where the
slope was over 45° and in places even up to 80°.
2 The failure to provide rainwater drainage
channels: such drains could have taken away
:igure 2.21
some of the excess surface water and so
'•etow n of reduced the hazard risk.
_:ropolishas
■ead up steep hill- Of the 50 deaths, 24 were attributed to unauthorised
es from the valley settlements and 22 to the lack of drainage channels.
>:tom

Figure2.20

A landslide in
Petropolis, 2001

Weathering and slopes 49


D e v e lo p m e n t o f s lo p e s
Slope d ev elopm en t is th e result of the in tera ctio n
of several factors. Rock structure and lithology,
soil, clim ate, v eg etation and hu m an activity are
p robably th e m ost significant. All are in flu enced
by th e tim e over w h ich th e processes operate.
Slopes are an integral part o f th e drainage basin
system (C hapter 3) as th ey provide w ater and
sed im ent for the river ch an n el.
The effects o f ro c k stru ctu re a n d lith o lo g y
■ Areas o f bare rock are vuln erable to m e c h a n ­
ical w eathering (e.g. frost shattering) and
som e ch em ica l w eatherin g processes.
■ Areas o f altern atin g harder/more resistant
rocks and softer/less resistant rocks are m ore
likely to exp erien ce m o v em en t, e.g. clays on
lim eston es (V aiont D am , Case Study 2B).
Figure 2.22
a Non-saturated soil
The effect of pore-water pressure
and capillary action on soil water held by
movement capillary tension
air in pore spaces
S o il
■ T hin soils tend to be m ore unstable. As th ey can
support only lim ited vegetation, there are fewer
roots to bind the soil together.
■ U n con solid ated sands have low er in tern ai
c o h e sio n th a n clays.
■ A porous soil, e.g. sand, is less likely to
b eco m e saturated th a n o n e th a t is im p erm e­
able, e.g. clay.
■ In a n on -satu rated soil (Figure 2 .2 2 a ), th e
surface te n sio n o f th e w ater tend s to draw
particles together. This increases co h esio n
and reduces soil m o vem en t. In a saturated
soil (Figure 2 .2 2 b ), th e pore w ater pressure
(page 2 6 7 ) forces th e particles apart, reducing
frictio n and cau sing soil m o v em en t.
C lim a te
■ Heavy rain and m eltw ater b o th add volu m e
and w eight to th e soil.
■ Heavy rain increases th e erosive pow er o f
any river at th e base o f a slope and so, by
rem ov in g m aterial, m akes th a t slope less
stable.
■ Areas w ith freeze-thaw or w et-dry periods are
subjected to alternating exp an sion -con tractio n
of th e soil.
50 Weathering and slopes
■ An im pervious un d erlyin g rock will cause th e
to p soil to b eco m e saturated m ore quickly, e.g.
glacial deposits overlying graniţe.
■ Steep gradients are m ore likely to suffer slope
failure th a n gentler ones. In B ritain, espe­
cially in low land areas, m o st slopes are under
5° and few are over 40°.
■ Failure is also likely on slopes w here th e eq u i­
libriu m (balance) o f th e system (Fram ew ork
3, page 45), has b een disturbed, e.g. a glaci-
ated valley.
■ The presence o f jo in ts, cracks and bedding
planes can allow increased water co n te n t and
so lead to sliding (V aiont Dam , Case Study 2B).
■ E arthquakes (M oun t H uascaran in Peru)
and v o lca n ic erup tions (Nevado del Ruiz in
C olom bia) can cause extrem e slope m o v e­
m en ts (Case Study 2A).
b Saturated soil
o O O 0
water-filled pore
spaces:
0 o
friction is reduced
■ Heavy snow fall adds w eight and is thu s con -
ducive to rapid m o vem en ts, e.g. avalanches,
Case Study 4a.
V e g e ta tio n
■ A lack o f veg etation m eans th a t th ere are
fewer roots to b in d th e soil together.
■ Sparse veg etation cover will encourage
surface ru n off as p recip itatio n is n o t inter-
cepted (page 59).
H u m a n in flu e n c e
■ D eforestation increases (afforestation
decreases) th e rate of slope m o vem en t.
■ Road co n stru ctio n or quarrying at th e fo o t of
slopes upsets th e equ ilibrium , e.g. during the
b u ild in g o f th e M 5 in th e Bristol area.
■ Slope d evelopm ent processes m ay be accentu-
ated either by building on steep slopes (Hong
Kong and Rio de Janeiro, Case Study 2B) or
by using them to deposit industrial or m ining
waste (Aberfan, Case Study 2B).
■ T h e v ib ratio n caused by heavy traffic can
destabilise slopes (M am Tor, D erbyshire).
■ The grazing o f anim als and p lou gh in g help
loosen soil and rem ove th e p rotectiv e
veg etation cover.
 a Rectilinear b Convex-concave
convex or waxing slope mainly soil creep due convex
(denudation slope) to gentle slopes and (shedding) slope
vegetation cover

cliff orfreeface
transfer zone
rectilinear or straight (debris slo p °'
-active weathering and
slope (constant slope) removal of material;
steepness depends
upon rock strength
concave or waning weathered debris with and jointing
slope (accumulation danger of landslides concave Ireceiving)
slope) often resulting from slope
water carrying material
downhill

j u r e 2 .2 3
S lo p e e le m e n ts This is partly due to th e tim e needed for slopes to
: ae e le m e n t
evolve and partly due to th e variety o f com bina-
- :d e ls Two m odels try to show th e shape and form of
tio n s o f processes actin g up on slopes in various
a typical slope. T h e first, Figure 2 .2 3 a , is m ore
parts o f th e world. Slope d ev elopm en t in dif­
w idely used th a n th e second (Figure 2 .2 3 b )
feren t en v iron m en ts has led to th ree divergent
- althou g h, in th is a u th o r’s view, th e first is less
theories b ein g proposed: slope d eclin e, slope
easily seen in th e British landscape. Regardless
re p la c e m e n t and p arallel re tre at. Figure 2 .2 4 is a
o f w h ich m od el is used, co n fu sio n u n fo rtu n ately
sum m ary o f these theories.
arises because o f th e v ariation in n o m en clatu re
N one o f th e theories o f slope d ev elop m en t
used to describe th e differen t facets o f th e slope.
can be un iversally accepted, alth o u g h each m ay
In reality, few slopes are likely to m a tch up
have local relevan ce in th e c o n te x t o f th e clim ate
p erfectly w ith eith er m odel, and each individual
and geology (structure) o f a specific area. At the
slope is likely to show m ore elem en ts th a n th o se
sam e tim e, tw o d ifferen t clim ates or processes
in Figure 2 .2 3 .
m ay produce th e sam e type o f slope, e.g. cliff
retreat due to sea a ctio n in a hu m id clim ate or to
gu re 2 . 2 4
S lo p e d e v e lo p m e n t th ro u g h tim e
w eathering in a sem i-arid clim ate.
How slopes have developed over tim e is one o f
■development
th e m ore controversial topics in geom orphology.

Slope decline Slope replacement Parallel retreat

(W.M. Davis, 1899) (W.Penck,1924) (L.C.King, 1948,1957)
=egionofstudy Theory based on slopes in w hat was to Davis a Conclusions drawn from evidence of slopes in Based on slopes in South Africa.
normal climate, north-west Europe and the Alps and Andes.
north-eastUSA.

Cimate Humid climates. Tectonic areas. Semi-arid landscapes. Sea cliffs with wave-cut
platforms,

Description of slope Steepest slopes at beginning of process with The maximum angle decreases as the gentler The maximum angle remains constant as do all
a progressively decreasing angle in time to give a lower slopes erode back to replace the steeper slope facets apart from the lower one which
convex upper slope and a concave lower slope. ones giving a concave central portion to the slope. increases in concavity.

slope decline slope rep lace m e n t slope re tre a t

stage 3 stage 2 / stage 1 stage 3 stage 2 stage 1
' 1 — -______ , concave stage 2
sta9e 1 convex

watershed
worn down
convex curve peneplain

By stage 4 land has been worn down talus-scree slope B will replace slope A; concave debris slope pediment
into a convex-concave slope slope C will eventually replace slope B (can be removed by flash floods)

Changes over time Assumed a rapid uplift of land with an immediate
onset of denudation. The uplifted land would
undergo a cycle of erosion where slopes were
initially made steeper by vertical erosion by rivers
but later became less steep (slope decline) until
the land was almost flat (peneplain).
Assumed landscape started with a straight rock
slope with equal weathering overall. As scree
(talus) collected at the foot of the cliff it gave a
gentler slope which, as the scree grew, replaced
the original one.
Assumed that slopes had tw o facets - a gently
concave lower slope or pediment and a steeper
upper slope (scarp). Weathering caused the
parallel retreat of the scarp slope allowing the
pediment to extendinsize.

Weathering and slopes 51

 Slope failure and mass movement

Mexico

A N a tu ra l causes Guatemala
’ - f- Belize Honduras Caribbean Sea
AII slopes are affected by gravity and, con- Panabaj
sequently, by one or more of the several Mt Atitlan A* BGuatemata
mass m ovem ent processes by which 3537 m g îy
Nicaragua
weathered material is transported downhill Lake
Atitlan El
(pages 46-48). W here slopes are gentle Salvador Panama Venezuela
(about 5°), the movement of material is Panama Rio Magdalena
slc^v and has relatively little effect on Qty
property, life or human activity. As slope Costa Rica Armero
Nevado del A* _ .
angles increase, however, so too do the rate
Ruiz 5400 m ■ B° g0ta
and frequency of slope m ovem ent and the
risk of sudden slope failure. Slope failure, Colombia
occurring in the form of either mudflows
or landslides, is a natural event. W hen this
failure occurs in densely populated areas, it
■ Quito
becomes a potentiaIly dangerous natura Ecuador
Amazon Brazii
hazard (Framework 2, page 31).Three
Pacific Basin
examples of how slope failure caused by Ocean
natural events can cause serious loss of
T,
property and life (Figure 2.25) are: ^ Peru
(i) earthquakes
^ Yungay
(ii) volcanic activity
^ Huascaran
(iii) excessive rainfall. 6768 m
Figure 2.25

(i) E arthqu akes - avalanches Sites of some recent hazardous ■ Lima

events in South and Central
a n d rockfalls (Peru 79 70) America
In 1970 an offshore earthquake measuring
7.7 on the Richter scale shook parts of Peru to
the north of its capital, Lima.The shock waves
loosened a mass of unstable ice and snow
near the summit of Huascaran,thecoun-
try's highest peak (6768 m).Thefalling ice
and snow formed a hugeavalanche which
rushed downhill, falling 3000 m into the Rio
Santo Valley, collecting rocks and boulders en
route. In its path stood the town ofYungay
with a population of 20 000.
Estimates suggest that the avalanche
was travelling at a speed of 480 km/hr
when it hitthe settlement Ittook rescue
workers three days to reach the town. Once
there, they found very few survivors and
only the tops of several 30 m palm trees,
which marked the location of the former
town square (Figures 2.25 and 2.26).

Figure 2.26

The site of Vungay after

the avalanche

52 Weathering and slopes

 Slope failure and m ass m ovem ent

-~e Colombian volcano of Nevado del

H<J/z had not erupted since 1595 until, in
k yember 1985, it showed signs of activity
■ emitting gas and steam. As an increasing
=mount of magma welled upwards to-
rd s the crater, the whole peak must have
;com e warmer, as was made evident by the
_reased melting of ice and snow around its
,mmit. A mudflow, 20 m in height, which
■'3/elled 27 km down the Lagunillas Valley,
pH*/ed an advance warning that went
needed. Ice and snow continued to melt
11 cil on 13 November, there was a major
^ption. Although this eruption was small
' comparison with other eruptions such as
: unt St Helens, the lava, ash and hot rocks
so many deaths, but rather the effects of the all that was left of the town were the tops
ected were sufficientto melt the remain-
torrential rainfall. ofthetallertrees.The handful oflucky sur­
*rc ice and snow, releasing a tremendous
The rainwater collected soil and other vivors described how they were awoken
. jm eo f meltwater.This meltwater, swelled
material as it rushed down the mountain by rumblings from the mountainsides, and
torrential rain (often associated with vol-
slopes creating a mudflow 15 m deep that managed to escape because they were
: eruptions), raced down the Lagunillas
engulfed the town of Panabaj (Figures 2.25 nearer to th e edges of the mudflow.
; ey collecting with it large amounts of
and 2.28).The devastation was so complete Raging rivers destroyed bridgesand made
Jeposited from previous eruptions.The
that the authorities and relief workers soon roads impassable, so the hard-pressed authori­
itant mud tidal wave (a lahar), estimated
abandoned efforts to retrieve survivors, or ties had to struggle to airlift in food, drinking
: ~ave been 30 m in height, travelled down
even bodies, and declared the area a mass water and emergency supplies.
. yalley at over 80 km/hr.
grave. In all, 1400 people disappeared and
îlf t ie 50 km from the crater, the mudflow
~~erged onto more open ground on which
;s situated the town of Armero. The time
-s 2300 hours when the mudflow struck,
- ■j m o s t o f th e 22 000 in h a b ita n ts had
. eady g o n e to b e d .T h e fe w s u rv iv o rs
: 3'm ed th a t th e first o nrush o fm u d d y
:-:er was ice-cold, b u t becam e increas-
■ . warmer. By morning a layer of mud, up
: m deep, covered Armero and the sur-
..nding area (Figures 2.25 and 2.27).The
th toii was put at 21 000, making this the
: .'st single natural disaster ever to have
:ted people in the western hemisphere.

H e a v y ra in fa ll - H urrican e
iii)
Stan (G u a te m a la 2 0 0 5 )
."icane Stan swept across Central America
Lltfng September 2005. Although by hur-
: ne standards it was not the strongest, it
» w e d particularly lethal because it struck
'egion where most people lived in flimsy Figure 2.28
■inty dwellings constructed around, or The view across Lake Atitlan in Guatemala to the
-1_ne foot of, steep mountainsides. As is volcanic peaks on the far shore. Beside the lake,
Ci"en the case with hurricanes, it was not which is a caldera (page 25), are several long-
strength of the winds that was to cause established Mayan settlements and a few modern
tourist resorts. One Mayan town was Panabaj

Weathering and slopes 53

O Slope failure and mass movement

Mount Toc A
^ L A. M
B H um an
heavy rain-saturaied
m is m a n a g e m e n t clav wbich'slippcd' .
% steep vajley sides fofraed .over the limestone / j r

m
The probability of slope failure in populated
by ste§ply:aipping , " / cW
areas is often increased by thoughtless sedimentary focks
planning, or a total lack of it, or where
human activity exerts too much pressure
upon the land available.Three examples of dam lip V
%
how slope instability and the risk of slope 'J T .i
failure may be increased by human activity
are when land is used for:
(i) building dams to create reservoirs
(ii) the extraction ofa natural resource or
the dumping of waste material
(iii) rapid urbanisation.

(i) B uilding dam s to create

reservoirs (Ita ly 1963)
The Vaiont Dam, builţTfl the Italian Alps,
wascom pleted in 1960.The dam, the third
highest in the world at that time, was built in
a narrow valley with steep sides consisting
of alternate layers of clays and limestone
(Figure 2.29), and where landslides were not
uncommon. Down the valley were several
hamlets and the small town of Longarone.
Heavy rain in October 1963 saturated the
clay. Just before midnight on 9 October, a
Vaiont River - to Piavp Valley
and village of Longarone
landslide of rocks, clay, mud and vegetation
slid over the harder beds of limestone and
into the reservoir.The dam itself stood, but
a wave of water spilled over the lip creating
a towering wall of water which swept
down the valley. Longarone was virtually
destroyed.The fina! death toii was put at
Figure 2.29
The Vaiont Dam
almost 1900, although several bodies were
never recovered. Debris from the landslide
filled in almost two-thirds of the lake. A
court of enquiry concluded that the site
was geologically unstable and that even
during construction many smaller land­
slides had occurred.The dam was closed.

Figure 2.30 Figure 2.31

Aberfan immediately after Alandscapedw astetip

the mudflow
original profile of spoil tip
steep-sided and devoid of
vegetation
new landscaped
spoil tip with material of original
gently sloping y spoil tip beneath
newtopsoil

54 Weathering and slopes

 Slope failure and m ass m ovem ent

(ii) D u m p in g w aste m a te ria l caused 8000 to be evacuated. In 1976, a landslips caused the death of one person,

(A berfan 1966) major landslide led to 22 deaths.The conse- injuriestoeight people, the disruption of the
quence of this was the setting up, in 1977, Kowloon-Guangzhou railway (Places 106,
-.berfan, like many other settlements in the
of the Geotechnical Engineering Office page 640) and the closure ofa six-lane
ic uth Wales valleys, grew up around its col-
(GEO). GEO's main functions were: highway for several hours.These losses and
ery. However, the valley floors were rarely
• to investigate slopes for potential risk disruptions were, however, relatively minor,
de enough to store the coal waste and so
and to take preventive measures because the community had learned to
■became common practice to tip it high
• to control geotechnic aspects of new cope better with the landslip hazard. Indeed
=oove the towns on the steep valley sides. At
buildings and roads the Hong Kong authorities now collaborate
Aberfan, the spoil tips were on slopes of 25°,
• to promote slope maintenance with their counterparts in other cities in Asia
er200 m above the town and, unknow-
by owners and South America with simiiar climatic and
"ţly, on a line of springs. Waterfrom these
• to undertake landslide warning and topographic characteristics, and where eco­
:: ngs added weight to the waste heaps,
emergency services nomic and social development is creating an
eh reduced their internai cohesion.
• to advise on land-use plâns to minimise unacceptable level of landslip risk.
owing a wet October in 1966 and a night
public risk. The success of GEO can be seen by
« heavy rain, slope failure resulted in the
In 1997, most of Hong Kong experienced the decrease In the number of deaths
te material suddenly and rapidiy moving
over 300 mm of rain in 24 hours. At the (Figure 2.32).
. /nhill.The resultant mudflow, estimated
centre of the storm, 110 mm fell in one
contain over 100 000 m3 of material, Figure 2.32
hour and 800 mm in the day. Resultant
•ngulfed part of the town which included Number of landslip fatalities in Hong Kong, 1957-2007
e local junior school (Figure 2.30).The time
80-
iust after 0900 hours on 21 October,
"i after lessons in the school had begun.
O) 60
" h e 147 deaths in Aberfan that morning,
75
. /i/ere children and five theirteachers. ru
;'nce then, the colliery has closed and, O 40 GEO
ai set up
ewhere in the former coal-mining -O

eys, the potentially dangerous waste

E
3 20
■»I
C
have been lowered, regraded and land-
;: ; ced to try to prevent any occurrence of 0 1° ..
oo o rsi vf vo oo O f N ’<J - ' £ i COOf N' !t vO O O O f M^ O O O O r M' ^ - ^ O
-Iar event (Figure 2.31). LD KQ VO VO \D r ^. r ^ . r ^r ^ r ^o o o o o o c o o o o > o i a N a > a ' t o o o o
O <7i O On 0*1 O' »O0' i ^O>CT\OOOO
«— •— «■— rS(Nrs|(N
year
U rb a n is a tio n (H ong Kong
ii)
■957 to 2 0 0 7 )
Figure 2.33
-. parts of the world, especially in
Consequences ofa landslip
jmomically less developed countries, in Hong Kong
: — periencing rapid urbanisation (page
■ ^.s most of the best sites for residential
•tepment have long since been used, it
! ■s that newcomers to a city are forced
e on land previously considered unus-
• e.g. flood-prone valleys in Nairobi
. :es 58, page 444), or unsafe (e.g. steep
es in Caracas 1999, and Rio de Janeiro
.-:es 57, page 443).
-ong Kong, landslips have been
: -sible for430 deaths since 1957
pfee 2.32). Most landslips during this
t 'ave been attributed to tw o factors:
- adequacies of hillside construction
: ■; t the last 50 years, and deficiencies
' "taining slopes once they are utilised
= 2.33). In 1966, torrential rainstorms
■ -'ed massive landslides which killed
ţpm ple, made 2500 homeless and

Weathering and slopes 55

F u rth e r re fe re n c e
Carson, M.A. and Kirby, N.J. (1972)
H illslope Form and Process, Cambridge
University Press.
Goudie, A.S. (2001) The Nature o f the
Environment, WileyBlackwell.
Guerra, T. e t a l (2007) 'Mass m ovem ent in
Petropolis, Brazii' in Geography Review
Voi 20 No 4 (March).
Trudgill, S.T. (1986) W eathering an d Erosion,
Heinem ann.
Geoweb, landslides:
www.georesources.co.uk/edexunit6.htm
Glossary of related term inology:
www. scottishgeology. com /glossary/
glossary.html
Slope w eathering:
www.bgrg.org - search for 'slope weathering'
http://earthsci.org/Flooding/unit3/
u 3-02-03.htm l
www.georesources.co.uk/edexunit6.htm

Questions & Activities

A c tiv itie s

Figure 2.34

lOOOm Mass movements Figure 2.JS £

Holbeck Hali Hotel, £

100 m

a What is meant by the following terms?

slope element (1 mark)
i masswasting (2 marks)
ii scree (2 marks)
iv terracette (2 marks)
b Choose three of the features marked 1 to 5 on Figure
2.34. Describe the appearance of each of the features
you have chosen. (6 marks)
c For each of your chosen features, explain the role of
masswasting in its formation. (12 marks) 3 Use Case Study 2B (iii) on Hong Kong (page 55) to answer
the following questions.
2 Study Figure 2.35 and answerthe following questions.
a Describe the physical features of the hillside shown in
a i Explain the meaning of each of the following slope the photograph. (3 marks)
movement terms:
b Why have people settled on this hillside? (3 marks)
earth flow; mud flow; slide; rock fa11. (6 marks)
c Why is a hillside, such as the one in the photograph, in
ii Name tw o types of slope movement it is possible danger of rapid mass movement even without human
to see in the photograph. State where they can be activities? (7 marks)
found. (4 marks)
d Give tw o examples of human activities which increase
iii Identify tw o ways in which people have tried to the danger of rapid mass movement on such slopes.
protect slopes in this photograph. For each one Explain how they increase the danger. (6 marks)
suggest how it is intended to work. (6 marks)
e The heavy rainfall in 1997 was an extreme climatic event
b Had the slope movement finished when this photograph but it created relatively little damage. Explain one way
was taken? Suggest reasons for your answer. (4 marks) in which authorities such as those in Hong Kong are
c Should cliffs, such as the one in the photograph, be trying to manage the problems caused by the physical
protected? Give reasons for your answer. (5 marks) environment in which they operate. (6 marks)

56 Weathering and slopes

E xam p ra c tic e : b a s ic s tru c tu re d q u e s tio n s

4 a Define the term'weathering'. (2 marks) Choose any one climatic region and identify the type
b Choose one type of mechanical weathering. of chemical weathering that will dominate the area.

i Making use of diagrams, explain the processes Explain why this type of chemical weathering will be
involved in the type of weathering. (4marks) dominant. (8 marks)

ii Describe the landscape features which result from Human activity can influence the rate of weathering
the weathering type you have chosen. (4 marks) that occurs in an area. With the aid of specific examples,
explain how human activity influences the rate of
weathering. (7 marks)

E x a m p r a c tic e : s t r u c t u r e d q u e s tio n s

i Study Figure 2.36. Match each of the following types 6 a Study the photograph of Holbeck Hali Hotel (Figure 2.35).
of slope movement with one of the labels on the i Draw an annotated diagram or sketch map only
graph numbered 1 to 5: to illustrate the landscape features of the slopes.
earth/mudflow; solifluction; rockfall; slide; soil creep. (8 marks)
(5 marks)
ii Explain what has happened to these slopes and
ii For any two of the flow movements above, explain suggest why it has occurred. (8 marks)
how the process occurs and describe the landform
b Making good use of examples, explain how human
shape that results. (10 marks)
activities can increase the stability of some slopes and
Use examples of two types of rural land use you have studied destabilise other slopes. (9marks)
to explain how people in rural areas try to manage slopes to
reduce the downslope movement of soil. (lOmarks) 7 Choose a drainage basin that you have studied.
a Describe and suggest reasons for the
variation in slope types that exist within the
Very Very drainage basin. (lOmarks)
- "e m e ly s lo w Slow Moderate Rapid Extremely rapid
slow rapid
b For any one slope, identify and explain
changes that are likely to affect the slope in
cm/year 1 m/ 1 km/ 1 km/ 1 km/ 25 km/ 10 m/sec
year year month hour hour the future. (8 marks)
c Suggest how human activity can influence
© © the rate of change and shape of slopes.
(7 marks)
© © © Figure 2.36

Speed of movement of mass movements

'x a m p r a c tic e : e s s a y s

i A range of processes, which differ in contrasting environments, • the interaction of factors within environments to create
‘Tect slope shapes.'Discuss this statement with reference to slopes. (25 marks)
; opes you have studied. In your answer you should refer to:
9 With reference to case studies from a range of
•the variation of slope elements in different environments
environments, explain how an understanding of
•the variation in importance of types of weathering process in natural slope processes can be used in planning urban
different environments developments. (25 marks)

rm u lae fo r c h e m ic a l w e a th e rin g processes H y d ra tio n C a S 0 4 + 2H zO -> C a S 0 42H 20

(anh ydrite + w ater —» gypsum )
id a tio n 4 FeO + 0 2 —►2Fe20 3
C a rb o n a tio n This process is in tw o stages:
(ferrous oxid e + oxygen —> ferric oxide)
■d rolosis Form ula varies d ep end ing o n rock type
h2o + co 2 h 2co 3
(water + carbon dioxide -» carb onic acid)
involved. For th e hydrolosis o f feldspar/
C a C 0 3 + H2C 0 3 -> C a (H C 0 3)2
graniţe to kaolin , th is is a co m m o n
(calciu m carb on ate + carb o n ic
exam ple:
acid —> calciu m bicarb on ate)
K20 , A120 3, 6 S i 0 2 + H20 —>
A cid ra in 2S0 2 + Oz + 2H20 2H 2S 0 4
A120 3, 2 S iO z, 2H 20
(sulphur d ioxid e + oxygen + water
(feldspar + w ater -> kaolin)
weak sulphuric acid)

Weathering and slopes 57

 Drainage basins and rivers

'Ml the rivers ruti into the sea; yet the sea is not ful!; unto
the place from w heuce t iu - rivers com e, thither they return
a g a in .'
The Bible, Ecclesiastes 1:7
A d ra in a g e b asin is an area o f land drained by a
river and its tributaries. Its b ou nd ary is m arked
by a ridge o f h ig h land b ey on d w h ich any pre-
cip ita tio n will drain in to a d ja cen t basins. This
boun d ary is called a w atersh ed .
A drainage basin m ay be described as an op en
system and it form s part o f th e hyd rological or
water cycle. If a drainage b asin is viewed as a
system (Fram ew ork 3, page 45) th e n its
characteristics are:
■ in p u ts in th e form o f p recip ita tio n (rain
and snow)
■ o u tp u ts w here th e w ater is lost from th e
system eith er by th e river carrying it to th e
sea or th rou g h e v a p o tra n s p ira tio n (th e loss
of w ater directly from th e ground, water
surfaces and veg etation).
W ith in th is system , som e o f th e water:
■ is sto red in lakes and/or in th e soil, or
■ passes th rou g h a series o f tran sfers or flows,
e.g. in filtra tio n , p ercolation, throughflow .
E le m e n ts o f th e d r a in a g e b a s in s y stem
MQUff 3.1 Figure 3.1 shows th e drainage basin system as it
The drainage basin as is likely to operate in a tem p erate hu m id region
an open system such as th e B ritish Isles.
Precipitation
This forms the m ajor input into the system, though
am ounts vary over tim e and space. As a rule, the
greater the intensity of a storm, the shorter its dura-
tion. Convectional thunderstorm s are short, heavy
and m ay be confined to small areas, whereas the
passing of a warm front of a depression (page 231)
will give a longer period of more steady rainfall
extending over the entire basin.
Evapotranspiration
T he tw o co m p o n e n ts o f evapotranspiration
are outputs from th e system . E v a p o ra tio n is
th e physical process by w h ich m oistu re is lost
directly in to th e atm osphere from water sur­
faces, in clu d in g veg etation and th e soil, due
to th e effects o f air m o v em en t and th e sun's
heat. T ra n sp ira tio n is a biolog ical process by
w h ich w ater is lost from a p lan t through the
m in u te pores (stom ata) in its leaves. Evaporation
rates are affected by tem perature, w ind speed,
hum idity, hours o f sunsh in e and oth er clim atic
factors. T ranspiration rates depend on th e tim e
of year, th e type and a m o u n t o f veg etation, the
availability o f m oistu re and th e len g th o f th e
grow ing season. It is also possible to distinguish
b etw een th e p o ten tia l and th e actu al evap otran­
spiration o f an area. For exam p le, in deserts there
is a h ig h p o te n tia l e v a p o tra n s p ira tio n because
th e a m o u n t o f m oistu re th a t could be lost is
greater th a n th e a m o u n t o f w ater actu ally avail­
able. O n th e oth er hand , in B ritain th e am o u n t
o f water available for ev ap otran sp iration nearly
always exceeds th e a m o u n t w h ich actu ally takes
place, h e n ce th e term a c tu a l e v a p o tra n s p ira ­
tio n . In o th er words, tran sp iration is lim ited by
th e availability o f w ater in th e soil.
In te rc e p tio n
The first raindrops o f a rain fall event will fall
on v eg etation w h ich shelters th e un derlying
ground. This is called in te rc e p tio n sto rag e. It is
greater in a w ood lan d area or w here tree crops
are grown th a n o n grass or arable land. If th e pre­
cip ita tio n is lig h t and of short d uration, m u ch of
th e water m ay never reach th e ground and it m ay
be q u ickly lost from th e system th rou g h evapora­
tio n . Estim ates suggest th a t in a w ood land area
up to 3 0 per ce n t o f th e p recip ita tio n m ay be lost
th rou g h in tercep tio n , w h ich help s to exp lain
w hy soil erosion is lim ited in forests. A ccording
to N ew son (1 9 7 5 ), 'In terce p tio n is a dynam ic
process o f fillin g and em p ty in g a shallow store
(abou t 2 m m in m o st UK trees). T h e em p tying
occurs because evaporation is very e fficien t for
sm all raindrops h eld on tree surfaces.' In an area
o f deciduous trees, b o th in te rcep tio n and eva­
p otran sp iration rates will be h ig her in sum m er,
alth ou g h th e tw o processes do n o t occu r sim ul-
taneously.
If a rainfall ev en t persists, th e n w ater begins
to reach th e ground by three possible routes:
dropping o ff th e leaves, or th ro u g h fa ll; flow ing
dow n th e trunk, or stem flo w ; and by under-
going se co n d a ry in te rc e p tio n by undergrow th.
Follow ing a warm , dry speli in sum m er, the
ground m ay be hard; at th e start o f a rainfall
event w ater will th e n lie on th e surface (su rface
sto rag e) u n til th e upper layers b eco m e suf-
ficie n tly m oistened to allow it to soak slowly
dow nwards. If p recip ita tio n is very heavy in i-
tially, or if th e soil b ecom es saturated, th e n
excess water will flow over th e surface, a transfer
know n as su rface r u n o ff (or, in H orton's term ,
o v e rla n d flow ) (Figure 3 .2 ).
In filtra tio n
In m o st en v iron m en ts, overland flow is rela-
tively rare excep t in urban areas - w h ich have
im perm eable coverings of tarm ac and con crete
- or during e x cep tio n a lly heavy storm s. Soil
will gradually ad m it water from th e surface, if
th e supply rate is m oderate, allow ing it slowly
to in filtra te vertically th rou g h th e pores in th e
soil. The m axim u m rate at w h ich w ater can
pass th rou g h th e soil is called its in filtra tio n
c a p a c ity and is expressed in mm/hr. The rate of
in filtra tio n depends up on th e a m o u n t o f water
already in th e soil (a n te c e d e n t p re cip ita tio n ),
th e p o ro sity (Figure 8 .2 ) and structure o f the
soil, th e natu re o f th e soil surface (e.g. crusted,
cracked, ploughed), and th e type, a m o u n t and
seasonal chan g es in v eg etation cover. Som e o f
the water will flow laterally as th ro u g h flo w .
D uring drier periods, som e w ater m ay be drawn
up towards th e surface by ca p illa ry a ctio n .
P e rc o la tio n
As water reaches th e underlying soil or rock
layers, w h ich tend to be m ore com p act, its
progress is slowed. This co n sta n t m o vem en t,
called p ercolation , creates g ro u n d w a te r storage.
W ater eventu ally collects above an im perm eable
rock layer, or it m ay fiii all pore spaces, creating
a zo n e o f s a tu ra tio n . T h e upper b ou nd ary o f th e
saturated m aterial, i.e. th e upper surface o f th e
groundw ater layer, is know n as th e w a te r tab le.
W ater m ay th e n be slowly transferred laterally as
g ro u n d w a te r flow or b aseflow . E xcept in areas
o f C arboniferous lim eston e, groundw ater levels
usually respond slow ly to surface storm s or short
periods o f d rou ght (Figure 3 .5 ). D uring a lengthy
dry period, som e o f th e groundw ater store will be
utilised as river levels fall. In a su b seq u ent w etter
period, groundw ater m ust be replaced before the
level of th e river can rise appreciably (Figure 3.3).
If th e w ater tab le reaches th e surface, it m eans
th a t th e ground is saturated; excess w ater will
th e n form a m arsh w here th e land is flat, or will
beco m e surface ru n o ff if th e ground is sloping.
C h a n n e l flo w
Although som e rain does fall directly in to the
ch an n el o f a river (ch an n el p recip itatio n ), m ost
water reaches it by a com bin ation o f three transfer
processes: surface ru noff (overland flow), through­
flow, or groundwater flow (baseflow). O nce in the
river, as c h a n n e l storage, water flows towards the
sea and is lost from the drainage basin system.
Drainage basins and rivers 59
 T h e w a te r b a la n c e In Britain, th e annual precipitation nearly
always, in m ost years and in m ost places, exceeds
This show s th e state o f equ ilibrium in th e
evapotranspiration. As, therefore, precipitation
drainage basin b etw een th e inputs and outputs.
input exceeds evapotranspiration loss, th e n there
It can be expressed as:
is p ositive w a te r b a la n ce (or water budget).
P = Q + E ± chan ge in storage
However in som e years, e.g 1 9 7 4 and 1975, and
w here:
1995 and 1 9 9 6 , th e long, dry sum m ers, especially
P = precipitation (measured using rain gauges)
in th e south and east of th e country, resulted
Q = ru n o ff (m easured by discharge flum es in
in evapotranspiration exceeding precipitation
th e river ch a n n e l), and
to give a tem porary n eg ativ e w a te r b alan ce.
Figure 3,3 E = evap otransp iration. (This is far m ore dif-
C hanges in storage in th e water balance reflect
A model lllustrating ficu lt to m easure - how can you m easure
the am o u n t o f m oisture in the soil. The soil
soil moisture budget accu rately tran sp iration from a forest?)
m o istu re b u d g et is, according to Newson, a sub-

150 - 150
system o f th e ca tch m en t water balance.
evapotranspiration Figure 3.3 is a graph show ing th e soil m oisture
80 mm in excess of
balance for an area in south-east England. During

X
precipitation
125 125 winter, precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration
E
E creating a soil m oistu re surplus w hich results
/
S ioo - / 100 ă in considerable surface ru noff and a rise in river
levels. In summer, evapotranspiration exceeds
precipitation and so plants and hum ans have to
75
precipitation in excess utilise water from th e soil store leaving it depleted
of evapotranspiration,
3/l
< and causing river levels to fall. By autum n, w hen
but 80 mm needed ■O
50 for recharging soil 50 precipitation again exceeds evapotranspiration,
th e first o f the surplus water has to be used to

25
F\ 25 S
rech arg e th e soil until it reaches its field cap acity
rainfall 625 mm in excess of (page 26 7 ). At n o tim e in Figure 3.3 was the utilisa­
evapotranspiration tion of water sufficient to create a soil m oistu re
I I I i ! i i d eficit (as in Figure 3.4b).
M A M J J A O N D
months
Figure 3.4
soil moisture _ potential
water surplus
recharge evapotranspiration Soil moisture budget for
two towns in the USA
□ soil moisture precipitation ^ ____ L field capacity
utilisation attained

moisture totals in
water deficit 665 mm
millimetres

E 150 a Salisbury (New York state) 150 150

E n> J.150 b Dalhart (state of Texas)
n>
c 125­ 125 2 125 <
o .1 125
T3
100­ 100 Sr 3r a 100 100*
0
5. U 01
y 6 u
a; 75' 75 '2 .3 'n
a 75 75 -o
■2 3
Q.
QJ
_>. 665 mm
o 3 58
X 50 50
c
c
II
E 25 25 3
c 3
IV
fi 0
E

As precipitation is above potential evapotranspiration throughout
the year then there is, in an average year, neither a water shortage
nor a need to utilise moisture from the soil.
By spring, potential evapotranspiration is greater than precipitation. As
there is no water surplus, then plants have to utilise moisture from the
soil. By midsummer, water in the soil has been used up and there is a
water deficit - meaning that plants can only survive if they are either
drought-resistant or if they can obtain water through irrigation. When
precipitation does exceed potential evapotranspiration, in winter, the
rain is needed to replace (recharge) that taken from the soil earlier in
the year, and amounts are insufficient to give a water surplus.

60 Drainage basins and rivers

 runoff:

j u r e 3 .5

storm hydrograph

time (hours)

T h e s to rm h y d ro g ra p h m ost falls elsewhere in the basin and takes tim e

to reach th e ch an n el. However, w hen th e iniţial
An im portant aspect of hydrology (the study
surface ru noff and, later, the throughflow even-
o f water, p recip itation , ru n o ff and evapora-
tually reach the river there is a rapid increase in
tio n /tra n sp ira tio n processes) is how a drainage
discharge as indicated by th e rising lim b. The
basin reacts to a period of rain. This is im portant
steeper th e rising lim b, the faster th e response
because it can be used in predicting the flood risk
to rainfall - i.e. water reaches the ch an n el m ore
and in m aking the necessary precautions to avoid
quickly. The peak disch arge (peak flow) occurs
damage to property and loss o f life. The response
w hen the river reaches its highest level. The period
o f a river can be studied by using the sto rm or
betw een m axim um precipitation and peak dis­
flood h yd rograp h . The hydrograph is a m eans
charge is referred to as the lag tim e. The lag tim e
of show ing the discharge o f a river at a given
varies according to con d ition s w ithin the drainage
point over a short period of tim e. D ischarge is the
basin, e.g. soil and rock type, slope and size of
am ount o f water originating as precipitation w hich
th e basin, drainage density, type and am ount of
reaches the ch an n el by surface runoff, throughflow
vegetation and water already in storage. Rivers
and baseflow. Discharge is therefore the water not
w ith a short lag tim e tend to experience a higher
stored in the drainage basin by interception, as
peak discharge and are m ore p rone to flood ing
surface storage, soil m oisture storage or ground­
th a n rivers w ith a lon g lag tim e. T he fallin g
water storage or lost through evapotranspiration
or recessio n lim b is the segm ent o f the graph
(Figure 3.1). The model o f a storm hydrograph,
w here discharge is decreasing and river levels are
Figure 3.5, shows how the discharge of a river
falling. This segm ent is usually less steep than the
responds to an individual rainfall event.
rising lim b because throughflow is being released
relatively slowly in to the ch ann el. By th e tim e all
M e a s u rin g d is c h a rg e
the water from the storm has passed through the
D ischarge is th e velocity (speed) o f th e river,
ch an n el at a given location, th e river will have
m easured in m etres (m) per second , m ultiplied
returned to its baseflow level - unless there has
by th e cro ss-sectional area o f th e river, m eas­
b een another storm w ithin th e basin. Storm flow
ured in m 2. This gives th e volu m e in m 3/sec or
is th e discharge, b o th surface and subsurface flow,
cu m e cs. It ca n be expressed as:
attributed to a single storm . B aseflow is very
Q = A x V
slow to respond to a storm , but by continu ally
w here:
releasing groundw ater it m aintains th e river's
Q = discharge
flow during periods of low precipitation. Indeed,
A = cro ss-sectional area
baseflow is m ore significan t over a longer period
V = velocity.
of tim e th a n an individual storm and reflects
In te rp re tin g th e h y d ro g ra p h seasonal changes in precipitation, snow m elt,
Refer to th e hydrograph in Figure 3.5. T he graph v egetation and evapotranspiration. Finally, on
includes th e a p p ro a ch seg m en t w h ich shows the graph, bank fu ll d isch arge occurs w hen a
the discharge of th e river before the storm (the river's water level reaches th e top o f its ch an n el;
antecedent flow rate). W h en th e storm begins, the an y further increase in discharge will result in
river's response is negligible for althou gh some flooding o f th e surrounding land. This happens,
o f the rain does fall directly in to the channel, on average, on ce every year or two.

Drainage basins and rivers 61

 C o n tro ls in th e d ra in a g e b a s in a n d o n
th e s to rm h y d ro g ra p h
In some drainage basins, river discharge increases
very quickly after a storm and m ay give rise to
frequent, and occasionally catastrophic, flooding.
Following a storm, the levels of such rivers fall
alm ost as rapidly and, after dry spells, can becom e
very low. Rivers in other basins seem neither to
flood nor to fall to very low levels. There are several
factors w hich contribute to regulating the ways in
w hich a river responds to precipitation.
1 B asin size, s h a p e a n d r e lie f
Size If a basin is sm all it is likely th a t rainfall will
reach th e m ain ch a n n e l m ore rapidly th a n in a
larger basin w here th e water has m u ch further to
travel. Lag tim e will th erefore be shorter in th e
sm aller basin.
Shape It has long been accepted th at a cir­
cular b asin is m ore likely to have a shorter lag
tim e and a h ig h er peak flow th a n an elongated
basin (Figure 3 .6 a and b). All th e points on the
w atershed o f th e form er are ap p roxim ately equi-
distant from th e gauging station , w hereas in the
latter it takes longer for w ater from th e extrem i-
ties o f th e b asin to reach th e gauging station.
However, N ew son (1 9 9 4 ) has p o in ted out th a t
studies m ade in m any regions o f th e world have
show n th a t basin shape is less reliable as a flood
in d icato r th a n basin size and slope.
R elief T h e slope o f th e basin and its valley
sides also affect th e hydrograph. In steep-sided
up land valleys, w ater is likely to reach th e river
m ore quickly th an in g en tly sloping low land
areas (Figure 3 .6 c).

a tw o ba s in s , b s to rm h y d ro g r a p h s fo r
A a n d B, gauging stations t h r e e d ra in a g e ba s in s o f
w ith w id e ly d iffe r in g s h a p es
d iffe r in g B asin X B asin Y B asin 2
shapes 1 hour time for discharge to
reach gauging station

B asin A
Basin B
y \
watershed p
c b a s in r e lie f a n d
a s s o c ia te d s to rm
2 hours hydrograph long profile hydrograph
h y d ro g r a p h s s h o w in g l ° n9 profile
t h e r e la tio n s h ip
} hour \ 2 hours b e tw e e n t h e lo n g
1 hour p ro file a n d th e s to rm
h y d ro g r a p h

Figure3.6 2 Types of precipitation 3 T e m p e ra tu re

Drainage basin shape
P ro lo n g e d ra in fa ll Flood ing m o st freq u en tly Extrem es o f tem perature can restrict in filtra­
occurs follow in g a lon g period o f heavy rainfall tio n (very cold in w inter, very h o t and dry in
w h en th e ground has b eco m e saturated and sum m er) and so increase surface runoff. If evapo­
in filtra tio n has b een replaced by surface ru n off tran sp iration rates are high, th e n there w ill be
(overland flow). less water available to flow in to th e m ain river.
In ten se sto rm s (e.g. co n v ectio n a l thu nd er-
storm s) W h e n heavy rain occurs, th e rainfall
4 Land use
V egetation V egetation m ay help to prevent
in te n sity m ay be greater th a n th e in filtra tio n
flooding by in tercep tin g rainfall (storing m ois­
cap acity o f th e soil (e.g. in sum m er in B ritain,
ture on its leaves before it evaporates back in to
w h en th e ground m ay be harder). T he resulting
the atm osphere - page 59). Estim ates suggest th at
surface ru n o ff is likely to produce a rapid rise in
tropical rainforests intercep t up to 80 per ce n t of
river levels (flash floods) - B oscastle, Cornw all,
rainfall (30 per cen t of w hich m ay later evapo­
Places 12, page 80.
rate) w hereas arable land may intercep t only
S now fall Heavy snow fall m eans th a t water
10 per cent. In tercep tion is less during th e w inter
is held in surface storage and river levels drop.
in B ritain w hen deciduous trees have shed their
W h e n tem peratures rise rapidly (in B ritain, this
leaves and crops have b een harvested to expose
m ay be w ith th e passage o f a w arm fro n t and its
bare earth. Plant roots, especiallv those of trees,
associated rainfall, page 2 3 1 ), m eltw ater soon
reduce through flow by taking up water from
reaches th e m ain river. It is possible th a t the
th e soil.
ground will rem ain frozen for som e tim e, in
w h ich case in filtra tio n will be im peded.

62 Drainage basins and rivers


''th e
graphs
W yeand
ogyand
hours from beginning of storm
■arethe
• basins)
Flood ing is m ore likely to occur in deforested
areas, e.g. th e in creasin g ly freq u en t and serious
floo d in g in B angladesh is attrib u ted to the
rem oval of trees in Nepal and oth er H im alayan
areas. In areas of afforestation , flo o d in g m ay
in itia lly increase as th e land is cleared o f old
v eg etation and drained, b u t later decrease as
th e plan ted trees m ature. N ew son (1 9 9 4 ) p o in ts
ou t th at, after 2 0 years o f data co llectin g , th e evi­
dence suggests th a t th e can op y has m ore effect
o n m ed iu m flow s th a n o n h ig h flows,
as th e m ain d itches rem ain active.
Figure 3 .7 con trasts th e storm hydrographs
of tw o rivers. A lthough th e y rise very close
together, th e River W ye flow s over m oors and
grassland, w hereas th e River Severn flows
th rou g h an area o f con iferou s forest.
U rb a n isa tio n U rban isatio n has increased
flood risk. W ater c a n n o t in filtrate th rou g h
tarm ac and co n crete, and gutters and drains
carry w ater m ore quickly to th e nearest river.
Sm all stream s m ay be eith er canalised so th a t
(w ith frictio n reduced) the water flow s away
m ore quickly, or culverted, w h ich allow s o n ly a
lim ited a m o u n t of water to pass th rou g h at one
tim e (Figure 3 .8 ).
5 R ock ty p e (g e o lo g y )
Rocks th a t allow w ater to pass th rou g h th e m are
said to be p erm eab le. There are tw o types o f per-
m eable rock:
■ P orou s, e.g. san d stone and chalk, w h ich
co n ta in nu m erou s pores able to fiii w ith and
store w ater (Figure 8.2).
■ P ervious, e.g. Carboniferous lim estone, w hich
allow water to flow along bedding planes and
dow n jo in ts w ithin th e rock, althou gh the
rock itself is im pervious (Figure 8.1).
As b o th types p erm it rapid in filtra tio n , there is
little surface ru n o ff and o n ly a lim ited nu m ber
o f surface stream s. In con trast im p e rm eab le
rock s, such as graniţe, do n o t allow water to
pass th rou g h th e m and so th e y are characterised
by m ore surface ru n o ff and a greater nu m ber of
stream s.
6 S o il ty p e
This Controls th e rate and volum e o f infiltration,
th e am ount o f soil m oisture storage and the rate
of throughflow (page 26 5 ). Sandy soils, w ith large
pore spaces, allow rapid in filtratio n and do n o t
encourage flooding. Clays have m u ch smaller
pore spaces and th ey are less well conn ected ;
this reduces infiltratio n and throughflow , but
encourages surface ru noff and increases th e risk of
flooding.
7 D ra in a g e d e n s ity
T his refers to th e nu m ber o f surface stream s in
a given area (page 6 7). T he d ensity is h ig her on
im perm eable rocks and clays, and lower on per­
m eable rocks and sands. T h e h ig h er th e density,
th e greater is th e p ro bab ility o f flash floods. A
flash flo o d is a sudden rise o f w ater in a river,
show n o n th e hydrograph as a shorter lag tim e
and a h ig her peak flow in relatio n to norm al dis­
charge.
8 Tides a n d s to rm surges
High spring tides tend to prevent river floodw ater
from escaping in to the sea. Floodwater therefore
builds up in th e lower part o f the valley. If high
tides coincide w ith gale-force winds blow ing
onshore and a narrow ing estuary, th e result m ay
be a sto rm surge (Places 19, page 148). This hap-
pened in south-east England and in the Nether-
lands in 1953 and prom pted th e construction of
the Tham es Barrier and th e im p lem entation o f the
D utch Delta Plan.
Drainage basins and rivers 63
 R iv e r re g im e s are few rivers flow ing today under w holly natural
cond itions, especially in Britain. M ost
The regim e of a river is th e term used to describe
are m anaged, regulated system s w hich result
the annu al variation in discharge. The average
from h u m an activity, e.g. reservoirs and flood pro-
regim e, w h ich can be show n by either th e m ean
tectio n schem es.
daily or th e m ean m o n th ly figures, is determ ined
Regim es o f rivers, w h ich are used to d em o n ­
prim arily by th e clim ate o f th e area, e.g. the
strate seasonal variations, m ay be eith er sim ple,
am o u n t and distribution of rainfall, together
w ith o n e peak period o f flow, or com p lex w ith
w ith th e rates o f evapotranspiration and snow-
several peaks (Places 9).
m elt. Local geology m ay also be significant. There

River Don, Yorkshire and River Torridge, Devon:

P laces 9
river discharge
Figure 3.9 shows the rainfall and runoff figures the source of the river is in an upland area liable to
for the River Don (South Yorkshire) for one year. heavy winter snowfalls - in this case, the Pennines.
Discharge is usually at its highest in winter when It is possiblefor runoff to exceed precipitation, e.g.
Figure 3.9
Britain receives most of its depressions and when when heavy snowfall at theend of a month melts
Rainfall and runoff evapotranspiration is limited due to the low during a milder, drier period at the beginning of the
for the River Don,
temperatures. Early spring may also show a peak if next month. In contrast, river levels are lowest in
Yorkshire
summer when most of Britain receives less rainfall
200 and when evapotranspiration rates are at their
u total rainfall (P) = 841 mm highest.There is often a correlation, or relationship,
“1 total surface runoff between the two variables of rainfall and runoff.
“ ■ (0 ) = 28 0 m m
This relationship can be shown by means of a
scattergraph (Framework 19, page 612). Rainfall is
plotted along the base (thex axis) because it is the
independent variable, i.e. it does not depend on the
amount of runoff. Runoff is plotted on the vertical
oryaxis because it is the dependent variable, i.e.
runoff does depend upon the amount of rainfall.

The Environment Agency (EA) also produces

hydrographs covering longer periods of time than
for a single storm (Figure 3.5) but with far greater,
and more useful, data than that given for the annual
regime of a river (Figure 3.9).

Figure 3.10 gives rainfall and discharge for a wet

month in late 1992 forthe RiverTorridge in Devon.
It shows that:

a as most of the peak discharges occur within a

day of peak rainfall then the river must respond
quickly to rainfall and, therefore, is likely to pose
a flood risk

b the highest discharge (on the 30th) came after

several very wet days during which river levels
had no time to drop, rather than after a very wet
day (the 17th) which followed a relatively dry
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 speli of weather.
day

Figure 3.10

Hydrograph forthe
RiverTorridgeat
Torrington, Devon,
late 1992

64 Drainage basins and rivers

M o r p h o m e t r y o f d r a in a g e b a s in s
M o rp h o m e try m eans 'th e m easu rem en t of
shape or fo rm '. T h e d ev elop m en t o f m orp ho-
m etric te ch n iq u es was a m a jo r advance in th e
q u a n tita tiv e (as opposed to th e qualitative)
description o f drainage basins (Fram ew ork 4).
Instead o f studies bein g purely subjective, it
b ecam e possible to com pare and co n trast dif-
feren t basins w ith p recision. M u ch o f th e early
w ork in th is field was by R.E. H orton. In th e mid-
1 9 4 0 s he devised th e 'Laws o f drainage com posi-
tio n ' w h ich establish ed a h ierarch y o f stream s
ranked accord ing to 'ord er'. O ne o f these laws,
th e law o f stre a m n u m b er, states th a t w ith in a
drainage b asin a co n sta n t g eom etric relationsh ip
exists b etw een stream order and stream nu m ber
(Figure 3 .1 2 a ).
Figure 3.11 shows how one of H orton's suc-
cessors, A.N. Strahler, defined streams of different
order. A I I the iniţial, unbranched source tribu-
taries he called first order streams. W h en two
first order streams jo in they form a secon d order;
w hen two second order streams merge they form
a th ird order; and so on. N otice th a t it needs two
stream segm ents of equal order to jo in to produce
a segm ent of a higher order, while the order
rem ains unchanged if a lower order segm ent joins
a higher order segm ent. For exam ple, a second
order plus a second order gives a third order but
if a second order stream joins a third order, the
resultant stream rem ains as a third order. A basin
m ay therefore be described in term s of the highest
order stream w ithin it, e.g. a 'third order basin' or a
'fourth order basin'.
If the num ber o f segm ents in a stream order
is plotted on a sem i-log graph against th e stream
order, th en th e resultant best-fit line will be
straight (Figure 3.12a). O n a sem i-log graph, the
vertical scale, show ing th e d ependent variable
(Framework 19, page 612), is divided in to cycles,
each of w h ich begins and ends ten tim es greater
th an the previous cycle, e.g. a range of 1 to 1 0 ,1 0
to 1 0 0 ,1 0 0 to 1000, and so on. (If th e horizontal
scale, show ing the independent variable, had
also b een divided in to cycles instead o f having
an arithm etic scale, th e n Figure 3 .1 2 would have
b een referred to as a log-log graph (Figure 18.25).)
Logarithm ic graphs are valuable w hen:
■ th e rate o f ch an g e is o f m ore in terest th a n th e
a m o u n t o f ch ang e: th e steeper th e lin e th e
greater th e rate o f ch ange
■ there is a greater range in th e data th a n there
is space to express on an arith m e tic scale (a
log scale com presses values)
■ th ere are con sid erab ly m ore data at o n e end
of th e range th a n th e other.
Figure 3 .1 2 a show s a perfect negative correla-
tio n (Figure 2 1 .1 4 ): as th e in d ep en d en t variable
(in this case th e stream order) increases, th e n
th e d ep end ent variable (the n u m ber o f stream s)
decreases. Studies o f stream ordering for m ost
rivers in th e w orld produce a sim ilar straight-
lin e relatio n sh ip . For any excep tion s to H orton's
law o f stream ordering, furth er studies can be
m ade to d eterm in e w h ich local factors alter th e
relatio n sh ip . R elationships also exist betw een
stream order and th e m ean len g th o f stream s
(Figure 3 .1 2 b ), and stream order and m ean
drainage b asin area (Figure 3 .1 2 c).
watersheds
first order
streams
second order
streams
third order
streams
fourth order
streams
0 2 km
1____ i
Figure3.n
Strahler's method of
stream ordering
Drainage basins and rivers 65
Figure 3.12
100 v a the number 100 -| b stream length 100­ c area of drainage
Relationships 50 50-
‘ of streams 50 basin

\
between stream order
/
and other variables
E 10- 10
n_ 10
/
CU
E 5- \ 5- ?E 5

j T
1­ 1 1-
0.5­ 0.5­ 0.5 /
0.3- 0.3 0.3
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
stream order stream order stream order

C o m p a rin g d ra in a g e basin s (n u m ber o f first

NI _ order stream s) 26
H orton’s work has made it possible to com pare dif­ = 4 .3 3
N2 (nu m ber of second 6
ferent drainage basins scientifically (quantitatively) order stream s)
rather th an relying on subjective (qualitative)
(n u m ber o f second
descriptions by individuals. It also allows studies
N2 _ order stream s)
of drainage basin m orphom etry in different parts = -2- = 3 .0 0
N3 (nu m ber o f th ird
of th e world to use the same standards, m easure­ order stream s)
m ents and 'language'. (n u m ber o f third
Figure 3 .1 3 shows tw o im aginary and ad ja­ N3 _ order stream s)
c e n t basins. These can be com pared in several
— = 2.00
N4 (n u m b er o f fou rth
d ifferent ways, inclu din g: order stream s)
■ th e bifu rcation ratio, and
■ drainage density. and th e n fin d in g th e m ean o f all th e ratios in the
b asin b ein g studied, i.e.
The bifurcation ratio
b ifu rcation
This is th e relationship betw een the num ber of 4 .3 3 + 3 .0 0 + 2 .0 0
3.11 = ratio for
streams o f on e order and th ose of the n ext highest 3
b asin A
order. It is obtained by dividing th e num ber of
The h u m a n sig n ifican ce o f th e bifu rcation
streams in one order by the num ber in th e n ext
ratio is th a t as th e ratio is reduced so th e risk of
highest order, e.g. for basin A in Figure 3.13:
floo d in g w ith in th e b asin increases. It also indi-
Figure 3.13
cates th e flood risk for parts, rath er th a n all, of
A comparison between
th e b asin . M ost British rivers have a b ifu rcatio n
two adjacent drainage
ratio o f b etw een 3 and 5.
basins on clays and
sands

clays r ds
-i drainage
J basin A basm
i----- 1 drainage
------1 basin B

junction of 2
bas n B
clays and sands
■1
gauging
£ 0 stations at end
of each basin

watershed

1 km

clays
saids

66 Drainage basins and rivers

D ra in a g e d e n s ity
This is calculated by m easuring th e to tal len gth of
all the stream s w ith in th e basin (L) and dividing
by th e area o f th e w hole basin (A). It is therefore
th e average length o f stream w ith in each un it
area. For basin A in Figure 3 .1 3 , this will be:
— = 2 2 ,6 5 = 1.81 km per k m 2
A 1 2 .5 0 ^ w ith little v eg etation cover. T h e density
In B ritain m o st drainage densities lie betw een
2 and 4 km per km 2 b u t th is varies consider-
ably accord ing to local co n d itio n s. A n u m ber of
factors in flu en ce drainage density. It tend s to be
h ig h est in areas w here th e land surface is im p er­
m eable, w here slopes are steep, w here rainfall
is heavy and prolonged, and w here v egetation
cover is lacking.
a G e o lo g y a n d so ils On very perm eable rocks
or soils (e.g. chalk, sands) drainage densities
m ay be under 1 km per k m 2, w hereas th is
increases to over 5 km per km 2 o n hig hly
im perm eable surfaces (e.g. graniţe, clays).
F ra m e w o rk 4
Quantitative techniques and statistical methods
of data interpretation
As geography adjusted to a more scientific
approach in the 1960s, a series of statistical
techniques were adopted which could be used
to quantify field data and add objectivity to the
testing of hypotheses and theories.This period is
often referred to as the'Quantitative Revolution'.
At first it seemed to many, the author included, that
mathematics had taken over the subject, but it is
now accepted that these techniques are a useful aid
provided they are not seen as an end in themselves.
They provide a tool which, if carefully handled and
understood, gives greater precision to arguments,
helps in the identification of patterns and may
contribute to the discovery of relationships and
possible cause-effect links. In short, by providing
greater accuracy in handling data they reduce the
reliance upon subjective conclusions.
It is essential to select the most appropriate
techniques forthe data and for thejob in hand.
Therefore some understanding of the statistical
methods involved is important.
Statistical methods may be profitably employed in
these areas.
1 Sam pling (Framework 6, page 159) Rapid
collection of the data is made possible.
In Figure 3 .1 3 w ith tw o a d ja cen t drainage
basins o f ap p roxim ately equal size, shape and
p robably rainfall, th e d ifference in drainage
density is likely to be due to b asin A b ein g on
clays and b asin B on sands.
b L a n d use The drainage density, especially of
first order stream s, is m u ch greater in areas
decreases, as does th e n u m ber o f first order
stream s, if th e area b eco m es afforested.
Deserts tend to have th e h ig h est densities of
first order ch an n els, even if th e ch an n els are
dry for m o st o f th e tim e.
c T im e As a river p attern develops over a
period o f tim e, th e nu m ber o f tributaries will
decrease, as will th e drainage density.
d P r e c ip ita tio n D ensities are usually h igh est
in areas w here rainfall to tals and in te n sity are
also high.
e R e lie f D en sity is usually greater on steeper
slopes th a n on m ore gentle slopes.
2 Correlation and regression (Framework
19, page 612) This not only shows possible
relationships between two variables but
quantifies or measures the strength of those
relationships.
3 Spaţial distributions (Framework 19, page
612) Not only may this approach be used to
identify patterns, but it may also demonstrate
how likely it is that the resultant distributions
occurred by chance.
When these new techniques first appeared in
schools in the 1970s, they appeared extremely
daunting until it was realised that often the
difficulty of the worked examples detracted from
the usefulness of the technique itself. Where such
techniques appear in this book, the mathematics
have been simplified to show more clearly how
methods may be used and to what effect. With the
wider availability of calculators and computers
it has become easier to take advantage of more
complex calculations to test geographical
hypotheses (Framework 10, page 299). Much of the
'number crunching'has now been removed by the
increasing availability of statistical packagesfor
computers.
Drainage basins and rivers 67
 horizon tal m o vem en t o f water so rarely experi-
enced in rivers th a t it is usually discounted. Such
a form o f flow, if it existed, would travel over
sed im ent o n th e river bed w ithou t disturbing
it. Turbulent flow, th e d om in an t m echanism ,
consists o f a series of erratic eddies, b o th ver­
tical and horizontal, in a dow nstream d irection
(Figures 3 .1 4 and 3.1 5 b ). Turbulence varies w ith
the v elocity of th e river w hich, in turn, depends
upon th e a m o u n t o f energy available after fric­
tio n has b een overcom e. It is estim ated th a t rinder
'n o rm al' cond itions about 95 per cen t of a river’s
energy is expended in order to overcom e friction.

In flu e n c e o fv e lo c ity o n tu rb u le n c e
Figure 3.14
Turbulence in a river: R iv e r f o r m a n d v e lo c it y
the confluence of
the Rio Amazon (red
A river will try to adopt a ch a n n e l shape th a t best
with silt from the fulfils its tw o m ain fu n ctio n s: tran sp ortin g water
Andes) and the Rio and sed im ent. It is im p o rta n t to un derstand th e
Negro (blackw ith sig n ifican ce o f ch a n n e l shape in order to id entify
plantacids)
th e Controls o n th e flow o f a river.
T y p e s o f flo w
As w ater flows d ow nhill under gravity, it seeks
th e path o f least resistance - i.e. a river possesses
p otential energy and follow s a route th a t will
m axim ise th e rate o f flow (velocity) and m inim ise
th e loss o f this energy caused b y friction. M ost
friction occurs along th e banks and bed of th e
river, b u t th e intern ai friction o f th e water and air
Figure 3.15
resistance o n the surface are also significant.
T here are tw o p atterns o f flow, la m in a r and
Types of flow in a river
tu rb u le n t. Lam inar flow (Figure 3 .1 5 a ) is a
■ If th e velo city is h ig h , th e am o u n t o f energy
still available after frictio n has b een overcom e
will be greater and so tu rbu len ce increases.
This results in sed im en t o n th e bed b ein g
disturbed and carried dow nstream . The faster
th e flow o f the river, th e larger th e q u an tity
and size o f particles w h ich can be trans-
ported. T h e tran sp orted m aterial is referred to
as th e river's load .
■ W h en th e velocity is low, there is less energy to
overcom e friction. Turbulence decreases and
m ay n o t be visible to th e hu m an eye. Sedim ent
on th e river bed rem ains undisturbed. Indeed,
as turbulence m aintains the transport o f the
load, a reduction in turbulence m ay lead to
deposition o f sedim ent.
T h e v e lo city o f a river is in flu en ced by three
m ain factors:
1 ch a n n e l shape in cro ss-section
2 roughness o f th e ch a n n e l's bed and
banks, and
3 ch a n n e l slope.

a lam inar flow

b turbulent flow
h o rizo n ta l e d d ie s

vertical
e d d ie s e d d ie s m ay
p ro d u ce m in o r
w h irlp o o ls on
u p strea m th e su rface

d o w n stre a m

u p strea m

d o w n stre a m

68 Drainage basins and rivers

 Stream A
1
depth of the ch an n el. l’he w etted p erim eter
cross-section area is th e total len gth o f the bed and bank sides in
5m = 40 m2 5m
co n tact w ith the water in th e ch an n el. Figure 3.16
l . * 11 shows tw o ch an n els w ith th e sam e cross-section
— wetted perimeter
8m area but w ith different shapes and hydraulic radii.
Stream A has a larger hyd rau lic radius,
m ean in g th a t it has a sm aller a m o u n t o f water
Stream B in its cross-section in co n ta c t w ith th e wetted
perim eter. This creates less frictio n w h ich in turn
2m
i
cross-section area = 40 m: !2m reduces en ergy loss and allow s greater velocity.
20 m Stream A is said to be th e m ore e fficien t o f the
tw o rivers.
Stream B has a sm aller hyd rau lic radius,
Wetted perimeter Hydraulic radius m ean in g th a t a larger a m o u n t o f w ater is in
co n ta ct w ith th e w etted perim eter. This results
Stream A: 5 + 5 + 8 = 18m Stream A: r ? = 2.22 m
1O in greater frictio n , m ore energy loss and reduced
40
Stream B: 2 + 2 + 20 = 24 m Stream B: — = 1.66 m velocity. Stream B is less efficie n t th a n stream A.
The shape o f th e cross-section Controls
the point of m axim um velocity in a river's
>3.16 1 C hannel shape channel. l ’he point of m axim um velocity is dif­
-- ed perimeter, This is best described by th e term h y d rau lic ferent in a river w ith a straight course where
: radius and radius, i.e. th e ratio betw een th e area o f the the channel is likely to be approxim ately sym-
of two different-
cross-section o f a river ch a n n el and th e length metrical (Figure 3.17a) com pared w ith a mean-
"lannels with
of its w etted perimeter. The cross-section area is dering chan nel where the shape is asym m etrical
obtained by m easuring th e w idth and the m ean (Figure 3.17b).

symmetrical channel: velocities in a straight stretch of river

greatest velocity is where friction less fast on surface due
is least, i.e. away from banks, bed to air (wind) resistance
and air

w )

-st flow resulting from speed (m/s)

:n caused by contact
□ed and banks

=/mmetrical channel: velocities in a typically meandering river

greatest velocity away from
banks,bed and the air

0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10

Figure 3.18

Tiger Leaping Gorge on the River Yangtze, China.

speed (m/s) This gorge has been suggested as a site for a
future hydro-electric power station. It is nearly
1500 km upstreamfrom the Three Gorges Dam

)w resulting from friction

k»s of a symmetrical and an asymmetrical stream channel

Drainage basins and rivers 69

 2 R o u ghness o f c h a n n e l b e d a n d b a n k s where:
A river flow ing betw een banks com posed o f coarse v = m ean v elo city o f flow
m aterial w ith num erous protrusions and over a R = hydraulic radius
bed o f large, angular rocks (Figure 3.1 8) m eets w ith 5 = ch a n n e l slope
m ore resistance th an a river w ith cohesive clays n = b ou nd ary roughness.
and silts form ing its bed and banks. The form ula gives a useful ap p roxim ation : the
Figure 3 .1 9 shows w hy th e velocity o f a m o u n ­ h ig h er th e value, th e rougher th e bed and banks.
tain stream is less than th a t o f a low land river. As For exam p le:
b ank and bed roughness increase, so does turbu-
lence. Therefore a m o u n tain stream is likely to Sandand Coarse
Bed profile gravei gravei Boulders
pick up loose m aterial and carry it dow nstream .
R oughness is d ifficu lt to m easure, b u t Uniform 0.02 0.03 0.05
M an n in g , an engineer, calculated a ro u g h n e ss Undulating 0.05 0.06 0.07
c o e ff ic ie n t by w h ich he in terrelated th e three
Highly irregular 0.08 0.09 0.10
factors a ffectin g th e velo city o f a river. In his
form ula, know n as 'M an n in g 's N':
Figure 3.19
£ 0 .6 7 S 0 .5
V = ________
W h yariver increases in
n velocity towards its mouth

a mountainous or upper b lowland or lower

course of the river
D espite w aterfalls w h ere the velocity is localiy high,
the large num ber of anguiar rocks, coarse-grained
banks and protrusions increase friction and reduce
the overall velocity
U - - - - - - - - - - - - 5 m - - - - - - - - - - - - *-
course of the river
As there is little resistance from th e sm ooth bed and
banks, th e re is little friction and the river flow s faster
-*- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - SO m

rock
protrusion

" angular
boulders on cohesive silts small, rounded
river bed and clays bedload
(not to scale)

Figure 3.20
| source | The up p er part of the river has most
The characteristic long
profile ofa river turbulence
— rounhnpss
bedload in com parison to discharge
friction

The low er part o f the river has

greatest discharge
co ncave profile greatest velocity
highest average hydraulic radius
greatest cross-sectional area

| mouth |

3 C h a n n e l slo p e be lost th rou g h frictio n and th e erosive power

As m ore tributaries and water from surface
ru noff, th rou g h flo w and groundw ater flow
jo in th e m ain river, th e discharge, th e ch a n n e l
cro ss-section area and th e h ydraulic radius will
all increase. At th e same tim e, less energy will
o f bed load m aterial will decrease. As a result,
the river flows over a gradually decreasing gra-
d ien t - th e characteristic con cave lo n g p ro file
(th a lw eg ) as show n in Figure 3 .2 0 .

70 Drainage basins and rivers

 In sum m arising th is sectio n it should be
noted th at:
■ a river in a deep, broad ch a n n e l, o ften w ith a
gen tle grad ient and a sm all bedload, will have
a greater velo city th a n a river in a shallow,
narrow, rock-filled ch a n n e l - even if the
grad ient o f th e latter is steeper
■ th e v e lo city o f a river increases as it nears
th e sea - unless, like th e C olorad o and th e
Nile (Places 73, page 4 9 0 ), it flow s th rou g h
deserts w here w ater is lost th rou g h evapora-
tio n or by h u m an ex tra ctio n for w ater supply
■ th e velo city increases as th e d epth, w id th and
discharge o f a river all increase
■ as roughness increases, so to o does tu rbu ­
len ce and th e ab ility o f th e river to pick up
and tran sp ort sed im ent.
T r a n s p o r t a t io n
Any energy rem ain in g after th e river has over­
com e frictio n can be used to tran sp ort sedi­
m en t. T h e a m o u n t o f energy available increases
rapidly as th e discharge, v e lo city and tu rbu lence
increase, u n til th e river reaches flood levels. A
river in flood has a large w etted perim eter and
3.21
rtation
rs in a river
Lighter material held
in suspension by
turbulent eddies;
lightest particles
nearer to surface
° o ® %
Oo ° o Oo ,
o Oo OO o
bedrock
B e d lo a d
Larger particles w h ich c a n n o t be picked up by
th e cu rren t m ay be m oved alon g th e bed o f th e
river in o n e o f tw o ways. S a lta tio n occurs w hen
pebbles, sand and gravei are tem porarily lifted
up by th e cu rren t and b o u n ced along th e bed in
a h op p in g m o tio n (com pare saltatio n in deserts,
page 183). T r a c tio n occurs w h en th e largest
cobbles and boulders roii or slide alon g th e bed.
The largest o f these m ay o n ly be m oved during
tim es o f extrem e flood.
th e extra frictio n is likely to cause d ep osition on
th e floo d p lain. A river at b an k fu ll stage can m ove
large q u an tities o f soil and rock - its load - along
its ch an n e l. In B ritain, m ost m aterial carried by a
river is eith er sed im ent b ein g redistributed from
its banks, or m aterial reach in g th e river from
m ass m o v em en t on its valley sides.
T he load is transp orted by th ree m ain
processes: su sp e n sio n , s o lu tio n and as b e d lo a d
(Figure 3 .2 1 and Places 10, page 73).
S u s p e n d e d lo a d
Very fine particles of clay and silt are dislodged
and carried by turbulence in a fast-flow ing river.
T he greater th e turbulence and velocity, the
larger th e quantity and size o f particles w hich can
be picked up. T he m aterial held in suspension
usually forms the greatest part o f the total load;
it increases in am ount towards th e river's m outh,
giving th e water its brown or black colour.
D is s o lv e d o r s o lu tio n lo a d
If th e b ed rock o f a river is readily soluble, like
lim eston e, it is co n sta n tly dissolved in flow ing
w ater and rem oved in solu tion . Except in lim e­
stone areas, th e m aterial in solu tion form s on ly
a relatively small p ro p ortio n o f th e to tal load.
Dissolved material carried in solution
Bedload moved by either saltation (bouncing)
ortraction (rolling) _
■Q)
It is m u ch m ore difficult to m easure the
bedload th a n th e suspended or dissolved load. Its
co n trib u tio n to the total load m ay be sm all unless
th e river is in flood. It has been suggested th at the
proportion o f m aterial carried in one year by the
River Tyne is 57 per cen t in suspension, 35 per
cen t in solution and 8 per cen t as bedload. This is
th e equivalent o f a 1 0-to n n e lorry tipping its load
in to the river every 2 0 m inutes throu ghou t the
year. In com parison, the Am azon's load is equiva­
len t to four such lorries tipping every m inute of
th e year!
Drainage basins and rivers 71
 1000
U 100
ai
_ particles transported
0.001 0.01
H— day
Figure 3.22
The Hjulstrom graph, showing
the relationship between
velocity and partide size. It
shows the velocities necessary
('criticai') forthe initiation of
m ovem ent(;rosion);for
deposition (sedimentation);
and the area where transporta-
tion will continue to occur once
movement has been initiated
Figure 3.23
Potholesinthebed
of the Afon Glaslyn,
Snowdonia
0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0 1000.0
-silt sand— ► -«- gravei-►[♦pebbles ►
cobbles boulders
size of particles (mm)
C o m p e te n c e a n d c a p a c ity
Two further term s should be noted at this
point: th e com p etence and capacity o f a river.
C o m p e te n ce is th e m axim um size of m aterial
w hich a river is capable of transporting. C ap acity
is the total load actually transported. W h en the
velocity is low, on ly sm all particles such as clay,
silt and fine sand can be picked up (Figure 3.2 2 ).
As th e v elocity increases, larger m aterial can be
m oved. Because th e m axim um p artid e mass
w h ich can be m oved increases w ith the sixth
power of velocity, rivers in flood can m ove con-
siderable am ounts of m aterial. For exam ple, if
th e stream v elocity increased b y a factor o f four,
th e n th e mass o f boulders w h ich could be m oved
would increase by 4 6 or 4 0 9 6 tim es; if by a factor
o f five, the m axim um mass it could transport
would be m ultiplied 15 6 2 5 tim es.
The relatio n sh ip betw een p a rtid e size (co m ­
p etence) and water velocity is show n o n th e
H julstrom graph (Figure 3 .2 2 ). T he m ean , or
c ritica i, e ro sio n v e lo city curve gives th e approx-
im ate v elocity needed to pick up and transport,
in suspension, particles of various sizes. The m a­
terial carried by the river (capacity) is responsible
for m ost o f the subsequent erosion. The m e a n
fall or s e ttlin g v e lo city curve show s th e v elo ci­
ties at w h ich particles o f a given size beco m e to o
heavy to be transported and so will fall out o f sus-
pension and be deposited.
T h e graph show s tw o im p o rtan t p oints:
1 Sand can be transported at lower velocities
th an eith er finer or coarser particles. Particles
o f about 0 .2 m m d iam eter can be picked up
by a v elocity o f 2 0 cm per second (labelled 1
o n th e graph) w hereas fin er clay particles (2),
because o f th eir cohesive properties, need a
v elocity sim ilar to th a t o f pebbles (3) to be
dislodged. D uring tim es o f h igh discharge
and velocity, the size and am o u n t o f the
river's load will increase considerably, causing
increased erosion w ith in th e ch an n el.
2 The velocity required to m aintain particles in
suspension is less th an the velocity needed to
pick them up. For very fine clays (4) the velocity
required to m aintain them is virtually nil - at
w hich point the river m ust alm ost have stopped
flowing! This m eans that material picked up by
turbulent tributaries and lower order streams
can be kept in suspension by a less turbulent,
higher order m ain river. For coarser particles (5),
the boundary betw een transportation and depo­
sition is narrow, indicating th at only a relatively
small drop in velocity is needed to cause sedi­
m entation. Recently, Keylock has argued that
an alternative m ethod to that o f Hjulstrom for
measuring transport of river sedim ent is by flow
depth rather th an flow velocity. He suggests that
shear stress - a measure of the force per un it area
th at the flow exerts on a partide on the river
bed - can cause particles to roii out of their
riverbed location.
E ro s io n
The m aterial carried by a river can con trib u te
to th e w earing away o f its banks and, to a lesser
e x te n t and m ain ly in th e upper course, its bed.
There are four m ain processes o f erosion.
C o rra s io n
Corrasion occurs w hen the river picks up m ater­
ial and rubs it along its bed and banks, wearing
them away by abrasion, rather like sandpaper. This
process is m ost effective during tim es of flood and
is the m ajor m ethod by w hich the river erodes both
vertically and horizontally. If there are hollows in
the river bed, pebbles are likely to becom e trapped.
Turbulent eddies in the current can swirl pebbles
around to form potholes (Figure 3.23).
 A ttr itio n
As the bedload is m oved dow nstream , boulders
collide w ith other m aterial and th e im pact m ay
break th e rock in to sm aller pieces. In tim e, angular
rocks becom e increasingly rounded in appearance.
H y d ra u lic a c tio n
The sheer force o f th e w ater as th e tu rbu len t
cu rren t h its river banks (o n th e outside o f a
m eand er), pushes w ater in to cracks. The air in
th e cracks is com pressed, pressure is increased
and, in tim e, th e b an k will collapse. C a v ita tio n
is a form o f hyd rau lic a ctio n caused b y bubbles
o f air collap sing. The resu ltant shock waves h it
and slow ly w eaken th e banks. This is th e slow est
and least effective erosion process.
S o lu tio n , o r c o rro s io n
This occurs co n tin u o u sly and is in d ep en d en t
o f river discharge or velocity. It is related to th e
ch em ica l co m p o sitio n o f th e water, e.g. th e con -
ce n tra tio n o f ca rb o n ic acid and h u m ic acid.
D e p o s it io n
W hen th e v elocity o f a river begins to fall, it has
less energy and so n o longer has th e com p eten ce
or capacity to carry all its load. So, starting w ith
th e Iargest particles, m aterial begins to be depos­
ited (Figure 3 .2 2 ). D ep osition occurs w h en:
■ discharge is red ucec iov. mg i r'eriod o f low
p recip itatio n
■ velocity is lessened on enterir..^ th e sea tr a
lake (resulting in a d elta'
■ shallow er w ater occurs on the inside o f a
m eand er (Figure 3 .2 5 \
■ th e load is suddenly increased i caused bv
debris from a landslide)
■ th e river overflow s its banks so th a t the
velo city outside th e ch a n n e l is reduced
(resulting in a flood plain).
As th e river loses energy, th e follow ing changes
are likely:
■ T h e heaviest or bedload m aterial is deposited
first. It is for this reason th a t th e ch an n els of
m o u n ta in stream s are o ften filled w ith large
boulders (Figures 3 .1 8 and 3 .2 7 ). Large b o u l­
ders increase th e size o f th e w etted perim eter.
■ Gravei, sand and silt - tran sp orted eith er as
bedload or in suspension - will be carried
further, to be deposited over th e flood p lain
(Figure 3 .3 1 ) or in th e ch a n n e l o f th e river as
it nears its m o u th (Figure 3 .3 2 ).
■ The fin est particles o f silt and c la y w hich
are carried in suspension, m ay be deposited
w here th e river m eets th e sea - eith er to in fill
an estuary or to form a delta (Figure 3 .3 3 ).
■ The dissolved load will n o t be deposited, but
will be carried ou t to sea w here it will help to
m a in ta in th e saltiness o f th e oceans.

3 Afon Glaslyn, N orth W ales: river processes

;jre 3 .2 4 The Afon Glaslyn rises near the centre of the

Llyn G laslvn Snowdon massif and flows in a general southerly
3 aslyn Valley, Snowdon
I ly n U y d a w
(Yr W yddfa)^ direction towards Tremadog Bay (Figure 3.24).
■:Th Wales

Fig.4.26 Cwm
D y li
Fig.4.27 Llyn G w y n a n t

,<
>v Fig.4.2b
,nt6 Llyn D in a s
Beddgelert* Fig.3.25

fig.3.27 Pass of
Aberglaslyn
Fig.3.23 £,

Porthmadog • Penrhyndeudraeth
Figs 6.32,
6.33 Figure 3.25
Erosion and deposition in the
sand and mud middle Afon Glaslyn
exposed at lowtide
Morfa Harlech
T re m a d og
Bay 20 km
Drainage basins and rivers 73
 Figure 3.26

a long profile Snowdon Heavy rainfall weathers rock The Afon Glaslyn, showing
1 physically (frost shattering) to give processes and landforms I mainly transportation and erosion
400___ Llyn Llydaw
large boulders and sands
2 chemically (by acids) to give some sands atselectedsites ___ | mainly deposition
but mainly clays
3 through acids in vegetation being
leached downwards into rock
300- Site C T ransportation small amount and size of
Site A T ransportation large boulders, bedload, much suspension, little solution k
mainly bedload, some suspension, Erosion attrition and corrasion, a little hydrauiic transported
little in solution. Erosion attrition, action and corrosion out to sea
E
corrasion, hydraulic action and corrosion
£CT 2 0 0 -
River
descending Site F D eposition
Site B D eposition Site D D eposition
'35 Cwm Dyli
{hanglng small boulders pebbles 1 bedload 2 suspended
| cobbles ' gravei Site E D epo sition pebbles and gravei deposited load
valley», matnly I pebbles I sand
metamorphic on outside o f bends in more turbulent as sand deposited
100 ­ ! sand , : I clay flow; sand on inside of bends
slabs givlng !____ as mud
turbulence i Beddgelert
50-

0 I I I
Llyn (Lake) Gwynant

I I I l I I
Llyn Dinas
_Aberglaslyn Pass

................................................ I I I
V Glaslyn Estuary
(Traeth Bach)
............................................... i
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26

Landform s dis ta n c e (km ) fro m Llyn Llydaw

rapids floodplain, gorge. estuary,
waterfalls, rapids, potholes, delta and delta and meanders, rapids, extensive floodplain with large meanders, exposed sand,
large boulders lake small meanders lake some braiding, pools and riffles mud atlow tide
and floodplain braiding potholes

b m aterial Site D
sizes at
three
ăy . i aQi V\
selected
sites
la rg e sm a ll la rg e sm a ll

Figure 3.27

The bouider-strewn river bed

oftheupper Afon Glaslyn

The long profile of the Glaslyn, as shown in Figure 3.26,

does not, however, match the smooth curve of the
model shown in Figure 3.20.This is partly because of:

• the effect of glaciation in the upper course

(Figure 4.25) and
• differences in rockstructure in the middle
course (the Aberglaslyn Pass in Figure 3.27).

Figure 3.26 (a summary of an Open University

programme) shows the relationships between
the processes of fluvial transportation, erosion
and deposition. By studying this diagram, how
likely are the following hypotheses (Framework 10,
page 299):

• thatasthecom petenceofthe river decreases,

material is likely to be carried greater distances

• that the largest material, carried as the bedload,

will be deposited first
• that material carried in suspension will be
deposited overthefloodplain or in the channel
of the river as it nears its mouth
• that the finest material and the dissolved load
will be carried out to sea?

F lu v ia l la n d f o r m s
valley
As th e velo city o f a river increases, surplus energy
-:erlocking
n a l l rapids
b ecom es available w h ich m ay be harnessed to
^ jodplain: tran sp ort m aterial and cause erosion . W here th e
:trict velocity decreases, an energy deficit is likely to
- Park result in d ep osition al features.
E ffects o f flu v ia l e ro s io n
V -s h a p e d v a lle y s a n d in te rlo c k in g spurs
As show n in Figure 3 .2 7 , the ch a n n el o f a river
in its upper course is often choked w ith large,
angular boulders. This bedload produces a large
wetted perim eter w hich uses up m u ch o f the
river's energy. Erosion is m inim al because little
energy is left to pick up and transport m aterial.
However, follow ing periods o f heavy rainfall or
after rapid snow m elt, the discharge o f a river m ay
rise rapidly. As th e water flows betw een boulders,
turbulence increases and m ay result either in th e
bedload being taken up in to suspension or, as is
m ore usual because o f its size, in its b ein g rolled or
bounced along the river bed. The result is in te n ­
sive v e rtica l erosion w h ich enables th e river to
create a steep-sided valley w ith a characteristic V
shape (Figure 3 .2 8 ). T he steepness o f th e valley
sides depends upon several factors.
■ C lim a te Valleys are steeper w here there is
su fficien t rainfall:
a to in stig ate mass m o v em en t o n th e valley
sides and
b to create sufficient discharge to allow the
river to create enough energy to m ove its
bedload and, therefore, to erode vertically, or
c for rivers to cross desert areas w h ich have
little rain to w ash dow n th e valley sides,
e.g. th e Grand C an y on (Figure 7.19).
■ R ock s tru ctu re R esistant, perm eable rocks
like C arboniferous lim esto n e (Figure 8.5)
o ften produce alm ost vertical sides in c o n ­
trast to less resistant, im perm eable rocks
such as clay w h ich are likely to produce
m ore g en tle slopes.
I V eg etatio n V egetation m ay help to b in d th e
soil to g eth er and thu s keep th e h illslo p e m ore
stable.
In te rlo ck in g spurs form because th e river is
forced to follow a w ind in g course around the
p rotru sions o f th e surrou nding h ig h lan d . As the
resultant spurs interlock , th e view up or dow n
th e valley is restricted (Figure 3 .2 8 ).
A process ch aracteristic at th e source o f a
river is h e a d w a rd erosion , or sp rin g sapping.
Here, w here th rou g h flo w reaches th e surface, the
river m ay erode back tow ards its w atershed as it
undercuts th e rock, soil and v eg etation . Given
tim e this ca n lead to river capture or piracy
(page 85).
W a te rfa lls
A w aterfall form s w h en a river, after flow ing over
relatively hard rock, m eets a band o f less resistant
rock or, as is co m m o n in South Am erica and
Africa, where it flows over th e edge o f a plateau.
As th e water approaches th e b rin k o f th e falls,
v elocity increases because th e water in fro n t of
it loses co n ta c t w ith its bed and so is un ham -
pered by friction (Figure 3 .2 9 ). T he underlying
softer rock is w orn away as water falls o n to it. In
tim e, th e harder rock m ay beco m e undercut and
unstable and m ay eventually collapse. Som e of
this collapsed rock m ay be swirled around at the
fo ot o f th e falls by tu rbu lence, usually at tim es
of high discharge, to create a deep plu nge p ool.
As this process is repeated, the waterfall retreats
upstream leaving a deep, steep-sided gorge
(Places 11). At Niagara, where a hard band of
lim eston e overlies softer shales and sandstone,
th e Niagara River plunges 5 0 m causing the
falls to retreat by 1 m a year and so creating the
Niagara Gorge.
R apids
Rapids develop w here th e grad ient o f th e river
bed increases w ith o u t a sudden break o f slope
(as in a w aterfall) or w here th e stream flows over
a series of g en tly dipping bands o f harder rock.
Rapids increase th e tu rbu len ce o f a river and
hen ce its erosive power (Figure 3 .2 7 ).
Drainage basins and rivers 75
 Iguaţu Falls, Brazii: a waterfall
Thelguaţu River, a tributary top of falls collapses and retreats
Figure 3.29
of the Parana, forms part of
the border between Brazii and Fieldsketch
Iguacu River
oftheIguacu
Argentina. At one point along
its course, the Iguaţu plunges
80 m over a 3 km wide, crescent- horizontal layers of
shaped precipice (Figure 3.30). resistantTriassic lavas

Thelguaţu Falls occur where

softer rocks being undercui,
the river leaves the resistant causing the overlying
basaltic lava which forms the to collapse
Southern edge of the Brazilian
plateau and flows onto less
resistant rock, while their
crescent shape results from the
retreat of the falls upstream
(Figure 3.29).

By the end of the rainy season

(January/February) upto
4 million litres of water a day
can pour over the individual
cascades - numbering up to 275
- which combine to form the
falls.The main attraction isthe
Devil'sThroat where 14 separate
falls unite to create a deafening
noise, volumes of spray, foaming
water and a large rainbow. In
contrast, by the end of the dry
season (June/July), river levels
may be very low - indeed, for
one month in 1978 it actually
dried up.

Figure 3.30
Thelguaţu Falls

E ffects o f flu v ia l d e p o s itio n

D ep osition o f sed im ent takes place w h en there
is a decrease in energy or an increase in capacity
w h ich m akes th e river less co m p eten t to tran s­
port its load. This can occur anyw here from th e
upper course, w here large boulders m ay be left, to
th e m o u th , where fin e clays m ay be deposited.
F lo o d p la in s
Rivers have m ost energy w hen at their bankfull
stage. Should th e river con tinu e to rise, th e n the
water will cover any ad jacent flat land. The land
susceptible to flooding in this way is know n as the
flood p lain (Figure 3.31 and Places 10, page 74). As
the river spreads over its floodplain, there will be a
sudden increase in both the wetted perim eter and
the hydraulic radius. This results in an increase
in friction, a corresponding decrease in velocity
and the deposition of m aterial previously held in
suspension. The th in veneer o f silt, deposited by
each flood, increases the fertility o f the land, while
the successive flooding causes the floodplain to
build up in h eight (as yet it has proved im possible
to bore down to bedrock in the lower Nile valley).
The floodplain m ay also be m ade up of m aterial
deposited as p oint bars o n the inside of m eanders
(Figure 3.3 8 ) and can be widened by the lateral
ero sio n o f the m eanders. T he edge of the flood ­
plain is often marked by a p ro m in en t slope know n
as th e bluff lin e (Figure 3.31).

76 Drainage basins and rivers

 Levees
W h en a river overflows its banks, the increase in
friction produced by the co n ta ct w ith the flood ­
plain causes m aterial to be deposited. The coarsest
m aterial is dropped first to form a sm all, natural
em ban k m en t (or levee) alongside the ch an n el
(Figure 3 .3 1 ). D uring subsequent periods o f low
discharge, further deposition will occur w ithin
the m ain ch a n n e l causing th e bed o f th e river to
rise and th e risk o f flooding to increase. To try to
bluff line
layers of silt deposited
by earlierfloods
.e3.31 B ra id in g
For short periods o f th e year, som e rivers carry a
section of a
: : ain showing very h ig h load in relatio n to th eir velocity, e.g.
and bluffs during snow m elt periods in Alpine or Arctic
areas. W h en a river's level falls rapidly, com p e­
ten ce and capacity are reduced, and th e ch a n n el
m ay beco m e choked w ith m aterial, causing th e
3.32 river to braid - th a t is, to divide in to a series of
■: : :ed river,South diverging and converging segm ents (Figures 3 .3 2
u : ’JewZealand and 5.1 6 ).
co n tain th e river, the em ban km en ts are some-
tim es artificially strengthened and heightened
(the levee protecting St Louis from th e Mississippi
is 15.8 m higher th a n the floodplain w hich it
is m ean t to protect). Som e rivers, such as the
M ississippi and Yangtze, flow above th e level of
their floodplains w h ich m eans th a t if th e levees
collapse there can be serious dam age to property,
and loss o f life (Case Study 3A).
bluff line
bedload causes bed tiner material
of river to rise carried further
D e lta s
A delta is usually com posed o f fine sed im ent
w h ich is deposited w hen a river loses energy
and co m p eten ce as it flows in to an area o f slow-
m ovin g w ater such as a lake (Figure 4 .2 2 ) or the
sea. W h en rivers like th e M ississippi or th e Nile
reach th e sea, th e m eetin g o f fresh and salt water
produces an electric charge w h ich causes clay
particles to coagu late and to settle o n th e seabed,
a process called flo ccu la tio n .
D eltas are so called because it was th o u g h t
th a t th eir shape resem bled th a t o f delta, the
fourth letter o f th e G reek alp h ab et (A). In fact,
deltas vary greatly in shape bu t g eom o rp holo-
gists have grouped th em in to th ree basic form s:
■ a rc u a te : h av in g a rounded, co n v ex outer
m argin, e.g. th e Nile
■ cu sp a te : w here th e m aterial b rou gh t dow n by
a river is spread out evenly on eith er side of
its ch an n e l, e.g. th e Tiber
■ b ird's fo o t: w here th e river has m an y dis-
tributaries b ou nd ed by sed im ent and w h ich
exten d ou t to sea like th e claws o f a bird's
foot, e.g. th e M ississippi (Figure 3 .3 3 ).
A lthough deltas provide som e o f th e w orld ’s
m o st fertile land, th eir flatness m akes th em high
flood-risk areas, w hile th e shallow and frequently
ch an g in g river ch an n els h in d er navigation.
Drainage basins and rivers 77
Figure 3.33 E ffects o f c o m b in e d e ro s io n a n d
The Mississippi delta d e p o s itio n
P ools, riffle s a n d m e a n d e rs
Rivers rarely flow in a straight line. Indeed,
testin g under laboratory con d ition s suggests
th a t a straight course is abnorm al and unstable.
Figure 3.34 How m eanders begin to form is un certain, but
th ey appear to have their origins during tim es
Apossiblesequence
of flood and in relatively straight sections where
in the development of
a meander pools and riffles develop (Figure 3.3 4 ). The usual
5 times the bed width
b alluvial stretch o f river, are believed to result from
/ /
7 7
\ _ _ _
\ \
5 times the bed width
Figure 3.35
A pool and riffles in the
River Gelt, Cumbria
spacing betw een pools, areas o f deeper water,
and riffle s, areas of shallow er water, is usually
very regular, bein g five to six tim es th at o f the
bed w idth. The pool is an area of greater erosion
w here th e available energy in th e river builds up
due to a reduction in friction . Energy is dissipated
across th e riffle area. As a higher proportion of
th e to tal energy is th e n needed to overcom e fric­
tion, th e erosive capacity is decreased and, except
at tim es o f h ig h discharge, m aterial is deposited
(Figure 3 .3 5 ). The regular spacings of pools and
riffles, spacings w h ich are alm ost perfect in an
a series of secondary flows w h ich exist w ithin the
m ain flow. Secondary flows include h elicoid al
flow , a corkscrew m ovem ent, as show n in Figure
3.1 5 b , and a series of converging and diverging
lateral rotations. H elicoidal flow is believed to
be responsible for m oving m aterial from the
outside o f on e m eander bend and th en depositing
m u ch of it on the inside o f the n e x t bend. It is

/ 5 times the
bed width
/ th o u g h t, therefore, th a t it is th e secondary flows
th a t increase th e sinuosity (the curving nature)
o f th e m eander (Figure 3.3 6 ), producing a regular

\ \ m eander w avelength w h ich is about ten tim es

th a t o f th e bed w idth. Sinuosity is described as:

one wavelength actual ch a n n e l length

original course
usually 10 times the bed width straight-lin e d istance
pool

riffle

line of main current

78 Drainage basins and rivers

 Figure3.37
Cross-section ofa meander

small river
bank will cliff
eventually
collapse
fastest slowest
current current
\

' point bar

V
outside bank is
\
sand and shingle
undercut by lateral erosion deposited

bluff line

direction
erosion of flow
in time, the meander \
riffles
migrates down the
floodplain in this pool
floodplain
direction
\

former positions
of point bar r 3 , B'2
B1 point bar

valley is
point bar widened
pool formed adjacent to outside, by lateral
concave bank where velocity and erosion
erosion are greatest
direction of flow
deposition on inside, convex
bank where velocity is least:
forms a point bar
bluff line

Figure 3.38

Meanders, point bars and oxbow lakes, showing migration of

meanders and changing positions of point bars over time

Meanders and
oxbow lakes,
Alaska, USA
M e a n d e rs , p o in t b ars a n d o x b o w la ke s
A m eander has an asym m etrical cross-section
(Figure 3.3 7 ) form ed by erosion on th e outside
bend, where discharge and v elocity are greatest
and friction is at a m inim um , and deposition on
the inside, where discharge and velocity are at
a m in im um and friction is at its greatest (Figure
3 .2 5 ). M aterial deposited on th e con v ex inside of
the bend m ay take the form of a curving p o in t
b a r (Figure 3 .3 8 ). The particles are usually graded
in size, w ith th e Iargest m aterial b ein g found on
the upstream side o f the feature (there is rarely
any gradation up th e slope itself). As erosion
con tin u es on th e outer bend, th e w hole m eander
tends to m igrate slowly dow nstream . M aterial
form ing the p o in t bar becom es a contributory
factor in th e fo rm ation o f th e floodplain. Over
tim e, the sinuosity of th e m eander m ay becom e
so pronou nced that, during a flood, th e river
cuts through th e narrow neck of land in order to
shorten its course. Having achieved a tem porary
straightenin g o f its ch an n el, the m ain current
will th en flow in m id -ch ann el. D eposition can
now take place n e x t to the banks and so, eventu­
ally, the old curve o f th e river will be abandoned,
leaving a crescent-shaped feature know n as an
o x b o w la k e or c u to ff (Figures 3 .3 8 and 3.39).

Drainage basins and rivers 79

 B o s c a s tle , C o r n w a ll: a flash flo o d

On the afternoon of 16 August 2004,200.2 mm of

rainfall - the equivalent of three normal months -
was recorded in only four hours on Bodmin Moor,
area
an upland area lying behind the Cornish village of
flooded
Boscastle. As the ground was already saturated, most
harbour
of this water swept downhill and through two narrow,
steep-sided valleys which converged on the village
itself (Figure 3.40). Added to this volume of water was built-up
Boscastle
an estimated further 50 mm of rain that fell between
1300 and 1500 hours that same afternoon on Boscastle
itself. The result was a wall of water over 3 m in height
that swept through the village (Figure 3.41).
B3263 to to
The floodwater carried with it cars, tree branches Tintagel Bodmin Moor
and other debris which became trapped behind
the two bridges in the village, which then acted as
Figure 3.40
dams. As the volume of water increased the bridges
were swept away, causing further surges in the The flood at
Boscastle
height of the RiverValency. Residents and tourists
alike were forced to flee. Although some managed Figure 3.42

to reach higher ground, the only means of escape Annotated photo from the Daily
for most people was to clamber upstairs and to Telegraph, Tuesday 17 August 2004

await eventual rescue by helicopter from either

upper-storey windows or rooftops.

Six helicopters (1 in Figure 3.42) rescued 120 people

from rooftops and upper-storey windows (buildings
4,5,6, 7 and 8), while two lifeboats searched the
harbourfearing people might have been swept
out to sea.The car park (2) and two bridges (9 and
16) were destroyed. Vehicles were carried through
the village by the torrent, some being deposited
en route (12 and Figure 3.41) and over 30 in the
harbour.Two shops (10 and 17) and four houses
were destroyed while other buildings were badly
damaged including the Visitor Centre (3) and two
tourist shops (11 and 15). Among buildingsflooded
was a restaurant (13) and the village store (4),
museum (14) and Youth Hostel (18). Power had to be
Figure 3.41
switched off to protect rescuers and survivors from
Water rages through electrocution. When the floodwater receded, the
the village of Boscastle
village was left undera carpet of thick brown mud.
carryingcarswith it
 B a s e le v e l a n d t h e g r a d e d r iv e r
Base le v e l
This is th e low est level to w hich erosion by
ru nning water can take place. In the case o f rivers,
this th eoretical lim it is sea-level. Exceptions
occur w hen a river flows in to an inland sea (e.g.
the River Jo rd an in to the Dead Sea) and if there
happens to be a tem porary lo cal base level, such
as where a river flows in to a lake, w here a tribu-
tary jo in s a m ain river, or where there is a resistant
band o f rock Crossing a valley.
G ra d e
The co n cep t o f grad e is one o f a river form ing an
open system (Framework 3, page 45) in a state
o f d ynam ic equilibrium w here there is a balance
betw een th e rate o f erosion and th e rate of deposi-
tio n . In its sim plest interp retation , a graded river
has a g en tly sloping long profile w ith th e gradient
decreasing towards its m o u th (Figure 3.4 3 a ). This
balance is always transitory as th e slope (profile)
has to adjust con stan tly to changes in discharge
and sedim ent load. These can cause short-term
increases in either th e rate o f erosion or deposi-
tio n un til th e state o f equilibrium has again been
reached. This m ay be illustrated by two situations:
■ T h e long profile of a river happens to co n tain
a waterfall and a lake (Figure 3 .4 3b ). Erosion
is likely to be greatest at the waterfall, w hile
d ep osition occurs in th e lake. In tim e, b o th
features will be elim inated.
■ There is a len gthy period of heavy rainfall
w ithin a river basin. As th e volum e of water
rises and con seq u en tly th e v elocity and load
o f th e river increase, so too will th e rate of
erosion. Ultim ately, th e extra load carried
by th e river leads to extra deposition further
dow n th e valley or out at sea.
re 3.43
a the graded profile
■orofiles
smooth concave profile,decreasing In angle
and gradient towards the mouth
b irregularities in the long profile
waterfall: erosion will exceed deposition until
the feature retreats and disappears
eventual possible graded profile
In a wider interpretation, grade is a balance n ot
on ly in th e long profile, but also in th e river's
cross-profile and in th e roughness o f its channel.
In this sense, balan ce or grade is w hen all aspects
o f the river's ch a n n el (w idth, depth and gradient)
are adjusted to th e discharge and load o f the river
at a given p o in t in tim e. If the volum e and load
change, th e n th e river's ch a n n el m orphology
must adjust accordingly. Such changes, where
and w hen th ey do occur, are likely to take lengthy
periods o f geological tim e.
C h a n g es in base le ve l
T here are th ree groups of factors w h ich in flu en ce
chan ges in base level:
■ C lim a tic: th e effects o f g laciation and/or
changes in rainfall.
' T e cto n ic: crustal up lift, fo llow in g plate
m o v em en t, and local v o lcan ic activity.
■ E u sta tic an d iso sta tic a d ju stm e n t: caused by
th e ex p a n sio n and co n tra c tio n o f ice sheets
(page 123).
As will be seen in C h apter 6, changes in base
level affect coasts as well as rivers. T here are
tw o types o f base level m o v em en t: positive and
negative.
P o sitiv e c h a n g e occurs w h en sea-level rises
in rela tio n to th e land (or th e land sinks in
relatio n to th e sea). This results in a decrease
in th e grad ient o f th e river w ith a corre-
spond ing increase in d ep osition and poten-
tial floo d in g o f coastal areas.
■ N eg ativ e ch a n g e occurs w h en sea-level falls
in relatio n to th e land (or th e land rises in
relatio n to th e sea). This m o vem en t causes
land to em erge from th e sea, steep ening the
grad ient o f th e river and th erefore increasing
the rate o f fluvial erosion. T h is process is
called reju v e n a tio n .
mouth
lake: deposition will exceed erosion until
the feature is filled in
mouth
Drainage basins and rivers 81
 Figure 3.44

The effect of
° n9'nal graded profile
rejuvenation
original sea-level
onthe long
profile
lr5t regraded profile
first fall in sea-level
knickpoints '" O if
recent graded profile second fall in and
present-day sea-level

several partly graded profiles (Figure 3.44). W here

the rise in the land (or drop in sea-level) is too
rapid to allow a river sufficient tim e to erode verti-
cally to th e new sea-level, it m ay have to descend
as a waterfall over recently em erged sea cliffs
(Figure 3 .4 5 ). In tim e, th e river will cut down-
wards and backwards and th e waterfall will retreat
upstream. The k n ick p o in t, usually indicated by
the presence of a waterfall, marks th e m axim um
e xten t o f th e new ly graded profile (Places 13).
Should a river beco m e com pletely regraded,
w h ich is un likely because o f the tim escale
involved, th e k nick p oin t and all o f th e original
graded profile will disappear.

R iv e r te rra c e s a n d in c is e d m e a n d e rs
Figure 3.45 River terraces are rem nants o f form er floodplains
R e ju v e n a tio n
w hich, follow ing vertical erosion caused by reju­
A rejuvenated river, A negative change in base level increases the
Antalya,Turkey: the venation, have been left high and dry above the
p o ten tial energy of a river, enablin g it to revive
land has only recently m axim um level of present-day flooding. They
experienced tectonic its erosive activity; in doing so, it upsets any pos­
offer excellent sites for the location of towns (e.g.
uplift and the river sible graded lon g profile. B eginning in its lowest
London, Figures 3.47 and 14.9). Above the present
has had insufficient reaches, n e x t to the sea, th e river will try to
floodplain of the Tham es at London are two earlier
time to re-adjustto regrade itself.
the new sea-level ones form ing th e Taplow and Boyn Hill terraces. If
D uring th e Pleistocene glacial period, Britain
a river cuts rapidly into its floodplain, a pair o f ter­
was depressed by th e w eight o f ice. Follow ing
races o f equal height m ay be seen flanking the river
d eglaciation, th e land slowly and in term itten tly
and creating a valley-in-valley feature. However,
rose again (isostatic u plift, page 123). Thus
m ore often th an not, the river cuts down relatively
reju venation took place on m ore th an one occa-
slowly, enabling it to m eander at the same time.
sion, w ith the result th a t m an y rivers today show
The result is th at th e terrace to one side of the river

Figure 3.46
River G reta,Yorkshire Dales National Park:
The River Greta (after
Places 13
D.S.Walker)
a rejuvenated river
a before rejuvenation b after rejuvenation
The River Greta, in north-west Yorkshire,
graded River Greta meandering side of is a good example ofa rejuvenated river.
over a wide floodplain Ingleborough
original graded section Figure 3.46a is a reconstruction to show
I Hill
of River Greta
what its valley (upstream from the village of
bluff I bluff
line line Ingleton) might have looked like before the
fall in base level. Figure 3.46b is a simplified
Beezley Falls sketch showing how the same area appears
tributary knickpoint
floodplain floodplain today.The Beezley Falls are a knickpoint.
Above the falls, the valley has a wide, open
rejuvenated River
river
Greta flowing in a appearance. Below the falls, the river flows
terrace rapids
valley-in-valley over a series of rapids and smaller falls in a
d u etoan increase
deep, steep-sided'valley-in-valley'.
in erosion

82 Drainage basins and rivers

 Taplow terrace (about Boyn Hill terrace (about
Boyn Hill terrace Taplow terrace
15 m above river) 320 m above river)
oldest floodplain Figure 3.47

second oldest floodplain Cross-section illustrating

bluff limited thepairedriverterraces of
early growth River Thames
theThames at London
of London

North South

buried channel floodplain terrace covered with silt

m ay be rem oved as the m eanders migrate dow n­
stream. Figure 3.49 shows terraces, n o t paired, on
a small stream Crossing a beach on Southern Arran.
In this case, rejuvenation takes place twice daily as
the tide ebbs and sea-level falls.
If th e uplift o f land (or fall in sea-level) con-
tinues for a len g th y period, the river m ay cut
downwards to form incised m eanders. There
are two types of incised meander. E n tre n ch e d
m ean d ers have a sym m etrical cross-section and
result from eith er a very rapid in cisio n by the
river, or th e valley sides bein g resistant to erosion
(the River Wear at D urham , Figures 3 .48 a and
14.6). In g ro w n m ean d ers occur w hen th e uplift
o f the land, or in cisio n by th e river, is less rapid,
allow ing the river tim e to shift laterally and to
produce an asym m etrical cross-valley shape (the
River W ye at T intern Abbey, Figure 3.48b ). As w ith
m eanders in th e lower course o f a norm al river,
incised m eanders can also change their channels
to leave an abandoned m eander w ith a central
m e a n d e r co re (Figure 3.48b ).

a entrenched meanders: R.Wear, Durham b ingrown meanders: R. Wye,Tintern Abbey to

r;=*ders Symonds Yat
re d cross-
es
3 0 0<O
er W ye ■?00
V \0 0 m 700«'

7.00 m
-2,00 m
m 200 m
'“Om
old meander core
100 m
•200 m

cross-valley profile: River Wear has cross-valley profile: RiverW yehad

cut vertically time to shift
laterally as well
as vertically
Tintern Abbey
R iver road River
W ear Wye
gentler steep
valley side river
cliff

Figure 3.49

Rejuvenation on a
micro scale: a small
stream Crossing a
beach at Kildonan,
Arran, has cut
downwards to the
level of the falling
tid e -n o te the
ingrown meander,
river terraces and
valley-in-valley
features
 D r a in a g e p a t t e r n s
A d ra in a g e p a tte rn is th e way in w h ich a river
and its tributaries arrange them selves w ithin their
drainage b asin (see H orton's Laws, page 65). M ost
patterns evolve over a len g th y period o f tim e and
usually beco m e adjusted to th e structure o f the
basin. There is n o widely accepted classification,
partly because m ost patterns are descriptive.
P a tte rn s in d e p e n d e n t o f s tru c tu re
P a ra lle l This, th e sim plest p attern , occurs on
new ly up lifted land or oth er u n ifo rm ly sloping
surfaces w h ich allow rivers and tributaries to
flow dow nhill m ore or less parallel w ith each
other, e.g. rivers flow ing south-eastw ards from
th e Aberdare M o u n tain s in Kenya (Figure 3 .5 0 a ).
D e n d r itic D eriving its nam e from th e Greek
Figure 3.50 word d en dron, m ean in g a tree, th is is a tree-like
Drainage patterns pattern in w h ich th e m an y tributaries (branches)
a parallel b dendritic V,
a before river
capture
consequent rivers, a result of the uplift of the land, flow
in the same direction as the dip of the rock
consequent cuts down to form
a gap in the escarpment
\ dip
.C
day clay clay
limestone chalk
84 Drainage basins and rivers
converge up on th e m a in river (trunk). It is a
co m m o n p attern and develops in basins hav ing
one rock type w ith n o v ariation s in structure
(Figure 3 .5 0 b ).
P a tte rn s d e p e n d e n t on s tru c tu re
R a d ia l In areas w here th e rocks have b een lifted
in to a dom e structure (e.g. th e b a th o lith s of
D artm oor and Arran) or w here a con ical v o lcan ic
con e has form ed (e.g. M o u n t E tna), rivers radiate
outw ards from a cen tral p o in t like th e spokes o f a
w heel (Figure 3 .5 0 c).
T re llise d o r re c ta n g u la r In areas of
a ltern a tin g resistan t and less resistan t rock,
tribu taries w ill form and jo in th e m ain river
at rig h t-an g les (Figure 3 .5 0 d ). Som etim es each
individual seg m ent is o f ap p roxim ately equal
len g th . T h e m a in river, called a c o n s e q u e n t
riv e r b ecau se it is a co n se q u e n ce o f th e in iţia l
u p lift or slope (com pare parallel d rainage), flows
in th e sam e d irectio n as th e dip o f th e rocks
(Figure 3 .5 1 a ). T h e tribu taries w h ich develop,
m ain ly by headw ard erosion alon g areas o f
w eaker rocks, are called s u b s e q u e n t stre a m s
becau se th e y fo rm at a later date th a n th e con -
sequ ents. In tim e, these subsequents create
wide valleys or vales (Figure 3 .5 1 b ). O b s e q u e n t
stre a m s flow in th e op p osite d irectio n fro m th e
co n se q u e n t stream s, i.e. dow n th e steep scarp
slope o f th e escarp m en t (Figure 3 .5 1 b ). It is
these ob seq u en ts th a t o ften provide th e sources
of w ater for scarp -foot sp rin g line settlem en ts
(Figure 1 4 .4 ). T h e d ev elop m en t o f th is drainage
p attern is also responsible for th e fo rm a tio n of
th e sc a rp a n d v a le to p o g ra p h y o f sou th-east
England (Figure 8.9 ).
Development of a
trellised drainage
pattern
b after river capture
C = consequent
S = subsequent
escarpment O = obsequent
S
clay vale
escarpment
 Plateau of Tibet

Pakistan
&ranrropU[ra ryyaţ^r, ra

A Y A I
TethysSea (sediments deposited by Indus and Bangladesh
Brahmaputra rivers are already being
squeezed upwards) / /

India
India
; • of Indo-Australian
Plate)

Bay of Bengal

Sri Lanka

fold mountains 0 500 km

Patterns apparently unrelated to
-ainage, Structure
A n te ce d e n t A nteced en ce is w h en th e drainage
p attern developed before such structural m o v e­
m en ts as th e uplift or fo ld in g o f th e land, and
where v ertical erosion by th e river was able to
keep pace w ith th e later up lift. The B rahm aputra
River rises in Tibet, bu t turns southw ards to flow
th rou g h a series o f deep gorges in th e H im alayas
before reach in g th e Bay o f Bengal (Figure 3 .5 2 ).
It m ust at on e stage have flow ed southw ards
in to th e Tethys Sea (Figure 1.4) w h ich had
existed b efore th e Indo-A ustralian Plate m oved
northw ards and collid ed w ith th e Eurasian Plate
form in g th e H im alayas (pages 19 and 2 0 ). The
Brahm aputra, w ith an in creasin g gradient and
load, was able to cu t dow nwards th rou g h th e
rising H im alayas to m a in ta in its original course.
S u p erim p osed In several parts o f th e world,
in clu d in g th e English Lake D istrict, th e drainage
p attern seem s to have n o relatio n sh ip to th e
present-day surface rocks. W h e n th e Lake D istrict
was up lifted in to a dom e, th e new ly-form ed
v o lca n ic rocks were covered by sed im entary
lim eston es and sand stones. The radial drainage
pattern w h ich developed, to g eth er w ith later
glacial processes, cut th rou g h and u ltim ately
rem oved th e surface layers o f sed im entary rock
to superim pose itself upon th e un derlying v o l­
can ic rocks.
Rivercapture
Rivers, in a ttem p tin g to ad ju st to structure,
m ay capture th e headw aters of th e ir neigh-
bours. For exam p le, m ost eastw ard-flow ing
English rivers b etw een th e H um ber and central
N orthu m berlan d have had th eir courses altered
b y riv er c a p tu re or p ira c y (Figure 3 .5 3 ).
Figure 3 .5 4 a shows a case w here there are
two co n seq u en t rivers w ith one h aving a greater
discharge and higher erosional activity th a n the
other. Each has a tribu tary (subsequents X and
Y) flow ing along a valley o f weaker rock, b u t sub-
sequ ent X (the tributary o f th e m aşter, or larger,
con seq u ent) is likely to be th e m ore vigorous.
Subsequent X will, therefore, cut backwards by
headward erosion u n til it reaches subsequent Y
(the tribu tary o f th e weaker con seq u en t); th en ,
by a process know n as w atersh ed m ig ra tio n

a fo rm e r d ra in a g e 30 km b p re s e n t-d a y p a tte rn --- wind gap

p a tte rn
rland
c°qu&
t- Wansbeck At,
^de North Sea North Tyne r 6< North Sea
TOrn
Wansbeck

B'r
North Tyne
Tyne tyfie Tyne

Original Northumbrian consequent rivers, with The North Tyne, the subsequent, has cut
the early beginnings of the North Tyne subsequent backwards by headward erosion to capture the
headwaters of the Blyth, Wansbeck and Rede.ln
time, it could capture the headwaters of the Coquet

Drainage basins and rivers 85

 (Figure 3 .5 4 b ), it will begin to enlarge its ow n
drainage basin at the expense o f th e sm aller river.
In tim e, the headw aters of th e m in o r co n seq u en t
Figure 3.54 will be captured and diverted in to th e drainage
basin o f th e m ajor co n seq u en t (Figure 3 .5 4 c).
Stages in river capture
shown in plan and The p oin t at w hich the headwaters of the
cross-profile m inor river change direction is know n as the
elbow of cap tu re. Below this point, a w ind gap
marks th e form er course o f th e now beheaded
con seq u en t (a wind gap is a dry valley w hich
was cut through th e hills by a form er river). The
beheaded river is also know n as a m isfit stream , as
its discharge is far too low to accou nt for the size of
the valley through w hich it flows (Figure 3.54c).

a before capture (piracy) occurs (iii) block diagram

(i) plan (ii) cross-profile

minor consequent subsequent Y

watershed
watershed •
subsequentY" °
subsequent % cutting minor
C * watershed | consequent
subsequent X' A
major consequent [ n because the major
consequent has cut
local base level at A is lower than down more rapidly
(major (minor
that at B,subsequent X is therefore than the minor
consequent) consequent)
consequent, point A
more active than subsequent Y
major consequent lower than point B

b watershed migration (recession)

watershed retreats
and is lowered
------*■

_ A . ----
*

c after capture has taken place

(i) plan (ii) cross-profile

wind gap
misfit I
g stream
X
or
beheaded
elbow of capture
consequent
X and Y B

major consequent

I
(major (minor
consequent) consequent)

F u rth e r re fe re n c e
Charlton, R. (2007) Fundamentals o f Fluvial
Geomorphology, Routledge.
Environment Agency (2000) River
Rehabilitation - Practicai Aspects from
16 Case Studies, Environment Agency
Publications.
Gregory, K.J. and Walling, D.E. (2005)
Drainage Basin: Form, Process and
Management, WileyBlackwell.
Leopold, L. (2006) A View o f the River,
Harvard University Press.
Newson, M. (1994) Hydrology and the River
Environment, Oxford University Press.
Oakes, S. (2006) 'Hi-tech flood warnings' in www.environment-agency.gov.
Geography Review Voi 20 No 1 (September). uk/?lang=_e
Robert, A. (2003) River Processes: An introduc- www.floodarchive.co.uk
tion to fluvial dynamics, Hodder Arnold. Minnesota River Basin:
Weyman, D.R . (1975) Runoff Processes and www.soils.umn.edu/research/mn-river/
Streamflow Modelling, Oxford University
Newfoundland and Labrador site
Press.
(examples of drainage basins and flood-risk
River m anagem ent: zones):
http://earthsci.org/Flooding/unit3/ www.heritage.nf.ca/sitemap.html
u3-01-06.htm l
Norfolk Broads Authority:
www.broads-authority.gov.uk/ www.broads-authority.gov.uk/broads/
managing/rivers-and-broads.html pages/river4.html
Environm ent Agency, environm ental Yellow River, China:
inform ation index (UK rivers, floods): www.cis.umassd.edu/-gleung/

86 Drainage basins and rivers

 The need for river management
O

A R iv e r f lo o d in g : t h e
M is s is s ip p i, 1 9 9 3
:ng by rivers isa natural e ve n t w hich,
: =-se p eople ofte n choose to live in
> ris k areas, becom es a hazard (page
people living in th e Mississippi valley,
* ~heir river should flo o d is as natural as
ne in Florida or snow fall in th e Rockies!
■ u th u m a n inte rve n tio n , th e Mississippi
. z “lo o d virtu a lly every year. Indeed, it has
'is fre q u e n c y o f flo od in g w h ic h has,
1 Where is the river/drainage basin located?
2 W hatis the frequency of flooding?
3 W hatis the magnitude of flooding?
4 W hat are the natural causes of flooding?
The Mississippi - together with its main tributaries, the
Missouri and the Ohio - drains one-third of the USA and a
small part of Canada (Figure 3.56).
Left to its own devices, flooding would be an almost annual
event with late spring being the peak period.
Until recently, major floods occurred every 5-10 years (there
w eresixin the 1880s) and a serious/extreme flood occurred
approximately once every 40 years.
Usually it results from heavy rainfall (January-M ay) in the
Appalachian Mountains, especially if this coincideswith
snowmelt (Figure 3.56).

ia n y centuries, allow ed today's river to 5 W hat are the consequences of flooding? Initially, itw asto develop the wide, alluvial floodplain. The
"or m uch o f its course over a w ide, fertile, 1927 flood caused 217 deaths; 700 000 people were
evacuated; the river became up to 150 km wide (usual width
- uvial flo od p la in (Figures 3.55 and 3.56).
1 km); livestock and crops were lost; services were destroyed.
6 W hat attempts can be made to reduce the Until the 1927 flood, the main policy was'hold by levees'- by
Figure 3.55 flood hazard? 1993, some levees were 15 m high (Figure 3.57). After 1927,
The flood hazard and new schemes included building dams and storage reservoirs
the Mississippi River (6 huge dams and 105 reservoirs on Missouri);
affo restation to reduce/delay runoff; creating diversion
spillways (e.g. Bonnet Carre floodway diverts floodwater
into Lake Pontchartrain and the sea); cutting through
meanders to straighten and shorten the course (Figure 3.57).
How successful ^ave the attempts to reduce In 1883, MarkTwain daimed that'You cannot tame that
■jilly, o f co u rse , the great flooding been? lawless stream'. By 1973, it appeared that the river had been
ids occu r in the low er river, tamed: there was no further flooding... until 1993. Has
human intervention made the danger worse? (page 96)
f e last 1 6 0 0 km below Cairo,
m s. T his is where the plain
■;ens out (the river drops less Figure 3.56
i 20 m from here to its mouth) Flooding in the
here the Ohio and Tennessee Mississippi Basin
into the M ississippi.
: the w ater th at flo w s past
e m p h is, o n ly ab ou t 3 8 pei C anada
.jf ii com es fro m the M is s o u r i-
V
l :>sissip p i netw ork. T h e bulk
S.
. n ies fr o m th e O h io and
f m .4
_ en n essee, fro m th e lu s h Missouri and other right-bank

-.rpalachians, rather than the dry tributaries drain the reiaţively u s a|

dry Mid-West. 38% of Ohio-Tş^ffessee rise
M id-W est. ’We d o n 't m ind too total in the Appalachians
Most rain falls in summer 5 62% of
■K ch about the M is s o u ri,’ says £ water (v whi|ţhcreceive heavy
when evapotranspiration total wateraV cyelsnic rainfall
D onna W illett, speaking fo r the is at its highest.
Arkoinsas/f •St Louis <*' between January and
_ S \rm y C o rp s o f E n g in e e rs May. Flood risk
Cairo’ increased following
... ho have the re sp o n sib ility o f
Mississippi Memphis snowmelt.
jlood prevention). ‘It can rain there
drainage
or weeks, and we wouldn t mind. basin
,\e can handle three tim es the Lower Mississippi —
watershed
ater co m in g dow n in th o se usually receives the
largestand most •New Orleans
floods. But the Ohio. w ell. that’s
frequent floods
another story. W hen that starts
Gu If o f Me x i c o
rising, we start w atching ...

500 km
 1a Height (metres) of levees at Memphis b The 1993 flood at St Louis

12.5 17.5
riverside landside 15.8 m

10.0
7.5
I 15.0

| 12.5

"o 10.0
previous
highest
flood level
1993 flood peak 15.05m
___________________12.3 m

9m
5.0 flood level
% 7.5
2.5 OJ
X St Louis
5.0 4m
0 1882 1896, 1914 1928 1972 usua1level of Mississippi
25 50 75 100 2.5
height of St Louis
Base width of levees at Memphis (metres) 0

By making the course straighter and shorter,floodwater could

original
be removed from the river basin as quickly as possible. It was
meandering
achieved by cutting through the narrow necks of large
course of the
meanders. Between 1934 and 1945 one stretch of the river alone
Mississippi
was reduced from 530km to almost 230km. By shortening
the distance, the gradient and therefore the velocity of the
river increases. (But rivers try to create meanders rather
floodplain
than flow naturally in straight courses.)

E n g in e e rin g /p la n n in g schemes
in th e Mississippi basin
Prior to the 1993 flood, it was perceived
thatthe flow of the Mississippi had been
controlled.This had been achieved through
a variety of flood prevention schemes
(Figure 3.57).
Figure 3.57
W hy d id the Mississippi flo o d
Two engineering schemes
in 1993? to try to control flooding
The Mid-West was already having a wet year
when record-setting spring and summer A fte r the flood: should rivers
rains hit.The rain ran off the soggy ground
run freer?
and into rapidly rising rivers. Several parts
of the central USA had over 200 per cent Since the first levee was built on the

• Levees had been heightened, in places more rain than was usual forthe time of year Mississippi in 1718, engineers have been

to over 15 m, and strengthened.There (Figure 3.58). It was the ferocity, location and channelling the riverto protectfarmland

were almost 3000 km of levees along timing of the flood that tookeveryone by «and towns from floodwaters. But have the

the main river and its tributaries. surprise. Normally, river levels are falling in levees, dams and diversion channels actu-

• By cutting through meanders, the midsummer, the upper Mississippi was not ally aggravated the flooding?There are

perceived to be the major flood-risk area, two schools of thought. One advocates
Mississippi had been straightened and
shortened: for 1750 km, it flows in and people believed that flooding in the accepting that rivers are part of a complex

artificial channels.
• Large spillways had been built to take
excess water during times of flood.
basin had been controlled. Floodwater at St ecological balance and that flooding should
Louis reached an all-time high (Figure 3.58). be allowed as a natural event (Figure 3.71).
Satellite photographs showed the extent The other argues for better defences and a

of the flooding (Figure 3.59). Figure 3.60 more effective control of rivers (Figure 3.70).
• The flow of the major tributaries
(Missouri,Ohio andTennessee) had describes some of its effects.
been controlled by a series of dams. Figure 3.58

Extract from 1/5Today, a daily newspaper

April—July 1993 rainfall (in inches) Normal Q

Rain in the Mid-West 23.2 (59.3 mm)
Marshall, Minn
13.5 (34.3 mm)

30.5 (77.5 mm)

Waterloo, lowa
16.6 (42.2 mm)

St Louis
Although there were some nervous moments,the city's massive 11-
mile long, 52-foot floodwall protected the downtown from flooding.
Fleavy rains in the
The river crested here August 1 at a record 49.4 feet, and the amount
past two months
of water flowing past the Gateway Arch surpassed a record 1 million
have kept land
cubic feet per second.
saturated and rivers
running high 50
river level
200% or more
40
~ 1 than normal
bankfull level
30 flood stage: 30 feet
i— i 150%-200% 9.1 m
- of normal 20 highest crest
peak discharge
--- 1 125%-150%
500 km 10 Aug 1: 49.4
(15.05m)
— of normal
0
July 1 Aug 8
 Sjte -e ppDtograph showing
fioosingattheconfluences r
of the Mississippi with the
Illinois and Missouri. The
water surfaces are shown as
blue, built-up areas as purple, 1
and farmland/vegetation I
asgreen

Figure 3.60

US Today, 9 August 1993 The consequences of flooding in the St Louisarea

Flood of ’93 Deaths

45
Evacuatea
74000
Houses
45000

Neariy half of the counties in nine states bordering the upper reaches of the
Mississippi and Missouri rivers have been declared federal disaster areas.This Illinois: In the fight against flooding rivers. 17 levees were
s the first step in becoming eligible for federal aid, including direct grants from breached, including one that flooded the town of
Congress, Federal Emergency M anagement Agency and many other groups: Valmeyer and 70000 acres of surrounding farraland.
One flood-related death was reported.
Declared In Alton, the treatraent plant was flooded Aug 1.
M in n e s o ta disaster areas cutting off water to the town's 33000 residents. "Our
Nor Th D a k o t a M/s,
Peak discharge: levee did not breach. but the water came in through
26 June the Street, the drains, anywhere there was a hole, at
& such a rate that pumps couldn't keep up," says Mayor
Bob Towse.

South Dakota
£ Marsblall
Minneapolis
W isc o n sin
Prairie
Statewide property losses may top $365 million,
including damage to 140 miles of roads and eight
bridges. Agricultural damage is estimated at more
than $610 million. An estimated 4% of the state’s
ita R\ du Chien
cropland—900000 acres—was flooded. In addition,
Picksfow nX ^ W a te rlo o Gutterberg 15 727 people were displaced, 860 businesses closed
-\-Ş, ' j~6th July |
Nebraska and neariy 9000 jobs lost.
Dubuque
______ Omaha fc a . D a u e n n n i- t • Missouri: The highest death toii —25 —and the greatest property
Des M o i n e i ' DavenP%f e(
damage—$1.3 billion—of all flooded states were
Io w a Reoris .$ > '
reported here. Statewide, 13 airports have been
St JoseDh 1 .sW
I Illin o is closed, and 25000 residents evacuated. Flooding on
Kansas City - l 1.8 million acres of farmland has caused about
St Louis~ ~ ~
29th july |K n n h
$1.7 billion in crop losses.
Kansss
Noste1’ Jefferson Chester__ Heroic efforts apparently saved historic Ste
City' 30th July1 ^ - !"-hAug Genevieve, which has been battling rising waters
‘M isso u ri Cairo since the start of Julv.
Q E g g g iS a The need for river m anagem ent

B R iv e r f lo o d in g :
M o z a m b iq u e
Mozambique has a pronounced single
wet season followed by a lengthy dry
season. As shown in Figure 3.61, both
Maputo, the capital city, and Beira, the
second City, receive almost 75 per cent of
their annual rainfall during the five or six
summer months when the sun is almost
overhead (Figure 12.12) and when the
south-east trades, blowing over the warm
offshore Mozambique Current, are at their
strongest (page 319).This rainfall pattern is
repeated in the countries to the west and
where Mozambique's three main rivers, the
Zambezi, Save and Limpopo, have their
headwaters.
The people of Mozambique are accus-
tomed to the threat of seasonal flooding.
In 2000thecountry experienced its worst
floods for over 50 years, an event that, in the
following years, seemed to become an almost
annual occurrence until 2008 when the gov-
ernment introduced its'prevention-focused
rather than response-oriented'policy.

Zaire Tanzania

Pemba

Malawi In d ia n O cean
Zambia

Cabora Bassa
Lake + HEP Nampula

=K *
Tete• V fe?
s 280

Beira
240
Total 1523mm

Zimbabwe ~ 200
E
§
c 160
o
jq
| .1 2°
’u
v
5- B0

40
' 0 r” P op0

Tropic o f C a p rico rn J F M A M J J A S O N

Chokwe
160

£ Maputo
Mapgto £ 120 Total 761 mm
Republic of Xal-Xai
South Africa
80
Swaziland
jj 40
a
0 200 km
F M A M J J A S O N

2000 the worst-hit being those living in flimsy Figure 3.61

Rivers, especially the Limpopo, began to
overflow their banks in early February after
several days of heavy rain, with the extreme
south of the country the most severely
affected. In Maputo, tens ofthousandsof
people were forced to leave their homes,
shanty settlements located on the edges of
Mozambique, with rainfall
the city. Houses, roads, bridges and crops graphsfor Maputo and Beira
were destroyed, electricity supplies were
disrupted and towns were left without a
clean water supply after pumping stations
were either inundated or swept away.

90 Drainage basins and rivers

 The need for river m anagem ent ^

" 22 February the Coastal region near
5 received thefull im p a ct o ftro p ica i
■t) Eline - a relatively rare hazard event in
:-mbique. Winds of up to 260 km/hr hit
;stal area just north o f the still-affected
:ed regions. By 24 February, further heavy
over m uch of Southern Africa had
. rn Mozambique's rivers byupto 8 m
■
etheir normai level (Figure 3.62). On 27
■ =ry, flash floods inundated more areas
1 ; Chokwe and Xai-Xai. Estimates sug­
: ihat up to 7000 people, without food
=:erfor several days, were surviving in
jjpioftreesoron small islands of high
ld(F'gure3.63). International relief aid,
: eventually arrived, was to last for
Mr-j months.
; ;igures stated that 7000 people
" a If a million were left homeless,
2 million had their ivesaffected, 11 per
cent of farmland was ruined, 20 000 cattle
were drowned and local industries in
M aputo were forced to close.
20 07
Over a month of heavy rain caused rivers in
central areas, including the Zambezi nearto
Chokwe, to overflow.These floods led to 41
deaths, made 750 000 people homeless and
affected half a million people in total. Roads
and bridges, some onlyjust repaired from
the previous year, were swept away.
2006 an d 2007
Following droughts in 2004 and 2005,
heavy rainfall at the end of December 2005
and through early 2006 again affected
thousands of people, although this time
the death toii was down to 21. However, in
2007, several v\Hsks of heavy rain resulted
in the worst Zambezi floods since 2000.
Fears that the huge Cabora Bassa dam
(Figure 3.61) might overflow led to water
being released from the lake behind it.This
resulted in the level of the Zambezi rising
even higher, and increased flooding in the
lower basin. As a result 30 people died and
70 000 people were forced to leave their
homes.
2008
Although an estimated 115 000 people
were affected by the 2008 flood, the death
toii was limited to 20.This was, according
to UN aid workers, du eto Mozambique's
success in preparing fortheflood event
(Figure 3.64).

Figure 3.63 9
People awaiting
rescuefrom tree tops I
(2 0 0 0 )

noto showing the

the 2000 flood

There has been. this year, a opened regional branches and

-îuficant improvement in the
r .ernm ent’s disaster
- ^nagement. During the
"e v io u s year the government
-d revamped its policies,
■ -king them prevention-
' jused rather than response-
nted. Realising that floods
.-.d droughts) are going to
■ -ppen. then the best approach
to try to minimise their
npact. The Disaster Agency
began monitoring weather
forecasts, upstream dara
capacities and rainfall in
neighbouring countries. It also
set up an early-warning system
and moved boats, together with
reserves o f food and medical
supplies, to places with a high
flood risk. Finally it drew up
contingency plâns aimed at Figure 3.64
evacuating low-lying villages
Extractfrom a 2008 UN
should the need arise.
report (UN/BBC News Africa)

Drainage basins and rivers 91

0222X^^3 The need for river m anagem ent

C F lo o d in g : t h e S e v e r n in 2 0 July the Severn and Avon, had begun to leave

E n g la n d , 2 0 0 7 Although forecasters had warned of heavy
rain for up to a week beforehand and the
For many parts of Enqland and Wales, 2007 Met Office had issued a severe weather
was the wettest year, and certainly the warning two days before, no one quite
wettest summer, ever recorded.The main expected the downpours of 20 JuIy.Two
reason was a failure by the polarfrontjet months of rain fell in two hours, and three
stream to move northwards as it usually times July's normal total in 24 hours in
does at this time of year (Figure 9.37). This parts of the Midlands where the soil was
m eantthat instead of the drier, more settled already saturated and many rivers were
weather associated with a British summer, close to their bankful level. Pershore, in
winds stil! came from the now warm Worcestershire, received 145 mm in that one
Atlantic Ic e a n . Being warm, these winds day. Flash flooding immediately affected
were able to collect more moisture than several towns in the Avon and lower Severn
was usual as they crossed the sea, resulting valleys (Figure 3.65). By early evening much
in heavy rainfall as they reached the British of Evesham and parts of Stratford-upon-
Isles.Torrential rain during June caused Avon were under water, 1 billion litres of
severe flooding in Huli, Doncaster and
water was pouring through Gloucester
Sheffield that was to leave some properties
where up to 2000 people were to spend
uninhabitable for over a year. the night in emergency shelters, and resi­
dents in Tewkesbury, at the confluence of
Figure 3.65
their homes.The flooding and the volume
oftraffic caused gridlockon major roads in
the area, with an estimated 10 000 motorists
left stranded for up to 10 hours on the M5
between Worcester and Gloucester (Figure
3.66).This gridlock prevented the emer­
gency services moving equipment such as
portable steel flood barriers to places like
Upton-upon-Severn which were threatened
by flooding, and hampered their attempts
to rescue people already trapped.The resuît
was the largest deployment of rescue heli­
coptere and the biggest peacetime emer­
gency ever in the United Kingdom.
Figure 3.66
Gridlocked traffic on a flooded
road nearTewkesbury

Lower Severn valley

M5
WorcesteM / iro B/rmlnghom)

O R C E S T E R S H
Pershore
fheoWesr roin) R.,

Evesham
fOneof (he first
Upton-upon Sevem # placei flooded)
(curotftorieverol days)

-Tewkesbury 0 areas most affected

( c u to tf fo ii/ Id a y ii within this zone

M5
R. Severn (grtdlocked
onfirstnight)

Severn
Gloucester
estuary (manypeoplehodjfo
(Udai) leavetheirflacxfafhomes)

\
R, Thames
(towards
/ M5 Oxford) 10 km
r KoBr/stol)

T he^deS Lerhlade • Oxford The River Thames

' Ab»ogdon»
Cricklade WdllingforcU Henley Marlow
Gonng ♦ * Malderthead LONDON
» Windso* Sttln®*
Reading t •Teddm gton

92 Drainage basins and rivers


;/y
■ :ogether with runoff arriving
' eadwaters of the River
ade the situation even worse. ■
: were stil! rescuing people from
, where 75 000 residents were
cut off (Figure 3.67). Nearby,
:-egan to flood a w atertreatm ent
■' e Mythe, forcing it to close
leaving 350 000 people without
ashing, cooking orsewerage.
■rn to the south, a major crisis
:od w ater began seeping into an
sub-power station, threatening
jpplies to 600 000 people.This
e mihtary being called in to help
5 1 km em bankm ent around the
crev ntfurtherfloodlng and
mp out water that was already
The need for river m anagem ent
in it.This was achieved despite having
only six hours before a high tide at nearby
Gloucester would cause the level of the
Severn to peak at almost 8 m above its
usual level. Meanwhile further heavy rain
was beginning to cause major disruptions
to places further east in theTham es Valley.
2 3 July
Half of Gloucestershire was now without
water and people were told that it might
be tw o weeks before supplies could be
restored, and 50 000 homes were without
electricity. Freshwatertankers and bottled
water suppliers were struggling to reach
places still cut off, while supermarkets
were experiencing panic buying. Of the
thousands of people w ho had had to
evacuate their homes in the region, some
I2 J9 5 2 0 O
were warned it would be over a year
before they could return. W hile the Severn
was still over its banks in several places
and severe flood warnings remained
in place betw eenTewkesbury and
Gloucester, it was now people living close
to theTham es in Oxfordshire w ho were
faced with a real threatfrom flooding.
2 4 July
Floodwater had by now receded from
most places in the Severn valley apart
from properties adjacent to the river itself.
Mopping up could begin but the real
clean-up was expected to take months.
Iniţial estimates of flood damage were put
at over £2 billion.
Drainage basins and rivers 93
 The need for river m anagem ent

• managing floods and providing the

D F lo o d a n d r iv e r
m anagem ent
Economically more developed countries
such as the United Kingdom have the
capital and technology that enabie them
to better predict, plan for, manage and
respond to the flood risk than do less eco­
nomically developed countries such as
Mozambique.
Ffood management in the UK is the
responsibility of the Environment Agency
(EA). The EA has the powers to set meas­
ures in place to reduce the risk of flooding
on rivers and tidal waters. It also has the
lead role in providing flood warnings and,
wherever possible, to protect people and
property at risk. Dynamic issues such as
climate change, floodplain development
and evolving technology mean that the EA
has to frequently update its flood warning
service and advice.The EA aimsto reduce
the impacts of flooding by:
• strategic and developm ent planning
• investment in planning and managing
flood defences
• mapping areas at risk of flooding and
managing flooding information
flood warning service.
Flood incidents vary in scale and impact,
from low impact of unpopulated floodplains
to severe flooding in large towns and cities
which can disrupt key parts ofthe urban,
and even regional, infrastructure. According
to the EA, a flood incident involves plan­
ning for floods, communicating the risk of
flooding, detecting and forecasting flooding,
issuing flood warnings, providing informa­
tion on flooding and responding to flooding
(Figures 3.68 and 3.69).

Figure 3.68

How the EA prepares for and

manages a flood event

Role of the EA Organisations involved

Planning for flooding We constantly plan for flooding and organise how we Police, ambulance, fire and rescue services. Local authori-
will respond to each incident, We regularly meet with our ties, utility companies and community groups
professional partners to create multi-agency response
plâns and major incident plâns for flooding. These detail
how each organisation will respond to flooding in specific
locations.

Communicating flood risk
We talk to the public throughout the year about all aspects Residents and property owners living or working in the
of our flood risk management work. We focus on flood area
awareness, our flood warning service (Figure 3.69) and
providing information about what to do before, during and
after the event.

Detecting flooding We monitor rivers and sea conditions, 24 hours a day, 365 Met Office
days a year, so we are prepared for potential flooding. We
use remote detection systems to measure rainfall, wind
speeds and direction, water levels and water flows in rivers
and seas.

Forecasting flooding W e use flood forecasting so that we know when and where Met Office, emergency services, utility companies, local
to issue flood warnings and when to operate our flood authorities
defences. W e share this with our professional partners so
that they can also respond to flooding.

Issuing flood warnings W e send warnings by automated voice messages to land- General public, professional partners, the media
line and mobile phones, and by fax, pager, SMS text, email,
static sirens, public address loudhailers and broadcasts by
radio and television.

Providing inform ation on flooding
If the public have not received flood warnings or want Website, the media, telephone
confirmation ofth e warnings issued, they can view
warnings in force by: visiting our website at w w w .
environment agency.gov.uk/floodline, viewing Teletext
(page 154) and Ceefax (page 149), or contacting
Floodiine on 0845 988 1188.

Respondingto flooding During a flood our priority is to issue flood warnings and Emergency services, local authorities
make sure that our flood defences are working properly.

94 Drainage basins and rivers

 The need for river management

■: 69
n e EA's flood warning codes

Flood F Io o q a

£ A
S e v e re
W atch W arnin g / | \ Flood
W arning
) nf low-lying land and roads is expected.
Flooding of homes and businesses is expected. Severe flooding is expected. There is extreme
«, be prepared, watch out.
Act now! danger to life and property. Act now!
Triggers Triggers

As for Flood Warning plus:

ra in fa ll that will cause flooding • Heavy rainfall that could cause flash flooding
• Site observations of severe flooding or major problems
: or forecast water levels that will cause flooding • Snowmelt
•• -> with infrastructure and services
^ r forecast » Observed rising level - criticai trigger point reached
• Forecasts predict a worsening situation and severe
• Forecast level or flow - trigger point for Flood Warning
flooding likely
forecast
• Actual flooding
» Site observations, e.g. blockages or defence failures
• Professional judgement, including consultation with
• Actual flooding
professional partners
a r: :r t h e ground Impact on the ground Impact on the ground

i ng rivers • Flooding of homes • Large numbers (at least 100) of homes/businesses

vers • Flooding of businesses expected to flood
: ; f fields and recreation land • Flooding of cellars and basements • Large numbers of people are likely to be affected by
. îd flooding • Underground railstationsand lines vulnerable flooding
. iooding • Flooding of major road infrastructure • Highest riskto life
’ flooding • Flooding of rail infrastructure • Severe a dverse im p a c t on local in fra s tru c tu re a n tic i-
ater flooding (linked to river flooding) • Significant floodplain inundation {high risktocaravan p ate d, e.g. tra n s p o rt, h o s p ita ls, U tilitie s
:P o w from rivers and streams parksorcampsites) • Significant impact on the capacity of professional
ooding due to heavy storms • Flooding of majortourist/recreationalattractions partners, organisations and the public (e.g. vulnerable
• Damageto flood defences groups) to respond effectively
• Flood defence failures or overtopping which could result
in extreme flooding

; an 'AII Clear'message to indicate receding floodwaters and a settled outlook.

AII
C le a r

■ ';' a g e m e n tin the fu tu re for the excess water to go. A government the water might get and how long it might

' adellers are now predicting that report of 2004,'Making Space for Water' take before draining away.

a to climate change, floods came to the same conclusion, proposing Others are pointing out that by con-

t exoerienced in England in 2007, the sacrificing of farmland, meadows and structing hard defences and flood walls

-e D r e v io u s ly o n ly happened once other areas of open space as a way of (Figure 3.70) all that is achieved is to push

' : :j|bars, could happen eve ry 20 ensuring least damage to property and the problem further downstream.They

: nsurers expect that by that disruption to human activity (although this suggest that there needs to be a major
; lo s s e s w ill be £21 billion-five seemed at odds with government plâns to upgrading of the sewerage networkand
r;:erthan in 2007. Since the flo o d s , build thousands o f new homes in flood-risk drainage systems to cope with more severe

T°tal risk consultants have been areas - page 400). storm events, that houses should be built

■ ; E'itish governm enttotake Flood experts have begun detailed with the ground floor used for car parking

_ ît o deal with the increased risk mapping of large urban areas in Britain. and Iivi ng space above it, and the use of

: 'fall events and that, instead They hope, by using three-dimensional stone and concrete for flooring would

: control and contain the flow of maps, not only to show which places are at enable a flooded house to be hosed down

■ tne past, space should be found greatest r i s l b ' i to predict how deep and dried out more quickly than at present.

Drainage basins and rivers 95

djjfl * The need for river management

Farming (field drains) and urbanisation Greater volume and velocity can
(drains and sewers) increase the speed increase the river's load and its
Flood banks (levees) built too close
of throughflow ability to erode
to rivers leave no storage space for
excess water

Banks and beds lined with concrete

allow the river to flow more quickly Farming (bare fields in winte'
and urbanisation (tarmac)
increase surface runoff

Straightened,artificial courses
increase the river's velocity
Artificial defences expensive i4
construct and later to mainta

A culverted river may not be able to

take the extra water of a flash flood
and can trap debris at the same time Water draining away faster from
upstream locations can cause
High flood banks (levees) can cause greater problems downriver
the bed of the river to rise and, if they
are overtopped, to give a more severe
flood event (Mississippi 1993)

'M u c h e x p e n s e a n d e n v ir o n m e n ta l d e g ra d a tio n is in v o lv e d in fo rc in g a riv e r to flo w w h e re ii is p u t,

r a th e r th a n w h e re it w a n ts to be, a n d w h e re th e d e s ig n e d p la n is in a p p r o p r ia te to t h a t re a c h o f t h e
Amanagedriver riv e r.’ (N e w s o n l

Rivers can use their floodplain for extra Less risk of flooding and erosion downstream
storage capacity while the increased although a greater risk where houses and
wetted perimeter reduces the river's factories have been built upstream on the
velocity floodplain

Rivers allowed to meander more slowly

New housing and factories
over their floodplains reduces erosion
built above the floodplain

Natural river banks are

cheaper to maintain
Rivers in flood depos
silt over the floodp'

Floodplains and river banks

provide habitatsforwildlife

Less throughflow and surface

Vegetation improves the visual runoff reduces the risk of
Fiotirp? 71
appearance and helps create buffer flooding
A free-flowing river str'P s

96 Drainage basins and rivers


hould rivers be m a n a g e d ornot?
oc*e living and working in flood-risk areas
' 5 lywanttheirlives.propertyand wayof
Dtecting yet increasingly this can only be
i g r e a t e r financial and environmental
: lom e ofthe problems created bytrying
rol rivers are shown in Figure 3.70. Yet
W &Aevents increase in frequency and
> :•u rces o f m a p s
_ ; js 98-99)
•-■'‘•,oks
2002) Essential M apwork Skills,
Thornes, ISBN 978-0-7487-6461-7
2006) Essential M apwork Skills 2,
- Thornes, ISBN 978-0-7487-8436-3
- r\ Stanfords (branches in London
) carries an astonishing range
. - and is well worth a visit (website
r>elow).
•M m
■ Geological Survey
gs.ac.uk/enquiries/rocks_
- -'h.htm l
rM - an Disaster Em ergency
e Agency (CDERA)
Mera.org
Historical Maps
j3ssinimaps.co.uk
u . topographic maps)
:artographic.com
The need for river m anagem ent 223S53D
severity, there may come a time when it is The RT^r Skerne, near Darlington in County
impossible to finance new defences or main- Durham, had, over 200 years, been progres-
tain existing ones. Figure 3.71 shows some of sively straightened for flood control, drainage,
the ways by which the EA has, in a published housing and industrial development (Figure
pack of 16 schemes, tried to rehabilitate both 3.72).The floodplain had been a place for
rivers and their floodplains in an atjgmpt to tipping contaminated waste while the river
allow people to live with, ratherthan trying to itself had become polluted, unsightly and, in
control, them. places, inaccessible.Towards the end ofthe
20th century variousorganisations, including
the EA, Northumbrian Water, English Nature,
the CountrysideCommission and Darlington
Borough Council, worked together, with con-
siderable effect,to rehabilitate the river (Figure
3.73).This has been achieved withoutcom-
promising flood protection standards.
Rivers may be rehabilitated by:
• creating new habitats for wildlife
(otters, birds, fish)
• reshaping river banks and channels
and replacing artificial beds and banks
fhard'engineering) with natural
materials
• recreating meanders and riffles
• reopening culverts.
Floodplains may be rehabilitated by:
• restoring former ponds and wetland
areas or establishing new ones
• raising water tables and allowing
increased flooding on floodplains
• planting trees and shrubs and creating
buffer strips
• creating recreation areas.
E n viron m en t Agency N ational H urricane Center
www.enviroment-agency.gov.uk/maps www.nhc.noaa.gov
G eological Survey of India O m n im ap .com
www.gsi.gov.in www.omnimap.com
Get M apping O rdnance Survey
www.getmapping.com www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/oswebsite
GOAD m aps available th rou gh www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/oswebsite/
E xperian at getamap/
www.business-strategies.co.uk/sitecore/ O rdnance Survey of N orthern Ireland
content/Products%20and%20services/ www.osni.gov.uk
Goad.aspx Population Reference Bureau
Google m aps www.prb.org/Publications/
www.maps.google.co.uk GraphicsBank/PopulationTrends.aspx
Land use m aps Brighton and Hove School for Disaster G eo-Inform ation
www.sussex.ac.uk/geography/l-2-4-l-2. M anagem ent
htm l www.itc.nl/unu/dgim/diag/pakistan.asp
Florida Soil Survey Maps
www.mapwise.com/maps/florida/land- www.cranfield.ac.uk/sas/nsri/index.jsp
use-zoning.htm l Stanfords Maps
Map A ction www.stanfords.co.uk
www.mapaction.org Streetm ap
M et Office www.streetmap.co.uk
www.metoffice.gov.uk US Geological Survey
M ultim ap www.usgs.gov
www.multimap.com
Drainage basins and rivers 97
 Focu sing o n m a p s fo r G e o g ra p h y
Maps providea rich source of informationfor
geographical study.There are manydifferent types,
including thetraditional topographicOrdnance
Survey (OS) maps, and specialist ones such as soil
maps, geology maps and historical maps. Detailed
maps exist for many parts of the world, providing a
hugeamountofinformation on land use,tourism
and communications.The Internet is a great source
of maps, enabling the user to have control over scale
and coverage. See page 97 for some useful sources of
maps, including those described below.
Paper maps
In the UKthe maps most commonly used by
geography students are the topographic OS maps.
These are widely available and cover England, Wales
and Scotland. Maps of Northern Ireland (produced
by the OS of Northern Ireland) are slightly different,
although there is widespread coverage.The most
commonly used OS maps are the Landranger 1:50 000
maps and the Explorer 1:25 000 maps. Now that all the
cartographic details are stored digitally it is possible to
obtain site-centred maps at a great variety of scaIes,
including 1:10 000,1:5000 and even 1:1250, which give
detailed layouts of houses and gardens.
Across the world, topographic maps similar to the
UK's OS maps have been produced mostly using
satellite information and exploiting GIS. Recently
1:50 000 topographic maps of China have been
produced and these are now widely used to support
economic development.
Many specialist paper maps are available for
Figure 3.74 geographical study:
Extract from a geology
• The National Soil Resources Institute at the UK's
map.Notice how rock
Cranfield University publishes extremely detailed
types (coloured)are
superimposedontoa soil maps.
tradiţional OS map
• The British Geological Survey has produced
Source: www.bgs.ac.uk
similarly detailed geological mapsidentifying
rock types and geological features
(Figure 3.74).These have many
applications,forexamplein studying
the location of landslides or the
—- distributionoffarms.
• The Geological Survey of India
publishes geology maps at various
scales.These show details of
geology as well as hazardsand earth
resources.
• Historical maps are now available
for many parts of the UK and these
98 Drainage basins and rivers
are an excellent resource when investigating
changes over time, for example for an innercity
area such as London Docklands or on a rural—
urban fringe.
• Land use maps provide a further useful historical
record for geographical study.Two sets of such
maps cover the UK. These were drawn up in the
1930s and 1960s. More recently in 1996, the UK
Geographical Association conducted a land use
survey of 1000 x 1 km2squares - 500 rural and
500 urban - to enable comparisons to be made
with the historical land use maps. Similar maps are
available for other parts of the world.
• In South Africa a large range of city maps is
available from Omnimap.com, together with a
selection of topographic maps at different scales
and thematic maps covering land uses, resources
and geology. Omnimap.com also sells a range of
maps of Malaysia, including land use maps and
detailed geology/mineral maps.
• International Travel Maps (printed in Canada) give
an excellent coverage of South America including
the Amazon rainforest.These maps can be
obtained from Stanfords bookshop (see 'Sources
of maps' on page 97). Similar maps published by
Globetrotter give good coverage of the Middle
East,and are also available from Stanfords.
• In the UK, students may come across GOAD maps
at GCSE. Essentially these plot commercial land
uses in towns and cities. Buildings are drawn
to scale and the nature of the building use is
described; individual shops and stores are named.
GOAD maps provide wonderful historical records
and can be used to demonstrate changing urban
land use (particularly retailing). While these
maps are only available for the UK, they area
useful source of information for anyone studying
geography.
Maps on the Internet
Today when asked for a map, most students
automaticallyturn tothe Internet.There are several
Internet map providers, including Google Maps,
Multimap, Get Mapping and Streetmap.The Ordnance
Survey also provides maps online, and has a service
Get-a-Map by which it is possible to find a map for a
named place and prinţ it, subject to certain conditions.
The Internet gives access to maps of all kinds, quickly
and cheaply (often free of charge), and usually offers
interactivity, with zoom and navigation facilities.
Increasingly GIS enables the user to select particular

:ane
-r 2008
ahc.
information to include on a map. Aerial photographs
and so-called'hybrid'maps (traditional maps
superimposed over aerial photos) provide a further
dimension for the geography student.
Many organisations provide specialist maps. For
example:
• Map Action produces maps of areas hit by natural
disasters such as volcanic eruptions, earthquakes
or hurricanes.These maps are produced very
quickly following an event to support relief
agencies in their work.
• The School for Disaster Geo-lnformation
Management has a tremendous selection of maps
relating to the 2005 Pakistan earthquake; some 40
maps have been produced at a scale of 1:50 000 to
assist aid workers in the region.
• Maps plotting hurricanes can be found at the
National Hurricane Center (Figure 3.75).
• A huge variety of maps to support the study of
tectonics, water resources and geology can be
found at the US Geological Survey.
• For disasters in the Caribbean, such as earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, hurricanes and landslides, the
Caribbean Disaster Emergency Response Agency
provides excellent information including maps.
• Up-to-date and archive weather maps can
be found atthe Met Office and a range of UK
postcode-related environmental maps can be
found at the Environment Agency's website.
• A great site providing population maps is the
Population Reference Bureau.
Using maps in geographical research
Maps are an essential part of study at AS/A level and
you should make use of them when conducting your
own individual research. Atthe most basic level a map
identifiesthe location ofa study area. It also helps
to provide context, for example where a place is in
relation to other places, or important features ofthe
landscape. Geography is about interrelationships and
connections and maps are often invaluable in this
respect.
Information on maps can be directly relevant to
geographical study, providing an alternative source of
information about an area. In physical geography, for
example, maps can be used to identify features such
as corries, raised beaches and sea stacks. In human
geography they provide information about services,
patterns of roads and settlements, and land uses.
Sketch maps
Topographic maps are wonderfully detailed but
sometimesthey contain too much information so
that it is difficult to see the overall picture. A sketch
map enables a geographer to be more focused by
making a careful copy of just a few selected pieces
of information. Sketch maps are invaluable when
researching case studies, for example in identifying
landforms along a stretch ofcoastline.When drawing
a sketch map you must be clear about its purpose
and avoid adding irrelevantdetail. Ensure that your
map is as accurate as possible and remember to
always include a scale and a north arrow. Use labels or
annotationsto provide interpretation of your map.
Using maps in exams
There is a strong chance that you will be given a map
extract in one or more of your exam modules; so you
do needto prepare yourselfthoroughly as part of your
revision. Practise the essential mapwork skills such as
using grid references, measuring distance, describing
orientation and drawing simple sketch maps. Make
sure you know most ofthe symbols so that you can
'read'a map without having to keep referring to the
key.
Take time to learn howto interpret a map in different
geographical contexts. For example, be clear what
different types ofhousing look like in an urban area,
and make sure that you can identify a high tide line
when examining a stretch of coastline.
’i■ (Senili Alrpflrt
/dhor fiai?gX>r
V jpasirGui
Figure 3.76
Detailed topographic map of
Singapore
Source: www.omnimap.com
Drainage basins and rivers 99
 Questions & Activities

Activities
100
channel precipitation and fast runoff

surface runoff
75
throughflow,soil moisture
storage and groundwater
50 surface\ storage (varies according to
,torage \ soil and rock type)

interception

0
start of storm middle of storm end of storm
time from start of storm
Fieldsketch of
Figure 3.77
a meander
The relationship between rainfall and
runoff in the course of a typical storm

1 Study Figure 3.77. iii Why is there no soil moisture deficit shown in
Figure 3.3? (4 marks)
a i What is surface storage? (2marks)
b Why would a farmer need to understand the water
ii Why does interception decrease during a storm? balance of farmland? (6 marks)
(3 marks)
c Why do water companies in Britain depend on winter
iii What happens to surface runoff during the storm? rainfall to maintain reservoirs? (6 marks)
(4 marks)
b What would happen to a river at the following stages: 3 a i Study the diagram ofa meander (Figure 3.78) and
i at the start of this storm identify the location ofthe following landforms:

ii at the middle ofthe storm inside ofthe bend; outside ofthe bend; floodplain;
slip-off slope; river cliff. (5 marks)
iii at the end of the storm? (8marks)
ii Describe the features ofthe channel cross-section
c The figure shows the reaction of a vegetated area to a
of a typical river meander. (5marks)
heavy rainstorm. Describe and explain which parts ofthe
model would change if the area were covered in concrete b Chooseone of the following features ofa river: waterfall;
paving and drains. (8marks) cascade; rapids. Using one or more sketches/diagrams,
describe the features of your chosen landform and
2 a Study Figure 3.3 (page 60) and answerthefollowing explain how it is eroded by a river. (7 marks)
questions: c i How does a meandering river form an oxbow lake?
i What is a'soil moisture budget'? (2 marks) (6 marks)
ii Explain each ofthe following terms used in the ii How could theformation of an oxbow lake lead to
description of a soil moisture (water) budget: field management problems on the floodplain of a river?
capacity; water balance; soil moisture utilisation. (4 marks)
(7 marks)

Exam practice: basic structured questions

a i What is a 'storm hydrograph'? (3 marks) With reference to specific example/s, suggest how
ii What is meant by each of the following terms used in river management strategies may be used to alleviate
relation to a storm hydrograph: lag time; peak the problems caused by a'flashy'regime. (9 marks)
discharge; recession (falling) limb? (6marks)
a i Study Figure 3.27 (page 74). Describe the river bed
b i Identify two drainage basin characteristics that make shown in the photograph. (3 marks)
a river react quickly to a rainstorm (have a'flashy'
regime). For each one explain why it has this effect. Suggest where the loose boulders shown beside the
river have come from. (4 marks)
(7 marks)

100 Drainage basins and rivers

 iii How does a river erode a river bed such as the one in the ii Making good use of annotated diagrams, explain the
photograph? (6 marks) development ofa trellis drainage pattern. (8 marks)
b Explain tw o ways in which you would know that loose b i Study Figure 3.53 (page 85). Describe the valley shape
rocks found on a field trip had been worn away by a river. you would see if you were walking from the River
(6 marks) Wansbecktothe Hart Burn. (2 marks)
c With the aid of diagrams ofa waterfall, show how it is ii Explain how the present drainage pattern evolved
being changed over time by river processes. (6 marks) from the former drainage pattern. (6 marks)
c Choose and name an example ofa drainage pattern other
- a i Describe the characteristic features of a dendritic
than a trellis pattern. Describe it and explain how it has
drainage pattern. (3 marks)
been formed. (6 marks)

E xam p ra c tic e : s tru c tu re d q u e s tio n s

a Using annotated diagram/s to help your answer, illustrate the b Identify and suggest reasons for tw o variations in the
components of a storm hydrograph. (5 marks) long profile of a river. (13 marks)
b Explain how it is possible to measure the discharge ofa
11 a i What is the difference between general base level and
stream in the field and how the results collected will be
processed. (lOmarks) local base level? (6 marks)

c Why do lag times differ on the same stream at different ii Explain what happens to base level in a river system
times? (lOmarks) if sea-level falls. (4 marks)
b Choose tw o landforms formed in a river valley by a
: When a housing estate is built on the rural/urban fringe, pre- change in base level. Identify the direction of change
existing drainage patterns are changed and river systems involved and describe and explain the formation of
respond in a different way to storm events. each landform. (15marks)
a Study of such changes must start before building to
establish a'baseline'for change. Briefly describe one 12 a Under what circumstances do rivers deposit material?
technique you could use to measure the discharge ofa (12 marks)
stream in a rural catchment. (5 marks) b i Explain how levees form as a result of natural river
b Describe and accountfortwo changes to discharge which processes. (5 marks)
may occur once the housing estate is built (lOmarks) ii How do levees affect rivers and their tributaries?
c Describe tw o problems that could occur in the area due (8 marks)
to the altered discharge pattern. (lOmarks)
13 Study Case Study 3B on pages 90 and 91.
r a Usingannotateddiagram/sonly,showhowthevelocityofa a Describe the seasonal rainfall pattern in Mozambique and
typical river varies across its cross-section. (5 marks) explain why this distribution of rainfall makes flooding
common in the country's major river basins. (7marks)
: i Describe the processes by which the load of a river is b Population densities are increasing in both the rural and
transported. (8 marks) urban areas of Mozambique. Suggest how this increases the
ii What factors affect the size ofthe particles eroded, flood hazard in the country. (8 marks)
transported and deposited by a river? (12 marks) c '... the government introduced its prevention-focused rather
than its response-focused policy.'
’0 a Describe and suggest reasons for the cross-section shape of
a river: Suggest what these policy changes might have meant in
different parts of Mozambique. (lOmarks)
i near the source of the river
ii close to the mouth of the river. (12 marks)

Exam p ra c tic e : essays

14 With reference to one or more river basins that you have studied, 16 'Flood hazards, resulting from a combination of physical and
describe and evaluate river rehabilitation schemes. human influences, are increasing in many parts ofthe world.'
(25 marks)
Discuss this statement with reference to rivers in countries at
15 Explain how changes in the base level ofa river can affect the different stages of economic development. (25 marks)
valley cross-section and the river's long profile. (25 marks)

Drainage basins and rivers 101

 Glaciation

'Great God! this is an awful place. ' th e Pleistocene epoch o f th e Q uaternary period
The South Pole, Robert Falcon Scott, J o u rn a l, 1912 (Figure 1.1). In th e 2 m illion years since th e onset
o f the Quaternary, the tim e su b ject to m ost public
keages interest and scientific research, there have been
fluctuations in global tem perature o f up to 10°C
It appears th a t roughly every 2 0 0 -2 5 0 m illion w hich have led to cold phases (glacials) and warm
years in th e Earth's history there have b een m ajor phases (in terg lacials). R ecent analyses o f b o th
periods o f ice activity (Figure 4.1 ). O f these, th e ocean floor and A ntarctic ice cores (Places 14)
m ost recent and significant occurred during confirm th a t over th e last 7 5 0 0 0 0 years th e Earth
has experienced eigh t ice ages (glacials) separated
Figure4.1 Holocene (post-gladal)
by eight interglacials (Figure 4.2).
See 0 Pleistocene: began 2-3 million
A chronology of ice W h e n the ice reached its m ax im u m e xten t,
Fig. years ago
ages (in bold) 4.2 it is estim ated th a t it covered 3 0 per ce n t o f th e
100
Earth's land surface (com pared w ith som e 10 per
200 Gondwana ce n t today). However, its effect was n o t on ly felt
Permo-Carboniferous: in polar latitud es and m o u n tain o u s areas, for
300 all Southern continents in
the then Pangaea each tim e th e ice advanced th ere was a change in
400 th e global clim a tic belts (Figure 4 .3 ). O n ly 18 0 0 0
l/t
m >Ordovician: evidence in the years ago, at th e tim e o f th e m ax im u m advance
fi Sahara Desert
> 500 w ith in th e last glacial, ice covered B ritain as far
o
tn sou th as th e Bristol C h an n el, th e M idlands and
J 600
N orfolk. The Southern part o f B ritain exp eri­
e Varangiian enced tu n d ra co n d itio n s (page 3 3 3 ), as did m ost
700
Sturtian o f France.
800
four glacials C lim a tic c h a n g e
900 y in the
Gnejso Pre-Cambrian A lthough it is accepted th a t clim a tic fluctuations
Figure 4.2
1000 occur o n a variety o f tim escales, as yet there is
Generalised trends
n o single exp lan atio n for th e on set o f m ajor ice
in mean global Huronian
2300
temperatures during > ages or for flu ctu ation s w ithin each ice age. The
the past 1 million years m ost feasible o f theories to date is th a t of M ilutin
M ilan k ovitch , m athem atician/astronom er.
Betw een 1 9 1 2 and 1941, he perform ed exhau s­
the past 1 million years
+6 tive calcu latio n s w h ich show th a t th e Earth's
— previous ice ages ^age6 p o sition in space, its tilt and its orbit around the
3
3T Sun all change. These changes, he claim ed, affect
interglac ials +3
Q> in co m in g rad iation from th e Sun and produce
3
*2. three m ain cycles o f 1 0 0 0 0 0 , 4 0 0 0 0 and 2 1 0 0 0
/\ 1* . A J j i M is I n I o
B" thousand years (Figure 4 .6 ). His theory, and the
■vyt
tim escale of each cycle, has b een given consider-
glacials -3
3 able support by evidence gained, since the mid-
W m "O
1970s, from ocean floor cores. As yet, althou gh
3
-6 c th e relationsh ip appears to have b een established
800 000 600 000 400 000 200 000 it is n o t know n precisely how these celestial
years before present
cycles reiate to clim atic change.

102 Glaciation
■ ce age environments 18 000 years ago

Figure 4.3

World dimatesand
vegetation 18000
years ago (after
CLIMAP)

b Britain 18 000 years ago

. _____ ’ Scandinavjan
movement

□ tundra / ■
1 -
(? 2(?0 km •

dry steppe and sea temperature

J ice llmit of ice
semi-desert (°C ) 18000
10 ------- years ago
j sea ice grassland savanna
(some open woodland)
ice height (m)
tundra forest --- 3000----

loess and semi-desert lakes maximum limit

of ice sheet
desert ^000 km

8rîtain still jolned to Europe

(sea-level was lower during the glacials)

O ther suggestions have b een m ade as to th e
causes o f ice ages. Som e o f these processes are
likely to act in c o m b in a tio n (Places 14) and m ay
well am plify M ilan k o v itch 's variations.
■ V ariations in sunspot activity m ay increase or
decrease th e a m o u n t o f rad iatio n received by
th e Earth.
■ In je c tio n s o f v o lca n ic dust in to th e atm o s­
phere ca n reflect and absorb rad iation from
th e Sun (page 2 0 7 and Figure 1.48).
■ C hanges in atm o sp h eric carb on dioxide
gas could accen tu ate th e green hou se effect
(Case Study 9B). Initially extra C 0 2 traps
h eat in th e atm osphere, possibly raising
world tem peratu res by an estim ated 3°C. In
tim e, som e o f th is C 0 2 will be absorbed by
th e seas, reducing th e a m o u n t rem ain in g in
th e atm osp here and cau sing a drop in world
tem peratu res and th e o n set o f a n o th er ice age
(Figure 4 .5 ).
■ The m o v e m e n t o f plates - eith er in to colder
latitudes or at con stru ctive m argins, w here
there is an increase in altitud e - could lead to
an overall drop in world land tem peratures.
■ C hanges in ocean currents (page 2 1 1 ) or je t
stream s (page 2 2 7 ).

Glaciation 103
 A n t a r c t ic a a n d G re e n la n d : p re v io u s c lim a tic c h a n g e

A n ta rc tic a
In 1988, the Russians announced the first results
ofa five-year drilling experiment in Antarctica
in which they extracted ice cores descending
downwards through the ice sheet for neariy 2 km.
Each core is a cylinder of ice 10 cm in diameter and
about 3 m in length.The cores show a succession
of rings, each of which is equivalenttothe
accumulation of one year of snow (Figure 4.4). From
this, it was estimated that the ice at the bottom of
the core had been formed 160 000 ago.

In 2004, the European Project for Ice Coring in

Antarctica (EPICA) went deeper.The team, from ten
countries and including members of the former British
Antarctic Survey, produced a 3 km deep ice core that
contained, at it lowest point, snowfall from 740 000
years ago.The consortium are still drilling and hope,
by 2010, to reach base rock under the ice sheet and to
recover ice that fell as snow over 900 000 years ago.
thousands of years ago
Analysis ofthe core showed how temperature has
Figure 4.5
changed in the past and how the concentration of
gases, mainly C02and methane, and particles in the Atmospheric C02 concentration

atmosphere, have varied. Results confirmed that: G re e n la n d , 1 9 9 8 and temperature change

• there have been eight glacials in the last 750 000 Two projects conducted from 1989 to 1993 collected

years and our present warm period is part of an parai lei cores of ice from two places 30 km apart in

interglacial that could last for at least another the central part ofthe Greenland ice sheet. Each core

15 000 years (although this could, without was over 2 km deep and has been shown to extend

Figure 4.4
Dirt bands (englacial debris)
in an Icelandic glacier: the
amount of ice between each
dirt band represents one year's
accumulationofsnow
evidence, be longer if global warming continues)
• there is a close link between temperature
change and the content of C 0 2 in the
atmosphere (Figure 4.5) and the last glacial
began when the C02 content was very low
• there have been several previous periods of
considerable global volcanic activity
• there is a likelihood ofthe Earth wobbling on its
axis causing Milankovitch's 21 million yearcycle.
back 110 000 years. During that period snowfall
averaged 15-20 cm a year. At the same time as the
snow was being compressed into ice (page 105),
volcanic dust, wind-blown dust, sea salt, gases and
chemicals which were present in the atmosphere,
were trapped within the ice.The gases included two
types of oxygen isotope, 0-16 and 0-18 (page 248).
The ratio between these two isotopes changes as
the proportion of global water bound up in the ice
changes (the amount of 0-18 in the atmosphere
increases as air temperature falls, and decreases
as air temperature rises).The changing ratiosfrom
the Greenland cores showed short-term and long-
term changes in temperature, and that rapid global
change is more the norm for the Earth's climate
than the stability and gradual adjustment that
was previously assumed.The recent ice core from
Antarctica directly correlates'with an astounding
regularity'with the abrupt climate changes in both
polar areas. However, findings also suggest that as
Antarctica warms up, Greenland cools and, likewise,
when temperatures rise in Greenland, they fall in
Antarctica. This link suggests that the two icy regions
are connected by ocean currents in a bipolar seesaw
(Case Study 4).
a the 100 000 year eccentricity

The Earth's orbit stretches from being nearly circular to an

eiiiptical shape and back again in a cycle of about 95000
years. During the Quaternary, the major glacial—interglacial O Su"
cycle was almost 100000 years. Glacials occur when the orbit
is almost circular and interglacials when it is a more c
elliP tical shaP e- Earth: eiiiptical orbit

Earth: more circular orbit

b the 40 000 year obliquity solar radiation

Although the tropics are set at 23.5°N and 23.5°5 to equate

ith the angle of the Earth's tilt, in reality the Earth's axis
. aries from its plane of orbit by between 21,5Cand 24.5°. When
:he tilt increases,summers will become hotter and winters
:older, leading to conditions favouring interglacials. a = 21.5°

b = 24.5°

axis describes a
circle every
c the 21 000 year precession 21000 years Earth's
winter
As the Earth slowly wobbles in space, its axis describes a
: rele once in every 21 000 years. 1 Today Sun
1 At present,the orbit places the Earth closest to the Sun
' the northern hemisphere's w inter and furthest away
~ summer.This tends to make winters mild and summers
:ool. These are ideal conditions for glacials to develop. winter
2 The position was in reverse 12 000 years ago, and this has
:antributed to the onset of our current interglacial.
2 12 000 Sun
years
ago

46 S n o w a c c u m u la tio n a n d ic e fo r m a tio n W h en snow flakes fall th ey have an open,

tal forcing^ cijm a t e gets colder, m ore precipitation is feathery appearance, trap air and have a low
density. W here snow collects in hollows, it
. likely to be in the form o f snow in winter and there
ovitch s clim atic 1 becom es com pressed by th e w eight o f subsequent
- theory is less tim e for th at snow to m elt in the shorter
falls and gradually develops in to a m ore com pact,
summer. If the clim ate continues to deteriorate,
dense form called firn or n eve. Firn is com pacted
snow will lie throughout th e year form ing a per­
snow w hich has experienced one w inter's freezing
m anent snow lin e - the level above w hich snow
and survived a sum m er's m elting. It is com posed
will lie all year. In the northern hem isphere, the
of random ly oriented ice crystals separated by air
snow line is at a lower altitude on north-facing
passages. In tem perate latitudes, such as in the
slopes, as these receive less insolation th an south-
Alps, sum m er m eltw ater percolates in to the firn
facing slopes. The snow line is also lower nearer to
o n ly to freeze eith er at n ig h t or during th e fol-
the poles and higher nearer to the Equator: it is at
low ing winter, thus form ing an increasingly dense
sea-level in northern Greenland; at about 1500 m
mass. Air is progressively squeezed out and after
in Southern Norway; at 3 0 0 0 m in the Alps; and
2 0 - 4 0 years th e firn will have turned in to solid
at 6 0 0 0 m at the Equator. It is estim ated that the
ice. This same process m ay take several hundred
Cairngorms in Scotland would be snow-covered
years in A ntarctica and G reenland where there is
all year had they been 2 0 0 m higher. In 2003 w hen
no sum m er m elting. O nce ice has form ed, it m ay
Sir Edmund Hillary revisited the base camp for his
begin to flow dow nhill, under the force o f gravity,
1953 ascent of M ount Everest, he found the snow-
as a g lacier.
line had retreated uphill by 8 km in 50 years.

Glaciation 105
 humid and cold inputs
snowfall snow line
(low annual outputs
avalanches from
temperatures) valley sides meltwater
zone of equilibrium
(balance between
accumulation and direct evaporation
ACCUMULATION ablation) from 9 lader
(usually only in transfers calving (icebergs on coast)
winter) (moving ice) storage
(as glacier ice)
net
accumulation net ablation ABLATION meltwater
zone
(usually only in summer) (summer)

Figure 4.7
4 Ic e c a p s and ic e sh e ets are huge areas o f ice
The gladal system
G la c ie r s a n d ic e m a s s e s
w h ich spread outw ards from cen tral dom es.
showing inputs, Glaciers m ay be classified (Framework 7, page 167) Apart from exposed sum m its o f high m o u n ­
stores, transfers
according to size and shape - characteristics that tains, called n u n a ta k s, th e w hole landscape
and outputs
are relatively easy to identify by field observation. is buried. Ice sheets, w h ich on ce covered
1 C o rrie or cirq u e glaciers are sm all m asses of m u ch o f n o rth e rn Europe and N orth A m erica
ice occu p y in g arm ch air-sh aped hollow s in (Figure 4 .3) are now co n fin e d to A ntarctica
m o u n ta in s (Figure 4 .1 4 ). T h ey o ften overspill (86 per ce n t o f present-day w orld ice) and
from th e ir hollow s to feed valley glaciers. G reen lan d (11 per cen t).
2 V alley g laciers are larger m asses o f ice w h ich 5 Ice shelves form w h en ice sheets reach th e
m ove dow n from eith er an icefield or a cirque sea and begin to float. Iceb ergs form w hen
b asin source (Figure 4 .8 ). T h ey usually follow ice breaks away, a process know n as calv in g .
form er river courses and are bound ed by steep
sides. G la cia l s y stem s a n d b u d g e ts
3 P ie d m o n t g laciers are form ed w h en valley
A glacier behaves as a system (Framework 3, page
glaciers exten d o n to low land areas, spread
45), w ith inputs, stores, transfers and outputs
out and merge.
(Figure 4.7). Inputs are derived from snow falling
directly o n to th e glacier or from av alan ch es along
Figure 4.8 valley sides (Case Study 4). The glacier itself is
water in storage and transfer. Outputs from the
TheGigjokul glacier,
Iceland, showing the glacier system include evaporation, calving (the
zones of accumulation, form ation of icebergs), and m eltw ater streams
equilibrium (snow w hich flow either on top o f or under the ice
line) and ablation during th e sum m er m onth s.
T h e upper part o f th e glacier, w here inputs
exceed outputs, is know n as th e zon e o f a c c u ­
m u la tio n ; th e lower part, w here outputs exceed
inputs, is called th e zo n e o f a b la tio n . The zon e
o f eq u ilib riu m is w here th e rates o f accu m u la­
tio n and a b la tio n are equal, and it correspbnds
w ith th e snow line (Figures 4 .7 and 4.8).
The glacier budget, or n et balance, is the dif-
ference betw een the total accum ulation and the
total ablation for one year. In temperate glaciers
Figure 4.9
(page 108), there is likely to be a negative balance in
The glacial budget or
sum mer w hen ablation exceeds accum ulation, and
net balance (northern
a positive balance in winter w hen the reverse occurs
hemisphere)
(Figure 4.9). If th e summer and winter budgets
cancel each other out, the glacier appears to be
stationary. It appears stationary because the snout
- i.e. the end of the glacier - is neither advancing
nor retreating, although ice from the accum ulation
zone is still m oving down-valley into the abla­
tion zone. Because glaciers are acutely affected by
changes to inputs and outputs, they are sensitive
winter spring summer autumn winter indicators o f clim atic change, both short term and
long term.

106 Glaciation
 Glaciers
Glaciers are composed o fa mosaic of thermal types of ice and
most are polythermal.This means that they may be
predominantly 'polar'or predominantly 'temperate', based upon
the climatic conditions in which they occur and their size (e.g.
the base ofthe 'polar' Antarctic ice sheet is 'temperate' because
it traps huge amounts of geothermal heat).

I
Glacier movement

Cold (polar) glaciers Temperate glaciers

j r in very cold areas where no melting occurs and where Occur in areas with milder summers allowing melting to occur,
•elief is usually gentle, e.g.Greenland, Antarctica.The base and where the relief is steeper, e.g. the Alps, Norway.The base
uch colderthan the pressure melting point temperature of a temperate glacier is at about the same temperature as the
so little or no melting occurs (Figure 4.11 a). pressure melting point (Figure 4.11a).

1 t
Internai flow Basal slippage (flow/sliding)
ery cold climates,the glacier will befrozen to its bed.Without If the glacier moves, there will b ean increase in pressure and
- iction or an increase in pressure there will be no melting. friction with the bedrock.This will raise the temperature and the
• glaciers may only move 1-2 cm per day and erosion will basal ice may melt.The resulting meltwater will act as a lubricant
' nimal (Figure 4.11 b). enabling the glacier to flow more rapidly (perhaps 2-3 m per
day), to pick up material (debris) and to erode its bed
(Figure 4.11 b).

Creep Extending and compressing flow Surges

'/stals orient themselves
■s direction ofthe glacier's
■iment.This allows ice
~als to slide past each other.
ie surface ice moves faster,
asses may develop
_re 4.13). (This process can
operate within temperate
: ers.)
4.10
T^seso fglacier
;n e n t
If there is an obstacle in the path
o fthe glacier, pressure will
increase. As the stress builds up,
the ice behaves like plastic and
flows round or over the obstacle.
The lower the temperature, the
greater the pressure needed to
allow this process to take place
and so it is less likely to occur in
cold glaciers.
crevasses (an important
source of basal debris)
extending
flow
ice thins
steeper gradient
As most temperate glaciers occupy
previously river-eroded valleys, their
iniţial velocity must have been
controlled by differences in the
gradient of those valleys. J.F. Nye
suggested that where there was a
reduction in the gradient o fth e
valley floor, the ice would decelerate
and become thicker. He called this
compressing flow. Where the valley
gradient steepened.the ice would
accelerate and become thinner:
extending flow. Erosion is greatest
where the ice is thickest (Figure
4.12c).
compressing flow
(maximum erosion)
ice thickens
gradient lessens
gradient increases
These are the result of an excessive
build-up of subglacial meltwater
reservoirs (not, as stated in earlier
editions of this book, by excessive
snowfalls in the accumulation zone).
In addition.they can occasionally
occur when rock avalanches fall onto
the glacier surface or, on even rarer
occasions, if triggered by an
earthquake. In a surge, the glacier
moves forward, perhaps by 300 m in
a day, an event which takes place in
some glaciers once in every 30 -100
years. The surge may damage farms,
and sudden release of meltwater
can cause severe flooding.
extending
flow
ice thins

Glaciation 107
 G la c ie r m o v e m e n t a n d te m p e r a tu r e
The character and m ovem en t of ice depend upon
w h eth er it is warm or cold, w h ich in turn depends
upon the pressure m eltin g p o in t (PM P). The
pressure m elting point is the tem perature at w hich
ice is on th e verge of m elting. A small increase in
pressure can therefore cause m elting. PMP is nor-
m ally 0°C on the surface of a glacier, but it can be
lower w ithin a glacier (due to an increase in pres­
sure caused by either the w eight or th e m ovem ent
of ice). In other words, as pressure increases, th en
the freezing p oin t for water falls below 0°C.
W a rm a n d c o ld ice
W arm ice has a tem peratu re o f around 0°C (PMP)
th ro u g h o u t its d ep th (Figure 4 .1 1 a ) and conse-
q u en tly is able, esp ecially in sum m er, to release
large am o u n ts o f m eltw ater. Tem peratures in
cold ice are p erm an en tly below 0°C (PMP) and
so th ere is virtu ally n o m eltw ater (Figure 4 .1 1 a ).
It is th e presen ce o f m eltw ater th a t facilitates th e
m o vem en t o f a glacier. Tem perature is therefore
an altern ativ e criterio n to size or shape for use
Figure 4.11
w h en categorising glaciers - th e y m ay be eith er
Comparison of
te m p e ra te (m ain ly w arm ice) or p o la r (m ainly
temperatureand
cold ice) - Figure 4 .1 0 . M o v em en t is m u ch faster
velocity profiles in
polar and temperate in tem perate glaciers w here th e presence of
glaciers m eltw ater acts as a lu b rican t and reduces fric­
tio n (Figure 4.1 lb ). It can take place by o n e o f
four processes: b asal flow (or slipp in g); creep ;
e x te n d in g -co m p re s s in g flow ; and surges
(Figure 4 .1 0 ). Polar glaciers m ove less quickly as,
w ith o u t th e presen ce o f m eltw ater, th ey tend to
be frozen to th eir beds. T h e m ain process here is
in te rn a i flow , alth ou g h creep and e x te n d in g -
com pressing flow m ay also occur.
B oth types o f glacier m ove m ore rapidly on
th e surface and away from th eir valley sides
(Figure 4 .1 2 a and b), b u t it is th e tem perate
o n e th a t is th e m ore likely to erode its bed and
to carry and d ep osit m ost m aterial as m o ra in e
(page 117). R ecent research suggests th a t any
single glacier m ay ex h ib it, at d ifferent points
along its profile, th e ch aracteristics o f b o th polar
and tem perate glaciers.
M o vem en t is greatest;
■ at th e p o in t o f equ ilibrium - as th is is w here
th e greatest volum e o f ice passes and conse-
q u en tly w h ere th ere is m ost energy available
■ in areas w ith h ig h p recip ita tio n and ablation
■ in sm all glaciers, w h ich respond m ore readily
to sh ort-term clim a tic flu ctu ation s
■ in tem perate glaciers, w here th ere is m ore
m eltw ater available, and
■ in areas w ith steep gradients.

a Temperature profiles
Polar glacier Temperate glacier

-30 -20 -10 +10°c

.W i o°c
surface of
----PMP (pressure melting point)
glacier
---- annual temperature
increasing W = winter surface temperature
depth (m)
S = summer surface temperature

base
On both graphs temperatures show an
increase with depth due to geothermal heat.
Temperature at base of cold glacier is well below PMP. Temperature at base of temperate glacier is
Little or no meltwater beneath glacier prevents it from about the same as PMP. Meltwater beneath
moving freely. Only under thickest parts of glaciers glacier can either be permanent or seasonal
in Antarctica does temperature exceed PMP to allow allowing the glacier to move freely (less friction).
melting and movement to occur.

b Velocity profiles
Polar glacier Temperate glacier

ice surface

depth (m) internai flow

basal flow
base of glacier
(at pressure
speed of flow melting point)

108 Glaciation
 a surface velocity of b changes in velocity c extending and compressing flow
a glacier with depth
glacier extending flow extending flow
valley wall F 0
surface bergschrund and crevasses and seracs (ice-blocks or step
crevasses faults), 1000 m/yr (Figure 4.13)
? °
§ JS surface of ice breaks and cracks
■2 S r ° -V
o -1 u -2 because o fthe higher velocity
glacier a» centre of a
%//\ cn
_
— ai'1 glacier pressure bulges as
'T.em en t 75 a*
3 2, compressive flow
ra» ° T 0 r o 100 m/yr
? ° %1 -C
oi crevasses
T ° cirque (corrie)
valley rock basin, dead ice
valley wall r - - 9 200m at snout
floor gradient 1:5
0 25 50 75 100 0 10 20 30 rock step or bar with
m per year m per year
ice-fall, gradient 1:2
valley rock basin,
O original position of o position of markerpoles gradient 1:25
markerpoles after one year

•4.12

t . toshow
: 3 .elocity
' a glacier

t -.13

. :;so n a n
: o fta
■ :e!and

T r a n s p o r t a t io n b y ice
G laciers are capable o f m o vin g large q u an tities
o f debris. T his rock debris m ay be transp orted in
o n e o f th ree ways:
1 S u p rag lacial debris is carried on th e surface
o f th e glacier as lateral and m ed ial m oraine
(page 11 7 ). It consists o f m aterial th a t has
fallen o n to th e glacier from th e surrounding
valley sides. In sum m er, th e relatively sm all
load carried by surface m eltw ater stream s
o ften disappears dow n crevasses.
2 E n g la cia l debris is m aterial carried w ithin the
body of th e glacier. It m ay o n ce have b een on
th e surface, o n ly to be buried by later snow-
falls or to fall in to crevasses (Figure 4 .4 ).
3 S u b g lacial d ebris is m oved a lo n g th e floo r
o f th e valley eith er by th e ice or by m e lt­
w ater stream s form ed by pressure m eltin g
(page 10 8 ).
G la c ia l e r o s io n
Ice th a t is station ary or co n ta in s little debris
has lim ited erosive power, w hereas m o vin g ice
carrying w ith it m u ch debris can d rastically alter
th e landscape. A lthough ice lacks th e turbu lence
and velocity o f w ater in a river, it has th e 'advan-
tage' o f b ein g able to m elt and refreeze in order
to overcom e obstacles in its path (Figure 4 .1 0 )
and co n seq u en tly has th e ab ility to low er (i.e.
erode) th e landscape m ore quickly th a n can
ru n n in g water. V irtually all th e glacial processes
o f erosion are physical, as th e clim ate tends to
be to o cold for ch em ica l reaction s to operate
(Figure 2 .1 0 ).

Glaciation 109
 P rocesses o f g la c ia l e ro s io n
T h e processes associated w ith glacial erosion are:
frost sh atterin g , abrasion , plucking, ro ta tio n a l
m o v em en t, and e x te n d in g and com pressing
flow.
F ro s t s h a tte rin g
This process (page 4 0 ) produces m u ch loose
m aterial w h ich m ay fall from th e valley sides
o n to th e edges o f th e glacier to form la te r a l
m o ra in e , be covered by later snow fall, or plunge
dow n crevasses to be tran sp orted as e n g la c ia l
d eb ris. Som e o f th is m aterial m ay be added
to rock loo sen ed by frost a ctio n as th e clim ate
deteriorated (b u t b efore glaciers form ed) to form
b a sa l d e b ris (page 117).
A b ra s io n
T his is th e sand p ap erin g effe ct o f angu lar m a t­
erial em bed d ed in th e g lacier as it rubs ag ain st
Figure 4.14
th e valley sides and floor. It u su ally produces
Processes in the sm o o th e n ed , g en tly slo p in g lan d form s.
formation ofa cirque
P lu c k in g
At its sim plest, this process involves the glacier
freezing on to rock outcrops, after w hich ice m ove­
m ent pulls away masses o f rock. In reality, as the
strength o f th e bedrock is greater th an th at o f the
ice, it would seem th a t only previously loosened
m aterial can be removed. M aterial m ay be con-
tinually loosened by one of three processes:
1 The relatio n sh ip betw een local pressure and
tem peratu re (th e PMP) produces su fficient
m eltw ater for freeze-th aw activ ity to break up
the ice-co n ta ct rock.
2 W ater flow ing dow n a b e rg s c h r u n d (a large,
crevasse-Iike feature found n ear th e head o f
som e glaciers - Figure 4 .1 4 b ) or sm aller cre­
vasses will later freeze o n to rock surfaces.
3 Rem oval o f layers o f bedrock by th e glacier
causes a release in pressure and an enlarging
of jo in ts in th e u n d erlyin g rocks (pressure
release, page 41).
Plucking gen erally creates a jagged-featured
landscape.

1 frost shattering above glacier provides

b advanced stages
of glacial erosion
3a plucking steepens the
back wall and adds to supply
of debris
zone of plucking
zone of abrasion
; morainic debris which falls onto top of glacier
\ 5 meltwater flows down bergschrund
i ^and crevasses to base of glacier
A 6a a pivot point for
former supraglacial debris
which has been covered
by later snow falls
6b glacier has a
rotational movement
deepening its base
4 widening of loints
by pressure release
(exaggerates shape)
Transportation of debris
X supraglacial debris (on top of glacier)
Y englacial debris (within the glacier)
Z basal debris (under the glacier, by
ice and meltwater)
rotational movement
A bergschrund and crevasses formed
*
as ice pulls away from the back wall
B crevasses
C dead ice and moraine
8 uneven floor'dile
to extending and 3b rock lip (threshold)
compressing flow .w here plucking also
takes place
7 some creep
summer
2 abrasion (grinding) by angular material. If pressure meltwater
melting point is reached the extra supply of water will
reduce friction and increase velocity and erosion

(Numbers refer to different glacial processes)

 r | 15
■ ' .Vest
:e r Idris).
ifall
■; :s shape
'• j w still
- : "Dken-off
"nsscree
t;'Ti ' : t ginning
■ ake,
" a s been
:*hinda
R o ta tio n a l m o v e m e n t
This is a d ow n hill m o v em en t o f ice w h ich, like a
iandslide (Figure 2 .1 7 ), pivots ab ou t a p o in t. The
increase in pressure is responsible for th e over-
d eepening o f a cirque floo r (Figure 4 .1 4 b ).
E x te n d in g a n d co m p re s s in g flo w
Figures 4 .1 0 and 4 .1 2 c show how th is process
causes differences in th e rate o f erosion at th e
base o f a glacier.
M axim u m erosion occurs:
■ w here tem peratu res flu ctu ate around 0°C,
allow ing freq u en t freeze-th aw to operate
■ in areas o f jo in ted rocks w h ich can be m ore
easily frost shattered
■ w here tw o tributary glaciers jo in , or th e valley
narrows, giving an increased depth of ice, and
■ in steep m o u n tain o u s regions in tem perate
latitudes, w here th e velo city o f th e glacier is
greatest.
L a n d fo rm s p ro d u c e d b y g la c ia l e ro s io n
C irques
These are am p h ith eatre or arm ch air-shaped
hollow s w ith a steep back wall and a rock basin
(Figure 4 .1 5 ). T h ey are also know n as co rries
(Scotland) and cw m s (W ales - Figures 4 .2 5
and 4 .2 6 ).
D uring periglacial tim es (C hapter 5), before
th e last glacial, snow collected in hollow s,
especially on n o rth -fa cin g slopes. A series o f
processes, co llectiv ely know n as n iv a tio n and
w h ich inclu ded freeze-thaw , so liflu ctio n and
possibly ch em ica l w eathering, operated under
and around th e snow p atch (Figure 4 .1 4 a ). These
processes caused th e u n d erlying rocks to disin-
tegrate. The resu ltan t debris was th e n rem oved
by sum m er m eltw ater stream s to leave, in th e
enlarged hollow , an em bryo cirque. It has been
suggested th a t th e overdeepen ing process m ig h t
need several periglacials or in terglacials and
glacials in w h ich to form . As th e snow p atch
grew, its layers b ecam e in creasingly com pressed
to form firn and, eventually, ice (page 105).
It is accepted that several processes interact
to form a fully developed cirque (Figure 4.14b).
Plucking is one process responsible for steepening
the back wall, but this partly relies upon a supply
of water for freeze-thaw and partly upon pressure
release in w ell-jointed rocks. A rotational m ove­
m ent, aided by water from pressure point m elting
and angular subglacial debris from frost shattering,
enables abrasion to over-deepen the floor of the
cirque. A ro ck lip develops where erosion decreases.
This may be increased in height by the deposition
of m orainic debris at the glacier's snout. W hen the
clim ate begins to get warmer, the ice rem aining in
the hollow melts to leave a deep, rounded lake or
tarn (Figures 4.15 and 4.26).
In B ritain, as'felsewhere in th e north ern
h em isp h ere, cirques are nearly always oriented
b etw een th e n orth -w est (315°), th rou g h th e
n o rth -ea st (w here th e freq u en cy peaks) to th e
sou th-east (135°). T his is because in th e UK:
■ n o rth e rn slopes receive least in so la tio n and
so glaciers rem ained th ere m u ch longer th a n
those facing in m ore sou therly d irections (less
m eltin g on n o rth -fa cin g slopes)
■ w estern slopes face th e sea and, alth ou g h still
cold, th e relativeiy warm er winds w h ich blew
from th a t d irection were m ore likely to m elt
th e snow and ice (m ore snow accu m ulated on
east-facing slopes)
■ th e prevailing w esterly winds cause snow to
drift in to east-facing hollow s.
Lip o rie n ta tio n is th e d irection o f an im aginary
lin e from th e cen tre o f th e back wall o f th e cirque
to its lip. O f 5 6 cirques id entified in th e Snow don
area, 51 have a lip o rie n ta tio n o f betw een 310°
and 120°, and o f 15 on Arran, 14 have an o rie n ­
ta tio n b etw een 5° and 115°.
Glaciation 111
 F ra m e w o rk 5 M e a n , m e d ia n a n d m o d e
Mean, median and mode are all types of average
(measures of dispersion, Framework 8, page 246).
1 The mean (or arithmetic average) is obtained
by totalling the values in a set of data and
dividing by the number of values in that set. It is
expressed by the formula:
n frequently in the data. In the set of values 4 , 6, 4 , 2,
where:
x = mean, 1 = the sum of,x = the value ofthe
variable, n = the number of values in the set
The mean is reliable when the number of values
in the sample is high and their range, i.e. the
difference between the highest and lowest
values, is low, but it becomes less reliable as the
number in the sample decreases, as it is then
influenced by extreme values.
2 The median is the mid-point value ofa set of
data. For example, you have tofind the median
height of students in your class.To do this you
will have to rankeach person in descending
order of height. If there were 15 students then
Figure 4.16 the mid-point would be the eighth student as
there will be seven taller and seven shorter. Had
Normal and skewed
distributions there been an even number in the sample, such
a normal distribution b positively skewed distribution
mean, median and mode
mode
median
mean
3
CT
variable variable
as 16, then the median would have been the
mean ofthe two middle values. The median is
a less accurate measure of dispersion than the
mean because widely differing sets of data can
return the same median, but it is less distorted by
extreme values.
3 The mode is the value or class that occurs most
4 the mode would be 4. Although it is the easiest
ofthethree'averages'to obtain, it has limited
value. Some data may not have two values in the
same class (e.g. 1,2,3,4 , 5), while others may have
more than one modal value (e.g. 1,1,2,4,4).
Relationships between mean, median
and mode
When data is plotted on a graph we can often
make useful observations about the shape ofthe
curve. For example, we would expect A-level results
nationally to show a few top grades, a smaller
number of'unclassifieds'and a large number of
average passes. Graphically this would show a
normal distribution, with all three averages at the
peak. If the distribution is skewed, then by definition
only the mode will lie at the peak (Figure 4.1 6).
c negatively skewed distribution
mode
median
mean
variable
A re te s a n d p y r a m id a l p e a k s
W h en two ad jacen t cirques erode backwards
or sideways towards each other, th e previously
rounded landscape is transform ed in to a narrow,
rocky, steep-sided ridge called an arete, as at
Striding Edge in th e Lake D istrict (Figure 4.17) and
Crib G och o n Snow don (Figure 4.25). If three or
more cirques develop on all sides o f a m ountain,
a p y ra m id a l p eak , or horn, m ay be formed. This
feature has steep sides and several aretes radiating
from th e central peak (Figures 4 .1 8 and 4.19), e.g.
the M atterhorn.
Figure 4.17
An arete: Striding Edgeon
Helvellyn in the Lake District
 G la c ia l tro u g h s , ro c k steps, tru n c a te d
spurs a n d h a n g in g v alleys
These features are interrelated in their forma-
tion. Valley glaciers straighten, w iden and deepen
preglacial valleys, turning the original V-shaped,
river-formed feature in to th e characteristic U
shape typical of glacial erosion, e.g. Wast W ater in
th e Lake D istrict (Figure 4.2 0 ). These steep-sided,
flat-floored valleys are know n as g la c ia l trou ghs.
The overdeepening of the valleys is credited to the
m ovem en t o f ice w hich, aided by large volum es
o f m eltw ater and subglacial debris, has a greater
erosive power th an th a t of rivers. Extending and
com pressing flow m ay overdeepen parts o f the
trough floor, w hich later m ay be occupied by long,
eKarakoram narrow rib b o n lakes, such as W ast Water, or may
northern Pakistan
leave less eroded, m ore resistant ro c k steps.
T heories to exp lain p ro n ou n ced overdeep­
e n in g o f valley floors are debated am o n gst glaci-
ologists and geom orphologists. Suggested causes
inclu de: extra erosion follow ing th e
co n flu en ce o f tw o glaciers; th e presence of
w eaker rocks; an area o f rock deeply w eathered
in preglacial tim es; or a zone o f w ell-join ted rock.
Should th e d eep ening o f th e trough co n tin u e
below th e form er sea-level, th e n during deglacia-
tio n and su bseq u en t rises in sea-level th e valley
m ay b eco m e subm erged to form a fio rd (Figures
4 .2 1 and 6 .4 8 ).
A brasion by englacial and subglacial debris
and p lucking alon g th e valley sides rem ove th e
tips o f preglacial in terlo ck in g spurs leaving cliff-
like tru n c a te d spurs (Figure 4 .2 0 , and to th e left
o f Figure 4 .2 7 ).
Figure 4.22 H a n g in g v a lle y s result from d ifferen tial
ero sio n b etw een a m ain g lacier and its tribu tary
Hanging valley:
Lake Btgden, glaciers. T h e floo r o f any trib u ta ry g lacier is
Norway deepened at a slow er rate so th a t w h en th e
glaciers m e lt it is left h a n g in g h ig h above th e
m a in valley and its river has to d escend by a
single w aterfall or a series o f w aterfalls, e.g. Lake
Bigden, N orw ay (Figure 4 .2 2 ) and Cw m Dyli,
Sn ow d on ia (Figure 4 .2 5 ).

S tria tio n s , roches m o u to n n e e s , ro ck

d ru m lin s a n d c ra g a n d ta il
These are all sm aller erosion features w h ich help
to in d icate th e d irection o f ice m o v em en t. As a
glacier m oves across areas o f exposed rock, larger
fragm ents o f angular debris em bedded in th e ice
tend to leave a series of parallel scratches and
grooves called s tria tio n s (e.g. C en tral Park in
New York).
A ro c h e m o u to n n e e is a mass o f m ore
resistan t rock. It has a sm oo th , round ed upvalley
or stoss slope facing th e d irectio n o f ice flow,
form ed b y abrasion , and a steep, jagged, dow n-
valley or lee slope resultin g from plucking
(Figures 4 .2 3 and 4 .2 4 ).
R o c k d ru m lin s are m ore stream lined bedrock
w h ich lack th e quarried lee face o f th e roche
m o u to n n ee. They are som etim es referred to as
w h a le b a c k s as th ey resem ble th e backs of whales
breaking th e ocean surface.
A cra g a n d ta il consists of a larger mass of
resistant rock or crag (e.g. th e basaltic crag upon
w hich Edinburgh Castle has been built) w hich
protected the lee-side rocks from erosion, thus
form ing a gently sloping tail of deposited material
(e.g. th e tail dow n w hich th e Royal M ile extends).
It should be rem em bered th a t while m any of
these erosional landform s may be found together
in m ost glaciated uplands, their arrangem ent, fre-
quency and presence is likely to change from one
area to another. Places 15 describes som e o f these
glacial features as found in one part of Snow donia.

Figure 4.23

A roche moutonnee:
Vosemite National
Park, California

glacier and direction of flow fluctuating water

pressure causes
refreezing and plucking
- \ ^ \V of loosened material
local pressure
rpplting
freeze-thaw in jointed'
rocks, perhaps also
englacial and subglacial pressure release
debris causing abrasion

Figure 4.24
stoss some ice, behaving like plastic, can flow around the obstacle
Theform ationofa
roche moutonnee

114 Glaciation
 S n o w d o n ia : g la c ia l la n d fo rm s

Snowdonia is an exampleof a glaciated

n Peris - pyramidal peak upland area. Although Snowdon itself has
bon lake Criby Ddysgl -arete
thecharacteristics ofa pyramidal peak,the
Nant Llanberis
ice age was too short (by several thousand
glacial trouqBi Cwmbrwynoq
arete years) for the completed development of
the classic pyramidal shape which makes the
appearance ofthe Matterhorn so spectacular
Bwich Main Crib Goch
arete A (compare Figure 4.19). What are well
arete>‘v
Glaslyn - corrle developed are the aretes, such as Crib Goch
and Bwlch Main, which radiate from the
central peak. Between these aretes are up to
hanging valley
half a dozen cirques (cwms, as this isWales),
Llyn llydavi -corrie
including the eastward-facing Glaslyn and
the north-eastward-oriented (page 111)
Llyn (lake) Llydaw. Glaslyn, which is trapped
by a rock lip, is 170 m higherthan Llyn
Llydaw (Figure 4.26). Striations and roches
moutonnees can be found in several places
where the rocks are exposed on the surface.
To the north and south-east of Snowdon are
the glacial troughs of Nant (valley) Llanberis,
Cwm Dyli - Nant Ffrancon and Nant Gwynant.These
hanging valley valleys have the characteristic U shape, with
steep valley sides, truncated spurs and a
truncated sp'ur
flat valleyfloor (Figure4.27). Located on
the valley floors are ribbon lakes, including
Llyn Peris and Llyn Gwynant (Figure 3.24).
Numerous small rivers, with their sources
in hanging valleys, descend by waterfalls,
tJant G w ynaf^ as at Cwm Dyli, into the two main valleys.
glaţial^rgucjh ^
Although the ice has long since gone, the
actions of frost and snow, together with that
of rain and more recently people, continue
Figure 4.25 to modify the landscape- rememberthat
rarely does a landscape exhibit stereotyped
Landsketch of glacial features in Snowdonia (looking west)
'textbook'features (see Figure 4.25)!

Figure 4.27

Nant Ffrancon: a glacial trough

with, at the sides, truncated
spurs and hanging valleys

Glaciation 115
 Glacigenetic, or glacial, sediment
Till
(unsorted material deposited by glaciers)
1 Till
2 Erratics
3 Moraines
4 Drumlins
Figure 4.28
G la c ia l d e p o s it io n
Landforms resulting
fromglacial G lacigenetic sed im en t (or glacial sedim ents) has
deposition replaced 'drift' as the term w hich was used histori-
cally by British geologists and glaciologists when
referring collectively to all glacial deposits (Figure
4.28). These deposits, w hich include boulders,
gravels, sands and clays, m ay be subdivided into
till, w hich includes all material deposited directly
by the ice, and glacifluvial m aterial, w hich is the
debris deposited by meltwater streams. Glacifluvial
material includes deposits w hich m ay have been
deposited initially by the ice and w hich were later
picked up and redeposited by m eltwater - either
during or after the ice age. Till consists o f largely
unsorted material, whereas glacifluvial deposits
have been sorted. D eposition occurs in upland
valleys and across lowland areas. A study o f glaci­
genetic deposits helps to explain the:
■ natu re and e x te n t o f an ice advance
■ freq u en cy o f ice advances
■ sources and d irections o f ice m o v em en t, and
■ postglacial ch ro n o lo g y (in clu d in g clim a tic
changes, page 2 9 4 ).
T ill d e p o s its
A lthough th e term till is often applied today to
all m aterials deposited by ice, it is m ore accurately
used to m ean an unsorted m ixture of rocks, clays
and sands. This m aterial was largely transported
as supraglacial debris and later deposited to
form m orain e - either during periods o f active
ice m ovem ent, or at tim es w h en th e glacier was
in retreat. In Britain, till was co m m o n ly called
b o u ld e r c la y but - since som e deposits m ay
co n tain n eith er boulders nor clay - this term is
now obsolete. Individual stones are sub-angular
- th a t is, th ey are n o t rounded like river or beach
m aterial bu t neith er do th ey possess th e sharp
edges o f rocks th a t have recently been broken
up by frost shattering. The com p ositio n o f till
reflects th e character o f th e rocks over w h ich it
has passed; East Anglia, for exam ple, is covered
by chalky till because th e ice passed over a chalk
escarpm ent, i.e. th e East A nglian Heights.
116 Glaciation
Glacifluvial
(sorted material deposited by meltwater streams)
1 Outwash sands and gravels (sandur)
2 Glacilacustrine sediments (e.g. varves)
3 Kames and kame terraces
4 Eskers
5 Kettles
6 Braided streams
Till fabric analysis is a fieldwork technique
used to determ ine the direction and source of
glacial deposits. Stones and pebbles carried by a
glacier tend to becom e aligned w ith their long axes
parallel to the direction of ice flow, as this offers
least resistance to the ice. For example, a small
sample o f 50 stones was taken from a m oraine in
G len Rosa, Arran. As each stone was removed, its
geology was exam ined and its orientation was care-
fully measured using a compass. The results allowed
two conclusions to be reached:
1 The pebbles were grouped into classes of 20°
and plotted onto a rose diagram (Figure 4.29).
The classes were plotted as respective radii from
the m idpoint of th e diagram and th en the ends
o f the radii were joined up to form a star-like
polygonal graph. As each stone has two orien-
tations w hich must be opposites (e.g. 10° and
190°), th e graph will be symmetrical. The results
show that the ice m ust have com e from the
north-north-w est or the south-south-east.
2 A lth ough m o st o f th e pebbles taken in th e
sam ple were com posed o f local rock, som e
were o f m aterial n o t found o n th e island
(erratics). This suggests th a t som e o f th e ice
m u st have com e from th e Scottish m ainland.
N
o°
-90 E
Figure 4.29
Till fabric analysis: orientation of
a sample of stones taken froma
moraine in Glen Rosa, Arran
 L a n d fo rm s c h a ra c te ris tic o f g la c ia l
d e p o s itio n
E rratics
These are boulders picked up and carried by ice,
often for m any kilom etres, to be deposited in areas
of com pletely different lithology (Figure 4.30).
L ith o lo g y is th e study of the nature and com posi-
tio n of rocks. By determ ining where th e boulders
originally cam e from , it is possible to track ice
m ovem ents. For exam ple, volcanic m aterial from
Ailsa Craig in th e Firth o f Clyde has been found
2 5 0 km to th e south o n th e Lancashire plain,
atferous while som e deposits on th e n o rth Norfolk coast
: gure 1.1) originated in Southern Norway.
M o ra in e
M oraine is a type o f landform th a t develops w hen
th e debris carried by a glacier is deposited. It is
not, therefore, th e actual m aterial th a t is being
transported by th e glacier - w ith th e excep tion of
th e m edial m oraine, w hich is a term th at refers to
a landform b o th o n the glacier and in the valley
after glacial recession. It is possible to recognise at
least five types o f m oraine (Figure 4 .3 1 ):
■ L ateral m o ra in e is form ed from debris derived
from frost shattering o f valley sides and carried
along the edges o f the glacier (Figure 4.32).
W h en th e glacier m elts, it leaves an em bank-
m en t o f m aterial along the valley side.
■ M edial m o ra in e is found in th e cen tre o f a
valley and results from th e m ergin g o f two
lateral m oraines w here tw o glaciers jo in ed
(Figure 4 .3 2 ).
■ T erm in al or en d m o ra in e is o ften a high
m ound (or series o f m ounds) o f m aterial
exten d in g across a valley, or low land area, at
right-angles to and m arking th e m axim u m
advance o f th e glacier or ice sheet.
■ R ecession al m o ra in e s m ark in terru p tio n s in
th e retreat o f th e ice w h en th e glacier or ice
sheet rem ained station ary lon g en ou gh for a
m ound to build up. R ecessional m o raines are
usually parallel to th e term in al m oraine.
■ Push m oraines m ay develop if the clim ate
deteriorates sufficiently for the ice tem porarily
to advance again. Previously deposited m oraine
m ay be shunted up into a m ound. It can be rec-
ognised by individual stones w hich have been
pushed upwards from their original horizontal
positions, or even large blocks of sedim ent that
have been bulldozed whole, while frozen.

- glacier
noraine
ăl moraine
g.acier
■'attering
. ater streams
i onai moraine
•noraine
i ? l moraine
 Figure 4.32

Medial and lateral moraines,

Meade Glacier, Alaska

Figure 4.33

Morainic mounds above

Haweswater, Cumbria

bighest p oint of tb e feature is near to tb e stoss

end (Figure 4 .3 4 ). The shape of drum lins can be
described by using th e e lo n g a tio n ra tio :

£= —
IV
w here I is th e m axim u m bed form len g th , and U
is th e m axim u m bed form w id th. D rum lins are
always longer th a n th e y are wide, and th ey are
usually found in sw arm s or en echelon .
T here is m u ch d isagreem ent as to how drum ­
lins are form ed. T heories suggest th e y m ay be
an erosion feature, or form ed by d ep osition
around a cen tral rock. However, n e ith er o f these
accou n ts for th e fact th a t th e m ajo rity of drum ­
lins are com posed o f till w h ich , lacking a centra,
Drumlins
core o f rock and con sistin g o f un sorted m aterial,
These are sm o o th , elon gated m ound s o f till
would be to ta lly eroded by m oving ice. The m os:
w ith th eir lon g axis parallel to th e d irection of
widely accepted view is th a t th ey were form ed
ice m o v em en t. D rum lins m ay be over 5 0 m in
w hen th e ice becam e overloaded w ith m aterial,
h eig h t, over 1 km in len g th and neariy 0 .5 km
thu s red ucing th e capacity o f th e glacier. The
in w idth. The steep stoss end faces th e d irec­
reduced co m p eten ce m ay have b een due to the
tio n from w h ich th e ice cam e, w h ile th e lee side
m eltin g o f th e glacier or to changes in v elocity
has a m ore gentle, stream lined appearance. The
related to th e p attern o f exten d in g -co m p ressin g
flow. O nce th e m aterial had b een deposited, it
steep, stoss highest point gentler, streamlined m ay th e n have b een m oulded and stream lined
er|d near the stoss end leeslope by later ice m o vem en t. The m ost recen t theorv
(1 9 8 7 ) is based on evidence th a t drum lins can be
com posed o f b o th till and glacifluvial sedim ents.
The m o st w idely accepted view now is th a t 'th ei
are subglacially deform ed m asses o f pre-existing
direction of
sed im ent to w h ich m ore sed im en t m ay be added
ice movement by th e m eltin g ou t of debris from th e glacier
---- 5- base' (D. Evans, 19 9 9 ).

Figure 4.34

Drumlins
a plan showing typical dimensions
b swarm - en echelon

118 Glaciation
 frost shattering on valley sides

_ rnaximuirnhekj ht_anda dva nce_of_ice_

earlier stjllstand in ice retreat_
present position of glacier

JJ» k ’Jt* \
steep valley side;
lateral moraine
O , Kame terrace 1
fri^dial mbrâine
u .,v ~ ,
_\ .
recessional . ketţjes terminal muraifr-
esker loraine
v t ‘ e$
praglacial debris braided stream
erratics
braided stream
• y '•~'"fr ' "' - ~ -cln -
‘" îi. I r - '
ribbon lake glacialii
meltwateE kames
englacial/subglacial debris dammed^witb varves)

fi
*- till outwash plaifi*(gravels
- •
sands and clays)
_a-c *-

mainly unstratified material deposited stratified material

wasting ice sheet - - by the ice (on top, there may be later — deposited b v ---------
fluvial deposits) meltwater beyond
maximum extent of ice
bedrock

■ ţ -i .3 5
G la c if lu v ia l la n d f o r m s
. of lowland
G laciflu v ial lan d form s are th o se m ould ed by
g lacial m eltw ater and have, in th e past, b een
con sid ered to be m a in ly d ep o sitio n a l. M ore
recen tly it has b ee n realised th a t m eltw ater
plays a far m o re im p o rta n t role in th e glacial
system th a n was previously th o u g h t, esp ecially
in tem p era te glaciers and in crea tin g erosion
featu res as w ell as d ep o sitio n a l land form s.
M ost m eltw ater is derived from a b la tio n . The
discharge o f g lacial stream s, b o th supraglacial
and subglacial, is h ig h during th e warm er, if
n o t w arm , sum m er m o n th s. As th e w ater o fte n
flow s under co n sid erab le pressure, it has a high
'v e lo c ity and is very tu rb u le n t. It is th erefore
able to p ick up and tra n sp o rt a larger a m o u n t o f
m aterial th a n a n o rm al river o f sim ilar size. T h is
m aterial ca n erode vertically, m a in ly th rou g h
ab rasion b u t partly by so lu tio n , to create su b­
arves
aie g lacial valleys and large p o th o les, som e o f th e
late summer
and autumn
springand mm
early
summer
late summer
and autumn
20
mm
la tte r b ein g up to 2 0 m in d ep th . D ep osition
occu rs w h en ev er th ere is a decrease in dis­
ch arge, and it is resp on sible fo r a group o f la n d ­
form s (Figures 4 .3 5 and 4 .3 7 ).
O u tw a s h p la in s (s a n d u r)
T hese are com posed o f gravels, sands and, upper-
m ost and fu rthest from th e snou t, clays. T hey
are deposited by m eltw ater stream s issuing from
th e ice eith er during sum m er or w h en th e glacier
m elts. T he m aterial m ay originally have been
deposited by th e glacier and later picked up,
sorted and dropped by ru n n in g w ater beyond
th e m axim u m e x te n t o f th e ice sheets. In parts
o f th e N orth G erm an Plain, deposits are up to
75 m deep. O utw ash m aterial m ay also be depos­
ited o n top o f till follow ing th e retreat o f th e ice
(Figure 4 .3 5 ).
G la c ila c u s trin e s e d im e n ts (v a rv e s )
A varve is a d istin ct layer o f silt lying on top o f a
layer o f sand, deposited ann u ally in lakes found
n ear to glacial m argins. The coarser, lighter-
a colder, shorter colou red sand is deposited during late spring
summer than
w hen m eltw ater stream s have th eir peak dis­
average: less
melting results charge and are carrying th eir m axim u m load.
in smaller river As discharge decreases towards au tu m n w hen
discharge and
less deposition tem peratu res b eg in to drop, th e finer, darker-
coloured silt settles. Each band o f lig h t and dark
m aterials represents o n e y ear’s accu m u latio n
average
(Figure 4 .3 6 ). By co u n tin g th e n u m ber o f varves,
annual
climate it is possible to date th e origin o f th e lake; vari­
atio n s in th e th ick n ess o f each varve ind icate
w arm er and cold er periods (e.g. greater m eltin g
causing increased dep osition).

Glaciation 119
 Kames and kame terraces
Kames are undulating m ounds o f sand and gravei
deposited unevenly by meltwater, similar to a series
o f deltas, along th e front of a stationary or slowly
m elting ice sheet (Figure 4.35). As the ice retreats,
the unsupported kame often collapses. Kame ter­
races, also of sand and gravei, are flat areas found
along the sides of valleys. They are deposited by
m eltwater streams flow ing in th e trough betw een
the glacier and the valley wall. Troughs occur here
because, in summer, the valley side heats up faster
th an the glacier ice and so the ice in contact with
it melts. Kame terraces are distinguishable from
lateral m oraines by their sorted deposits.
Eskers
These are very long, narrow, sinuous ridges
com posed o f sorted coarse sands and gravei. It is
th o u g h t th a t eskers are th e fossilised courses of
subglacial m eltw ater stream s. As th e ch a n n e l is
restricted by ice walls, th e h y d rostatic pressure
A r r a n : g la c ia l la n d fo rm s
U sin g f ie ld w o rk to a n s w e r an
A d v a n c e d GCE q u e s tio n :'D e s c rib e
th e la n d fo rm s fo u n d n e a r th e
s n o u t o f a fo rm e r g lacier.'
Figure 4.28 lists the types of feature formed by
glacial deposition, subdividing them into those
composed of unsorted material, left by the glacier,
and sorted material deposited by glacifluvial
activity. Ifthe snout of a glacier had remained
stationary for some time, indicating a balance
between accumulation and ablation, and had then
slowly retreated, several of these landforms might
be visible following deglaciation. One such site
studied by a sixth form was the lower Glen Rosa
valley on the Isle of Arran (Figure 4.37).
The dominant feature was a mound A, 14 m high, into
which the Rosa Water had cut, giving a fine exposed
section of the deposited material. As the mound was
a long, narrow, ridge-likefeature extending across
the valley, it was suggested that it might be either a
terminal ora recessional moraine. Itwasconcluded
that the feature was ice-deposited because the
material was unsorted: many of the largest boulders
were high up in the exposure; also, most of the stones
were sub-angular (not more rounded as might be
expected in glacifluvial deposits).
However, an observation downstream at point B
revealed that material there was also unsorted and
this, together with some large graniţe erratics seen
earlier nearer the coast, seemed to indicate that the
120 Glaciation
and th e tran sp orted load are b o th consid erable.
As th e bed o f th e ch a n n e l builds up (there is
n o flood plain ), m aterial is left above th e sur-
rou nd in g land follow in g th e retreat o f th e ice.
Like kam es, eskers usually form during tim es of
d eglaciation (Figure 4 .3 5 ).
Kettles
These form from d etached b locks o f ice, left by
th e glacier as it retreats, and th e n partially buried
by th e glacifluvial deposits left by m eltw ater
stream s. W h en th e ice blocks m elt, th ey leave
en closed depressions w h ich o ften fiii w ith water
to form k ettle-h ole lakes and 'kam e and kettle'
topograph y (Figure 4 .3 5 ).
Braided streams
C h an n els o f m eltw ater rivers o ften beco m e
choked w ith coarse m aterial as a result of
th e m arked seasonal variation s in discharge
(com pare Figures 3 .3 2 and 5 .1 6 ).
mound could not be a terminal moraine as it did not
markthe maximum advance of the ice. When a till
fabric analysis was carried out, it was noted that the
average dip of the stones was about 25°, suggesting
that the feature might instead have been a push
moraine resulting from a minor re-advance during
deglaciation.The orientation of 50 sample stones
(Figure 4.29) showed that the ice must have come
either from the north-north-west (probable, as this
was the highland) or the south-south-east (uniikeIy,
as the lower ground would not be the source of
a glacier). An examination of the geology of the
stones showed that 80 per cent were graniţe, and
therefore were erratics carried from the upper Rosa
valley; 15 per cent were schists (the local rock); and
5 per cent were other igneous rocks not found on
the island. It was inferred from the presence of
these other rocks that some of the ice must have
originated on the Scottish mainland. Also at point
B, an investigation of river banks showed a mass
of sand and gravei with some level of sorting - as
might be expected in an outwash area.
Upstream from A was a second mound, C, filling
much of the valley floor (Figure 4.38). Student
suggestions as to the nature of the feature included
its being a drumlin, a lateral, a medial, a recessional
orevenanotherpush moraine. When measured,it
was found that its length was slightly greater than
its width (an elongation ratio of 1.25:1) and the
highest point was nearest the up-valley end; it had
neither the streamlined shape nor a sufficiently high
 low hummocky material: possibly a
lateral moraine ; 0 r a kame terrace)

graniţe
• '^gladal.trough
graniţe

---—-— ( ? ) footbridge
Garbh AIU^ v
frost shattering on
(tietamorphic
steep valley sides
sc h îs f^ c - - ( § )

graniţe erratics
nearer coast

=rtain)
Rosa Water

:-aine:site of till fabric

ncludes graniţe)
exposures of glacifluvial sands
unsorted material and gravels

■: features of
M X io n in th e
osavalley elongation ratio to bea drumlin (and there were no
signs ofa swarm!). Itappeared to be too far from
the valley side to be a lateral moraine; and as two
glaciers could not have met here, neither could it
have been a medial moraine. It was concluded that
it was another moraine - perhaps formed during an
intermediate stillstand in the glacier's retreat, or if
the glacier lost momentum after having negotiated
a bend in the glacial trough.

Across the river (D), was an area of low hummocky

material winding along the foot ofthe valley side to
as far as A. It was speculated that the feature may
linked to valley side through by river)
have been formed in one of three ways: meltwater
depositing sands and gravei between the valley
side and the former glacier as a kame terrace; a mound n
streamlined
lateral moraine from frost shattering on the valley
Water
sides; or solifluction deposits (page 47) formed as
the climate grew milder and the glacier retreated
(the feature was not flat enough for a river terrace Figure 4.38
to be seriously considered).
Fieldsketch of landform
Upstream, the valley floor was extremely flat (E). at Cin Figure 4.37

This could be the remains ofa former glacial lake,

formed when meltwater from the retreating glacier
had become trapped behind the moraine at C and
before it had had time to cut through the deposits.
It was impossible to gain a profile to prove or
disprovethe existenceofa lake.
After Crossin g the Garbh Al It (a hanging valley),
the steep-sided, flat-floored U-shape ofthe glacial
trough through which the Rosa Water flows was
visible. The flatness ofthe floor was probably due to
the deposition of subglacial debris - although the
till has since been covered by peat, a symptom of
the cold, wet conditions.
Although not every feature of glacial deposition
was present - there was no evidence of eskers or
kettles - this small area did contain several ofthe
landforms and deposits that might be expected at,
or nearto, the snout of a former glacier.

Glaciation 121
 O t h e r e ffe c ts o f g la c ia t io n
D r a in a g e d iv e rs io n a n d p r o g la c ia l la ke s
W here ice sheets expand, th ey m ay divert the
courses o f rivers. For exam ple, th e preglacial
River Tham es flowed in a north-easterly direc­
tion . It was progressively diverted southwards by
advancing ice (Figure 4 .4 0 ).
W h ere ice sheets exp an d and dam rivers,
p roglacial lakes are created (Figure 4 .3 9 ), e.g.
Lakes L apw orth and H arrison (Figure 4 .4 0 ).
B efore th e ice age, th e River Severn flow ed
n orth w ard s in to th e River D ee, b u t th is route
b eca m e b lo ck ed during th e P leisto cen e by Irish
Sea ice. A large lake, L apw orth, was im p ou n d ed
ag ain st th e edge o f th e ice u n til th e w aters rose
h ig h en o u g h to b rea ch th e low est p o in t in th e
Sou thern w atershed . As th e w ater overflow ed
th ro u g h an o v e r sp ill c h a n n e l, th ere was rapid
v ertical e ro sio n w h ich form ed w h at is now
th e Iron brid g e G orge. W h e n th e ice had com -
p letely m elted , th e level o f th is new route was
low er th a n th e orig in al cou rse (w h ich was also
b lock ed b y d rift), fo rcin g th e p resen t-d ay River
Severn to flow southw ards.
O th er rivers, e.g. th e W arw ickshire Avon
(Figure 4 .4 0 ) and th e Yorkshire D erw ent
(Places 17), have also b ee n diverted as a conse-
q u en ce o f glacial activity. Som etim es th e glacial
overspill ch a n n e ls have b ee n aband oned , e.g. at
Fenny C o m p to n , w here th e W arw ickshire Avon
tem p orarily flow ed sou th -east in to th e Tham es
(O 1 in Figure 4 .4 0 ). Proglacial lakes are also
found b eh in d eskers and recessional m oraines.

Figure 4.40

Glacial diversion of E and D .preglacial

Esk and D erw ent.
drainage and During glacial:dam m ed
proglacial lakes in by North Sea ice form ing
\ ^j?akes Eskdale and
England and Wales Rickering.
(Vi. Esk o verflow ed (O3) North Sea ice
Irish Sea ice d n to L.Pickering and
C\r L, Pickering overflow ed
(O4) to th e south-west.
^ r€ s k fo llo w s preglacial
course (E2); R.Derw ent
/ flows in reverse
direction (D2)
Dee e stu a ry
Preglacial R. Severn (S1) flow ing northw ards into
' th e Dee.
D uring glacial: blocked by Irish Sea ice.
-V O verflow s to south form ing Ironbridge G orge in
w atershed.
R. Severn (S2) now flows south.

Lake Lapworth ii 1
Preglacial R.Avon (A1).
Figure 4.39 During glacial: blocked by ice sheet.
Ironbridge Lake Harrison form ed.
Ice-dammed lake: Gorge L. Harrison overflowed through Southern w atershed
(O 1 and O 2).
Mendenhall Glacier,
O 1 abandoned after ice age.
Alaska Present R. Avon (O2) n o w flows in reverse
direction
y
O2 Lake Harrison T1

l
Preglacial R.Thames (T 1).
R.Thames d iverted by ice advance (T2).
R.Thames diverted again by a fu rth e r ice advance (T3).

overflow channel
y

proglacial lake

edge of ice

122 Glaciation
 T h e V a le o f P ic k e rin g , N o r t h Y o rk s h ire : a g la c ia l la k e

, c,cottish ice
Revelândn,lls _
River Esk
/
»•
P (Wbrttjy)
.•
North Sea
|cg
L a k e E s k d a le , a p r o g la c ia l la k e , f o r m e d w h e n t h e N o r t h
S e a ic e s h e e t b lo c k e d t h e m o u t h o f t h e R iv e r E sk .
T h e le v e l o f t h e la k e r o s e u n t il its w a t e r f o u n d a n e w
r o u t e o v e r a lo w p o in t in its S o u t h e r n w a t e r s h e d o n
t h e N o r t h Y o r k s h ir e M o o r s . T h e o v e r f lo w r iv e r f lo w e d
to*e Lake t h r o u g h L a k e G la is d a le b e f o r e c u t t in g t h e d e e p ,
Eskdale Glaisdale n a r r o w , s te e p - s id e d , f la t- flo o r e d N e w t o n d a le v a lle y . A t

North Yorkshire t h e e n d o f th is v a lle y , t h e r iv e r f o r m e d a d e lt a w h e r e it

Newtondale
Moors (Scarborough) f lo w e d in t o a n o t h e r p r o g la c ia l la k e - L a k e P ic k e r in g .
L a k e P ic k e r in g , a ls o d a m m e d b y N o r t h S e a ic e , f o u n d
a n o u t le t t o t h e s o u t h - w e s t w h e r e it f o r m e d a n
o v e r f lo w c h a n n e l - t h e p r e s e n t- d a y K ir k h a m G o r g e .
A f t e r t h e ic e m e lt e d , t h e E s k r e v e r t e d t o its o r ig in a l
c o u r s e , e n t e r in g t h e s e a n e a r W h it b y ; N e w t o n d a le
b e c a m e v ir t u a lly a d r y v a lle y ; a n d t h e R iv e r D e r w e n t ,
its e a s t w a r d e x it f r o m L a k e P ic k e r in g b lo c k e d b y
g la c ia l d e p o s it s , c o n t in u e d t o f o ll o w its n e w s o u th -
w e s t e r ly c o u r s e . T o d a y , t h e s ite o f L a k e P ic k e r in g fo r m s
t h e f e r tile , f la t- f lo o r e d V a le o f P ic k e r in g .

.ce m ovem ent

C h an g es in s e a -le v e l
The expansion and contraction o f ice sheets
p ro g la c ia l affected sea-level in two different ways. E ustatic
akes
(also now called g lacio-eu static) refers to a world-
highland wide fall (or rise) in sea-level due to changes in the
hydrological cycle caused by water being held in
oresent-day
coastline storage on land in ice sheets (or released follow ing
present-day
the m elting o f ice sheets). Isostatic (or glacio-
settlem ents) isostatic) adjustm ent is a m ore local change in sea-
level resulting from the depression (or uplift) o f the
gravei delta
Earth's crust by th e increased (or decreased) weight
o v e rflo w imposed upon it by a growing (or a declining) ice
m e ltw a te r) sheet. Evans (1991) claims th at 'Because o f their
channel
great weight, ice sheets depress th e Earth's crust
preglacial
river below them by approxim ately 0.3 tim es their
p re s e n t river thickness. So, at the centre of an ice sheet 700 m
thick, there will be a m axim um of 2 1 0 m o f depres­
sion.' The history of sea-level depends on the
and overflow location. For exam ple, an equatorial site will expe-
■'th Yorkshire rience the rise and fall of th e sea solely associated
w ith eustatic changes. In contrast, a site close to,
or under, a glacier will have a history dom inated
by the isostatic rebound o f the crust after glacial
retreat. The sequence o f events resulting from eus­
tatic and isostatic changes during and after the last
glacial can be summarised as follows:
1 At th e b eg in n in g o f th e glacial, water in the
hydrological cycle was stored as ice on the
land instead o f returning to th e sea. There was
a universal (eustatic) fall in sea-level, giving a
negative change in base level (page 81).
2 As th e glacial co n tin u ed towards its peak,
th e w eight o f ice increased an d depressed the
Earth's crust b en e a th it. T his led to a local
(isostatic) rise in sea-level relative to th e land
and a positive ch an g e in base level.
3 As the ice sheets began to melt, large quanti-
ties of water, previously held in storage, were
returned to the sea causing a worldwide (eus­
tatic) rise in sea-level (a positive change in base
level). This formed fiords, rias and drowned
estuaries (page 163 and Places 22, page 164).
4 Finally, and still co n tin u in g in several places
today, there was a local (isostatic) up lift o f the
land as th e w eight o f th e ice sheets decreased
(a negative ch ange in base level). This change
created raised beaches (Places 23, page 166)
and caused reju v en ation o f rivers (page 82).
L ooking in to th e future:
■ If th e ice sh eets c o n tin u e to m e lt at th eir
p resen t rate, caused by g lobal w arm ing
(Case Study 9B ) or a m ild er clim ate, sea-
levels cou ld rise b y 6 0 cm by th e end o f th e
century, w ith 1 m p ro bab ly a reason ab le
h ig h -e n d (an d p essim istic?) estim ate.
■ If iso static u p lift co n tin u es in B ritain, it will
increase th e tilt th a t has already resulted in
north-w est S cotlan d rising by an estim ated
10 m in th e last 9 0 0 0 years, and south-
east E ngland sinking. Tides in L ond on are
now m ore th a n 4 m h ig her th a n th e y were
in R om an tim es - h e n ce th e need for th e
T ham es Barrier (and its proposed replace­
m ent) - due to a c o m b in a tio n o f sou th-east
England sin king and m odern sea-level rise.

Glaciation 123
An avalanche is a sudden downhill m ove­ have shown extreme speeds in excess of
Figure 4.43

ment of snow, ice and/or rock (Case Study 200 km/hr. A late 19th-century classification of avalanches
2A). It occurs, like a landslide, when the Th e re are several different types o f ava­ a Staublawinen Pure
weight (mass) of material is sufficient to lanche, which makes a simple classification (airbornepowder (completely airborne)
overcome friction (Figure 4.42). This allows difficult. Figure 4 .4 3 gives a mainly descript­ snow)
Common (some contact
the debris to descend at a considerable ive classification put forward in the 19th
with the ground)
speed underthe force of gravity (mass century, while Figure 4.44 gives a m od ern
b Grundlawinen
movement).The average speed of descent classification based more on genetic and Rolling
(ground-hugging)
is 4 0 -6 0 km/hr, but video-recordings morphological characteristics. Sliding

single po int- loose snow avalanche easier (not easy) to predict and manage; originates from a single point, usually soon after
a Avalanche break-away point the snow falls

large area, or'slab' often localised, hardest to predict, greatest threat to off-piste skiers; originates from a wider
area and after the snow has had time to develop cohesion

b Depth total snow depth total mass of snow moves

top layers of snow move over lower layers alpine inhabitants regard this as the most dangerous

c Channel (track) width unconfined-no channel widearea, hardto manage

gulley - confined to narrow track dangerous, as it can reach higher speeds, but easier to manage

d Natureofsnow (water content) d rysn o w - m ain ly rolling above ground-level so friction is reduced; can reach speeds of 200 km/hr - very destructive

w etsn o w - m a in ly sliding follows ground topography, occurs underfthn conditions (page 241), limited protection,
much damage

Figure 4.44

A more recent classifi:

124 Glaciation
of avalanches (1979)
 A v a la n c h e s

ouses
• -eavy snowfall compressing and
:ding weight to earlier fails, especially
windward slopes.
B ’îreep slopes of over 25° where
i'.ability is reduced and friction is more
i asily overcome.
• dden increase in temperature,
isoecially on south-facing slopes and,
■:he Alps, underfBhn wind
: nditions (page 241).’
• -~avy rain falling upon snow (more
■ely in Scotland than the Alps).
Deposition (snow
accumulation) zone
attempts can be made to slow
downanddivert the avalanche
when jt reaches flatter ground
and aBgroaches settlements
w in d direction
Avalanche track
it is impossible to stop snow
movement in this zone,
although Communications can
be protected
rescue team s w ork w ith dogs
Rupture (snow-loss) zone
only limited attempts can be mad«
to prevent the excessive build-up
of snow on these upper slopes
explosives used for the controllecf
and safe release of avalanches
w o o d e n sn ow bridges

B> {T-eforestation, partly for new ski-runs, ( » /< ¥ t and helicopters

snow fences to try to divert
_ ch reduces slope stability.
lAbrations triggered by off-piste
fi K lk U iiu i sn ow into 'safe tracks'

Aiers, any nearby traffic and, more

:=ngerously, earth movements (Case
jdy 2A).
• -T^long, cold, dry winters followed by
"eavy snowfails in spring. Underthese
nditions, earlier falls of snow wil turn
v o ice over which later falls will slide
:: me local people perceive this to pose
■' e greatest avalanche risk).
onsequences
' ches can block roads and railways,
# p o w e r supplies and telecommu-
##ns and, under extreme conditions,
■ ■. buildings and cause loss of life.
:-=n 1980 and 1991 there were, in
- Europe alone, 1210 recorded ava­
; deaths, of whom nearly half were
- virtually all in off-piste areas.This
■'ate is increasing as the popularity of
■pgrows and alpine weather becomes
: 'edictable (a record total of 145 deaths
p Io u q h-| «ap e d âv a la n c«e-
b rla k e r S ftie lp tiW iv e rtth e
sn ow a w ay from villages
early-warning system to try
to predict tim e and location
of any avalanche
M anagem ent
There is a close link between avalanches and:
• time ofyear-alm ost 80 per cent of
avalanches in the French Alps occur
between January and March, the
'avalanche season'
• altitude-over 90 per cent occur
between 1500 and 3000 m.
Although it is possible to predict when and
in which regions avalanches are most likely
to occur, it is less easy to predict exactly
’
avalanche sheds to protect
roads and railways
reafforestation: trees
can reduce dam age
by up to 5 0 %
Figure 4.45
Avalanche management schemes
where an event is likely to happen. it is this
unpredictability that makes avalanches a
major environmental hazard in alpine areas.
However, despite this uncertainty, many
avalanches dotend to follow certain'tracks'.
Consequently, as well as setting up early-
warning sysH n s and training rescue teams
(Figure 4.46), it is possible to take some
measures to try to protect life and property
(Figure 4.45).

ire4.46

iche protection
escue schemes
 W e d d e ll Sea
Larsen B ice shelf

Changed rates of melting ice and sub­

A ntarctic
sequent potential rises in sea-level are
Peninsula
the main reasons why most scientists are
working on glaciers at the present time, and Ronne ice shelf
why it should interest so many other people.
W ilkins ice shelf South
Ice helps to stabilise the world's climate
East
by insulating large areas of ocean in summer Antarctic
Antarctic
and preventing heat loss in winter. Ice and
snow also have a higher reflectivity, or
albedo (page 207), than any other surface,
reflecting 80 per cent of incoming solar
radiation back into the atmosphere. As ice
Ross
melts then the albedo will be reduced, less
Figure 4.47 ice shelf
solar radiation will be reflected back and the
Earth's temperature will rise. Antarctica

(i) Iceshelves: 1 per cent a year, the fastest now travelling summer. In some places, the meltwater
A n ta rctica at 3.5 km/yr. begins to fiii crevasses in the ice shelf.

Antarctica is covered by two huge ice sheets: The collapses are credited to global Normally, crevasses are only tens of metres
warming, the average annual temperature deep, but as the meltwater progressively
the larger East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS),
which is bigger than the USA and holds in the Antarctic having risen by 2.5°C in the fills them the weight of water forces the

most ofthe world's fresh water in storage; last 50 years compared with 0.5°C globally. lowermost tip ofthe crevasse to crack even

and the smaller West Antarctic Ice Sheet According to Bentley in a series of articles in more deeply into the ice. Eventually the

(WAIS). Scientists predict that even if only the

Geography Review,'the key to the collapse is crevasses may penetrate through the full
the formation of pools of meltwater on the thickness ofthe ice shelf and a chunkof ice
EAIS melted, the world's sea-level would rise
surface ofth e ice shelf during the Antarctic will breakoff.1
by 61 m. On the edges ofthe two ice sheets,
and extending from them, are several ice
Figure 4.48
shelves, the two largest being the Ross and
Ronne (Figure 4.47). As global temperatures The collapse ofthe
larsen Bice shelf
rise, especially around the Antarctic penin­
V \ ' V•
sula which extends beyond the Antarctic
*
Circle, these ice shelves are becoming less
stable and parts are collapsing.
The collapse ofthe Larsen B ice shelf in
2002 was the latest and most spectacular
(it was the size of East Anglia) of ten col-
lapses that have occurred off the coast of
the Antarctic Peninsula since the mid-1980s
(Figure 4.48). In 2008, part ofthe nearby
Wilkins ice shelf was said to be'hanging on
by a thread'.The ice, following its collapse,
drifts away from the polar region, often as
huge icebergs, into warmer water where it
melts. Being fresh water in a frozen state, its
melting adds to the volume ofthe ocean,
causing a global rise in sea-level. As ice
shelves collapse, glaciers moving behind
them on the ice sheet are accelerating by

126 Glaciation
 T h e e ffe c ts o f m e ltin g ice u m m m

Ice sheets:
s reenlan d
sf -. eragethickness ofthe Greenland ice
' as been calculated to be 1800 m.
?. er, while this thickness was believed
decreased by an average of 1 m/yr
■. jhoutthe last century, satellite imagery
Bw sts that the rate of decrease had
USA
accelerated to 5 m/yr in 2000 and 10 m/yr
by 2007.The increase in surface melting is
creating more meltwater which sinks down
crevasses to the bedrock where it acts as
a lubricant acceierating basal flow (pages
107-108).This in turn causes glaciers
leading from the ice sheet to flow faster.
One of these, the Jokobshavn, reaches
Observed Ice extent
P * , September 2002
a speed of 1 m/hr as it nears the coast,
making it the fastest-flowing glacier in the
world.
As in Antarctica, Greenland's ice is fresh
water in frozen storage. it is believed that
should the whole ice sheet total ly melt then
the global sea-level would rise by 6.7 m.
(iii) Sea ice: th e A rctic
Sea ice is frozen salt water and forms when
temperatures remain for some time below
-1,5°C. Recent satellite images have shown
that the area covered by sea ice is now
decreasing by 8 per cent annually. More
significantly, nuclear subrajrines, operating
under the ice for over half a century, have
indicated that the thickness ofthe ice has
decreased in that time from 4 m to 1.3 m.
As the ice thins, the remaining ice will melt
more quickly, speeding up the process. In
the 19th century, explorers tried unsuc-

Projected ice extent

l Russia
cessfully tofind a sea route around the
north of Canada - the so-called North West
Passage - and in the early 20th century the
first explorers claiming to have reached the
North Pole only did so after several weeks’
travelling over sea ice. Some scientists
are now predicting that, due to global
warming, all the polar sea ice will have dis-
appeared within 30 years (Figure 4.49).
As it is frozen seawater that is melting,
then the effect on global sea-level will be
Greenland
minimal. Figure 4.50 shows some ofthe
advantages and disadvantages that will
result from an ice-free Arctic.
f.'e4.49
Figure 4.50
■and predicted coverage
ce in the Arctic Advantages and disadvantages
of an ice-free Arctic

ntages Disadvantages

i -to exploit resources such as oii and natural gas found under the seabed. Less ice will mean a reduced albedo and an increase in global warming.

'oved navigation will reduce distances and travel time, e.g.
Tokyo to New York - distance reduced from 18 000 km to 14 000 km
via the North West Passage (Canada) which in 2007 was open apart
from 100 km of scattered ice floes
Tokyo to London - distance reduced from 21 000 km to 13 000 km
via the North East Passage (Russia) which in 2007 was open for six weeks.
An increase in the number of icebergs from surrounding ice shelves could make
navigation moredangerous.
An increased threat to wildlife - polar bears and other species threatened
with extinction.

Glaciation 127
F u rth e r re fe re n c e
Benn, D. and Evans, D.J.A. (1998) Glaciers Bentley, M. (2008) 'Clim ate warming on ^ " v Alaska Science Forum - W ater, Snow and Ice
and Glaciation, Hodder Arnold. the Antarctic Peninsula' in Geography Index:
Bentley, M. (2004) 'Antarctic ice shelf col- Review Voi 21 No 4 (April). http://dogbert.gi.alaska.edu/ScienceForum
lapse’ in Geography Review Voi 18 No 2 Dawson, A.G. (1992) Ice Age Earth, Routledge. water.html
(Novermber). Hambrey, M. (1994) G lacial Environments, Cyberspace Snow and Avalanche Center
Bentley, M. (2005) 'Is the East Antarctic ice Routledge. (CSAC):
sheet stable?' in Geography Review Voi 19 Knight, P.G. (2006) Glacier Science and www.csac.org/
No 2 (November). Environmental Change, WileyBlackwell. Glacial landform s:
Bentley, M. (2007) 'W here has all the sea M itchell, W. (2008) 'The Ribblehead drumlins' www.bgrg,org/pages/education/alevel/
ice gone?' in Geography Review Voi 20 No coldenvirons/Lesson%2015 .htm
in Geography Review Voi 21 No 3 (February).
5 (May). G lacier Project:
http://glacier.rice.edu

Questions & Activities

A c tiv itie s

1 a D e f i n e t h e t e r m s 'i n t e r g l a c i a l 'a n d 'i n t e r s t a d i a l '. (4marks) d C h o o s e one o f t h e f o l l o w i n g la n d f o r m s c r e a t e d b y

b D e s c r i b e t h e e x t e n t o f ic e a c r o s s t h e B r it is h Is le s a t t h e g la c ia l d e p o s it i o n : d r u m l in ; e n d m o r a i n e ; k a m e t e r r a c e .
h e ig h t o f t h e la s t ic e a d v a n c e 18 0 0 0 y e a r s a g o . (4 marks) i D e s c r i b e its s h a p e , s iz e a n d c o m p o s i t io n . (6 marks
c S u g g e s t a n d e x p la in one t h e o r y f o r t h e c a u s e o f ii E x p la in h o w it w a s c r e a t e d b y t h e g la c ie r . (7 marks,
ic e a g e s . (4 marks)
d H o w is g l a c ie r ic e f o r m e d ? (6 marks) 4 T h e a r e a in f r o n t o f a g l a c ie r is a glacifluvial la n d f o r m o f t e n
c a lle d a sanduroran outwash plain.
e E x p la in t h e difference in m o v e m e n t p r o c e s s e s
b e t w e e n temperate a n d polar glaciers. (7 marks) a i D e s c r i b e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t ic d e p o s it s ( s h a p e a n d
c o m p o s i t io n ) o f t h is a r e a . (4 marks
2 C h o o s e one o f t h e f e a t u r e s n a m e d in F ig u r e 4 .2 5 ( p a g e 1 1 5 ) ii E x p la in h o w g l a c if lu v i a l p r o c e s s e s h e lp e d t o c r e a t e
a n d g i v e its n a m e . t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t ic s y o u h a v e id e n t i f i e d . (4marks
a i W i t h t h e a id o f a la b e i le d d ia g r a m , d e s c r ib e t h e b C h o o s e o n e o f t h e f o ll o w i n g f e a t u r e s o f a s a n d u r : la k e b e d
fe a tu re . (5 marks) d e p o s it s ; e s k e r ; k a m e ; b r a id e d s t r e a m . D e s c r i b e t h e
ii E x p la in h o w a g l a c ie r c r e a t e d t h e f e a t u r e y o u s h a p e a n d c h a r a c t e r i s t ic s o f t h e f e a t u r e . (4 marks
have chosen. (5 marks) c i W h a t is a kettle lake? (2 marks
iii D e s c r i b e a n d e x p la in one c h a n g e in t h e f e a t u r e , ii H o w is a k e t t l e la k e f o r m e d ? (5 marks
p r o b a b l y s in c e t h e la s t ic e a g e . (4 marks) iii S u g g e s t h o w a k e t t l e la k e m a y d is a p p e a r a f t e r t h e
b M a n y h o llo w s in a g l a c ia t e d u p l a n d a r e f ill e d w it h g la c ia l p e r io d . (6 marks
w a te r. W h e r e d o e s th e w a te r c o m e fro m ? (2 marks)
c S u g g e s t two p ie c e s o f e v i d e n c e y o u w o u l d lo o k f o r t o 5 a W h a t is a v a l l e y g l a c ie r ? (2 marks
s u g g e s t t h e d ir e c t io n o f m o v e m e n t o f a g l a c i e r if y o u b D e s c r i b e a n d e x p la i n t h e o r ig in s o f two s u r f a c e
w e r e t o c a r r y o u t a s t u d y o f a g l a c ia t e d v a lle y . (4 marks) f e a t u r e s o f a m o v in g g la c ie r . (6 marks
d D e s c r i b e a n d e x p la in one d if f e r e n c e b e t w e e n a g l a c ia t e d c E x p la in h o w y o u c o u l d m e a s u r e t h e m o v e m e n t o f
u p l a n d a r e a a n d a n u n g la c ia t e d o n e . (5 marks) a v a l l e y g la c ie r . (4 marks
d W h y d o e s t h e s n o u t o f a g la c ie r s o m e t im e s r e t r e a t
3 A g l a c ie r e r o d e s , t r a n s p o r t s a n d d e p o s it s m a t e r ia l u s in g a
e v e n t h o u g h t h e ic e a lw a y s m o v e s f o r w a r d ? (6 marks
ra n g e o f m e th o d s .
e W h a t f e a t u r e m a y m a r k w h e r e t h e s n o u t o f a r e t r e a t in g
a i N am e two t y p e s o f g la c ia l e r o s io n . (2 marks) g l a c ie r w a s in t h e p a s t ? D e s c r i b e t h e s h a p e a n d
ii F o r one o f t h e t y p e s o f e r o s io n in a i, e x p la in c o m p o s i t io n o f t h e f e a t u r e . (7 marks
h o w t h e g l a c ie r e r o d e s . (4 marks)
b S o m e lo o s e m a t e r ia l is c a r r ie d o n t o p o f t h e g la c ie r . 6 Ic e m o v e m e n t d u r i n g t h e la s t ic e a g e h a d indirect a s w e l l as
M a k in g g o o d u s e o f d ia g r a m s , s h o w w h e r e , o n t h e
direct e f f e c t s o n t h e la n d s c a p e . I n d i r e c t e f f e c t s o c c u r w h e r e
t h e ic e it s e lf w a s n o t i n v o l v e d in t h e e f f e c t .
s u r f a c e , t h is m a t e r ia l is c a r r ie d . (4 marks)
c W h e r e e l s e is m a t e r ia l c a r r ie d b y a g l a c ie r ? (2 marks)
a i E x p l a i n w h a t i s m e a n t b y t h e t e r m 'd r a i n a g e d i v e r s i o n !
(2 marks)

128 Glaciation
 ii C h o o s e o n e e x a m p le o f d r a i n a g e d iv e r s io n . D r a w a
s k e t c h m a p t o s h o w t h e d iv e r s io n a n d e x p la in t h e r o le
o f g la c ie r ic e in t h e c a u s e o f t h e d iv e r s io n . (6 marks)
r .V h y d id t h e la n d e x p e r ie n c e a n is o s ta tic c h a n g e o f
s e a - le v e l d u r in g t h e ic e a g e ? (4 marks)
c .V h y a r e 'r a is e d b e a c h e s 'f o u n d in C o a s ta l a r e a s w h e r e
g a c ia l ic e c a u s e d a n is o s ta tic c h a n g e in s e a - le v e l? (6 marks)
b W h y d o g la c ia l d e p o s it s h a v e a p a r t ic u la r o r ie n t a t io n ?
(7 marks)
c S u g g e s t two o t h e r s o u r c e s o f d a t a t o in d ic a t e t h e d ir e c t io n
o f ic e m o v e m e n t in a n a re a . F o r o n e o f t h e s e s o u r c e s , e x p la in
h o w it s h o w s t h e d ir e c t io n o f ic e m o v e m e n t . (5 marks)
egrees No.ofdasts Degrees No.ofdasts Degrees No.ofd

i C h o o s e one la n d fo r m (o t h e r t h a n a ra is e d b e a c h ) w h ic h h a s 0 0 120 2 240 8

c-een a f fe c t e d b y s e a - le v e l c h a n g e a s s o c ia t e d w it h g la c ia tio n . 15 0 135 3 255 3
D e s c r ib e t h e f e a t u r e a n d e x p la in h o w it w a s f o r m e d . (7marks)
30 10 150 1 270 1
; *'e ld s u r v e y (till f a b r ic a n a ly s is ) t h e o r ie n t a t io n o f c la s ts 45 12 165 1 285 1
r e s ) s h o w e d t h e d a t a g iv e n in t h e t a b le o n t h e rig h t.
. ~ ta tio n s h o w s two p o s s ib le d ir e c t io n s (e .g . N W / S E ). 60 8 180 0 300 2

; D r a w a g r a p h t o illu s t r a t e t h e d a ta . (6 marks) 75 3 195 0 315 3

ii U s in g t h e d a t a , s u g g e s t a n i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e 90 1 210 10 330 1
ic e m o v e m e n t in t h is a r e a . (7 marks) 105 1 225 12 345 1

L ta m p r a c tic e : b a s ic s t r u c t u r e d q u e s tio n s

» D e s c r ib e h o w ic e c a n e r o d e t h e r o c k s o f u p l a n d a r e a s b y : c W it h r e f e r e n c e t o o n e o r m o r e a r e a s t h a t y o u h a v e s tu d ie d ,
f r o s t s h a t t e r in g e x p la in w h y u p la n d g la c ia t e d a r e a s a r e o f t e n d if f ic u lt fo r
h u m a n s e t t le m e n t . (10 marks)
p lu c k in g
ni a b r a s io n . (9marks) 9 S t u d y F ig u r e 4 .2 5 o n p a g e i 15. S e le c t a n d n a m e a n y t w o
: £■ o la in h o w t h e s e p r o c e s s e s c o m b i n e t o p r o d u c e c ir q u e s f e a t u r e s o f g la c ia l e r o s io n s h o w n o n t h e d ia g r a m .
; s o k n o w n a s c o rr ie s o r c w m s ). (6 marks) a D e s c r ib e each o f y o u r c h o s e n fe a tu re s . (5 + 5 marks)
b E x p la in h o w each o f t h e s e f e a tu r e s w a s f o r m e d . (15 marks)

E s *n i p r a c tic e : s t r u c t u r e d q u e s tio n s

o e n t if y two p ie c e s o f e v id e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t c lim a t ic c E x p la in t h e d if f e r e n c e in m o v e m e n t b e t w e e n g la c ie r s in
:~ a n g e in a n a r e a h a s in c lu d e d a t le a s t one g la c ia l p e r io d . p o la r a n d t e m p e r a t e la t itu d e s . (8 marks)
- : r o n e o f t h e s e p ie c e s o f e v id e n c e , s h o w h o w it s u g g e s ts
= o a s t g la c ia l p e r io d . (5marks) 12 a i H o w h a s g la c ia l ic e a f fe c t e d s e a - le v e l in t h e p a s t, a n d
h o w m ig h t it a f fe c t s e a - le v e l in t h e n e x t c e n t u r y o r s o ?
D e s c r ib e h o w a g la c ie r o p e r a t e s a s a n 'o p e n s ys te m '.
(8 marks) (9 marks)
H o w is g la c ia l ic e i n v o l v e d in s e a - le v e l c h a n g e ?
ii H o w a n d w h y d o e s a g la c ie r b u d g e t v a r y b e t w e e n
w in t e r a n d s u m m e r s e a s o n s ? (12 marks) (9 marks)
b i D e s c r ib e t h e s h a p e a n d s c a le o f a fio rd .
^ e o g r a p h e r s o f t e n c la s s ify g la c ie r s in t o d if f e r e n t t y p e s . E x p la in t h e r o le s o f g l a c ia l p r o c e s s e s a n d s e a le v e l
D e s c r ib e one s y s te m o f c la s s ific a t io n . (5 marks) c h a n g e in t h e f o r m a t i o n o f a f io r d . (12marks)
'■n y d o e s m o v e m e n t o f g la c ie r ic e v a r y a c r o s s a n d
:h in th e g la c ie r ? (12marks)

m p ra c tic e : e s s a y s

■ :b e a n d e v a lu a t e t h e e v id e n c e (including
w’K>morphological evidence) t h a t t h e r e h a s b e e n a
tS o f ic e a g e s in t h e n o r t h e r n h e m is p h e r e d u r in g t h e
:•- m illio n y e a rs . (25marks)
16
- a n y o n e d r a in a g e d iv e r s io n s y s te m y o u h a v e s tu d ie d ,
: : jss t h e ro le o f g la c ia l ic e a n d o t h e r f a c t o r s in it s f o r m a t io n .
(25 marks)
r e c e n t ly m e lt e d , a n d e x p la in h o w y o u w o u ld r e c o g n is e t h e
d if f e r e n c e b e t w e e n s e le c t e d f e a t u r e s o f g la c ia l o r ig in a n d
s e le c t e d f e a t u r e s o f g la c if lu v ia l o r ig in . (25 marks)
S c ie n t is t s h a v e s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e r e is e v id e n c e f r o m t h e A r c tic
a n d A n t a r c t ic ic e s h e e ts t h a t g lo b a l w a r m in g is h a p p e n in g .
D e s c r ib e a n d e v a lu a t e th is e v id e n c e , a n d s u g g e s t h o w m e lt in g
o f t h e ic e m ig h t a f fe c t t h e E a rth 's f u t u r e g e o g r a p h y . (25 marks)

- ; ; : rib e t h e f e a t u r e s o f g la c ia l a n d g la c if lu v ia l d e p o s it io n t h a t
: h t b e f o u n d o n a lo w la n d p la in f r o m w h ic h a n ic e s h e e t h a d

Glaciation 129
 Periglaciation

'Perennially frozen material lurks beneath at least one-
fifth, andperhaps as much as one-fourth, o f the Earth's
land surface . '
Frederick Nelson, 1999
T h e term p e rig la c ia l, stric tly sp eak in g , m ea n s
'n e a r to or at th e frin g e o f an ice sh e e t', w here
fro st and snow h ave a m a jo r im p a c t u p o n th e
la n d sca p e. H ow ever, th e te rm is o fte n m ore
w id ely used to in clu d e a n y area th a t has a cold
c lim a te - e.g. m o u n ta in s in te m p e ra te la titu d es
Figure 5.1 su ch as th e Alps and th e P lateau o f T ib e t - or
Permafrostzones ^ as e x p e rien ced severe fro st a c tio n in
of the Arctic th e p ast - e.g. Sou th ern E nglan d d u rin g th e
Q u a tern a ry ice age (Figure 4 .3 b ). Today, th e
m o st e x te n siv e p erig lacial areas lie in th e
A rctic reg io n s o f C an ad a, Alaska and Russia.
T h ese areas, w h ic h h av e a tu n d ra clim a te , soils
an d v e g e ta tio n (pages 3 3 3 - 3 3 4 ) , e x h ib it th e ir
ow n c h a ra c te ris tic la n d fo rm s.
P e rm a fro s t
Perm afrost is p erm an en tly frozen ground. It
occurs w here soil tem peratu res rem ain below
0°C for at least two con secu tiv e years. Perm afros:
covers alm ost 25 per ce n t o f th e Earth's land
surface (Figure 5.1) alth o u g h its e x te n t changes
over periods o f tim e. Its depth and co n tin u ity
also vary (Figure 5.2).

continuous
perm afrost

discontinuous
perm afrost

sporadic
perm afrost

present-day major storm

tracks - annual mean

warm ocean currents

130 Periglaciation
 latitude (’ N) 74" N 65°N 61’N
Hay
settlem ent Resolute River

m ean annual
-8 "C discontinuous -T C sporadic
tem perature CC) -12“C con tin uo us perm afrost perm afrost perm afrost

depth of active
ayer (m) 0.5 1.0-1.5 1.5-3.0

permafrost
45 m 12 m

depth of 396 m
oerm afrost
rfi) talik
(unfrozen ground)

-15 00 k m -

-i 5.2 C o n tin u o u s p e rm a fro st is found m ain ly central Russia, and corresponds to those areas w ith
%ough w ith in th e Arctic Circle w here th e m ean annu al a m ean annual tem perature o f betw een -1 °C and
•e air tem perature is below -5 °C . Here w inter tem p ­ -5 °C . As is show n in Figure 5.2, discontinuous per­
st zone eratures m ay fall to -5 0 ° C and sum m ers are m afrost consists o f islands of perm anently frozen
rn Canada to o cold and to o short to allow an y th in g but a ground, separated by less cold areas w h ich lie near
superficial m eltin g of th e ground. T he perm afrost to rivers, lakes and th e sea.
has b een estim ated to reach a depth o f 7 0 0 m S p o rad ic p e rm a fro st is found w here m ean
in n o rth ern Canada and 1 5 0 0 m in Siberia. As annu al tem peratu res are just below freezing
Figure 5.1 shows, co n tin u ou s perm afrost extends p o in t and sum m ers are several degrees above
further south in c o n tin e n ta l interiors th a n in 0°C . This results in isolated areas o f frozen
Coastal areas w h ich are su b ject to th e w arm ing ground (Figure 5.2 ).
•5.3
in flu en ce of th e sea, e.g. th e N orth A tlantic Drift In areas w here sum m er tem peratures rise
in north-w est Europe. above freezing point, the surface layer thaws to
~: eraîures
D iscontin uou s p erm afro st lies further south form the a ctiv e layer. This zone, w h ich under
:-_’ost at
beria in the n orth ern hem isphere, reaching 50°N in som e local con d ition s can beco m e very m obile for
a few m o n th s before freezing again, can vary in
depth from a few centim etres (where peat
or vegetation cover protects th e ground from
-2 0 " -1 5 " -1 0 " -r oc +5 active zone (i.e. melts insolation) to 5 m. The active layer is often
in sum m er)
permafrost table: saturated because m eltw ater ca n n o t infiltrate
March _ August usually 15 m (b elow
temperature 'temperature downwards through th e im perm eable perm a­
this point there is no
ch an g e in seasonal
frost. M eltw ater is unlikely to evaporate in the
tem perature) low sum m er tem peratures or to drain dow nhill
since m ost o f th e slopes are very gentle. The result
annual is th a t perm afrost regions co n tain m any o f the
temperature
permafrost world's few rem aining w etland environm ents.
-of T he unfrozen layer b en ea th , or indeed any
m) unfrozen m aterial w ith in , th e perm afrost is
know n as talik. T h e lower lim it o f th e perm afrost
soil tem perature— -
increases with depth is d eterm ined by g eotherm al h eat w h ich causes
due to geothermal
heat tem peratures to rise above 0°C (Figure 5.3).
limit of perm afrost
(ab out 200 m) Temperatures taken over a period of years in
the discontinuous and continuous permafrost
talik suggest that, in Canada, Alaska and Russia, there is
a general thaw ing of the frozen ground, an event
accredited to global warming (Case Study 5).
0"C

Periglaciation 131
 P e r ig la c ia l p ro c e s s e s a n d
la n d f o r m s
M ost periglacial regions are sparsely populated and
underdeveloped. U ntil th e search for oii and gas
in th e 1960s, there had b een little need to study
or understand th e geom orphological processes
w hich operate in these areas. A lthough significant
strides have b een made in th e last 30 years, there
is still uncertainty as to how certain features have
developed and, indeed, w heth er such features
are still being form ed today or are a legacy o f a
previous, even colder clim ate - i.e. a fossil or relict
landscape. Figure 5 .4 gives a classification o f the
various processes w hich operate, and the land ­
forms w h ich develop, in periglacial areas.

Figure 5.4
Processp' Landform;
Classificationof
Ground ice Ice crystals and lenses (frost-heave) Sorted stone polygons (stone circles and stripes: patterned ground)
periglacial processes
and landforms Ground contraction Ice wedges with unsorted polygons: patterned ground

Freezingofgroundwater Pingos

Frost weathering Frost shattering/Freeze-thaw Blockfields, talus (scree), tors (Chapter 8)

Snow Nivation Nivation hollows

Meltwater Solifluction Solifluction sheets, rock streams

Streams Braiding, dry valleys in chalk (Chapter 8)

Wind Windblown Loess (limon), dunes

Figure 5.5
G ro u n d ice Britain to explain w hy a p lot th at was left stone-
Frost-heave and
less in th e autum n has becom e stone-covered by
stone-sorting F ro s t-h e a v e : ice cry stals a n d lenses
the spring, follow ing a cold winter.)
a doming occurs when Frost-heave includes several processes w hich
the ground freezes D uring periods o f thaw , m eltw ater leaves fine
cause either fine-grained soils such as silts and
in winter but may m aterial un der th e u p lifted stones, p reven tin g
clays to expand to form sm all dom es, or in d i­
disappearinsummer th e m from fallin g back in to th eir original posi-
when the ground vidual stones w ithin th e soil to be m oved to the
tio n s. In areas o f repeated freezing (ideally
thaw s-the ground surface (Figure 5.5 ). It results from the direct for-
w here tem peratu res fall to b etw een -4 °C and
iswarmedfrom m atio n o f ice - either as crystals or as lenses. The
above -6 °C ) and thaw in g, frost-heave b o th lifts and
th e rm a l c o n d u c tiv ity o f stones is greater th an
b stones roii down sorts m aterial to form p a tte rn e d g ro u n d o n the
th a t o f soil. As a result, th e area under a stone
into the hollows surface (Figure 5 .6 ). T h e larger stones, w ith their
between mounds becom es colder th an th e surrounding soil, and ice
extra w eight, m ove outw ards to form , o n alm ost
and material crystals form . Further exp an sion by th e ice widens
flat areas, ston e circles or, m ore accurately, ston e
becomes sorted th e capillaries in th e soil, allow ing m ore m oisture
in size, with the p o ly g o n s. W h ere th is process occurs on slopes
to rise and to freeze. T he crystals, or the larger ice
finest deposits left w ith a grad ient in excess o f 2°, th e ston es will
lenses w h ich form at a greater depth, force the
in the centre of the slow ly m ove d ow n h ill under gravity to form
polygonandontop stones above th em to rise u n til eventually they
elo n g ated sto n e stripes.
of the mound reach th e surface. (Ask a gardener in n orthern

ice crystals Figure 5.6

stones ţ m o ve m e n t of stones
and/or lenses
Frost-heave: the formation of
angular polygons on polygons and stone stripes
flat ground (under 6 °)
ground surface 1-5 m in d iam eter elongated stripes oai
6;

stones forced to the surface by frost heaving, subsequent capillary

action of w a ter gives more freezing and enlarges ice lenses

p erm anen tly frozen ground

 frozen surface contracts thawed surface frozen surface contracts again frozen surface

II

small tension crack meltwater with some

w a ter freezes, w id ening
sand and dust
and d ee p e n in g th e crack Cl
Ii
"O
-2

first winter first summer second winter several centuries later

Ground contraction
T h e refreezing o f th e active layer during the
severe w inter cold causes the soil to con tract.
Cracks op en up w h ich are sim ilar in appearance
qround is formed by polygons * _
to the irregularly shaped polygons found on L up to 30 m in diameter. The
th e bed of a dried-up lake. D uring th e follow ing £ polygon boundaries markthe - v i *
sum m er, these cracks open, close or fiii w ith m e lt­ 0 position ofthe ice wedges
water and, som etim es, also w ith water and wind- ^ V S - rfk tL T **
blow n deposits. W h e n the water refreezes, during — •
th e follow ing w inter th e cracks w iden and deepen V
to form i c e w e d g e s (Figure 5 .7 ). This process ■ f ‘ " ~

is repeated ann u ally until th e wedges, w hich ■

£ t\
underlie th e perim eters o f th e polygons, grow to
Ş - - *
as m u ch as 1 m in w idth and 3 m in depth. F o s s i l
i c e w e d g e s , i.e. cracks filled w ith sands and silt
-
left by m eltw ater, are a sign o f earlier periglacial K T
con d ition s (Figure 5.9).
' i ^ r . . " ' -%
Patterned ground (Figure 5 .8) can, therefore, ■ p • .
be produced by tw o processes: frost-heavin g
(Figure 5.6) and ground co n tra c tio n (Figure h *-’ u J*2 S *' ^ z S r tr
5 .7 ). Frost-heaving results in sm all d om e-shaped U f:,
* :r£
.edge polygons w ith larger stones fo u n d to th e outside S ’s '* '• * - '* -* >
c r - 5* •?

of th e circles, w hereas ice co n fra c tio n produces

larger polygon s w ith th e centre o f th e circles
depressed in h e ig h t and c o n ta in in g th e bigger
ston es. T h e diam eter o f an individual polygon
can reach over 3 0 m.

Freezing ofgroundwater
P ingos are dom e-shaped, isolated hills w hich
interrup t th e flat tundra plains (Figure 5.10).
T hey can have a diam eter o f up to 5 0 0 m and m ay
rise 5 0 m in h eig h t to a sum m it th a t is som etim es
ruptured to expose an icy core. As th ey occur
m ain ly in sand, th ey are n o t susceptible to frost-
heaving. A m erican geographers recognise two
types of pingo (Figure 5.1 l a and b), although
recen t investigations have led to th e suggestion
of a third type: p o ly g e n e tic (or m ixed) pingos.

Periglaciation 133

Figure 5.10
O p e n -sy ste m (h y d ra u lic ) p in g o s occu r in
Apingo, Mackenzie valley b o tto m s and in areas o f th in or d isc o n ­
Delta, Canada
tin u o u s p erm afrost. Surface w ater is able to
in filtra te in to th e upper layers o f th e ground
w here it ca n circu late in th e u n fro z e n sed im en ts
before freezing. As th e w ater freezes, it expan ds
and form s lo calised m asses o f ice. T h e ice forces
any ov erly in g sed im en t upw ards in to a d om e-
shaped featu re, in th e sam e way th a t frozen
m ilk lifts th e cap o ff its b o ttle. This type of
pingo, referred to as th e E ast G re e n la n d ty p e,
grows fro m below (Figure 5 .1 1 a ).
C lo sed -sy stem (h y d ro sta tic) p in g o s are
Figure 5.11
m ore ch aracteristic o f flat, low -lying areas where
Formation of pingos
th e perm afrost is co n tin u o u s. T hey o ften form
o n th e sites o f sm all lakes where water is trapped
(en clo sed ) by freezing from above and by the
advance o f th e perm afrost inwards from the
lake m argins. As th e w ater freezes it will expand,
forcin g th e ground above it to rise upwards in to
a dom e shape. This type of pingo is know n as the
M ack enzie ty p e as over 1 4 0 0 have been recorded
in the delta region o f the River M ackenzie. It
results from th e dow nward grow th o f the
perm afrost (Figure 5 .1 1b ).
As th e surface o f a pingo is stretched , the
sum m it m ay rupture and crack. W here th e ice-
core m elts, th e h ill m ay collapse leaving a m elt-
w ater-filled h ollow (Figure 5 .1 1 c ). Later, a new
pingo m ay form o n the sam e site, and th ere m a j
be a repeated cycle o f fo rm a tio n and collapse.
Frost weathering
M ech a n ica l w eathering is far m ore sig n ifican t
in periglacial areas th a n is ch em ica l w eathering,
w ith freeze-th aw b ein g th e d o m in a n t process
(Figure 2 .1 0 ). O n relatively flat up land surfaces,
e.g. th e Scafei) range in th e Lake D istrict and the
Glyders in Snow donia, th e extensive spreads of
large, angular boulders, form ed in situ by frost
a ction , are know n as b lo ck field s or felsen m eer
(literally, a 'rock sea').
Scree, or talus, develops at the foot of steep
slopes, especially those com posed of w ell-jointed

a open-system (East Greenland) type b closed-system fr o z e n la k e w it h s e d im e n t o n its f lo o r in s u -

(Mackenzie) type la te s th e g r o u n d b e n e a th it, c r e a t in g ta lik
sum m it of pingo ruptures
and opens

I
new\y frozen surface perm afrost unfrozen w a ter perm afrost

talik under lake

ice core

perm afrost perm afrost as w ater freezes and expands, the frozen lake
breaks up and slides aw ay as the ground heaves

A
upw ard m o vem ent of gro un dw ater
\ ^
tc e c o r e e x p a n d s
by hydraulic pressure u p w a r d s d u e t o in c re a s e
in h y d r o s t a t ic p re s s u re
advancing advancing
perm afrost talik perm afrost

c a ruptured pingo ho llow on site of ruptured pingo

f
as surface ruptures, heat enters,

\
melts the core and the
n00 form er d om e m e ,tw a te r
pingo collapses
ram part

ad van cing perm afrost

talik

134 Periglaciation
 rocks prone to frost action. Freeze-thaw m ay also
turn w ell-jointed rocks, such as graniţe, into tors
(page 202). O ne school of th o u g h t on tor forma-
tio n suggests th a t these landform s result from frost
shattering, w ith the weathered debris later having
been removed by solifluction. If this is the case,
tors are therefore a relict (fossil) o f periglacial times.
Snow
Snow is th e agent o f several processes w h ich
collectiv ely are know n as n iv a tio n (page 111).
These n iv a tio n processes, som etim es referred
to as 'sn o w p atch erosion', are believed to be
responsible for enlarging hollow s o n hillsides.
N ivation hollow s are still actively fo rm in g in
places like Iceland , bu t are relict features in
Southern England (as on th e scarp slope o f th e
Sou th D ow ns beh in d Eastbourne).
| cond itions. Any water in th e porous chalk at this
sheetin
Vountains,
;da
i sneet at the foot of a chalk
escarpment in south-east England
form er position
of chalk scarp
ermafrost
solifluction sheet:
cem en ted chalk and clay
:-alk
form ing co o m b e deposits
~ozen during
ce age)
M e ltw a te r
D uring periods o f thaw , th e upper zone (active
layer) m elts, b eco m es saturated and, if on a
slope, begins to m ove dow nhill un der gravity by
th e process o f so liflu ctio n (page 4 7). Soliflu ction
leads to th e in fillin g o f valleys and hollow s by
sands and clays to form so liflu ctio n sheets
(Figures 5 .1 2 and 5 .1 3 a ) or, if th e source of
th e flow was a n iv a tio n hollow , a rock stream
(Figure 5 .2 1 ). S o liflu ctio n deposits, w h eth er th ey
have in-filled valleys or have flow ed over cliffs,
as in Southern England, are also know n as h ead
or, in chalky areas, c o o m b e (Figure 5 .13b ).
The chalklands o f Southern England are
characterised by num erous dry valleys (Figure
8 .1 1 ). The m ost favoured o f several hypotheses
put forward to explain their origin suggests that
the valleys were carved out under periglacial
tim e would have frozen, to produce perm afrost,
leaving th e surface im perm eable. Later, m eltw ater
rivers would have flowed over this frozen ground
to form V-shaped valleys (page 200).
Rivers in periglacial areas have a d ifferent
regim e from th o se flow ing in w arm er clim ates.
M any m ay stop flow ing altog eth er during the
lon g and very cold w inter (Figure 5 .1 4 ) and have
a peak discharge in late spring or early sum m er
w h en m eltin g is at its m axim u m (Places 18).
W ith th eir h ig h velocity, these rivers are capable
o f tran sp ortin g large am o u n ts o f m aterial w hen
at their peak flow. Later in th e year, w hen
river levels fall rapidly, m u ch o f th is m aterial
will be deposited, leaving a braided ch an n e l
(Figures 3 .3 2 and 5 .1 6 ).
Figure 5.13
Formation of solifluction
sheetand head
b headexposed in a cliff in south-west England
soil,form ed since
head:
m aterial deposited on to p of
beach deposits by solifluction
during th e ice age
m arine sands and shells
o f interglacial beach
bedtock
Periglaciation 135

Figure 5.14
Model of a river regime
in a periglacial area
175-
as tem peratu res rise,
150 snow m elt leads to increasing as w in ter approaches
discharge;this m ay cause and tem peratures fall,
125 'rejuvenation', perhaps there is less snow m elt
0>
FD form ing river terraces in the and the river level falls
u 1(1(1- old floodplain (page 82)
ti
? 75 -
effîciency o f river is reduced:
u
50 braiding often occurs annually
as discharge falls and the load
usually no discharge in
becom es too great for
25 - w in ter because w a ter is held
transportation (Figure 5.16)
in storage as ice and snow
o-
J M O N

Alaska: periglacial river regim es

P e r m a f r o s t a ls o a f fe c t s t h e h y d r o lo g ic a l r e g im e s
o f s u b a r c t ic riv e rs . F ig u r e 5 .1 5 s h o w s t h e r e g im e o f
t w o A la s k a n riv e r s , b o t h o f w h ic h f lo w in fi rs t o r d e r
d r a in a g e b a s in s ( p a g e 6 5 ). O n e riv e r, h o w e v e r , is
lo c a t e d in n o r t h e r n A la s k a w h e r e o v e r 5 0 p e r c e n t o f
t h e b a s in is u n d e r la in w it h c o n t in u o u s p e r m a f r o s t .
T h e o t h e r riv e r, in c o n t r a s t , is lo c a t e d f u r t h e r s o u t h
Figure 5.15 w h e r e m o s t o f t h e b a s in c o n s is t s o f d is c o n t in u o u s
Contrasting regimes p e r m a f r o s t a n d o n ly 3 p e r c e n t is c o n t in u o u s
of rivers flowing over p e r m a f r o s t . T h e n o r t h e r n riv e r, f lo w i n g o v e r m o r e
continuous and
i m p e r m e a b le g r o u n d ( m o r e p e r m a f r o s t g iv in g
discontinuous
in c r e a s e d s u r f a c e r u n o f f a n d r e d u c e d t h r o u g h f l o w )
permafrost
r e s p o n d s m u c h m o r e r e a d ily t o c h a n g e s in b o t h
t e m p e r a t u r e (in c r e a s e d s n o w m e lt o r f r e e z in g ) a n d
r a in f a ll ( a m o u n t s a n d s e a s o n a l d is t r ib u t io n ). It h a s a
m o r e e x t r e m e r e g im e s h o w in g t h a t it is m o r e lik e ly t o
f lo o d in s u m m e r a n d t o h a v e a h i g h e r p e a k d is c h a r g e
a n d t h e n t o d r y u p s o o n e r , a n d f o r a lo n g e r p e r io d , in
w in t e r o r d u r in g d r y s p e lls . F ig u r e 5 . 1 6 w a s t a k e n o n 7
A u g u s t 1 9 9 6 i n t h e D y n a l i N a t io n a l P a r k . T h e r iv e r le v e l
h a d a lr e a d y f a lle n (a s h a d t h e fi rs t s n o w o f w in t e r !) ,
a n d t h e la r g e lo a d c a r r ie d b y t h e e a r l y s u m m e r
m e lt w a t e r s h a d a lr e a d y b e e n d e p o s it e d .

Figure 5.16

A river in the Dynali National Park

(cum ecs)
discharge

W in d d ep th and form s th e yellow soils o f th e Huang

A lack o f v eg etation and a p len tifu l supply o f
fine, loose m aterial (i.e. silf) fo u n d in glacial
e n v iro n m en ts en abled strong, cold , ou t-b lo w in g
winds to pick up large am o u n ts o f dust and
to red eposit it as lo ess in areas far b ey on d its
source. Loess covers large areas in th e M ississippi
-M issou ri valley in th e USA. It also occurs
across Fran ce (w here it is called lim o n ) and
th e N orth European Plain and in to n orth -w est
C h in a (w here in places it exceeds 3 0 0 m in
He valley - Case Study 10). In all areas, it gives
an agriculturally produ ctive, fin e-textu red ,
deep, w ell-d rained and easily worked soil w hich
is, how ever, susceptible to fu rther erosion by
water and w ind if n o t carefu lly m anaged (Figure
1 0 .3 5 ). Large tracts o f ce n tra l Europe, oth er tha:
th o se co n sistin g o f loess, are covered in dunes
(coversands) w h ich were form ed by w ind depo­
sitio n during periglacial tim es.

136 Periglaciation

1008, Dr Mike Bentley claimed in
- -y a p h y Review that one ofthe most
portant, yet least publicised, effects of
warming is the melting ofthe per-
tficsî (Figure 5.19). Measurements taken
j a north-south transect adjacent to the
an pipeiine suggestthatthe depth of
3;tive layer is increasing and the depth
7 permafrost table is getting lower
_'e5.3).
Causes
Global warming is causing
"emperaturesto rise more quickly in
='ctic areas, where the permafrost is
: tated, than in more temperate
-gions. As the air temperature rises,
-'efrozen ground beneath it warms up.
■Northern Canada, where there has
:een an increase in temperature of just
?r 1°C since 1990, the rate ofthaw
■B5 trebled. However, although global
:-'ming isthe main and obvious cause
■ :he melting ofth e permafrost, there further northwards and that the length
; e other contributory reasons.
: o jild in g s , such as churches and halls,
c o n c re te 3 0 c m thick, laid on a pad o f
- 2 c m th ic k to p re v e n t upset in th e rm a l
■ um - Schools close w h e n te m p e ra tu re
-40°C.
problem s of
blizzards, icing
and galeş
: oeline built ab ove
level and insulated
The melting permafrost
• The removal of mosses and other
tundra vegetation (page 333) for
construction purposes means that in
summer more heat penetrates the soil,
increasing the depth of thaw.
• The construction of central ly heated
buildings warms the ground beneath
them, while the laying of pipes in the
active zone, for heating oii, sewerage
and water, increases the rate ofthaw
(Figure 5.17).
• Heat produced by drilling for oii and
natural gas in both Alaska and Russia
melts the surrounding permafrost.
E ffe c ts
• There is a reduction in the polar extent
ofth e permafrost in arctic areas and an
increase in the frequency of landslips
and slope failure in more temperate,
mountainous regions.
• There is evidence that the tree line
(page 331) is beginning to extend
ofthe growing season has increased by
roads and airstrips built on gravei pads:
drained so that ice cann ot develop and
frost levels will not alter
car in garage (night) or parked on IIJ
Street, plugged into electricity supply
to stop battery running down and
petrol and oii from freezing
fresh w ater
cold air can blow
under house, snow
does not pile up
during a blizzard
steam
fresh w ater
oii storage tank built on stilts 'Utilidor':Steel frame with
as oii has to be kept heated to aiuminium panels heated
prevent it freezing by steam to prevent
freezing and protected
with fibrous insulation
% 5
three days in Canada and Alaska and by
one day in Russia.
tis
• There is an increase in the extent of
therm okarst, which is a landscape
that develops where masses of ground
ice melts. As the depth ofthe active
layer increases, parts ofthe land surface
subside.Thermokarst is, therefore,
the general name given to irregular,
hummockyterrain with marshyor lake-
filled hollows created by the disruption of
the thermal equilibrium ofthe permafrost
(Figures 5.18 and 12.43).This development
also increases the risk of iocal flooding.
• Houses and other buildings tilt as their
foundations subside and sink into the
ground (Figure 5.20).
• Earth movements can alterthe position
ofthe supports for oii pipelines,
threatening to fracture the pipes. Roads
and railways can lose alignment, and
dams and bridges may develop cracks.
• A new railway across the permafrost
that makes up much oftheTibetan
Plateau has had to be built on crushed
rock as this reduces temperatures and
consequently the rate ofthaw.
Figure 5.17
Attempts to reduce
problems created by
the development of
steep roof to allow
periglacial areas
snow to slide off
lightweig
woodenI
with
jetween
houses built on
concrete stilts
driven into the
permafrost
active layer
frost table
p e rm a fro st
^ (2 3 9 2 1 ^ 3 T ^ e m e ltin g p e r m a fr o s t

• Of all the effects resulting from

the melting of the permafrost, it is Figure 5.18

the release of organic matterfrom

permafrost soils as they thaw that is
causing scientists the most concern
(Figure 5.19). This organic matter
contains large amounts of carbon in
storage. As temperatures rise due to
global warming, this carbon is released
as one of two greenhouse gases -
either C 0 2 in drier areas or methane in
wetter places (Figure 9.78).The release
of these gases will increase the speed
of global warming which in turn will
accelerate the rate of melting in the
permafrost, creating a vicious cycle.

C o n d u s io n
Latest estimates suggest that the depth of
the active layer could increase by 20 to 30
per cent by 2050, and that between 60 per
cent (the most conservative figure) and 90
per cent (the worst-case scenario) of the
permafrost could disappear by 2100. As Dr
Bentley suggests:'Permafrost may seem like
a remote irrelevance to us in the temperate
mid-latitudes, but it has the potential to
affect every one of us through its impact on
greenhouse gas emissions.'
Figure 5.19
Normally, the soils o f permafrost areas are
Extract from an artide
crammed with undegraded, well-preserved
in Geography Review
organic matter in the form o f leaves, roots,
February 2008, by Dr
twigs and so on. This is an enormous store of
Mike Bentley
carbon, kept inert by being frozen in the
ground. But if that ground begins to melt and
the organic material can start rotting, it will
release its carbon as carbon dioxide or
Figure 5.20 methane, both greenhouse gases.
In other words, the newly thawed soils may
Buildings in Yukon, Canada, whose
release vast amounts o f greenhouse gases into
footings have sunk into the permafrost
the atmosphere, which will o f course give a
further 'k ick ' to global warming. This will
melt more permafrost and so on. in a
worsening positive feedback cycle. This
process is an example o f biogeochem ical
feedback which could influence global climate
change. The alarming thing about it is the
amount o f carbon contained in the A rctic, and
the speed at which warming is occurring. The
combined effect could be catastrophic.
To illustrate this, consider that the A rctic is
estimated to contain about 900 gigatonnes (Gt
o f carbon. Flumans emit about 9 Gt o f carbon
from fossil fuels and deforestation every year.
So it would only take the release o f 1% of
carbon in A rctic permafrost soils to effectiveh
double our emissions o f greenhouse gases.

F u rth e r re fe re n c e
Bentley, M. (2008) 'O n shaky ground' in
Geography Review Voi 21 No 3 (February).
French, H.M. (2007) The Periglacial
Environment, WileyBlackwell.
Goudie, A.S. (2001) The N ahire o f the
Enviroiiment, WileyBlackwell.
M iddleton, N. (2008) 'Arctic warming' in
Geography Review Voi 21 No 4 (April).
P erig lacial processes and land form s:
www.bgrg.org/pages/education/alevel
coldenvirons/Lesson% 2019.htm
www.fettes.com/Cairngorms/periglacia:
htm

138 Periglaciation
A c tiv itie s

S t u d y F ig u r e 5.1 ( p a g e 1 3 0 ), w h i c h s h o w s w h e r e t h e r e is
p e r m a f r o s t in t h e n o r t h e r n h e m is p h e r e , a n d F ig u r e 5 .2
p a g e 1 3 1 ).
a i W h e r e is t h e p la c e c lo s e s t t o t h e N o r t h P o le w h e r e
t h e r e is n o p e r m a f r o s t ?
e W h y d o e s th e p e rm a fro s t n o t o c c u r th r o u g h o u t th e
cru sta l ro ck s? (5 marks)
2 S t u d y F ig u r e 5 .1 4 ( p a g e 1 3 6 ) w h i c h s h o w s t h e f l o w o f
a r iv e r (its r e g im e ) in a p e r ig l a c i a l a r e a .

ii H o w c l o s e t o t h e N o r t h P o le is t h is p la c e ? (2 marks) a i W h e n d o e s w a t e r n o t f l o w in t h is r iv e r ? (2 marks)
b i F r o m F ig u r e 5.1 s u g g e s t tw o r e a s o n s w h y t h e r e is ii W h y d o e s w a t e r n o t f l o w d u r i n g t h is t i m e ? (3 marks)
n o p e r m a f r o s t in s o m e p la c e s w h i l e t h e r e is in iii H o w w o u l d y o u r e c o g n i s e 'r i v e r t e r r a c e s in t h e
o t h e r p la c e s . G i v e e x a m p le s f r o m t h e m a p t o o ld f l o o d p l a i n 'c u t b y s u c h a r iv e r ? (5marks)
s u p p o rt y o u r a n sw e r. (6 marks)
b U s in g d ia g r a m s in y o u r a n s w e r , e x p la in t h e m e a n in g
iii Id e n t i f y t h e c a u s e / s o f t h e 'p o c k e t 'o f p e r m a f r o s t o f t h e t e r m 'b r a i d i n g 'a s u s e d in t h e d ia g r a m . (5 marks)
in n o r t h - w e s t S c a n d in a v i a . (2 marks)
c G i v e tw o r e a s o n s w h y t h e w i n d h a s a g r e a t e r e r o s i o n a l
c W h a t is t h e 'a c t i v e la y e r 'i n p e r m a f r o s t lik e ? (3 marks) e f f e c t in p e r ig l a c i a l e n v ir o n m e n t s t h a n in m o s t o t h e r
d i W h a t is m e a n t b y t h e t e r m 'm e a n a n n u a l a re a s. (5 marks)
t e m p e r a t u r e '? (3 marks) d H o w c o u ld y o u r e c o g n is e t h a t t h e w in d h a d :
ii H o w d e e p is a t h e a c t i v e la y e r a n d b t h e p e r m a f r o s t
i r e m o v e d m a t e r ia l f r o m o n e a r e a a n d
a t R e s o lu t e B a y ? (2 marks)
ii d e p o s it e d t h e m a t e r ia l e l s e w h e r e ? (5 marks)
iii U s e d a t a f r o m F i g u r e 5 .2 t o s u g g e s t t h e r e l a t io n s h ip
b e t w e e n d e p t h o f p e r m a f r o s t a n d la t it u d e . (2 marks)

j m p r a c tic e : b a s ic s t r u c t u r e d q u e s tio n s

d D e s c r i b e t h e s h a p e a n d s c a l e o f tw o o f t h e f o ll o w i n g c F i g u r e 5 .1 0 ( p a g e 1 3 4 ) s h o w s a p i n g o in n o r t h e r n C a n a d a .
p e r ig l a c i a l la n d f o r m s : ic e w e d g e p o ly g o n s ; s c r e e ; W r i t e a d e s c r ip t io n o f t h e p in g o f r o m t h e p h o t o g r a p h ,
n i v a t io n h o llo w ; s o li f l u c t io n t e r r a c e t t e s . (6 marks) in c l u d in g t h e a r e a a r o u n d it a n d its s c a le . (6 marks)
b F o r one o f t h e la n d fo r m s y o u h a v e d e s c r ib e d in a, e x p la in d H o w is a p in g o f o r m e d ? (7marks)
- . t i o w p e r ig la c ia l p r o c e s s e s h a v e le d t o its f o r m a t io n . (6 marks)

a m p r a c tic e : s t r u c t u r e d q u e s tio n s
-©tt * * • t

* u d y F ig u r e 5.21 w h i c h s h o w s a r a n g e horizontal scale 500 m

A nivation hollow with snow patch G braided stream
p e r ig la c ia l la n d f o r m s a n d t h e ir
B stone polygons,garlands H ice-wedge polygons
.c a tio n s .
and stripes K pingo
3 C h o o s e one o f t h e la n d f o r m s C solifluction sheets/benches L tor
a b e lle d B t o H . D e s c r i b e its s iz e a n d D blockfield M talus (scree)
o c a t io n in t h e f ie ld a n d s u g g e s t E rock stream N cliffs with head
i o w it h a s b e e n f o r m e d . (8 marks) F debris fan deposits m w upper limit of
d E x p la in t h e p r o c e s s e s t h a t a r e
o p e r a t i n g in t h e s n o w p a t c h (A ). ©
© CD
-- (Â) i ? permafrost

t IG)
(5 marks)
z E x p la in t h e r o le o f i w i n d a n d ii
iw e lt w a t e r in t h e f o r m a t i o n o f
® s
a n d f o r m s in a r e a s o f p e r ig la c ia l
andscape. (12 marks)

upper limit of bedrock

ia m p r a c tic e : e s s a ys

a n g e s t o s o il s t a b il it y d u e t o f r o s t a r e a m a j o r p r o b le m f o r
. e l o p m e n t in r e g io n s w h e r e t h e r e is a p e r ig l a c i a l c lim a t e .'
n g e x a m p le s y o u h a v e s t u d ie d , e x p la in w h y t h is c o u l d b e
: c a s e , a n d d e s c r ib e m e t h o d s p e o p l e u s e t o o v e r c o m e t h e
,o le m s o f liv in g in s u c h a r e a s . (25 marks)
6 'P e r m a f r o s t m a y s e e m lik e a r e m o t e ir r e le v a n c e t o u s in t h e
t e m p e r a t e m id - la t it u d e s , b u t its d e s t r u c t io n c o u l d h a v e b ig
im p l ic a t i o n s b o t h lo c a lly a n d g l o b a l ly.'
D is c u s s t h is s t a t e m e n t . (25marks)

Periglaciation 139
 f
Coasts

'A recent estim ate o fth e coastline ofE n glan d and Wales
is 2 7 5 0 miles and it is very rare to find the sam e kind o f
coastal scenery for more than 10 to 15 miles together.'
J.A. Steers, T h e C o a s t lin e o f E n g l a n d a n d W a le s ,
‘I do not know w hat I m ay appear to the world; but to
m y selfl seeiri to have been only a boy playing on the sea-
shore, and diverting m yselfin now and then finding a
sm oother p ebble or a prettier shell than ordinary, while the
great ocean oftru th lay all undiscovered before m e.'
Isaac Newton, P h ilo s o p h ia e N a t u r a lls
P r in c ip ia M a t h e m a t ic a , 1687
T h e co ast is a n arrow zon e w here th e lan d and
th e sea overlap and d irectly in te ra ct. Its devel-
o p m e n t is affected by terrestrial, a tm o sp h eric,
m arin e an d h u m a n processes (Figure 6 .1 ) and
th e ir in te rre la tio n sh ip s. T h e co a st is th e m o st
varied and rapid ly c h a n g in g o f all lan d form s
and ecosy stem s.
W aves
Figure 6.1
Waves are created by the transfer of energy from
Factors affecting the w ind blow ing over th e surface o f the sea. (An
coasts
exception to this d efinition is those waves -
tsu n am is - th a t result from subm arine shock
waves generated by earthquake or volcanic
activity.) As the strength o f the wind increases, so
1960
too does frictio n al d rag and the size o f the waves.
Waves th a t result from local winds and travel only
short distances are know n as sea, whereas those
waves form ed by distant storm s and travelling
large distances are referred to as swell.
T he energy acquired by waves depends upon
three factors: th e w ind velocity, th e period of
tim e during w h ich th e w ind has blow n, and the
length o f th e fetch . T he fe tc h is th e m axim u m
distance o f op en w ater over w h ich th e w ind can
blow, and so places w ith th e greatest fetch p o ter-
tially receive th e h ig hest-energ y waves. Parts of
south-w est E ngland are exposed to th e A tlantic
O cean and w h en th e sou th-w esterly winds blow
it is possible th a t som e waves m ay have origi-
nated several th o u san d kilom etres away. The
T ham es estuary, by com p arison , has less open
w ater b etw een it and th e C o n tin e n t and conse-
q u en tly receives low er-energy waves.

TERRESTRIAL: HUMAN: ATM OSPHERIC:

b u ild in g s
p o llu t io n
te c to n ic s t o u r is m a n d r e c r e a t io n
( p l a t e m o v e m e n t a n d v o lc a n ic sea d e fe n c e s
a c t iv it y ) c o n s e r v a t io n g r a v it y
g l o b a l w a r m in g

g e o lo g y
(r o c k t y p e a n d s t r u c t u r e ) COASTS
s o la r e n e r g y

w e a t h e r in g MARINE:
w a v e s a n d t s u n a m is

d e p o s it i o n t id e s
c lim a t e
s a lt s p r a y ( t e m p e r a t u r e , p r e c i p it a t io n , w in d s ,
b io t i c f e a t u r e s b io t i c f e a t u r e s g la c ia t i o n s )
(e .g . m a n g r o v e s ) (e .g . c o r a l)

140 Coasts
W a v e te r m in o lo g y
T h e c re s t and th e tro u g h are respectively the
h ig h est and low est p o in ts o f a wave (Figure 6 .2 ).
W ave h e ig h t (H) is th e d istance betw een the
crest and th e trough. T he h e ig h t has to be esti-
m ated w h en in deep water. Wave h e ig h t rarely
exceeds 6 m a lth ou g h freak waves o f 15 m have
b een reported by offshore oil-rigs, and 25 m by
a w ave-tracking satellite. Such waves ca n be a
serious hazard to shipping.
W ave p e rio d (T) is th e tim e taken for a wave
to travel th rou g h o n e wave len g th . This can be
tim ed eith er b y co u n tin g th e n u m ber o f crests
per m in u te or by tim in g 11 waves and dividing
by 10 - i.e. th e n u m ber o f intervals.
W ave le n g th (L) is th e d istance betw een
tw o successive crests. It can be determ in ed
by th e form ula:
L = 1 .5 6 T 2
W ave v e lo c ity (C) is th e speed o f m o vem en t
o f a crest in a given period o f tim e.
W ave steep n ess (H + L) is th e ratio of the
wave h eig h t to th e wave length. This ratio ca n n o t
exceed 1:7 (0 .1 4 ) because at th a t p o in t th e wave
will break. Steepness determ ines w h eth er waves
will build up or degrade beaches. M ost waves have
a steepness o f betw een 0 .0 0 5 and 0 .0 5 .
The e n e rg y (E) o f a wave in deep water is
expressed by th e form ula:
E (is p ro p orţio n al to) LH 2
This m eans th a t even a slight increase in wave
h eig h t can generate large increases in energy. It is
estim ated th a t th e average pressure o f a wave in
w inter is 11 to n n es per m 2, bu t th is m ay be three
tim es greater during a storm - it is little w onder
th a t un der such co n d itio n s sea d efences m ay
crest 1
L----------------------------------------- w a ve length (L)
w a ve height (H)
trough
Figure 6.2
Wave terminology
be destroyed and th a t wave pow er is a p o ten tial
source o f renew able energy (page 5 4 1 ).
S w ell is characterised by waves o f low height,
gentle steepness, long wave len g th and a long
period. Sea, w ith opposite characteristics, usually
has higher-energy waves.
W aves in d e e p w a te r
Deep w ater is w h en th e depth o f w ater is greater
th a n one-q u arter o f th e wave len g th :
(D = > i )
T h e drag o f th e w ind over th e sea surface causes
w ater and flo atin g o b jects to m ove in an o r b ita l
m o tio n (Figure 6 .3 ). Waves are surface fea­
tures (subm erged subm arines are u n affected
by storm s) and therefore th e sizes o f th e orbits
decrease rapidly w ith d epth. Any flo atin g o b je ct
in th e sea has a sm all n e t h o riz o n ta l m o vem en t
but a m u ch larger vertical m o tio n .
W aves in s h a llo w w a te r
As waves approach shallow water, i.e. w h en their
d epth is less th a n one-quarter o f th e wave length,
(■D = < \ )
frictio n w ith th e seabed increases. As th e base of
th e wave begins to slow down, th e circular oscil-
la tio n b ecom es m ore eiiip tical (Figure 6 .4 ). As
th e water d ep th co n tin u es to decrease, so does
th e wave length.
M eanw hile th e height and steepness of the
wave increase u n til th e upper part spills or plunges
over. The p oint at w hich the wave breaks is know n
as th e p lu n g e lin e . The body of foam ing water
w hich th e n rushes up the beach is called the
sw ash, w hile any water returning down to the sea
is the b a ck w a sh .
crest 2
------------------------------------------ J
Coasts 141
 stage 1 stage2

Figure 6.3
crest 1 crest 2 crest 1
Movement of an
object in deep water:
the diagrams show
troug h 2 troug h 1 troug h 2\
the circular move­
ment ofa bail or piece
of driftwood through
five stagesinthe
passageofonewave
length (crest 1 to crest
2); although the ball stage 3 stage 4
moves vertically up
and down and the crest 2 crest 1 c re s t 2
wave moves forward
horizontaily, there is
very little horizontal
) trough 2
movement ofthe ball
until the wave breaks,
trough 2
the movement is
orbital and the size
ofthe orbit decreases
with depth

stage 5
w a ve direction

crest 2

trough 3 troug h 2

Figure 6.4

W hy a wave breaks

crest of w a ve rises as w a ve steepens until it

it m oves forward: reaches a ratio o f 1:7
ve lo city and w ave (w a ve h e ig h t : w ave
length decrease length) w h e n it will
break

w a ter rushes up the

beach as 'swash'

increasingly
w ater from previOLi
w a ve becom es more elliptical orbit
w a ve returns as
elliptical in m o vem ent
u-scp ui
do\wn base of 'b ackw ash'
friction slows

shelving sea bed (beach)

W av e r e fr a c tio n drag), causing th e wave to bend . The orth o g o -

W here waves approach an irregular coastlin e,
th ey are refracted, i.e. th ey becom e increasingly
parallel to th e coastlin e. This is best illustrated
where a head land separates tw o bays (Figure 6.5).
As each wave crest nears th e coast, it tend s to
drag in th e shallow water near to a headland, or
indeed any shallow v\ater, so th a t th e p o rtio n o f
th e crest in deeper water m oves forward w hile
th a t in shallow water is retarded (by friction al
nals (lines drawn at right-angles to wave crests
in Figure 6.5 represent four stages in th e advanc-.
of a particular wave crest. It is apparent from
th e conv ergence o f lines S 1, S2, S3 and S4 that
wave energy becom es co n cen trated up on, and
so accentu ates erosion at, th e headland. The
diagram also shows th e fo rm ation o f lon gsh ore
(littoral) cu rre n ts, w h ich carry sed im ent away
from th e headland.

142 Coasts
efractionata
orthogonals sand
"d
I, longshore (littoral) S 1 S2 S 3 S4 ^our sta9 es marking positions
currents of an ad van cing w a ve crest
bay bay

low-energy low-energy
w aves w aves S*

4 headland
(paths of crests (p a th so fc re sts
d iverge) d iverge)
S
w aves in d eeper
w a ter do not lose high-energy waves
velocity as rapidly (paths of crests converge)
and are low er and
S2 less steep than d ep th o f w a ter d e c e a se s, waves
those off the
g et higher and steeper, velocity
headland
decreases, shorter w a ve length

w a ve approaches irregular coastline

Beaches W ave en ergy Field studies have show n a close

relationship betw een the profile o f a b each and
Beaches m ay be divided in to th ree sections - the action o f tw o types o f wave: constructive
b a ck sh o re (upper), fo resh o re (lower) and n ear- and destructive (page 144). However, the effect
sh o re - based o n th e in flu en ce o f waves (Figure o f wave steepness on b each profiles is com pli-
6 .6 ). A b ea ch form s a buffer zone betw een th e cated by the second variable.
waves and th e coast. If th e b ea ch proves to be P a rtid e size There is also, due to differences
an effective buffer, it will dissipate wave energy in the relative dissipation o f wave energy, a
w ith o u t exp erien cin g any n e t ch an g e itself. distinct relationsh ip betw een b each slope and
Because it is com posed o f loose m aterial, a b ea ch p artid e size. This relationship is partly due
can rapidly adapt its shape to chang es in wave to grain size and partly to percolation rates,
energy. It is, th erefore, in d y n am ic equ ilibrium b oth o f w h ich are greater on shingle beaches
w ith its e n v iro n m en t (Fram ew ork 3, page 45). th an on sand (pages 1 4 5 -1 4 6 ). Consequently,
Beach profiles fall betw een tw o extrem es: those shingle beaches are steeper th a n sand
th at are wide and relatively flat; and those th a t are beaches (Figure 6.6).
narrow and steep. The gradient of natural beaches
is dependent upon th e interrelationship betw een Figure 6.6
tw o m ain variables:
Wave zones and beach morphology
(after King, 1980)
i*----- o ffsh o re ----- ►-«— nearshore - n------- fo re sh o re ----- ţ M -------- b acksho re-------

beyond th e •
' zone in w h ich (lower beach:often ' (upper beach:
influence of ; w aves affect under 5 °) ; usually 10 °-2 0 °)
the w aves ' the seabed
inter-tidal or 1 usually ab ove the
su rfz on e i influence o f th e w aves

breakpoint bar:zone m axim um spring tid e s— .

o f breaking waves
..................................

storm beach

high-water mark (high tide)— cliff slumping

and marsh v
low-water mark (low tide) - *■ berms (shingie ridges)- - -

(Figure 6.7)
r- i ■
-sand ripples
pebbles
shingle
s an d
sand ridges and runnels
bedrock
longshore bars (depressions)
143
 T yp e s o f w a v e constantly, m oved up the beach. This will
gradually increase the gradient o f th e beach
It is widely accepted that there are two extrem e
and leads to th e form ation o f berm s at its crest
wave types th at affect the shape of a beach.
(Figures 6.9 and 6.10) and, especially on sandy
However, whereas th e extrem e types have, in the
beaches, ridges and runnels (Figure 6.6).
past, b een labelled co n stru ctiv e and d estru ctive
■ Destructive waves are m ore com m on where
(Figure 6.7, and Andrew Goudie The Natiire o f the
the fetch distance is shorter. They are often large
Environment ), it is now becom ing m ore usual to
(or high) waves, steep in form and w ith a short
use the term s h ig h energy and low energy (Figure
wave length (perhaps only 20 m) and a high fre-
6.8, and Jo h n Pethickyln Introduction to Coastal
quency (10 to 14 per m inute). These waves, on
Geomorphology). N ote th at 'high-energy waves' and
approaching a beach, steepen rapidly until they
'low -energy waves' are not synonym ous terms for
'plunge' over (Figure 6.7b). The near-vertical
'constructive waves' and 'destructive waves'.
breaking of the wave creates a powerful back­
C o n s tru c tiv e a n d d e s tru c tiv e w aves wash w hich can move considerable am ounts of
■ C o n stru ctiv e w aves often form where the sediment down the beach and, at the same time
fetch distance is long. They are usually small reduce the effect of the swash from the following
(or low) waves, flat in form and w ith a long wave. Although some shingle m ay be throw n up
wave length (up to 100 m) and a low fre- above the high-water mark by very large waves.
quency (a wave period of 6 to 8 per m inute). form ing a storm beach, m ost material is m ovec
On approaching a beach, th e wave front downwards to form a longshore (breakpoint)
steepens relatively slowly until th e wave gently bar (Figures 6.6 and 6.7b).
'spills' over (Figure 6.7a). As the resultant
swash m oves up the beach, it rapidly loses
H ig h -e n e rg y w a v es a n d lo w -e n e rg y
volum e and energy due to water percolating
w aves
R ecen t o p in io n appears to support th e view tha:
through th e b each m aterial. The result is that
beach shape is m ore d ep end ent on, and linked
the backwash, despite the addition o f gravity,
to, wave energy. T he correlation betw een th e tv.
is weak and has insufficient energy either to
types o f wave energy and b each profile is giver
transport sedim ent back down th e beach or to
in Figure 6.8.
im pede th e swash from the follow ing wave.
C onsequently sand and shingle is slowly, but
Figure 6.7
a constructive (flat) waves
Constructive and
destructive waves

144 Coasts
: gure6.8
High-energy waves Low-energy waves
: -energy and
Produced by distant storms Source Formed more locally
-energywaves
~er J. Pethick) Large Fetch distance Short

Long(up t o 100 m) Wave length Short (perhaps only 20 m)

High and short Wave height Low and flat

Move quickly and so lose little energy Speed of wave movement Move less quickly and so lose more energy

Spilling Typeof breaker Surging

Long Dissipation distance Shorter

Flatandw ide Beachshape Steeper and narrower

P a r tid e size S h in g le b e ach es

Shingle m ay m ake up Lhe w h ole, or ju st Lhe
This facto r com plicaLes Lhe in flu en ce o f wave
upper parf, o f th e b ea ch and, like sand, iL will
sfeepness o n th e m o rp h olog y o f a b each . T he
have b een sorted by wave a ctio n . Usually, the
fact th a t shingle beach es have a steeper gradienf
:.- e 6 .9 larger th e size o f th e shingle, th e steeper the
th a n sandy beaches is due m ain ly to d ifferences
beachesand gradient o f th e b each , i.e. th e grad ient is in direct
in p ercolafion rates resulting from differences in
berms mark p ro p ortio n to shingle size. This is an in terestin g
p a rtid e size - i.e. w ater will pass th rou g h coarse-
“ its of
grained shingle m ore rapidly th a n th rou g h fine- h ypoth esis to test by exp erim en t in th e field
vely lower
(Fram ew ork 10, page 29 9 ).
grained sand (Figure 8 .2 ).
Regardless o f w h eth er waves on shingle
= high tid e after the spring high tide b eaches are con stru ctive or destructive, m ost of
= second high tide after the spring high tide
th e swash rapidly percolates dow nw ards leaving
= third high tid e after spring high tide
storm beach lim ited surface backw ash. This, to g eth er w ith th e
height o f spring
loss o f energy resultin g from frictio n caused by
largest material
high tide th e u n ev en surface o f th e shingle (com pare this
Pio n e e r plants
S+1 w ith th e effects o f bed roughness o f a stream ,
berm '
S +2
page 70), m eans th a l un der n orm al con d ition s,
si*
* . very little shingle is m oved b ack dow n th e b each.
m. Indeed, th e strong swash w ill probably transp ort
. m aterial up th e b each fo rm in g a berm at the
spring hig h -tid e level. Above th e berm there is
b o u ld e rs a h d o ften a storm b each , com posed o f even bigger
■ m la rg e s t s h in g le boulders th row n th ere by th e largest o f waves,
w hile below m ay be several sm aller ridges, each
large shingle
m arking th e h e ig h t o f th e successively lower
5raaller
hig h tides w h ich follow th e m axim u m spring
sningle
tide (Figures 6.9 and 6 .1 0 ).

Figure 6.10

Berms and storm

beaches in north-east
Anglesey, Wales

Coasts 145
 Figure 6.11
Causes of tides
S a n d b eaches
Sand usually produces b each es w ith a gentle
gradient. This is because th e sm all p a rtid e size
allows th e sand to b eco m e co m p act w h en wet,
severely restrictin g th e rate o f p ercolation .
P ercolatio n is also hin d ered b y th e storage of
w ater in pore spaces in sand w h ich enables m ost
o f th e swash from b o th con stru ctiv e and d estruc­
tive waves to retu rn as backw ash. Relatively
little energy is lost by frictio n (sand presents a
sm oo th er surface th a n shingle) so m aterial will
be carried dow n th e b each . The m aterial will
build up to form a lon g sh ore bar at th e low-
tide m ark (Figure 6.6 ). This will cause waves
to break fu rther from th e shore, giving th e m a
wider b each over w h ich to dissipate th eir energy.
The low er parts o f sand beach es are som etim es
crossed b y shore-parallel ridges and ru nnels
(Figure 6.6 ). T he ridges m ay be b rok en by ch an -
nels w h ich drain th e ru n nels at low tide.
T h e in terrela tio n sh ip betw een wave energy,
b ea ch m aterial and b ea ch profiles m ay be sum-
m arised b y th e follow in g g eneralisations w h ich
refer to n e t m o vem en ts:
■ D estructive waves carry m aterial dow n th e
b each.
■ C onstru ctiv e waves carry m aterial up th e
beach.
■ M aterial is carried upwards on shingle beaches.
■ M aterial is carried dow nw ards o n sandy
beaches.
T id e s
The p osition at w hich waves break over the beach,
and th eir range, are determ ined by th e state of
the tide. It has already b een seen th a t the levels
o f high tides vary (berm s are form ed at progres-
sively lower levels follow ing spring high tides;
Figure 6.9). Tides are controlled by gravitaţional
effects, m ainly o f th e m o o n b u t partly o f th e sun,
together w ith th e ro tatio n o f th e Earth and, m ore
locally, th e geom orphology o f sea basins.
T h e m o o n has th e greatest in flu en ce.
A lthough its mass is m u ch sm aller th a n th a t of
th e sun, th is is m ore th a n com p en sated for by its
closer p ro xim ity to th e Earth. T h e m o o n attracts,
or pulls, w ater to th e side o f th e Earth nearest
to it. This creates a bulge or h ig h tid e (Figure
6 .1 1 a ), w ith a co m p lem en tary bulge o n th e
op p osite side o f th e Earth. T his bulge is
com p en sated for by th e in terv en in g areas w here
w ater is repelled and w h ich exp erien ce a low
tid e. As th e m o o n orbits th e Earth, th e h ig h tides
follow it.
146 Coasts
a the gravitaţional puii of the moon
low tide
high high gravitaţional
tide tide attraction
low tide
b spring tides m axim um tidal
range
E arth
c neap tides
m inim um tidal
range
E arth
(not draw n to scale)
A lunar m o n th (the tim e it takes th e m o on to
orbit the Earth) is 2 9 days and th e tidal cycle
(the tim e betw een tw o successive high tides) is
12 hours and 25 m inutes, giving tw o h ig h tides,
near enough, per day. The sun, w ith its smaller
g ravitaţional attraction, is th e cause o f the dif-
ference in tidal range rath er th a n o f th e tides
them selves. O nce every 14/15 days (i.e. tw ice in a
lunar m o n th ), th e m o on and sun are in alignm er-
o n th e same side o f th e Earth (Figure 6.1 lb ). The
increase in gravitaţional attractio n generates the
sp rin g tid e w h ich produces th e highest high tide
th e lowest low tide and th e m axim um tidal range
Midway betw een the spring tides are the neap
tides, w h ich occur w hen th e sun, Earth and m o o r
form a right-angle, w ith the Earth at the apex
(Figure 6.1 1 c). As the sun's attraction partly coun-
terbalances th a t of th e m oon, the tidal range is at
a m inim um w ith the lowest o f high tides and the
highest of low tides (Figure 6.1 2 ). Spring and neap
tides vary by approxim ately 2 0 per cen t above a n i
below the m ean high-tide and low-tide levels.
So far, we have seen how tides m ig h t change
o n a u n ifo rm or to ta lly sea-covered Earth. In
p ractice, th e tides m ay differ consid erably from
th e above scenario due to such factors as: th e
E arth ’s ro ta tio n (and th e effect o f th e C oriolis
force, page 2 2 4 ); th e d istrib u tion o f land masses:
and th e size, depth and con fig u ration o f ocean
and sea basins.
re 6.12
n ew
:ycles during m oon
_nar month half
m oon
spring spring spring
Earth Earth
tides tides tides
f half
moon
neap tides neap tides
full moon

Day 1 Day 7^5 Day 15 Day 22 \ Day 29

Sun and moon combine to Sun and moon are 90° out of Sun and moon combine to Sun and moon are 90° out of Sun and moon combine to
give spring tides phase giving neap tides give spring tides again phase giving neap tides again give spring tides

sPring s p ( 'n g t / Q( spring tid e s

tid e s
neap tides n e a p tid e s

N ote that low tides are low er at springs than at neaps.and high tides are higher at springs than at neaps.
Day 1 Day 7 3$ Day 15 Day 22^2 Day 29

•6.13
200 k m greater th an in n orthern Scotland (Figure 6.13).
" ie and Estuaries where incom ing tides are forced into
: i in times rapidly narrow ing valleys also have considerable
' : de in the tidal ranges, e.g. the Severn estuary with
13 m, th e Rance (Brittany) w ith 11.6 m and the
Bay of Fundy (Canada) with 15 m. It is due to these
extrem e tidal ranges th at the Rance has the world's
first tidal power station, while the Bay of Fundy
A berd een
and th e Severn have, respectively, experim ental
and proposed schem es for electricity genera-
tion (page 542). Extrem e narrowing o f estuaries
can concentrate the tidal rise so rapidly th at an
advancing wall of water, or tid a l bore, m ay travel
upriver, e.g. the Rivers Severn and Amazon. In co n ­
trast, small enclosed seas have on ly m inim al tidal
ranges, e.g. the M editerranean w ith 0.01 m.
Skegness
tidal range
S to rm surges
high tide = 4 hrs
after A berdeen
Storm surges are rapid rises in sea-level caused
by in te n se areas o f low pressure, i.e. d epressions
(page 2 3 0 ) and tro p ica l cy clo n e s (page 2 3 5 ). For
every drop in air pressure o f 10 m b (page 2 2 4 ),
sea-level can rise 10 cm . In tro p ical cy clon es,
pressure ca n fall by 1 0 0 m b cau sin g th e sea-level
to rise by 1 m . Areas at greatest risk are th o se
tidal range in metres w here sea b asin s b eco m e narrow er and m ore
sh allow (e.g. Sou thern N orth Sea and th e Bay
co-tidal lines:the position o fth e high-
tid e w a ve at each hour in th e tidal cycle; o f B engal) and w h ere tro p ical cy clo n e s m ove
s/cY am p hid rom ic point lies at centre from th e sea and cross low -ly in g areas (e.g.
B anglad esh and Florida). W h e n th ese storm s
The m orphology of the seabed and coastline co in cid e w ith h u rrica n e-fo rce w ind s and
affects tidal range. In the exam ple of the N orth h ig h tides, th e surge can be top p ed by waves
Sea, as th e tidal wave travels south it moves into an reach in g 8 m in h e ig h t. W h ere such events
area where b o th the width and the depth of the sea occu r in d en sely populated areas, th e y pose a
decrease. This results in a rapid accum ulation, or m a jo r n a tu ra l hazard as th e y can cause c o n ­
funnelling, o f water to give an increasingly higher siderable loss o f life and dam age to property
tidal range - th e range at Dover is several metres (Places 19 and 3 1 , page 2 3 8 ).

Coasts 147
 3 T h e N orth Sea and the Bay of Bengal: storm surges

N o rth S ea, 31 J a n u a r y - B ay o f B en g a l
1 F e b ru a ry 1 9 5 3 T h e s o u t h o f B a n g la d e s h in c lu d e s m a n y fla t is la n d s

A d e e p d e p r e s s io n t o t h e n o r t h o f S c o t la n d , in s t e a d f o r m e d b y d e p o s it io n f r o m t h e R iv e r s G a n g e s a n d

o f f o llo w in g t h e u s u a l t r a c k w h ic h w o u ld h a v e t a k e n B r a h m a p u t r a .T h is d e lt a r e g io n is id e a l f o r ric e g r o w in g

it o v e r S c a n d in a v ia , t u r n e d s o u t h w a r d s in t o t h e a n d is h o m e t o a n e s t im a t e d 4 0 m illio n p e o p le .

N o r t h S e a (F ig u r e 6 .1 4 ). A s a ir is f o r c e d t o ris e in a H o w e v e r , d u r in g t h e a u t u m n , t r o p ic a l c y c lo n e s

d e p r e s s io n ( p a g e 2 3 0 ), t h e r e d u c e d p r e s s u r e t e n d s (tr o p ic a l lo w p r e s s u r e s to r m s ) f u n n e l w a t e r n o r t h w a r d s

t o ra is e t h e s u r fa c e o f t h e s e a a r e a u n d e r n e a t h it. If u p t h e B a y o f B e n g a l w h ic h b e c o m e s in c r e a s in g ly

p r e s s u r e fa lls b y 5 6 m b , a s it d id o n th is o c c a s io n , t h e n a r r o w e r a n d s h a llo w e r t o w a r d s B a n g la d e s h .T h e

le v e l o f t h e s e a m a y ris e b y u p t o 0 . 5 m .T h e g a le - f o r c e w a t e r s o m e t im e s b u ild s u p in t o a s u r g e w h ic h m a y

w in d s , t r a v e llin g o v e r t h e m a x im u m fe tc h , p r o d u c e d e x c e e d 4 m in h e ig h t a n d w h ic h m a y b e c a p p e d b y

s to r m w a v e s o v e r 6 m h ig h .T h is c a u s e d w a t e r t o p ile w a v e s r e a c h in g a f u r t h e r 4 m .T h e r e s u lt c a n b e a w a ll

u p in t h e S o u t h e r n p a r t o f t h e N o r t h S e a . T h is e v e n t o f w a t e r w h ic h s w e e p s o v e r t h e d e f e n c e le s s is la n d s .

c o in c id e d w it h s p r in g t id e s a n d w it h riv e rs d is c h a r g in g T h r e e d a y s a f t e r o n e s u c h s u r g e i n l 9 9 4 , t h e R e d C ro s s

in t o t h e s e a a t f lo o d le v e ls .T h e r e s u lt w a s a h ig h tid e , s u g g e s t e d t h a t o v e r 4 0 0 0 0 p e o p l e h a d p r o b a b ly

e x c lu d in g t h e e x tr a h e ig h t o f t h e w a v e s , o f o v e r 2 m b e e n d r o w n e d , m a n y h a v in g b e e n w a s h e d o u t t o

in L in c o ln s h ir e , o v e r 2.5 m in t h e T h a m e s e s t u a r y a n d s e a ( P la c e s 31, p a g e 2 3 8 ).T h e o n ly s u r v iv o r s w e r e

o v e r 3 m in t h e N e t h e r la n d s . T h e i m m e d i a t e r e s u lt w a s t h o s e w h o h a d c lim b e d t o t h e t o p s o f p a lm t r e e s a n d

t h e d r o w n in g o f 2 6 4 p e o p l e in s o u th - e a s t E n g la n d m a n a g e d t o c lin g o n d e s p it e t h e 1 8 0 k m / h r w in d s . T h e

a n d 1 8 3 5 p e o p le in t h e N e t h e r la n d s .T o p r e v e n t s u c h R e d C r o s s f e a r e d o u t b r e a k s o f t y p h o id a n d c h o le r a in

d e v a s t a t io n b y f u t u r e s u r g e s , t h e T h a m e s B a r r i e r a n d t h e a r e a b e c a u s e f re s h w a t e r h a d b e e n c o n t a m in a t e d .
Figure 6.14 F a m in e w a s a s e r io u s t h r e a t a s t h e r ic e h a r v e s t h a d
t h e D u t c h D e lt a S c h e m e h a v e s in c e b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d .
The North Sea B o t h s c h e m e s n e e d e d c o n s id e r a b le c a p it a l a n d b e e n lo s t u n d e r t h e s a lty w a t e r s .
storm surge of
t e c h n o l o g y t o im p le m e n t .
1 February 1953 T h e r e is in c r e a s in g in t e r n a ţ io n a l c o n c e r n a b o u t t h e
p o s s ib le e f f e c t o f g lo b a l w a r m in g o n B a n g la d e s h .
E s t i m a t e s s u g g e s t t h a t a 1 m ris e in s e a - le v e l c o u ld
s u b m e r g e 2 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e c o u n t r y , a f f e c t in g
o v e r o n e - h a lf o f t h e p r e s e n t p o p u la t io n ( p a g e 1 6 9 ).
B e c a u s e B a n g la d e s h la c k s t h e n e c e s s a r y c a p it a l a n d
t e c h n o lo g y , f o r t h e la s t t h r e e d e c a d e s t h e W o r ld
B a n k h a s b e e n h e lp in g in t h e c o n s t r u c t io n o f c y c l o n e
e a r ly w a r n in g s y s te m s , p r o v id in g f lo o d s h e lte r s a n d
im p r o v in g c o a s ta l d e f e n c e s . It is p a r t ly b e c a u s e o f
t h e s e p r e c a u t io n s , a n d p a r t ly b e c a u s e r e c e n t s to r m
s u r g e s h a v e n o t r e a c h e d t h e p e a k h e ig h t s o f 1 9 9 0
a n d 1 9 9 1 , t h a t t h e d e a t h to ii f r o m f lo o d in g c a u s e d b y
s to r m s u r g e s h a s d e c r e a s e d s ig n ific a n tly . H o w e v e r , t h e
p r o b le m is lik e ly t o g e t w o r s e in t h e n e a r f u t u r e d u e to
t h e ris in g s e a - le v e l c a u s e d b y g lo b a l w a r m in g , a n d t h e
lo w e r in g in h e ig h t o f t h e d e lt a r e g io n r e s u lt in g f r o m
t h e e x t r a c t io n o f g r o u n d w a t e r f o r a g r i c u lt u r e .

Height of Death toii

Year storm surge (estimated)
1966 6.1 80 000

1985 5 .7 40000

1988 4 .8 25 000

1990 6 .3 140000

1991 6.1 150000

1994 5 .8 40000
1 February 1953 2007 5.1 2 300
1012 air pressure (mb)
% flooded areas

.
0a kin g on
P ro c e s s e s o f c o a s ta l e r o s io n
: - gg,Yorkshire: s u b a e ria l A ccording to J . Pethick, 'C liff reces-
. . sion is prim arilv th e result o f mass failu re.' Mass
" :;d b y a b a n d o f r 1
■ = rock and so failure m ay be caused by such n o n -m a rin e proc-
“ Dehind esses as: rain fallin g d irectly o n to th e cliff face;
:';:te d by th rou g h flo w or, under extrem e con d itio n s,
surface ru n o ff o f w ater from th e land; and th e
effects o f w eathering by th e w ind and frost.
These processes, individ ually or in co m b in a tio n ,
can cause mass m o v em en t eith er as soil creep on
gen tle slopes or as slum ping and landslides o n
steeper cliffs (Figures 2 .1 7 and 2 .1 8 ).
W ave p o u n d in g Steep waves have consider-
able energy. W h e n th e y break as th e y h it th e fo ot
o f cliffs or sea walls, th e y m ay generate shock-
waves o f up to 3 0 to n n es per m 2. Som e sea walls
in parts o f eastern England need replacing w ith in
25 years o f b ein g built, due to wave p ou nd in g
(Case Study 6).
H y d rau lic pressure W h e n a parcei o f air is
trapped and com pressed, eith er in a jo in t in a
cliff or b etw een a breaking wave and a cliff, th e n
th e resu ltan t increase in pressure may, over a
period o f tim e, w eaken and break o ff pieces of
rock or dam age sea defences.
A b ra s io n /co rra s io n This is th e w earing
away o f th e cliffs by sand, shingle and boulders
hurled against th e m by th e waves. It is th e m ost
effective m e th o d o f erosion and is m o st rapid on
coasts exposed to storm waves.
A ttritio n Rocks and boulders already eroded
from th e cliffs are b rok en dow n in to sm aller and
m ore rounded particles.
C o rro s io n /s o lu tio n This inclu d es the
d issolving o f lim eston es b y ca rb o n ic acid in
sea w ater (com pare Figure 2 .8 ), and th e evapora-
tio n o f salts to produce crystals w h ich expan d
as th e y fo rm and cause th e rock to d isintegrate
(Figure 2 .2 ). Salt from sea w ater or spray is
capable o f corrod in g several rock types.
F a cto rs a ffe c tin g th e ra te o f e ro s io n
B reak in g p o in t o f th e w ave A wave th a t breaks
as it hits th e foot o f a cliff releases m ost energy and
causes m axim um erosion. If th e wave hits the cliff
before it breaks, th e n m u ch less energy is trans-
m itted, whereas a wave breaking further offshore
will have had its energy dissipated as it travelled
across the b each (Figure 6 .1 5 1.
W ave ste ep n ess H ighest-energy waves, asso-
ciated w ith longer fetch distances, have a high,
steep appearance. T hey have greater erosive
pow er th a n low -energy waves, w h ich are gener-
ated w here th e fe tch is shorter and have a lower
and flatter form (Figure 6.8).
D ep th o f sea, le n g th an d d ire c tio n o f fe tch ,
co n fig u ra tio n o f co a stlin e A steeply shelving
b ea ch creates h ig h er and steeper waves th an
o n e w ith a m ore gen tle gradient. T h e longer the
fetch , th e greater th e tim e available for waves to
c o lle ct energy from th e w ind. The existen ce o f
head land s w ith vertical cliffs tend s to c o n c e n ­
trate energy by wave refraction (page 142).
Supply o f b e a c h m a te ria l B eaches, by
absorbing wave energy, provide a m ajo r protec-
tio n against Coastal erosion.
B each m o rp h o lo g y Beaches, by dissipating
wave energy, act as a buffer betw een waves and
th e land. As they receive high-energy inputs at a
rapid rate from steep waves, and low-energy inputs
at a slower rate from flat waves, they m ust adopt
a m orphology (shape) to cou nteract the different
energy inputs. High, rapid energy inputs are best
dissipated by wide, flat beaches w h ich spread out
the o n co m in g wave energy. In contrast, the lower-
energy inputs o f flatter waves can easily be dis­
sipated by narrow, steep beaches w hich act rather
like a wall against w hich th e waves flounder.
An exception is w hen steep waves break onto
a shingle beach. As energy is rapidly dissipated
through friction and percolation, th en a wide, flat
b each profile is unnecessary (page 145).
R ock re sista n ce , s tru ctu re an d d ip The
strength o f Coastal rocks in flu en ces th e rate of
erosion (Figure 6 .1 6 ). In Britain, it is Coastal
areas w here glacial till was deposited th a t are
b ein g w orn back m o st rapidly (Places 2 0 ). W h en
Surtsey first arose ou t o f th e sea o ff th e south-
w est coast o f Iceland in 1 9 6 3 (Places 3, page 16),
it consisted o f u n con solid ated v o lca n ic ash. It
was on ly w h en th e ash was covered and pro-
tected by a lava flow th e follow ing year th a t the
island's survival was seem ingly guaranteed.
Rocks th a t are w ell-jointed (Figure 8.1) or have
been subject to faulting have an increased vulner-
ability to erosion. The steepest cliffs are usually
where the rock's structure is horizontal or vertical
and the gentlest where the rock dips upwards away
from the sea. In th e latter case, blocks m ay break
off and slide downwards (Figure 2.1 7 ). Erosion
is also rapid where rocks of different resistance
overlie one another, e.g. chalk and G ault clay
in Kent.
Coasts 149
Figure 6.16 H u m a n a c tiv ity The increase in pressure
Rate of erosion
Rock type and average Rocktype Location (m/yr) resultin g from b u ild in g o n cliff tops and the
rates of cliff recession rem oval o f b ea ch m aterial w h ich m ay other-
Volcanic ash Krakatoa 40
wise have p ro tected th e base o f th e cliff b oth
Glacial till Holderness 2
co n trib u te to m ore rapid Coastal erosion.
Glacial till Norfolk 1 A lthough rates o f erosion m ay be reduced
locally b y th e co n stru ctio n o f sea defences, such
Chalk South-east England 0.3
defences o ften lead to increased rates o f erosion
Shale North Yorkshire 0.09 in a d ja ce n t areas. H um an activity th erefore has
Graniţe South-west England 0.001 th e effect o f d isturbing th e equilibrium of th e
coast system (Case Study 6).

Holderness: coasta! processes

T h e c o a s t li n e a t H o ld e r n e s s is r e t r e a t i n g b y a n
a v e r a g e o f 1 .8 m a y e a r . S i n c e R o m a n t im e s , t h e
s e a h a s e n c r o a c h e d b y n e a r ly 3 k m , a n d s o m e 5 0
v i lla g e s m e n t i o n e d in t h e D o m e s d a y B o o k o f
1 0 8 6 h a v e d is a p p e a r e d .
T h e f o ll o w i n g e x t r a c t w a s t a k e n f r o m a
m a n a g e m e n t r e p o r t , 'H u m b e r E s t u a r y & C o a s t '
(1 9 9 4 ) p r e p a r e d b y P r o f e s s o r J .S . P e t h ic k ( t h e n o f
t h e U n iv e r s it y o f H u li a n d n o w a t t h e U n iv e r s it y o f
N e w c a s t le ) f o r H u m b e r s i d e C o u n t y C o u n c il.
'T h e s o f t g l a c ia l till c liffs o f H o ld e r n e s s a r e e r o d in g
a t a r a p id r a te . T h e r e a s o n s f o r s u c h e r o s io n a r e ,
h o w e v e r , le s s t o d o w i t h t h e s o f t s e d i m e n t o f t h e
c lif f t h a n w i t h t h e la c k o f b e a c h m a t e r ia l a n d t h e
p o o r ly d e v e l o p e d n e a r s h o r e z o n e [ F i g u r e 6 .6 ].
R e t r e a t o f t h e c lif f lin e h e r e is m a t c h e d b y
P r o g r e s s i v e lo w e r i n g o f t h e s e a b e d t o g i v e a w i d e
s h a llo w p la t f o r m s t r e t c h i n g s e v e r a l k ilo m e t r e s
s e a w a r d . E v e n t u a l l y t h is p la t f o r m w ill b e s o
e x t e n s i v e t h a t m o s t o f t h e in c i d e n t w a v e e n e r g y
w ill b e e x p e n d e d h e r e r a t h e r t h a n a t t h e c lif f s o t h a t
Figure 6.17 e r o s i o n r a t e s w ill d e c r e a s e o r e v e n h a lt. S i n c e t h is
Houses collapsing m a y t a k e s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d y e a r s , it c a n n o t f o r m
into the sea, p a r t o f a n y m a n a g e m e n t p la n f o r t h is c o a s t - y e t it
Holderness
is im p o r t a n t t o r e c o g n i s e t h a t t h e n a t u r a l e r o s io n a l
p r o c e s s e s h e r e a r e n e it h e r r a n d o m n o r p e r n ic io u s .
T h e p r o c e s s o f c lif f r e t r e a t a lo n g t h e H o ld e r n e s s
c o a s t is m o r e c o m p l e x t h a n a p p e a r s a t f ir s t s ig h t .
M a s s f a ilu r e s o f t h e c lif f a r e t r i g g e r e d b y w a v e a c t io n
a t t h e c lif f t o e . S u c h f a ilu r e s m a y b e 5 0 t o 1 0 0 m
w i d e a n d u p t o 3 0 m d e e p g i v i n g a s c a l lo p e d e d g e
t o t h e c lif f . T h e r e t r e a t r a t e v a r ie s t e m p o r a r i ly ; a
la r g e f a ilu r e m a y p r o d u c e a 10 m r e t r e a t in o n e y e a r
b u t n o f u r t h e r r e t r e a t w ill t h e n o c c u r f o r 3 o r 4 y e a r s
- g i v i n g a p e r io d i c it y o f 4 o r 5 y e a r s in t o t a l. T h i s
m e a n s t h a t a t t e m p t s t o m e a s u r e e r o s io n r a t e s o v e r
p e r io d s o f le s s t h a n 10 y e a r s , t h a t is o v e r 2 c y c le s ,
c a n b e e x t r e m e l y m is le a d in g , r e s u l t in g in m a s s iv e
o v e r- o r u n d e r - e s t im a t e s o f t h e lo n g - t e r m r e t r e a t
r a t e w h i c h is r e m a r k a b ly c o n s t a n t a t 1.8 m p e r y e a r
[ F ig u r e 6 . 1 7 ] ,T h r e e is s u e s m a y b e h i g h l ig h t e d h e r e .
• T h e b e a c h e s o f H o ld e r n e s s a r e t h i n v e n e e r s
c o v e r in g t h e u n d e r ly in g g l a c ia l tills . T h e b e a c h e s
d o n o t in c r e a s e in v o l u m e s in c e , s o u t h o f
H o r n s e a , a b a la n c e e x is ts b e t w e e n t h e in p u t o f
s a n d b y e ro s io n a n d th e re m o v a l o f t h e s a n d b y
w a v e a c t io n , p r in c i p a lly f r o m t h e n o r t h - e a s t ,
w h i c h d r iv e s s a n d s s o u t h .
• T h e s e d i m e n t b a la n c e o n t h e H o ld e r n e s s c o a s t
is m a in t a in e d b y t h e a c t io n o f s t o r m w a v e s
fro m t h e n o r th - e a s t.T h e s e w a v e s a p p r o a c h
t h e c o a s t o b liq u e ly , t h e a n g l e b e t w e e n w a v e
c r e s t a n d s h o r e b e in g c r it ic a i f o r t h e s e d im e n t
t r a n s p o r t r a te . A c lo c k w is e m o v e m e n t w o u l d
in c r e a s e t h e t r a n s p o r t a n d e r o s io n r a t e w h i l e a n
a n ti- c lo c k w is e s w in g w o u ld d e c r e a s e b o th o f
t h e s e . R a n d o m c h a n g e s in t h e o r i e n t a t io n o f t h e
s h o r e a r e q u i c k ly e r a d ic a t e d b y c h a n g e s in t h e
s e d i m e n t b a la n c e , b u t a n y p e r m a n e n t c h a n g e
in t h e o r i e n t a t io n o f t h e c o a s t li n e , s u c h a s t h a t
c a u s e d b y t h e in t r o d u c t io n o f h a r d s e a d e f e n c e s
a s a t H o r n s e a , M a p p l e t o n a n d W it h e r n s e a ,
m e a n s t h a t t h e s e d i m e n t b a la n c e is d is t u r b e d .
 H a r d d e f e n c e s [C a s e S t u d y 6 A ] c a n h a v e t w o
lo n g - t e r m e f f e c t s : firs t, a l t h o u g h e r o s i o n is
h a l t e d a t t h e d e f e n c e its e lf, s e v e r a l k ilo m e t r e s
t o t h e n o r t h e r o s io n c o n t in u e s a s b e f o r e .
T h is c a u s e s a n a n t i - c l o c k w i s e r e - o r ie n t a t io n
o f t h e c o a s t , s a n d t r a n s p o r t is r e d u c e d a n d
s a n d a c c u m u la t e s i m m e d i a t e l y n o r t h o f t h e
d e fe n c e s - as ca n b e se e n n o rth o f H o rn se a .
S e c o n d , t h e a c c u m u la t io n o f s a n d n o r t h o f
th e d e fe n c e s s ta rv e s th e b e a c h e s to th e s o u th
.-=6.18 c a u s i n g a n in c r e a s e in e r o s io n t h e r e . T h e f in e -
’ notch at g r a i n e d s e d im e n t s f r o m t h e H o ld e r n e s s c lif f
jel Peninsula
and
a n d s e a b e d e r o s io n a r e n o t t r a n s p o r t e d a lo n g
t h e b e a c h e s a s a r e t h e s a n d s a n d s h in g le b u t
a r e m o v e d in s u s p e n s io n . R e s e a r c h is p r e s e n t ly
u n d e r w a y w h i c h is in t e n d e d t o c h a r t t h e
p r e c is e m o v e m e n t o f t h is m a t e r ia l b u t it is
c le a r t h a t its d o m i n a n t m o v e m e n t is s o u t h
t o w a r d s t h e H u m b e r . A la r g e p r o p o r t i o n m a y
e n t e r t h e e s t u a r y a n d b e c o m e d e p o s it e d t h e r e .
T h e r e m a i n d e r is m o v e d s o u t h a n d e a s t in t o
t h e N o r t h S e a w h e r e t h e t r a n s p o r t p a t h w a y is
t o w a r d s t h e D u t c h a n d G e r m a n c o a s t.'

E ro s io n la n d f o r m s
H e a d la n d s a n d bays
These are m ost likely to be found in areas of alter-
nating resistant and less resistant rock. Initially,
th e less resistant rock experiences m ost erosion
and develops in to bays, leaving th e m ore resistant
outcrops as head lan d s. Later, th e headlands
receive th e highest-energy waves and so becom e
m ore vulnerable to erosion th an the sheltered bays
(Figure 6.5). The latter now experience low-energy
breakers w h ich allow sand to accum ulate and so
help to protect th a t part of th e coastline.

A b ra s io n o r w a v e -c u t p la tfo rm s
Wave energy is at its m axim um w hen a high,
steep wave breaks at th e fo ot o f a cliff. This results
in un dercutting o f th e cliff to form a w av e-cu t
n o tc h (Figure 6 .1 8 ). The con tin u al un dercutting
causes increased stress and ten sio n in the cliff
u n til eventually it collapses. As these processes
are repeated, th e cliff retreats leaving, at its base,
a gently sloping ab rasion or w a v e -cu t p latfo rm
w hich has a slope angle of less th an 4° (Figure 6.19).
The platform , w h ich appears relatively even w hen
viewed from a distance, cuts across rocks regard-
less o f their type and structure. A closer inspec-
tio n of this inter-tidal feature usually reveals th at
it is deeply dissected by abrasion, resulting from
m aterial carried across it by tidal m ovem ents, and
corrosion. As th e cliff con tin u es to retreat, the
w idening of th e platform m eans th a t in com in g
waves break further ou t to sea and have to travel
over a wider area o f beach. This dissipates their
energy, reduces th e rate o f erosion o f the head-
land, and lim its th e further exten sion o f the
platform . It has b een hypothesised th a t w ave-cut
platform s ca n n o t exceed 0 .5 km in w idth.
W here th ere has b een negative ch an ge in
sea-level (page 8 1 ), form er w ave-cut platform s
rem ain as raised b each es above th e present
in flu en ce o f th e sea (Figure 6 .5 1 ).

Coasts 151
h e a d la n d , e.g. F la m b o ro u g h H e a d
N w a v e - c u t n o tc h e s
o c c a s io n a ily w a te r rises u p a
v e rtic a l jo in t a n d is e je c te d
th r o u g h a b lo w h o le

a s ta c k is a n is o la te d
p o rtio n o f t h e cliff

ro o f o f arch b e co m e s to o
h e a v y to b e s u p p o rte d
joint or fault in
a n d co lla p s e s
resistant rock

w a v e s c u t th r o u g h h e a d la n d to fo rm an
arch w h ic h is c o n tin u a lly w id e n e d at its base

A. &
N N h ig h tid e N N
s ta ck is w o rn a w a y
le a v in g a s tu m p

a b ra s io n , p o u n d in g a n d h y d ra u lic
a c tio n o f w a v e s w id e n s th e w e a k n e s s
in th e cliff to fo rm a cave;

- y * " 4 ■-

Figure 6.20 Caves, blowholes, arches and stacks through a headland to form arch es and stacks
The formation of (Figures 6 .2 0 and 6.21).
W here cliffs are of resistant rock, wave action
caves, blowholes, These landform s, w h ich often prove to be
attacks any line of weakness such as a jo in t or a
arches and stacks attractio n s to sightseers and m ou ntaineers, can
fault. Som etim es the sea cuts inland, along a jo in t,
be found at T he Needles (Isle o f W ight), Old
to form a narrow, steep-sided inlet called a geo,
Harry (near Swanage) and Flam borough Head
or at oth er tim es it can undercut part of the cliff
(Yorkshire, Figure 6 .1 9 ), w hich are all cut in to
to form a cave. As show n in Figure 6.20, caves
chalk, and at The Old M an o f Hoy (Orkneys)
are often enlarged by several com bined processes
w h ich is Old Red Sandstone (Figure 8.12).
of m arine erosion. Erosion m ay be vertical, to
form blow holes, but is m ore typically backwards

Figure 6.21

Icelandic coastline
 T r a n s p o r t a t io n o f b e a c h m a t e r ia l
U p a n d d o w n th e b ea c h
As we have already seen, flat, con stru ctive waves
tend to m ove sand and sh in gle up th e beach,
w hereas th e n e t effect o f steep, d estructive waves
is to com b th e m aterial dow nwards.
L o n g s h o re (litto r a l) d r ift
Usually wave crests are n ot parallel to th e shore,
but arrive at a slight angle. O nly rarely do waves
approach a beach at right-angles. The wave angle is
determ ined by wind direction, the local configura-
tion o f the coastline, and refraction at headlands
and in shallow water. The oblique wave angle
creates a nearshore current know n as longshore
(or littoral) drift w hich is capable o f m oving large
quantities of material in a down-drift direction
(Figure 6.22). On m any coasts, longshore drift is
predom inantly in one direction; for example, on
the south coast of England, where the m axim um
>.22 fetch and prevailing wind are both from the south-
west, there is a predom inantly eastward m ovem ent
Cîsof
- drift
o f beach material. However, brief changes in wind
- and therefore wave - direction can cause the
m ovem ent of material to be reversed.
Of lesser im portance, but m ore interesting and
easier to observe, is the m ovem ent of material
along th e shore in a zigzag pattern. This is because
w hen a wave breaks, th e swash carries material
up the b each at th e same angle as th a t at w hich
th e wave approached the shore. As th e swash dies
away, th e backw ash and any m aterial carried by
it returns straight down the beach, at right-angles
to the waterline, under the influence o f gravity. If
b each m aterial is carried a considerable distance, it
becom es smaller, m ore rounded and better sorted.
W here beach m aterial is being lost through
longshore drift, the coastlin e in th a t locality
is likely to be w orn back m ore quickly because
th e buffering effect o f the b each is lessened. To
cou nteract this process, w ooden breakwaters
or groynes m ay be built (Figure 6 .2 3 ). Groynes
encourage the local accu m u lation o f sand (im por­
ta n t in tourist resorts) but can result in a depletion
o f m aterial, and therefore an increase in erosion,
further along the coast (Case Study 6A).

w o o d e n groynes slow
d ow n m o vem ent an d ^
w id en the beach
cliffs p rotected by

backw ash carries material accu m ulation of sand

d irectly d ow n th e beach
under gravity
accum ulation d epletion
of sand o f sand

_ 'st position B second position C third position

ebble
most m aterial is driven
^ w ithin the nearshore
:, es refracted zone by a steady current
: - approaching
■ o w w ater
w aves approach beach at an angle,from a direction of longshore drift and
direction similar to that o fth e prevailing wind m o vem ent of beach material

f *6-23

* f groyneson longshore
wold, Suffolk: this type
^nanagement is usually
atholiday resorts
--dy beaches are a major
— action
 In Figure 6 .2 5 , the line X -Y marks th e position
o f the original coastlin e. At p o in t A, because the
prevailing winds and m axim um fetch are from
th e south-w est, m aterial is carried eastwards by
longshore drift. W h en the orien tatio n of the old
coastlin e began to change at B, som e o f the larger
shingle and pebbles were deposited in th e slacker
water in the lee o f th e headland. As the spit con-
tinued to grow, storm waves threw som e larger
m aterial above th e high-w ater m ark (C), m aking
the feature m ore perm anen t; w hile, under norm ai
cond itions, the finer sand was carried towards tiu
end of th e spit at D. M any spits develop a hooked
or curved end. This m ay be for two reasons: a
change in th e prevailing w ind to coincid e with
the second -m ost-d om inant wave direction and
second-longest fetch , or wave refraction at the
end of the spit carrying som e m aterial in to m ore
sheltered water.
E ventu ally th e seaward side o f th e spit will
Figure 6.24 retreat, w hile longsh ore drift co n tin u es to

Aspit: Dawlish Warren

atthe mouth of the
River Exe, Devon
Figure 6.25
Stages in the formation
of aspit
C oastal d e p o s itio n
D ep osition occurs w here th e accu m u latio n of
sand and shingle exceeds its d ep letion. This m ay
take place in sheltered areas w ith low -energy
waves or w here rapid Coastal erosion further
along th e coast provides an ab u n d an t supply of
m aterial. In term s o f the Coastal system , deposi­
tio n takes place as inputs exceed outputs, and
th e b ea ch can be regarded as a store o f eroded
m aterial.
S pits
Spits are long, narrow accu m u lation s o f sand
and/or shingle w ith on e end jo in e d to the
m ain lan d and th e oth er p ro je ctin g ou t to sea
or exten d in g part way across a river estuary
(Figure 6 .2 4 ). W h eth er a spit is m ain ly com posed
of sand or shingle depends on th e availability
o f sedim ent and wave energy (pages 1 4 5 -1 4 6 ).
C om posite spits occur w h en th e larger-sized
shingle is deposited before th e finer sands.
exten d th e feature eastwards. A series o f recurved
ends m ay form (E) each tim e th ere is a series
o f storm s from th e sou th -east giving a lengthy
period o f altered w ind d irection. H aving reachec
its present-d ay p o sitio n (F), th e spit is unlikely
to grow any further - partly because th e faster
cu rrent o f th e river will carry m aterial ou t to sea
and partly because th e d ep th o f water becom es
to o great for th e spit to build upwards above sea-
level. M eanw hile, th e prevailing south-w esterh
w ind will pick up sand from th e b each as it drieî
ou t at low tide and carry it in land to form dunes
(G). T he stab ility o f th e spit m ay be increased b--
th e an ch o rin g qualities of m arram grass. At the
sam e tim e, gentle, low -energy waves en terin g t
sheltered area b eh in d th e spit deposit fine silt
and m ud, creating an area o f s a ltm a rs h (H).
Figure 6 .2 8 show s th e lo ca tio n o f som e of
th e larger spits around th e coast o f England a n :
W ales. How do these reiate to th e d irection of tr
m axim u m fetch and o f th e prevailing and don:
n a n t w inds?

(for key to lettering, see text) Y <

>n

H \ Oyr ■
river
(5? % estuary
./ %
^ F ^
o* <2*
/oD o . ^ G
A ° re //- headland D c \
A f l't t 0 , E G

* B C

prevailing w inds second-m ost-dominant

fe tch open sea wincj ancj second-largest fetch

154 Coasts
 T o m b o lo s , b a rs a n d b a rr ie r islan ds extend for several hundred kilom etres, and the
_:<h m ainland is a tidal lagoon (Figure 6.2 9). A lthough
A to m b o lo is a b ea ch th a t extend s outw ards to
■and. relatively u n co m m o n in Britain, they are wide-
jo in w ith an offshore island (Figure 6 .2 6 ). Chesil
spread globally, accou n ting for 13 per cen t of the
Beach, in D orset, links th e Isle o f Portland to
world's coastlines. They are easily recognisable
th e m ainland . Som e 3 0 km lon g and up to 14 m
on maps o f th e eastern USA (Places 21), the Gulf
high, it presents a g en tly sm oo th ed face to the
o f M exico, th e n orth ern N etherlands, W est Africa
prevailing winds in th e English C h an n el.
and Southern and western Australia. Although
If a spit develops in a bay in to w h ich no m ajor
their origin is uncertain, they tend to develop on
river flows, it m ay be able to build across th at
coasts w ith relatively high-energy waves and a low
bay, linking tw o headlands, to form a bar. Bars
tidal range. O ne theory suggests th a t they formed,
straighten coastlines and trap water in lagoons on
below the low-tide mark, as offshore bars o f sand
the landw ard side. Bars, such as th a t at Slapton
and have m oved progressively landwards. An
Ley, in D evon (Figure 6.27), m ay also result in
alternative theory suggests th a t rises in post-glacial
places where constructive waves lead to th e land ­
sea-level m ay have partly submerged older beach
ward m igration o f offshore, seabed m aterial.
ridges. In either case, th e breaches betw een the
B arrier islands are a series o f sandy islands
islands seem likely to have b een caused by storm
totally detached from , but ru nning alm ost parallel
waves.
to, the m ainland. Betw een the islands, w hich m ay

Ravenglass *
D awlish W arren spit Lland ud no tom bo lo

Lland ud no - Slapton Ley bar D ungeness cuspateforeland

: :ars in
'.ales Lldndd w yn Island -

M enai Straits - ----- Spurn Head

M orfa Harlech - ---- Blakeney Point

M orfa Dyffryn Yarm outh

Ro W en (Barm outh) Orford Ness

Borth ----- Shoreham

D awlish W arren D ungeness

Chesi Beach — - C a ls h o t

Teignm outh - Hurst Castle

0 100 km Looe Slapton Ley Poole H arbour Christchurch

1
______ i

Coasts 155

Figure 6.29
Barrier islands off North
Carolina, USA, taken
from the Apollo space-
craft (X = position of
Figure 6.30)
Figure 6.30
Barrier island on Core Banks,
looking south (seeXon
Figure 6.29 for location)
156 Coasts
Eastern and Southern U SA : barrier islands
B a r r i e r is la n d s h a v e a u n i q u e m o r p h o l o g y , f lo r a
a n d f a u n a . T h e s m o o t h , s t r a ig h t , o c e a n e d g e is
c h a r a c t e r i s e d b y w id e , s a n d y b e a c h e s w h i c h s lo p e
g e n t ly u p w a r d s to s a n d d u n e s w h ic h a re a n c h o r e d
b y h ig h g r a s s e s ( F i g u r e 6 .3 0 ). B e h i n d t h e d u n e s , t h e
'is l a n d 'i n t e r i o r m a y c o n t a in s h r u b s a n d w o o d s , d e e r
a n d s n a k e s , in s e c t s a n d b ir d s . T h e la n d w a r d s id e is
p u n c t u a t e d b y s h e l t e r e d b a y s , q u i e t t i d a l la g o o n s ,
s a lt m a r s h e s a n d , t o w a r d s t h e t r o p ic s , m a n g r o v e
s w a m p s . T h e s e w e t l a n d s p r o v id e a n a t u r a l h a b i t a t
f o r o y s t e r s , f is h a n d b ir d s . A l t h o u g h b a r r ie r is la n d s
f o r m t h e i n t e r f a c e b e t w e e n t h e la n d a n d t h e o c e a n ,
t h e y s e e m f r a g il e in c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e p o w e r
t h a t t h e w i n d a n d s e a b r in g s t o t h e m . It is v i r t u a l l y
i m p o s s i b l e f o r a t r o p ic a l s t o r m o r h u r r i c a n e t o
m o v e a s h o r e w i t h o u t f ir s t C r o s s in g e i t h e r o f t h e t w o
lo n g e s t s t r e t c h e s o f b a r r ie r is la n d s in t h e w o r ld :
e ith e r th a t w h ic h e x te n d s fo r 2 5 0 0 k m fro m N e w
J e r s e y t o t h e S o u t h e r n t i p o f F lo r id a ( F i g u r e 6 .2 9 ); o r
t h e o n e s t r e t c h i n g f o r 2 1 0 0 k m a lo n g t h e G u l f C o a s t
s t a t e s t o M e x ic o .
B a r r ie r is la n d s a r e s u b j e c t t o a p r o c e s s c a lle d 'w a s h
o v e r '. T h is p r o c e s s , w h i c h m ig h t o c c u r u p t o 4 0 t im e s
in s o m e y e a r s , is w h e n s t o r m w a v e s c a r r y la r g e
q u a n t it i e s o f s a n d o v e r t h e is la n d f r o m t h e s e a w a r d
f a c e t o t h e la n d w a r d s id e . T h is r e s u lt s in t h e s e a w a r d
s id e b e in g e r o d e d a n d p u s h e d b a c k w a r d s . T h e
la n d w a r d m a rs h e s a n d m a n g r o v e s w a m p s b e c o m e
s u f f o c a t e d , a n d t h e t i d a l la g o o n s a r e n a r r o w e d .
F r o m a h u m a n v i e w p o i n t , b a r r ie r is la n d s f o r m a n
e s s e n t ia l n a t u r a l d e f e n c e a g a i n s t h u r r i c a n e s a n d
t h e ir s t o r m - f o r c e w a v e s .
 Sand dunes form fo red u n es w hich can attain a h eight of 5 m
i Figures 6.31 and 6 .3 2 ). Due to a lack of hum us,
Sand dunes are a d ynam ic landform w hose
their colour gives them the nam e y e llo w dunes.
equ ilibrium depends on th e in terrelation sh ip
The dunes becom e increasingly grey as hum us
betw een m ineral co n te n t (sand) and vegetation .
and bacteria from plants and anim als are added,
Longshore drift m ay deposit sand in the inter-
and th ey gradually becom e m ore vegetation-
tidal zone. As th e tide ebbs, th e sand will dry out
covered and acidic. These grey (m atu re) dunes
allow ing winds from th e sea to m ove m aterial up
m ay reach a h eig h t o f 1 0 -3 0 m before th e supply
th e b each by saltation (page 183). T his process is
o f fresh sand is cut off by their increasing dis­
m ost likely to occur w hen th e prevailing winds
tan ce from th e b each (Figure 11.11). There m ay
com e from th e sea and w here th ere is a large tidal
be several parallel ridges o f old dunes (as at M orfa
range w h ich exposes large expanses o f sand at
Harlech, Figure 6 .3 3 ), separated by low-lying,
low tide. Sand m ay b eco m e trapped by seaweed
dam p slacks. H eath plants begin to d om inate the
and driftw ood on berm s or at th e p o in t of th e
area as acidity, hum us and m oisture co n ten t all
h ig h est spring tides. Plants begin to colonise
increase (Figure 11.9). Paths cut by hu m ans and
th e area (Figure 11 .1 0 ), stabilising th e sand and
anim als expose areas of sand. As th e w ind funnels
encou raging further accu m u lation . T h e regolith
along these tracks, b low ou ts m ay form in the
has a high pH value due to calciu m carbonate
now w astin g dunes. To com bat further erosion
from seashells.
at M orfa H arlech, parts o f th e dunes have been
E m b ry o dunes are th e first to develop
fenced o ff and m arram grass has b een planted
(Figure 6 .3 1 ). T h ey beco m e stabilised by th e
to try to re-stabilise th e area and to prevent any
grow th o f lym e and m arram grasses. As these
inland m igration of th e dunes.
grasses trap m ore sand, th e dunes build up and,
The above idealised schem e can be inter-
due to th e h ig h rate o f percolation, becom e
rupted at any stage by storm s or h u m an use. If
increasingly arid. Plants need either succu lent
th e supply o f sand is cu t off, th e n new em bryo
leaves to store w ater (sand cou ch ), or thorn -
dunes c a n n o t form and yellow dunes m ay be
like leaves to reduce tran sp iration in th e strong
degraded so th a t it is th e older, grey dunes th at
- ' „j „„ winds (prickly saltw ort), or lon g tap-roots to
âScu on ' lin e th e b each.
Morfa reach th e water table (m arram grass). As m ore
ihW ales sand accum ulates, th e em bryo dunes jo in to

blowout

slack
dominant wind

a - high-
tide
mark berm
vg a ve t'

Wasting dunes with

Embryo fore or yellow dunes Grey dunes and dune ridges blowouts
■^vght(m) 1 5 8 -1 0 6 -8

jgeofexposed 80 20 less than 10 over 40 on dunes

i~d moisture very little humus, mixed salt some humus, very little moisture, humus increases inland, water content still low, high humus, brackish
and fresh water fresh water fresh water water in slacks

over 8 slightlyalkaline increasingly acid inland: pH 6.5-7 acid: pH 5-6

sand couch, lyme grass marram, xerophyticspecies creeping fescue, sea spurge, some marram, cotton heather, gorseon dunes,
grass, heather Juncus in slacks

Coasts 157

Figure 6.32
Embryo and foredunes
at Morfa Harlech, North
Wales (refer also to
Figures 11.10 and 11.11)
Figure 6.34
Llanrhidian saltmarsh,
Gower peninsula, South
Wales (refer also to Figures
11.13andll.14)
158 Coasts
S a ltm a rs h e s
W here th ere is sheltered w ater in river estuaries
or b eh in d spits, silt and m ud will be deposited
eith er by th e gently rising and falling tide or
by th e river, thu s fo rm in g a zone o f in te r-tid a l
m u d flats. Initially, th e area m ay o n ly be un cov-
ered by th e sea for less th a n 1 hour in every
1 2-h o u r tidal cycle. Plants such as algae and
Salicom ia can tolerate th is len g th y subm ergence
and th e h ig h levels o f salinity. T h ey are able to
trap m ore m ud around th e m , creatin g a surface
th a t rem ains exposed for in creasingly longer
periods b etw een tides (Figure 6 .3 4 ). Spartina
grows th ro u g h o u t th e year and since its intro-
d u ctio n in to B ritain has colonised , and beco m e
d o m in a n t in , m an y estuaries. T h e landw ard side
Figure 6.33
Morfa Harlech from Harlech
Castle showing foredunes, grey or
wasting dunes, old cliff-line and,
in the distance, saltmarsh
of th e in ter-tid al m udflats is m arked by a small
cliff (Figure 1 1 .1 2 ), above w h ich is th e flat sward
zon e. This zone m ay on ly be covered by th e sea
for less th a n 1 hour in each tidal cycle (Figure
6 .1 2 ). Seawater collects in hollow s w h ich becorr .
in creasingly saline as th e w ater evaporates. The
hollow s often enlarge in to saltpan s (Figure 11.13
w hich are devoid o f vegetation except for certain
algae and th e occasional halophyte (page 291). A-
each tide retreats, water drains in to creeks which
are th e n eroded rapidly b o th laterally and verti­
cally (Figure 6 .3 5 ). T he upper sward zone m ay
on ly be inund ated by th e h ig h est o f spring tide
Figure 6.35
Llanrhidian saltmarsh showing the
sward zone, creeks and saltpan
 F ra m e w o rk 6 S a m p lin g
: . -e 6.36
e population
■ ' onto the total
: . -•t'on
W h y sam p le?
G e o g r a p h e r s a re p a rt o f a g r o w in g n u m b e r o f
p e o p l e w h o f in d it in c r e a s i n g l y u s e f u l a n d / o r
n e c e s s a r y t o u s e d a t a t o q u a n t i f y t h e r e s u lt s o f t h e ir
r e s e a r c h . T h e p r o b le m w i t h t h is t r e n d is t h a t t h e
a m o u n t o f d a t a m a y b e v e r y e x p e n s i v e , t o o t im e -
c o n s u m i n g , o r j u s t i m p r a c t i c a b l e t o c o l l e c t - a s it
w o u l d b e , f o r e x a m p le , t o in v e s t i g a t e e v e r y b o d y 's
s h o p p i n g p a t t e r n s in a la r g e c ity , t o f in d t h e n u m b e r
o f s t o n e s o n a s p it, o r t o m a p t h e la n d u s e o f a ll t h e
f a r m s in B r it a in .
S a m p lin g is t h e m e t h o d u s e d t o m a k e s t a t is t i c a l ly
v a l id in f e r e n c e s w h e n it is im p o s s ib l e t o m e a s u r e
t h e total population ( F i g u r e 6 .3 6 ). It is e s s e n t ia l,
t h e r e f o r e , t o f in d t h e m o s t a c c u r a t e a n d p r a c t ic a i
m e t h o d o f o b t a i n i n g a representative sample.
If t h a t s a m p le c a n b e m a d e w i t h t h e m in im u m o f
b ia s , t h e n s t a t is t i c a l ly s ig n if i c a n t c o n c l u s i o n s m a y
b e d r a w n . H o w e v e r , e v e n if e v e r y e f f o r t is m a d e t o
a c h i e v e p r e c is io n , it m u s t b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t a n y
s a m p le c a n o n ly b e a c lo s e e s t i m a t e .
• njtion
rard
S a m p lin g basics
M o s t s a m p lin g p r o c e d u r e s a s s u m e t h a t t h e t o t a l
p o p u la t i o n h a s a normal distribution (F ig u r e
4 .1 6 a ) w h ic h , w h e n p lo t t e d o n a g r a p h , p r o d u c e s
a s y m m e t r i c a l c u r v e o n e i t h e r s id e o f t h e m e a n
v a l u e . T h is s h o w s t h a t a la r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e
v a l u e s a r e c lo s e t o t h e a v e r a g e , w i t h f e w e x t r e m e s .
F ig u r e 6 .3 7 s h o w s a n o r m a l d is t r i b u t io n c u r v e a n d
t h e standard deviation ( p a g e 2 4 7 ) - t h e m e a s u r e
o f d is p e r s io n f r o m t h e m e a n . W h e r e m o s t o f t h e
v a l u e s a r e c lu s t e r e d n e a r t o t h e m e a n , t h e s t a n d a r d
d e v i a t i o n is lo w .
T h e la r g e r t h e s a m p le , t h e m o r e a c c u r a t e it is
lik e ly t o b e , a n d t h e m o r e lik e ly it is t o r e s e m b le
t h e p a r e n t p o p u l a t i o n ; it is a ls o m o r e lik e ly t o
c o n f o r m t o t h e n o r m a l d is t r i b u t io n c u r v e . W h i l e t h e
g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d m in im u m s iz e f o r a s a m p le is 30 ,
t h e r e is n o u p p e r lim it - a l t h o u g h t h e r e is a p o in t
b e y o n d w h i c h t h e e x t r a t i m e a n d c o s t i n v o l v e d in
in c r e a s in g t h e s a m p le s iz e d o n o t g i v e a s ig n if i c a n t
i m p r o v e m e n t in a c c u r a c y (a n e x a m p l e o f t h e la w o f
d im i n is h in g r e t u r n s , p a g e 4 6 2 ).
F i g u r e 6 .3 7 s h o w s t h a t , in a n o r m a l d is t r i b u t io n ,
6 8 .2 7 p e r c e n t o f t h e v a l u e s in t h e s a m p l e o c c u r
w i t h i n a r a n g e o f ±1 s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s (S D s )
f r o m t h e m e a n ; 9 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e v a l u e s f a ll w i t h i n
± 2 S D s ; a n d 9 9 p e r c e n t w it h in ± 3 S D s . T h e s e
p e r c e n t a g e s a r e k n o w n a s confidence limits, o r
probab ility levels. G e o g r a p h e r s u s u a ll y a c c e p t
t h e 9 5 p e r c e n t p r o b a b i l i t y le v e l w h e n s a m p lin g .
T h is m e a n s t h a t t h e y a c c e p t t h e c h a n c e t h a t , in
5 c a s e s o u t o f e v e r y 1 0 0 , t h e t r u e m e a n w il l lie
o u t s i d e 2 S D s t o e i t h e r s id e o f t h e i r s a m p l e m e a n .
standard deviation
Coasts 159
 S a m p lin g te c h n iq u e s O n e f e a t u r e o f a g e n u i n e r a n d o m s a m p le is t h a t t h e
s a m e n u m b e r c a n b e s e le c t e d m o r e t h a n o n c e - s o
S e v e r a l d if f e r e n t m e t h o d s m a y b e u s e d a c c o r d in g
r e m e m b e r t h a t i f y o u a r e p u l lin g n u m b e r s f r o m a
t o t h e d e m a n d s o f t h e r e q u ir e d s a m p le a n d t h e
h a t, t h e y s h o u l d b e r e p la c e d i m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r t h e y
n a t u r e o f t h e p a r e n t p o p u la t i o n . T h e r e a r e t w o
h a v e b e e n read a n d re c o rd e d .
m a j o r t y p e s , w i t h o n e r e f in e m e n t :
T h e r e a r e t h r e e a lt e r n a t i v e w a y s o f u s in g r a n d o m
• Random sampling T h is is t h e m o s t a c c u r a t e
Part of a random number table n u m b e r s t o s a m p le a r e a l d is t r i b u t io n s (p a t t e r n s
m e t h o d a s it h a s n o b ia s .
9271 0143 2141 9381 o v e r s p a c e ) ( F i g u r e 6 .3 8 ).
• System atic sampling T h is m e t h o d is o f t e n
1498 3796 4413 1405 q u i c k e r a n d e a s ie r t o u s e , a l t h o u g h s o m e b ia s o r 1 Random point A g r id is s u p e r i m p o s e d o v e r t h e
s e le c t io n is in v o l v e d . a r e a o f t h e m a p t o b e s a m p le d . P o in t s , o r m a p
6691 4294 6077 9091
r e f e r e n c e s , a r e t h e n i d e n t i f i e d u s in g r a n d o m
9061 1148 9493 1940 • Stratified sampling T h is m e t h o d is o f t e n a
n u m b e r t a b l e s , a n d p lo t t e d o n t h e m a p . T h e
v e r y u s e f u l r e f in e m e n t f o r g e o g r a p h e r s ; it c a n
2660 7126 7126 4591 e i g h t p o in t s i d e n t i f i e d e a r l ie r (in t h e r a n d o m
b e u s e d w i t h e i t h e r a r a n d o m o r a s y s t e m a t ic
3459 7585 4897 8138 n u m b e r t a b l e ) h a v e b e e n p lo t t e d o n F ig u r e
s a m p le .
6 .3 8 a . A la r g e n u m b e r o f p o in t s m a y b e n e e d e d
6090 7962 5766 7228
to e n s u re c o v e r a g e o f th e w h o le a re a - s e e
2191 9271 9042 5884
Random sampling
F i g u r e 6 .4 0 .
U n d e r n o r m a l c ir c u m s t a n c e s , t h is is t h e id e a l t y p e o f
2 Random line R a n d o m n u m b e r s a r e u s e d t o
s a m p le b e c a u s e it s h o w s n o b ia s . E v e r y m e m b e r o f
o b t a i n t w o e n d p o in t s w h i c h a r e t h e n j o i n e d b y
t h e t o t a l p o p u la t i o n h a s a n e q u a l c h a n c e o f b e in g
a lin e , a s in F ig u r e 6 .3 8 b w h i c h u s e s t h e s a m e
s e le c t e d , a n d t h e s e le c t io n o f o n e m e m b e r d o e s
e i g h t r a n d o m p o in t s , in t h e o r d e r in w h i c h t h e y
n o t a f f e c t t h e p r o b a b ili t y o f s e le c t io n o f a n o t h e r
o c c u r r e d in t h e t a b l e . S e v e r a l r a n d o m lin e s a r e
m e m b e r . T h e id e a l r a n d o m s a m p le m a y b e o b t a in e d
n e e d e d t o g e t a r e p r e s e n t a t iv e s a m p le (e .g . lin e s
u s in g random numbers. T h e s e a r e o f t e n g e n e r a t e d
a c r o s s a c it y t o s h o w t r a n s e c t s o f v a r i a t io n in
b y c o m p u t e r a n d a r e a v a i la b le in t h e f o r m o f p r in t e d
la n d u s e ).
t a b le s o f r a n d o m n u m b e r s , b u t if n e c e s s a r y t h e y
c a n b e o b t a in e d b y d r a w i n g n u m b e r s o u t o f a h a t. 3 Random area A r e a s o f c o n s t a n t s iz e , e .g . g r id
R a n d o m n u m b e r t a b l e s u s u a lly c o n s is t o f c o l u m n s s q u a r e s o r q u a d r a t s , a r e o b t a i n e d u s in g r a n d o m

o f p a ir s o f d ig it s . N u m b e r s c a n b e c h o s e n b y r e a d in g n u m b e r s . B y c o n v e n t io n , t h e n u m b e r a lw a y s

e i t h e r a lo n g t h e r o w s o r d o w n t h e c o lu m n s , p r o v id e d id e n t i f i e s t h e s o u t h - w e s t c o r n e r o f a g r id s q u a r e .

o n ly o n e m e t h o d is u s e d . S im ila r ly , a n y n u m b e r o f If s a m p le s q u a r e s o n e - q u a r t e r t h e s iz e o f a g r id

f ig u r e s m a y b e s e le c t e d - s ix f o r a g r id r e f e r e n c e , s q u a r e a r e u s e d , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e s a m e s a m p le

f o u r f o r a g r id s q u a r e , t h r e e f o r h o u s e n u m b e r s in a p o in t s , t h e i r lo c a t io n s a r e a s s h o w n o n F ig u r e

lo n g S tr e e t, e t c . U s in g t h e g r id s h o w n in F ig u r e 6 .3 8 , 6 .3 8 c - n o t e t h a t t h e p o in t in t h e n o r t h - e a s t

t h e r a n d o m n u m b e r t a b l e g i v e n a b o v e y ie ld s e i g h t c a n n o t b e u s e d b e c a u s e p a r t o f t h e s a m p le

6 - fig u r e g r id r e f e r e n c e s : 9 2 7 1 14; (9 8 6 6 9 1 h a s t o b e s q u a r e N es o u t s i d e t h e s t u d y a r e a . T h is m e t h o d
Figure 6.38
e x c lu d e d b e c a u s e t h e g r id d o e s n o t c o n t a in t h e s e c a n b e u s e d t o s a m p le la n d - u s e a r e a s o r t h e
Random sampling
n u m b e r s ) ; 9 0 6 1 2 6 ; e tc . d is t r i b u t io n o f p la n t c o m m u n i t i e s o v e r s p a c e .
using point, line and
area techniques

a p o in t b line c area (using squares)

15 15 15

14 14 14

13 13 13

12 12 12

11 11 11

10 10 10
90 91 92 93 94 95 90 91 92 93 94 95 90 91 92 93 94 95

160 Coasts
 T h e a d v a n t a g e s o f r a n d o m s a m p lin g in c l u d e
its a b i l i t y t o b e u s e d w it h la r g e p o p u la t i o n s a n d
its a v o i d a n c e o f b ia s . C a r e t u l sample design
is n e e d e d , h o w e v e r , t o a v o id t h e p o s s ib il it y o f
a c h i e v i n g m is le a d in g r e s u lts , f o r e x a m p le w h e n
s a m p lin g s m a ll p o p u la t i o n s , a n d w h e n s a m p lin g
o v e r a la r g e a r e a . A ls o , w h e n u s e d in t h e f ie ld , it m a y
in v o l v e c o n s id e r a b le t i m e a n d e n e r g y in v i s it in g
e v e r y p o in t .

a point (using grid intersections) b line (using eastings) c area (using grid squares)
-5»---- • .........• • -----• ... • 15 , 15

14 14

13* 13 13

12 12

ii:

•o» io 10
90 91 92 93 94 95 90 91 92 93 94 95 90 91 92 93 94 95

6.39 Systematic sampling T h e m a in a d v a n t a g e o f s y s t e m a t ic s a m p lin g lie s

“ atic sampling in its e a s e o f u s e . H o w e v e r , its m a in d is a d v a n t a g e

A s y s t e m a t ic s a m p le is o n e in w h i c h v a l u e s a r e
nt, line and area is t h a t a ll p o in t s d o n o t h a v e a n e q u a l c h a n c e o f
s e le c t e d in a r e g u la r w a y , e .g . c h o o s i n g e v e r y 10 t h
s e le c t io n - it m a y e i t h e r o v e r s t r e s s o r m is s a n
p e r s o n o n a list, o r e v e r y 2 0 t h h o u s e in a S t r e e t .
u n d e r ly in g p a t t e r n ( F i g u r e 6 .4 0 ).
T h is c a n b e a n e a s ie r m e t h o d in t e r m s o f t i m e
a n d e f f o r t t h a n r a n d o m s a m p lin g . L ik e r a n d o m
s a m p lin g , it c a n b e o p e r a t e d u s in g in d iv i d u a l Stratified sampling
p o in t s , lin e s o r a r e a s ( F i g u r e 6 .3 9 ).
W h e n t h e r e a r e s ig n if ic a n t g r o u p s o f k n o w n s iz e

1 System atic point T h is c a n s h o w c h a n g e s w it h in t h e p a r e n t p o p u la t io n , in o r d e r t o e n s u r e

o v e r d i s t a n c e , e .g . b y s a m p l i n g t h e la n d a d e q u a t e c o v e r a g e o f a ll t h e s u b - g r o u p s it m a y b e

u s e e v e r y 1 0 0 m . It c a n a ls o s h o w c h a n g e a d v i s a b l e t o s t r a t if y t h e s a m p le , i.e. t o d iv id e t h e

t h r o u g h t i m e , e .g . b y s a m p l i n g f r o m t h e p o p u la t i o n in t o c a t e g o r ie s a n d s a m p le w it h in e a c h .

p o p u l a t i o n c e n s u s e s ( t a k e n e v e r y 10 y e a r s ) . A l t h o u g h c a t e g o r is in g in t o g r o u p s (la y e r s o r s tr a ta )
m a y b e a s u b j e c t i v e d e c is io n , t h e p r a c t ic a i a p p lic a -
2 Systematic line T h is m a y b e u s e d t o c h o o s e
t i o n o f t h is t e c h n i q u e h a s c o n s id e r a b le a d v a n t a g e s
a s e r ie s o f e q u a l l y s p a c e d t r a n s e c t s a c r o s s a n
fo r t h e g e o g ra p h e r. O n c e th e g ro u p s h a v e b e e n
a r e a o f la n d , e .g . a s h in g le s p it.
d e c id e d , t h e y c a n b e s a m p le d e i t h e r s y s t e m a t ic a lly
3 Systematic area T h is is o f t e n u s e d f o r la n d - o r r a n d o m ly , u s in g p o in t , lin e o r a r e a t e c h n iq u e s .
ple design
u s e s a m p lin g , t o s h o w c h a n g e w i t h d i s t a n c e o r
H lion canlead
t h r o u g h t i m e (if o ld m a p s o r a ir p h o t o g r a p h s 1 Stratified systematic sampling T h is m e t h o d
■ate results:
a r e a v a i la b le ) . Q u a d r a t s , p o s it io n e d a t c a n b e u s e fu l in m a n y s it u a t io n s - w h e n in ter-
"w o o d lan d is
6-ei> missed in this e q u a l in t e r v a ls , a r e u s e d f o r a s s e s s in g p la n t v i e w in g p e o p le , s a m p lin g f r o m m a p s , a n d d u r in g

d is t r ib u t io n s . f ie ld w o r k . F o r e x a m p le , in p o lit ic a l o p in io n
p o lis , t h e t o t a l p o p u la t io n t o b e s a m p le d c a n
b e d iv id e d (s tr a tifie d ) in t o e q u a l a g e a n d / o r
15
s o c io - e c o n o m ic g r o u p s , e .g . 1 0 - 1 9 ,2 0 - 2 9 ,
e t c .T h e n u m b e r in t e r v ie w e d in e a c h c a t e g o r y
random 14»- s h o u ld b e in p r o p o r t io n t o its k n o w n s iz e in t h e
point
p a r e n t p o p u la t io n . T h is is m o s t e a s ily a c h ie v e d
system atic
point b y s a m p lin g a t a r e g u la r in t e r v a l (s y s t e m a t ic a lly )
system atic t h r o u g h o u t t h e e n t ir e p o p u la t io n , s o t h a t t h e
line r e q u ir e d to t a l s a m p le size is o b t a in e d . F o r e x a m ­
system atic p le , if a s a m p le s iz e o f 8 0 0 is r e q u ir e d f r o m a to ta l
area
p o p u la t io n o f 8 0 0 0 (i.e. a 10 p e r c e n t s a m p le ),
w o o dlan d e v e r y 10 t h p e r s o n w o u ld b e in t e r v ie w e d .

10*
90 91 92 93 95
Coasts 161
 r o c k t y p e s : g r a n iţ e o c c u p i e s 6 0 % o f t h e t o t a l
a re a a n d lim e s to n e 4 0 % . T o d is c o v e r w h e t h e r
t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f m o o r la n d c o v e r v a r i e s w it h
r o c k t y p e , t h e s a m p lin g m u s t b e in p r o p o r t i o n
t o t h e ir r e l a t iv e e x t e n t s . T h u s , if a s a m p le s iz e o f
random
3 0 p o in t s is d e r iv e d u s in g r a n d o m n u m b e r s , 18
point
a r e n e e d e d w i t h i n t h e g r a n iţ e a r e a (1 8 is 6 0 p e r
c e n t o f 3 0 ) a n d 12 w i t h i n t h e l i m e s t o n e a r e a
m oorland (1 2 is 4 0 p e r c e n t o f 3 0 ). If it w a s d e c i d e d t o a r e a
s a m p le , 18 q u a d r a t s w o u l d h a v e t o f a ll w it h in
t h e g r a n iţ e a r e a , a n d 12 in t h e li m e s t o n e .

T h e a d v a n t a g e s o f s tr a tifie d s a m p lin g in c lu d e its

p o t e n t ia l t o b e u s e d e it h e r r a n d o m ly o r s y s te m a tic a lly ,
a n d in c o n j u n c t io n w it h p o in t, lin e o r a r e a t e c h n iq u e s .
T h is m a k e s it v e r y f le x ib le a n d u s e fu l, a s m a n y
Figure 6.41 2 Stratified random sampling T h is m e t h o d c a n
p o p u la t io n s h a v e g e o g r a p h ic a l s u b - g ro u p s . C a r e m u s t
b e u s e d t o c o v e r a w i d e r a n g e o f d a t a , b o t h in
A random point b e ta k e n , h o w e v e r , t o s e le c t a p p r o p r ia t e s tra ta .
sample, stratified i n t e r v i e w i n g a n d i n g e o g r a p h ic a l f i e l d w o r k a n d
byarea m a p w o r k . F o r e x a m p le , F ig u r e 6.41 s h o w s t h e
d is t r i b u t io n o f m o o r la n d o n t w o c o n t r a s t i n g

C h an g es in sea -le v e i D uring tim es o f m axim u m g laciation , large

Although th e daily m o vem ent of th e tide alters
th e level at w h ich waves break o n to the foreshore,
th e average p osition o f sea-level in relation to the
land has rem ained relatively co n stan t for nearly
6 0 0 0 years (Figure 6.4 2 ). Before th a t tim e there
had b een several m ajor changes in this m ean
level, th e m ost dram atic bein g a result o f the
Q uaternary ice age and o f plate m ovem ents.
volum es o f w ater were stored on th e land as ice
- probably th ree tim es m ore th a n today. This
m o d ifica tio n of th e h y d ro lo g ica l cy cle m eant
th a t th ere was a worldwide, or eu static (glacio-
eustatic, page 123), fall in sea-level of an esti-
m ated 1 0 0 -1 5 0 m.
As ice accu m ulated, its w eight began to
depress th o se parts o f th e crust lying b en eath it.
This caused a local, or iso sta tic (glacio-isostatic
page 123), ch an g e in sea-level.

Figure 6.42
g reenh ou se effect
Eustatic changes in sea- present
raises world
level since 18 000 BC tim e
4 tem peratures and
+ 20 -
Britai is e p a r ated melts icecaps,
from =rance resulting in a
North Sea flooded;
0 Britain separe tea future sea_le v e l rise
from Ireland

-2 0 ■
f Drmatic n of eneral sed
onset o f n e w ice
e stuarie € ustatic curve
t* - 40 -
/ age; w a ter held in
Q. m aximum extent / storage as ice on
□ o f last ice age: land; sea-level falls
-60 again
at its Icswest point
/
/ Fia idrian
-80
trar îsgress on

- -100

-120
18000 16000 14000 12000 10000 8000 60 00 4 0 00 2000 0 2000
BC AD

162 Coasts
 T he world's sea-level was at its m inim u m
18 0 0 0 years ago w h en th e ice was at its
m axim u m (Figure 6 .4 2 ). Later, as tem peratures
began to rise and icecaps m elted , th ere was first a
eu static rise in sea-level follow ed b y a slower iso-
static u p lift w h ich is still operative in parts o f the
world today. This sequ ence o f sea-level changes
m ay be sum m arised as follow s:
1 F orm ation o f glaciers and ice sheets. Eustatic
fall in sea-level gives rise to a negative chan g e
in base level (page 81).
2 C o n tin u ed grow th o f ice sheets. Isostatic
d epression o f th e land under th e ice produces
a positive ch an g e in base level.
3 Ice sheets b eg in to m elt. E ustatic rise in sea-
level w ith a positive ch an g e in base level.
4 C o n tin u e d d eclin e o f ice sh eets an d g la­
ciers. Iso sta tic u p lift o f th e land u n d er
fo rm er ice sh eets resu lts in a n eg a tiv e
ch a n g e in b ase level.
D uring th is d eg la cia tio n , th e re m ay have
b ee n a c o n tin u in g , a lb eit sm all, eu static rise
in sea-level bu t th is has b ee n less rapid th a n
th e iso sta tic u p lift so th a t base level appears
to be fallin g . M easu rem en ts suggest th a t parts
o f n o rth -w est S co tlan d are still rising by 4 m m
a year and som e n o rth e rn areas o f th e G u lf
o f B o th n ia (Scan d in avia) by 2 0 m m a year
(Places 2 3 , page 1 6 6 ). T he u p lift in n o rth e rn
B ritain is cau sin g th e B ritish Isles to tilt and th e
lan d in so u th -ea st E ngland to be depressed. This
process is o f u tm o st im p o rta n ce to th e future
n atu ral d ev elo p m en t and h u m a n m a n a g e m e n t
o f B ritish coasts (Figure 6 .5 6 ).
T ecton ic changes have resulted in:
■ th e up lift (o ro g en y ) o f new m o u n ta in ranges,
especially at destructive and co llisio n plate
m argins (pages 17 and 19)
■ local tiltin g (e p e iro g en y ) o f th e land, as in
sou th-east England, w h ich has increased th e
flood risk, and in parts o f th e M ed iterranean,
lead ing to th e subm ergence o f several a n cien t
ports and leaving others stranded above the
present-day sea-level
■ local v o lca n ic and earth quake activity, as in
Iceland .
glacial and recent
deposits
high-water mark
15 km
L a n d fo rm s c re a te d by s e a -le v e l
changes
C hanges in sea-level have affected:
■ th e shape o f coastlin es and th e fo rm ation
o f new features by increased erosion or
d ep osition
■ th e b ala n ce betw een erosion and d ep osition
by rivers (page 81) resultin g in th e drow ning
o f low er sectio n s o f valleys or in th e rejuvena-
tio n o f rivers, and
■ the m ig ration o f plants, anim als and people.
L a n d fo rm s re s u ltin g fro m s u b m e rg e n c e
Eustatic rises in sea-level follow ing th e decay of
th e ice sheets led to th e drow ning o f m an y low-
lying coastal areas.
Estuaries are th e tidal m ouths of rivers, m ost
of w h ich have inherited th e shape o f th e form er
river valley (Figure 6.4 5 ). In m any cases, estuaries
have resulted from th e lower parts of th e valleys
b eing drowned by th e post-glacial rise of sea-level.
Being tidal, estuaries are subject to the ebbs and
flows of th e tide, and usually large expanses of
m ud are revealed at low tide (Figure 6.43). M any
estuaries w iden towards the sea and narrow to a
m eandering section inland (Figure 6.44).
Estuaries are affected by processes th a t are
very different from th o se at work along rivers
and coasts, becau se o f particular features.
■ R esidual cu rre n ts are created by th e m ixin g
o f fresh w ater (from rivers) and saline water
(sea w ater brou ght in by th e tides). M ixing
tends to take place on ly w h en discharge and
v elocities are h ig h ; otherw ise th e fresh river
water, b ein g less dense, tends to rise and flow
over th e salin e water.
■ T idal cu rre n ts have a tw o-w ay flow associ-
ated w ith th e in co m in g (flood) and outgoing
(ebb) tide.
■ C ontinu ou s variations in b o th d isch arg e and
v e lo city resulting from the tidal cycle. Tidal
velocities are highest at m id-tide and reduce ■
to zero around h ig h and low water. Times of
zero v elocity result in the deposition of fine-
grained sedim ents, especially in upper estuary
chann els, w h ich form m udflats and saltm arsh.
Schelde
Severn
0 lOkm
0 10
Thames Humber
Figur«6.44 0 10 km 0 10 km
Estuary morphology
{after Pethick, 1984)
 C la ssifica tio n o f estu aries
a A cco rd in g to o rig in This trad itional m ethod
divides estuaries in to different shapes b u t on
th e basis o f their river valley origins.
■ D ro w n ed riv e r v alley s, resulting from
post-glacial rises in sea-level, includes
m o st estuaries.
■ Rias, form ed w h en valleys in a dissected
upland are subm erged, are on e type of
drow ned river valley (Places 22).
■ D alm atian coasts are similar to rias except
th at their rivers flow alm ost parallel to the
coast, in contrast to rias where they flow
m ore at right-angles, e.g. Croaţia.
■ Fiords, form ed by the drow ning of glacial
troughs (page 113), are extrem ely deep
and steep-sided estuaries (Places 22).
■ Fiards are drow ned, glaciated low land
areas, e.g. Strangford Lough, N orthern
Ireland.
b A cco rd in g to tidal process an d estu ary
shape This m odern approach, supported by
P ethick, acknow ledges th a t it is tidal range
Devon and Norway: a ria and a fiord
K in g s b rid g e e s tu a ry
Dliring the last ice age, rivers in south-west England
were often able to flow during the warmer summer
months (compare Figure 5.14), cutting their valleys
downwards to the then lower sea-level (page 163).
When, following the ice age, sea-levels rose (Figure
6.42), the lower parts of many main rivers and their
tributaries were drowned to form sheltered, winding
Figure 6.45 inlets called rias.The Kingsbridge estuary (Figures
6.45 and 6.46) is a natural harbour produced by the
Kingsbridge estuary
N
O i
Kingsbridge
Kingsbridge
estuary
I mudflats at
, low tide
Salcombe
5 km
sand
164 Coasts
th a t d eterm ines th e tidal cu rrent, th e residual
cu rren t velocities and, th erefore, th e am o u n t
and source o f sedim ent.
■ M icro-tid al estuaries, w hich have a tidal
range o f less th an 2 m, are dom inated
by freshwater river discharge and wind-
driven waves from th e sea. They tend to
be long, wide and shallow, often w ith a
fluvial delta or coastal spits and bars.
■ M eso-tid al estuaries have a tidal range
o f betw een 2 m and 4 m . This fairly
lim ited range m eans th at, alth ou gh
fresh w ater has less in flu en ce, th e tidal
flow does n o t exten d far upstream and
th e resu ltan t shape is said to be stubbv.
w ith th e presence o f tidal m eanders in
th e landw ard section.
■ M a cro -tid a l estuaries have a tidal rang^
in excess o f 4 m and a tidal in flu en ce
th a t extend s far in lan d . T hey have a
characteristic tru m p et shape (Figure
6 .4 4 ) and long, lin ear sand bars form ed
parallel to th e tidal flow.
drowning of a dendritic drainage system (Figure
3.50b). The deepest water is at the estuary mouth, a
characteristic ofa ria, with depth decreasing inland.
The result is a fine natural harbour with an irregular
shoreline and, at low tide, 800 hectares of tidal creeks
and mudflats.
Apart from south-west England, rias are also found
in south-west Wales, south-west Ireland, western
Brittany and north-west Spain.
Figure 6.46
Kingsbridge es:.
looking north
 S o g n e fjo rd e n
Fiords (fjords) such as Sognefjorden (the Sogne
Fiord) were formed by glaciers eroding their valleys
to form deep glacial troughs (page 113). When
the ice melted, the glacial troughs were flooded
by a eustatic rise in sea-level (page 163) to form
long, deep, narrow inlets with precipitous sides,
a U-shaped cross-section, and hanging valleys
(Figure 4.21). Glaciers seem to havefollowed lines
of weakness, such as a pre-glacial river valley or, as
suggested by their rectangular pattern, a major fault
line (Figure 6.47). Unlike rias, fiords are deeper inland
and have a pronounced shallowing towards their
seaward end.The shallow entrance, comprising a
rock bar, is known as a threshold.
The Sognefjorden extends 195 km inland and, at its
deepest, has a depth of 1308 m (Figure 6.48). One
description ofthe Sognefjorden is given in Figure 6.49.
Apart from Norway, fiords are also found on the west
coasts ofthe South Island of New Zealand, British
Columbia, Alaska, Greenland and Southern Chile.

Figure 6.47 S up helleb reen

Locationof
Sognefjorden B o yaberen — Lustrafjorden

Fjaerlandsfjord -

Balestrand Herm ansverg

r . * •
c f] o -

Figure 6.49
glaciers
Naerofjorden Extract from Blue
50 km over 500 m
f .48 Ice, a novei by
Hammond Innes
den

As w e sailed up the fjord ,the w in d died aw ay leaving the w a ter as

flat as glass.The v ie w w as breathtakingly beautiful.M ountains rose
to snow-covered,jagged peaks.The dark green of the pines covered
the low er slopes, but higher up the veg etatio n vanished leaving
sheer cliffs o f bare rock w h ich seems to rise to the blue sky. In the
distance, on a piece of flat land, was Balestrand, w ith a steam er
m oving to the quay. Beyon d was the hotel on a delta of green and
fertile land.
'Isn't it lovely?' Dahler said.'lt is the sunniest place in all the
Sogne Fjord.The big hotel you see is built com pletely of wood. Here
the fjord is friendly, but w h e n you reach Fjaerlandsfjord you will
find the w a ter like ice, the m ountains dark and terrible, rising to
1300 metres in precipitous cliffs. High ab o ve you will see the Boya
and Suphelle glaciers, and from these rivers from the melting snow
plunge as giant waterfalls into the calm, cold, green coloured fjord.'
■I 50

. . -*aces (marine peneplanation) at

■'fed, South Wales
Landforms resulting from emergenc *»
Follow ing th e global rise in sea-level, and still
occu rring in several parts o f th e world today,
cam e th e iso static up lift of land as th e w eight of
th e ice sheets decreased. L andform s created as
a result o f land rising relative to th e sea inclu de
erosion surfaces and raised beaches.
E ro sio n su rfaces In Dyfed, th e Gower
p eninsu la (South W ales) and Cornw all, flat
p lan ation surfaces d om in ate th e scenery. W here
th eir general level is betw een 45 m and 2 0 0 m,
th e surfaces are th o u g h t to have been cut during
th e P leistocen e period w h en sea-levels were
h ig h er - h e n ce th e alternativ e n am e of m a rin e
p la tfo rm s (Figure 6 .5 0 ).

Coasts 165
 R aised b e a c h e s As th e land rose, form er
w ave-cut platform s and th eir b each es were raised
above th e reach of th e waves. Raised beaches
are ch aracteristic o f th e w est coast o f Scotlan d
(Figure 6 .5 1 ). T h ey are recognised by
a line o f degraded cliffs fronted by w hat was
originally a w ave-cut platform . W ith in th e old
cliff-line m ay be relict landform s such as wave-cut
n otches, caves, arches and stacks (Figure 6.52).
The presence o f such features ind icates th at
iso static up lift could n o t have b een co n stan t.
It has b een estim ated th a t it w ould have taken
an u n ch an g in g sea-level up to 2 0 0 0 years to cut
each w ave-cut platform . (This evidence has been
used to show th a t th e clim ate did n o t am eliorate
steadily follow ing th e ice age.)

A rran: raised beaches

Figure 6.51
Raised beaches on the
Isle of Arran: tne lower
onerelatestothe
younger'8 m beach';
theupperonetothe
older'30m beach'
The Isle of Arran is one of many places in western
Scotland where raised beaches are clearly visible.
Early workers in the field claimed that there were
three levels of raised beach on the west coast of
Scotland, found at 25, 50 and 100 feet above the
present sea-level. These are now referred to as the
8 m, 15 m and 30 m raised beaches. However,
this description is now considered too simplistic,
since it has been accepted that places nearest to
the centre of the ice depression have risen the
most and that the amount of uplift decreases with
distance from that point. Thus, for example, the
much-quoted'8 m raised beach'on Arran in fact
lies at heights of 4-6 m. Where the raised beach is
extensive, there is a considerable difference in height
between the old cliff on its landward side and the
more recent cliff to the seaward side, e.g. the 30 m
beach in south-east Arran rises from 24 to 38 m.
It is now more acceptable to estimate the time at
which a raised beach was formed by carbon-dating
seashells found in former beach deposits, rather
than by referring solely to its height above sea-level
(i.e. to indicate a'late glacial raised beach' rather
than a'100ft/30 m beach'). Figure 6.53 is a labelled
transect, based on fieldwork, showing the two
raised beaches in western Arran.

Figure 6.52

The abandoned cliff-line at King's

Cave, Arran, with its'8 m raised
beach'(see Figure 6.53)

(not to scale)

30 m u p p e r
raised beach

ab an do ned ___
sandstone cliffs

cave, 25 m deep, with

present wave-cut rounded stones form ed by
platform covered in earlier storm waves
small cliff 2 m high
pebbles and boulders

form er high-tide level w ave-cut notch

Figure 6.53

Diagrammatic present high-tide level

low er raised beach 15 m
transectacross -present storm beach wide, cave 4 m ab ove
raised beaches present high-tide level
of Arran

166 Coasts
 Figure 6.55

A discordant Aiiantic:coast- !ow-lying area

(inland) and bays
line- Swanage Bay, Oorset (coast) form on
less resistant
Sludlond
sands and clays
Bay

Old Harry Rocks

1 ridge (inland) and cliffs
(coast) develop on the
more resistant chalk
Swanage | vale (inland) and bay (coast)
Bay j form on less resistant clay

i ridge (inland) and

headland w ith cliffs
Durlston (coast) develop on
Head the m ore resistant
limestone

R o c k s tr u c t u r e in sea-level, or a breach ing o f the Coastal ridge,

hm (Pacific)
.Jw orth C o n co rd a n t co asts and d isco rd a n t co asts are
located where th e natural relief is determ ined b y
rock structure (geology). They form where the
geology consists of alternate bands o f resistant
and less resistant rock w hich form h ill ridges
and valleys (page 199). C o n cord an t coasts occur
where th e rock structure is parallel to th e coast,
as at Lulworth Cove, Dorset (Figure 6.5 4 ). Should
there be local te cto n ic m ovem ents, a eustatic rise
th e n sum m its o f th e ridge m ay be left as islands
and separated from th e m ain land by drow ned
valleys. These can be seen on atlas m aps show ing
Croatia/the form er Yugoslavia (D alm atian coast)
or San Francisco and Southern C hile (Pacific
coasts). D iscordant coasts occur w here th e coast
'cuts across' th e rock structure, as in Swanage Bay,
D orset (Figure 6 .5 5 ). Here th e ridges end as cliffs
at headlands, w hile th e valleys form bays.

F ra m e w o rk 7 Classification

W hydassify? As classifications are used for convenience and to

Geographers frequently utilise classifications, e.g.
types of climate, soil and vegetation, forms and
hierarchy of settlement, and types of landform.
This is done to try to create a sense of order by
grouping together into classes features that
have similar, if not identical, characteristics into
identifiable categories. For example, no two
stretches of coastline will be exactly the same,
yet by describing Kingsbridge estuary as a ria,
and Sognefjorden as a fiord (Places 22), it may be
assumed that their appearance and the processes
leading to their formation are similar to those
of other rias and fiords, even if there are local
differences in detail.
Howto classify
When determining the basis for any classification,
care must be taken to ensure that:
• only meaningful data and measures are used
• within each group or category, there is the
maximum number of similarities
• between each group, there is the maximum
number of differences
assist understanding, they should be easy to use.They
should not be oversimplified (too generalised), or too
complex (unwieldy); but they should be appropriate
to the purpose for which they are to be used.
No classification is likely to be perfect, and several
approaches may be possible.
An example
The following landforms have already been referred
to in this book:
arch; braided river; corrie; delta; esker; hanging
valley; knickpoint; moraine; raised beach;
rapids; spit; wave-cut platform.
Can you thinkof at least three different ways in
which they may be categorised?The following are
some possibilities:
a Perhaps the simplest classification is a two-fold
division based on whetherthey result from
erosion or from deposition.
b They could be reclassified into two different
categories: those formed under a previous
climate (i.e. relict features) and those still being
formed today.

• there are no exceptions, i.e. all the features c The most obvious may be a three-fold division
should fit into one group or another, and into Coastal, glacial and fluvial landforms.

• there is no duplication, i.e. each feature should d A more complex classification would result from
fit into one category only. combining either a and b, or a and c, to give six
groups.

Coasts 167
 N

F u tu r e s e a -le v e l ris e a n d its

0 100 km
e ffe c ts __
1 ___________ I

We have already seen (page 162) th at over long sea-level rising

periods o f geological tim e (tens of m illions o f years) (eustatic)
► 1.0 land rising
+0.5
sea-level has been controlled by the m ovem ent of
1.0 , (isostatic)
tecton ic plates and over shorter periods (the last 0 equilibrium

m illion years) by th e volum e of ice on the land (sea-

level falling during glacials, rising in interglacials). -0.5
Since the 'Little Ice Age' in the 17th century, when
+0.5
glaciers in alpine and arctic regions advanced, the
world has slowly been warming. This warming
helps to explain why global sea-levels are now some
2 0 cm higher than they were a century ago and
j^ l.O
why they are rising by 2 m m a year.
T he fact th a t sea-level is c o n tin u in g to rise,
sea-level rising
and at an acceleratin g rate, is due alm ost en tirely (eustatic)
to tw o factors: land sinking
-0.5
1 T h e rm a l e x p a n s io n Since 1 9 6 1 , th e average (isostatic)

tem peratu re o f th e global o cea n has increased - 1.0

to depths o f over 3 0 0 0 m and th e sea is now -0.5 rise/fall
absorbing m ore th a n 8 0 per ce n t o f th e heat peryear (m m )
added to th e clim a tic system th rou g h global
w arm ing. Such w arm ing causes seaw ater to Figure 6.56
expand, co n trib u tin g sig n ifican tly to sea-
Relative sea-level (R5L): the
level rise. combined net effect of sea and
2 M eltin g ice A less sig n ifican t, bu t increasing, land surface changes
co n trib u tio n is from m eltin g ice - m ain ly
alpine glaciers, in clu d in g th e 1 5 0 0 or so in as 3.7 mm/yr, increasing to 5 mm/yr by 2100
th e H im alayas - and, to a lesser e x te n t as yet, (Figure 6.57). O ther models have suggested a great-.
polar ice sheets and ice caps. 'Doom sday' scenario w ith sea-levels rising by
Global sea-level rose at a rate of 1.8 mm/yr betw een 8 mm/yr by th e end o f this century (one has ever,
1965 and 2 0 0 5 and by 3.1 mm/yr betw een 1993 suggested 16 mm/yr). W hichever prediction even-
and 2 0 0 5 . Som e com puter models are suggesting tually proves to be the m ost accurate, sea-level rise
that betw een 1990 and 2 0 9 0 it could be as high will have serious consequences:

Figure 6.57

Projections offuture 70

sea-level rise resulting

from global warming:
60
the extreme values
cover the 95 per cent Rosetta
probability range (after high
50
Clayton, 1992)

extreme
\$ estimate
• Tanta
30-
* -
best

20
P ' eSer1t

50 km Cairo
10-
1 mm/yr (0.1 m / l0 0 y r) Figure 6.58
low The effect of
— i- - - - - - - 1- - - - - - - 1-1------- 11- - - - - - - - 1- - - - - - - - 1- - - - - - - - 1- - - - - - - - 1- - - - - - - - 1» sea-level rise
-

2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 River Nile

day coastline
year

168 Coasts
 Storm surges, tsunam is, h ig her tides and L a rg e r w a v e s
larger waves will cause m ore dam age.
M id -A tlantic waves th a t eventu ally pound the
An increase in th e freq u en cy and severitv of
w estern coasts o f th e British Isles have increased
coasta! floo d in g would in u n d ate num erous
in h eig h t over th e last 3 0 years. O cean ographers
Coastal settlem en ts such as Tokyo, Shanghai,
have found th a t th e m ean h e ig h t o f these waves
Lagos, Lond on , Bangkok, Kolkata, H ong Kong
in w inter has risen from 4 m to 5 .3 m. Added to
and M iam i, causing th e d isp lacem en t o f large
th at, th e m ean h e ig h t o f th e largest and m ost
centres o f p op u lations as well as d estroying
destructive type o f wave has risen from 8 m to
indu stry and farm land (Figure 6 .5 8 ). At
11 m. This suggests th a t waves n ow have far
presen t over 65 m illio n people live in annu al
m ore energy th a n th e y did in 1 9 8 0 and w hile
flood-risk areas, 5 0 m illio n o f th o se in danger
th e y m ay be a p o ten tia l form o f renew able
of storm surges. A rise o f 1 m in th e n ext 100
energy, at presen t th e y u n d erm in e cliffs, strip
years w ould in u n d ate one-q u arter o f th e land
sand from b eaches and th rea ten Coastal defences
area o f B angladesh, affectin g nearly 70 per
(Figure 6.5 9 ).
c e n t o f its p op u lation .
F reak w av es o f 15 m and over in h eig h t were
Several low -lying o cean states such as the
in th e past considered to be a m arine m yth .
M aldives in th e In d ian O cean and Tuvalu and
O p in io n s b eg an to ch an g e w h en workers o n off-
th e M arshall Islands in th e P acific are likely to
shore oil-rigs reported th a t waves o f th a t h eigh t
be inun d ated .
occurred fairly frequently. Two orbitin g satellites
There will be an increase in Coastal erosion
lau n ch ed by th e European Space A gency in 2 0 0 0
and expensive Coastal d efences will need to
were given th e task o f record ing and p lo ttin g
be b u ilt and m ain tain ed .
these so-called freak waves. Radar sensors on the
Various Coastal ecosystem s will be th reaten ed ,
satellites soon show ed th a t freak waves were rela-
" : 'rssive in clu d in g sand dunes, saltm arshes, m angrove
tively co m m o n and, w ith in one period o f three
swam ps, coral reefs and coral islands, w h ich
■!;:e , Norway weeks, a team o f land-based observers noted the
m ay n o t be able to adapt quickly en ou g h if
'riative size existen ce o f m ore th a n ten waves o f over 25 m
_- - 3 th e rise is to o rapid.
spread across th e various oceans. Freak waves
- : 'eaking Som e sea-life species will m igrate to coo ler
m ay explain th e sudden disappearance o f ships,
waters.
som e as large as oil-tankers.
 ^ Coastal management in the UK

sand dunes, saltmarsh,

mudflats, cliffs 3 % — heathland 2°

A T h e n e e d fo r for, and conflict over, land use (Figure 6.61). w o o d lan d 7 %

C om bining the threats posed by:
m anagem ent
• n atural events such as flo o d in g and
A lthoug h Britain's coasts are rarely affected erosion, and pasture
by extrem e events such as th e indian Ocean • h u m a n d e m a n d s th a t in c lu d e 33%
arable
tsunam i (Places 4), storm surges as in th e Bay s e ttle m e n t, e c o n o m ic a ctivitie s and

o f Bengal (Places 19) or th e tropical storms
in Central America and Florida (Places 31,
page 238), large stretches are under threat from
one or m ore sources (Figure 6.60). M uch o f
Britain's coastline is used for hum an activity and
although in some m ore rem ote places there
is often a dem and from only one or tw o main
land users, in m any others there iscom petition
Figure 6.60
Threats to
Increased risk of flooding
Britain's
I
25%
recreaţional use
there is a continuing need for a naţional, sus-
buildings, roads,
tainable m anagem ent plan. Such a plan has to
leisure facilities
consider on th e one hand th e rapidly increasing 30%
costs o f providing new defences and main-
taining both new and existing defences, and on
2 3 % o fth e UK lies w ith in 10 km o fth e c
th e other hand th e need to p ro te c t p e o p le
17.2 million people live w ithin this coastal
and p ro p e rty. zone.
3 5 % o f UK m anufacturing and electrici"
production is close to the coast.
M ost o fth e coastline is used for
recreaţional p urposes,especially walk

coasts rising sea-level linked to global warming estuaries, south-east England Coasts attract larger nu m b er of speciai
groups (ornithologists, geologists, schr
higher high tides Thames estuary parties).
risk of increased number of storm surges Southern North Sea
Figure 6.61
Increased risk of erosion
Coastal land use
larger waves (generating more energy) western Britain
human activity (use of footpaths, building on diff-tops) Yorkshire, East Anglia
Overuse and/or misuse
Figure 6.62
settlements and economic development estuaries
Coastal cells around the coi
leisure and tourism (caravan and car parks, golf courses) close to large urban areas of England and Wales

W ho is responsible fo r Coastal St Abb's Head

m a n a g e m e n t?
The D e p a rtm e n t fo r E n viro n m e n t, Food major cell boundary
and Rural A ffairs (DEFRA) has overall
re s p o n s ib ility fo r Coastal defences in
E ngland, a lth o u g h th e E n v iro n m e n t
Flamborough Head
A g e n c y has p ow e rs to reduce flo o d in g
in tid a l w aters. In o rd e r to p ro te c t th e
coast, DEFRA has to p ro d u ce a shoreline
Solway Firth

GreatOrme ,•
\
managem ent plan (S M P ).T o d o this, it is

rt
necessary t o u n d e rsta n d C o a s ta l processes 10
in any g iven stre tch o f coastline. It w o u ld
be im p o s s ib le to achieve th is fo r th e w h o le Bardsey
British coastline, so it has been d iv id e d in to Sound
a n u m b e r o f separate units referred to as
9
'coastal cells'(F igure 6.62); th e re are eleven St David's ^ /
The Thames
fo r E ngland and W ales.The lo c a tio n and
size o f each o f these cells is d e fin e d so th a t
M .
coastal processes w ith in each in d iv id u a l
cell a r e to ta lly s e lf-c o n ta in e d , and changes

170 Coasts
Selsey Bill q 100 k

M place within that ceil do not signifi-
-' :iy affect the coastline of adjacent cells.
~*io basic principles in SMP production
9* «hat:
• "atural processes should not be
nterfered with unless it is necessary
□ protect life or property
■ = schemes must be economically
able and undergo a cost-benefit
;nalysis to ensure that they make good
.se of public money.
vh a t are th e options?
: 'eline management plan has, for each
:al cell, four defence options:
• ' c nothing, other than monitor and
ew.
• - 3 d the existing defence line by
~a itaining or changing the standard
protection.
• -;vance the existing defence line.
• -e:reat the existing defence line by
a igning the coast, i.e. managed
retreat
i re developed bygroups of people
■ dude planners, engineers, geomor-
0bg:sts and others with special local
edge.
Coastal m anagem ent in the UK
H o w has the coast been More recent hard defences include:
p ro te c te d in the past? • wooden slatted revetments,
constructed parallel to the coast, which
Tradiţional sea defences, now referred to as
dissipate the force of waves
hard defences (Figure 6.63), involved the
• concrete blocks, known as rip-rap,
construction of distinctive features:
which also absorb the power of waves
• Concrete sea walls were often
• offshore breakwaters and reefs which
built, in the 19th century, at holiday
reduce wave energy but still allow
resorts.They created more space for
some longshore drift (Figure 6.70).
promenades and leisure amenities and
Most of the earlier schemes, apart from
protected hotels from storm waves.
being unsustainable, were not environ-
• Groynes, usually of wood, were
mentally friendly, either visuaily or in rela­
constructed at right-angles to the
tion to local habitats (ecosystems), and
coastline.They helped to reduce
were expensive to build and to maintain.
the force of the waves and trapped
Wherever possible they are being replaced
material being moved along the
or supplemented by soft defences. Soft
coast by longshore drift (Figure 6.23).
defences include:
This helped to widen beaches and to
• the use of beach replenishm entatthe
reduce the removal of beach material.
base of cliffs and sea walls where lost
• Concrete breakwaters protected small
sand and shingle is replaced (although
harbours from strong wave action.
such replacement is expensive and
More recently it has been realised that:
needs to be maintained for long
• concrete sea walls absorb, rather than
periods)
reflect, wave energy and so now they
• cliff stabilisation, either by inserting
are often curved at the top (bullnose)
pipes to remove excess water or by
to divert waves
planting vegetation to reduce mass
• groynes, bytrapping sand,cause the
movement.
loss of replacement material further
along the coast, increasing the problem
elsewhere.
Q jJ E S E ffiB C oastal m a n a g e m e n t in th e UK
B C o a s ta l m a n a g e m e n t
s c h e m e s in E a s t A n g lia
Erosion has aiways been a major problem
along much ofthe coast of Norfolk (Figure
6.64) while further south flooding isthe
major hazard in Suffolk and Essex (Places
19). Present-day shoreline management
plâns (SMPs, page 170) must aim to strike
the seemingly impossible balance between
protecting the coastline at a viable cost and
minimising the disruption of natural proc­
esses and nearby defence schemes. In north
Norfolk, hard engineering solutions are now
less in favour than softer options. In Suffolk
and Essex controversy has arisen over SMP
proposals to re-align parts ofthe coastline in
a'managed retreat'.This case study considers
several specific places and their problems.
A ld eb u rg h a n d East Lane Point,
S uffolk
Aldeburgh, in Suffolk, at the northern end
of Orford Ness (Figures 6.28 and 6.65), was
protected by a sea wall and timber groynes
to reduce the loss of beach material. Six
streets to the east o fthe town have been
lost to the sea since the 16th century, and
the only visible remains ofthe former
village of Slaughden, 1 km to the south, are
a Martello tower and what is now a marina.
Following the parţial failure ofthe sea wall
in 1988, Anglian Water and the National Rivers
Authority (now the Environment Agency)
devised a £4.9 million plan to provide sea
defences that would also protect the tidal
River
Alde
S u d b o u rn e \
Butley RiverQtford
Orford Ness
Boyton
tip o f spit
Alderton
S hingle Street (w orn aw ay in 20 years)
Baw dsey (could b eco m e an island)
River
East Lane Point - area o f erosion causing most
Oiwell
Felixstowe
172 Coasts
freshwater areas ofthe River Alde immediately
to the west ofthe town.The existing sea wall
was extended at its base in the section con-
sidered most threatened. Several 10-tonne
rock blocks were placed in front ofthe sea
wall to absorb the wave energy; 200 m of
wall originally protecting the northern end
of Orford Ness was demolished, and a rock
armour bank put in its place. A total of 24 new
groynes were built, stretchinBouth beyond
the Martello tower (Figure 6.66), and 75 000 m3
of shingle were deposited as beach replenish-
ment. More rocks were brought in to make a
400 m bank between the existing sea wall to
the south and the shingle bank.The scheme
wascompleted in 1992. Ittookintoaccount
the risk that storm damage could cause to an
important natural area.
In 2004 there were increasing fears that
Aldeburgh could become an island and that
the Suffolk coastline as far south as Felixstowe
could change if the sea broke through obso-
lete defences during the next winter's storms.
At greatest immediate risk is East Lane
Point, near Bawdsey, south of Aldeburgh
(Figure 6.67). Much ofthe land behind the
Point is considered by the government
to be a 'non-viable flood defence area'as
it does not reach the requisite number of
points required forfunding underthe new
DEFRA scoring system mainly because the
area is sparsely populated. A spokesperson
for DEFRA stated that'there will never be
sufficient money available for every Coastal
defence need and so priority must go to pro­
tecting people and their property!
A ldeburgh
present coastline
(could be an
present rivers
island)
p redicted new
coastline -
flood zone to 4 m
land
area likely to flood
settlem ent
• M artello towers
Figure 6.67
How Suffolk may flood if
defences at East Lane Point
5 km are breached
 Coastal m anagem ent in the UK

ea P ali irig, N o rfo lk offshore reefs designed ;o reduce in co m in g

a h o u s e s ,fa rm la n d , SSSIs a n d n a tu re reserve s
i 'th e N orfolk coastline from Crom er wave energy and to p ro te ct th e beach w h ile ju s t a b o v e se a -le ve l

■" .varcls to G reatY arm outh is protected at th e same tim e a llo w in g som e longshore b 1.6 m h ig h sea w a ll b u ilt in 1 95 4
c r ip -ra p a d d e d in 1992
ensive coastal defences. A t Sea Palling d rift so as n o t to deplete th e supply o f sand
d beach m a te ria l re p le n is h e d as n e e d e d
-ach is backed by sand dunes w hich, to beaches fu rth e r along tn e coast (Figure sin ce 1 992
« ie rtim e s , helped provide a natura 6.69).These reefs w ere c o m p le te d in 1995
•' :e. Behind these are 6000 ha o f land b u t alm ost im m e d ia te ly presented a problem
settlem ent, farm in g and (this area th a t had n o t been predicted: sand began
oart o fth e N orfolk Broads) tourism to accum ulate in th e sheltered lee o fth e
dl fe. In 1953 a storm surge (Places 19) reefs, leading to th e fo rm a tio n o fto m b o lo s
:~ rough th e coastal defences, flo o d in g (page 155 and Figure 6.70) w h ich in tu rn
'eas and, at Sea Palling itself, w ashing in te rru p te d th e process o f longshore drift.To
“ ^ s e s a n d d ro w n in g seven people. try to overcom e this problem , th e next five
Figure 6.68
ing th e flood, a sea wall was con- reefs to be b u ilt w ere shorter (to reduce areas
1 fro n t o fth e dunes (Figure 6.68) o f sheiter b ehind them ), low er (to a llo w m ore Sea defences
o v e rto p p in g waves) and closer to g e th e r (to 1954-92
e e was som e replenishm ent o f beach
However, by th e 1990s th e beach in prevent erosion in th e gaps). A tu rth e r five are
Figure 6.69
~:nesea w all had narrow ed due to the planned 3 km to th e south.
Artificial reefs at
= o f material southw ards by longshore
Sea Palling
- ' ng tim es o f n o rth e rly and easterly
'ccess th a t led to a n increase in
ergy. Follow ing th e severe w in te r
’ 991, rip-rap w a s positioned against
: .all as a te m p o ra ry measure.
r?2 a beach m a n a g e m e n t strategy
■/ duced w ith th e c o n d itio n s th a t it
i ' o t significantly affect adjacent coasta
r \<ould have m inim al environm ental
■; and it w o u ld be cost-effective. Over
onnes o f rock w ere placed in fro n t o f
• prevent fu rth e r u n d e rm in in g and
: ’ m 3 o f replen ish m e n t sand w ere
fro n t o fth e rock.The m ajor part
eme was th e con stru ctio n o f fo u r

existing groynes to be m aintained

\ r
Phase 1 Phase2
1993-95 1996-97
Eccles on Sea direction of
longshore drift 250 m offshore 2 5 0 m offshore [

sea wall in - each 240 m long each 160m long \

front of each 2.8 m above each 1.2 m ab o ve \
sand dunes mean sea-level mean sea-level I
each gap 240 m each gap 160m
V Jt

\
Costs 1
•>".ase 1 £5.9 m 1
: 'a s e 2 £10.0m |
after 1998, beach
: ■ase 3 £45.0 m j
to be replenished
w h en necessary

to Hickling Broad to Great Yarm outh

(nature reserve) A- 1 km
and Horsey M ere

Coasts 173
u r i n a i C o a s ta l m a n a g e m e n t in th e UK

Proposed 'm a n a g e d re tre a t' Should the scheme go ahead, it would the 1953 flood. Churches and other build­

in N o rfo lk mean allowing the sea, over a period ings listed by English Heritage would also
of time, to breach 25 km ofth e north be lost.
Controversial plâns by Natural England
Norfolk coast between Eccles on Sea and Proposers suggest that the plan is more
to flood parts of Norfolk emerged inearly
Winterton-on-Sea. In time the sea would economically sustainable than present
2008.The proposal, if accepted, would see
create an area of saltwater lake and salt­ policies and that a newly created saltmarsh
Britam for the first time admitting defeat
marsh covering 65 km2 (Figure 6.71). Over could be used by farmers for cattle grazing,
in the battle to maintain all of its Coastal
the next 50 years or so this lake would it could act as a bufferzone helping to dissi-
defences. Experts doubt if the present
eliminate six viilages:fouron the coast pate wave energy, it would provide storage
defences can cope with the rising sea-level
(Eccles on Sea, Sea Palling, Waxham and for excess water during times of storm
resulting from global warming and the
Horsey) and tw o inland (Hickling and Potter surges, and provide a welcom e haven for
sinking of south-east England, and the plan
Heigham).The lake would also inundate wildlifewhen little of Britain's original salt­
to'realign the coast'in a 'managed retreat'
about 600 houses, many hectares ofgood- marsh ecosystem remains (page 175).They
is the less expensive and more practicai
guality arable farmland and five fresh- also claim that experiments have shown
option.This would involve building a new
water lakes that currently form part ofthe that a sea wall can costs £5000 a metre
sea wall further back from the present
Norfolk Broads, including the tourist area to build and maintain, whereas an inland
coastline, at a cost ofa fraction of that of
of Hickling Broad (Figure 6.72) and the rare retreat of 80 m, allowing a saltmarsh to
trying to maintain the existing defences.
fauna and flora of Horsey Mere. form a buffer against tides and waves, only
The Environment Agency, in response,
Opponents to the plan claim that it costs £400 a metre to build and maintain.
stated that it is committed to'holding the
would mean in the short term making Natural England claim thatthe'surrender’
present line'of sea defences for the next 50
their properties unsaleable and, in the long option is only one of several possibilities,
years, although it admitted that that option
term, relocating hundreds of people and but it considers the issue to be so impor­
was becoming increasingly difficult and
paying them compensation. A millennium tant that it is time to open discussions and
more expensive, while DEFRA said it was
of history would vanish under the waves to encourage debate. No final decision has
committed to the sustainable protection
and with it villages like Hickling, which is been made about the plan.
of people and property here in Norfolk and
mentioned in the Domesday Book, and Sea
elsewhere.
Palling, which the sea failed to destroy in

Happisburgh
approxim ate area
that m ight be flooded
W Eccles on Sea

Sea Palling

^ W axham

Horsey

Proposed area of flooding

on the north Norfolk coast

174 Coasts

Sand dunes a n d saltm arsh
- :e tracts ofth e coast of East Anglia
■ iist either of sand dunes (pages 157 and
or saltmarsh (pages 158 and 291). Both
t '"agile ecosystems that are under threat
•eceive less attention and manage-
t': than they deserve and need.
- : we have seen, sand dunes fringe
. 'h ofthe Norfolk coast, either backing
: / beaches (Figure 11.10) or stabilising
" such as that at Blakeney Point. Sand
. es are under threat from:
: ne rising sea-level which attacks the
embryo and foredunes (Figure 6.32),
arrowing beaches and thus depriving
■■'em of their source material
excavation for sand by construction
mpanies
Figure 6.73
Restoration of sand
dunes
F u r th e r r e f e r e n c e
man, R. (2005) 'Changing attitudes
jastal protection' in Geography
eiv Voi 18 No 4 (March).
-- J. (2000) 'Plant distribution in the
.oran Desert’ in Geography Review Voi
- No 2 (November).
N. (2005) 'Coastal m anagem ent: Sea
..ing, Norfolk’ in Geography Review
18 No 3 (January).
\. (2008) 'M anagem ent of the East
şlian coast' in Geography Review Voi
No 3 (February).
liie, A.S. (2001) T h eN a tu reo fth e
ironment, WileyBlackwell.
Coastal m anagem ent in the UK
• people either walking along paths within
them, especially where they form part of a
Coastal footpath, or playing (or sheltering
from the wind) in blow-outs.
Where human influence is limited the
ecosystem can repair itself, but where it is
severe the damage may be irreversible. One
solution istofence off selected areas to
allow time for recovery (Figure 6.73).
Saltmarsh develops behind Coastal spits as
at Blakeney Point (Figure 11.14) but is most
extensive in the river estuaries of Suffolkand
Essex (Figure 11.13). Saltmarsh has been
underthreat since Saxon times when parts
were drained around the present-day Norfolk
Broads. Essex was said to have 30 000 ha of
saltmarsh in 1600, yet 400 years later only
2500 ha remain.This remaining saltmarsh
A ne w bank is built well back using soil dug
supports around two million wildfowl and
out to create lagoons.
wading birds in winter and is a habitat for rare
A hole is m ade in the old w a ll,allo w in g the
species of plants, birds and insects. Currently sea in.
another 100 ha/yr of saltmarsh is being lost
across Engiand alone due to the rising sea-
level and human activity. However, there
are several plâns in Essex to recreate more
saltmarsh to provide alternative habitats for
wildlife, to act as a buffer zone against the
larger waves, and as storage for surplus water
during storm surges or as the mean high-tide
level rises.The most ambitious and expensive
project (£12 million) is being undertaken by
Saltm arsh grows in b etw e en the banks,
the RSPB, which intends to break the sea walls soaking up w ave energ y and creating a
(Figure 6.74) around Wallasea Island, near habitat for wildlife.
Southend, changing 730 ha of farmland back
into a mosaic of saltmarsh, creeks and mud- Figure 6.74
flats - although these will only be covered by Breachingofanoldsea
50cm of water at high tide. w allto create a saltmarsh
Holmes, D . (2003) 'Investigating Coastal Coastal erosion:
sand dunes' in Geography Review Voi 16 www.walrus.wr.usgs.gov/hazards/
No 3 Qanuary). erosion.htm l
Horton, B. (2005) 'Clim ate and sea-level Coastal m an agem en t case studies:
change' in Geography Review Voi 18 No www.westdorset-dc.gov.uk/westbay
4 (March). Holderness coastline:
Marshak, S. (2007) E a r th -P o r tr a ito fa www.hull.ac.uk/coastalobs/general/
Planet, W.W. N orton & Co. erosionandflooding/erosion.html
Pethick, J. (1984) An Introduction to Land Ocean In teraction Study:
C oastal Geomorphology, Hodder Arnold. www.nerc.ac.uk/research/programmes/
Skinner, B.J. and Porter, S.C. (2003) The lois/
D ynam ic Earth, Wiley. Sea-level changes (A ntrim coast):
www.ehsni.gov.uk/natural/earth/
geology.shtml
Coasts 175
 Questions & Activities

A c tiv itie s

a Study the photograph in Figure 6.75 and answer the d Marine erosion is concentrated at the base ofa cliff.
following questions.
Suggest two ways in which the rest ofthe cliff is eroded.
i Describe the material found between the two stacks. (5 marks)
(3 marks)
ii Describe the beach material found in the foreground of a Making good use of diagrams, describe two landforms that
the photograph. (3 marks) may be found on a beach. (6 marks)

iii Describe the main stack. (4 marks) b Why are large stones and boulders found at the back ofa
b How is a feature like this stackformed? (6marks) beach? (4 marks)
c Some cliff coastlines, such as Old Harry Rock near Swanage c Making good use of diagrams, explain how sand and
(Figure 6.21, page 152), have no beach while others, such as other material is moved along a beach by the action of
Marsden Rock (Figure 6.75), have. waves. (5 marks)
Suggest a reason for this difference. (4 marks) d Why are shingle beaches steeper, on average, than sandy
beaches? (5 marks)

Figure 6.75 e How and why may human activity change this marine
transport process? (5 marks)
Marsden
Rock a Making good use of annotated diagrams, explain the
process of longshore drift. (5 marks)
b i Study Figure 6.23 (page 153). Suggest, with reasons,
the direction of longshore drift on this coastline.
(3 marks)
ii Why were the sea defences put along this shoreline?
(6 marks
iii What effect would you expect there to be further
down the coast as a result ofthe building of these sea
defences? Explain your answer. (6 marks
c Choose one landform created by marine deposition.
Describe the size and shape ofthe landform and suggest
how marine deposition has helped to create it. (5marks)

E x a m p r a c tic e : b a s ic s t r u c t u r e d q u e s tio n s

4 a What ismeantby each ofthe following terms used in relation ii one other mechanism could cause sea-level change.
to the effects of waves on a coastline: (7 marks,
i abrasion (sometimes called corrasion) c Choose one landform that has been created by or
ii attrition significantly changed byafall in sea-level.

iii hydraulic action? (6marks) Describe the landform and explain the role of sea-level
change in its formation. (7marksj
b Explain how the processes identified in a cause a cliff to
change its shape. (6 marks) d Choose one landform that has been created or changed
significantly by a rise in sea-level. Describe the landform and
c Study Figure 6.17 (page 150).
explain the role of sea-level change in its formation. (7marks,
i Describe and suggest reasons for the shape ofthe cliff
shown in the photograph. (âmarks) 6 a Study Figure 6.25 on page 154.
ii Although there are houses on top of this cliff it has been Why has saltmarsh formed at H? (6marks,
decided notto attemptto protect this coastline. b Explain the meaning of:
Suggest tw o reasons for this decision. (7 marks)
i dominantwind
5 a Explaintheterms'eustatic'and'isostatic'usedwhenstudying ii embryodune. (4 marks,
sea-level change. (4marks) c Explain how sand dunes go through a series of stages
b Explain how: from the appearance of berms to the formation of grey
(or mature) dunes. (15 marksj
i an ice age

176 Coasts
E xam p ra c tic e : s tru c tu re d q u e s tio n s
• • • • • • • i
a On a coastline with cliffs, deposition can cause the shape b Describe one way in which the people prepare to face
ofthe coastline to change. Suggest where there will be marine hazards and evaluate their success when the
deposition on such a coastline and the reasons for danger occurs (11 marks)
deposition there. (10 marks)
b i Study Figure 6.75. Draw an annotateddiagramto 12 a Using an example from your studies, explain why a
identify the main features ofthe landform in the particular Coastal management scheme was felt to be
photograph. (Smarks) necessary.
(6 marks)
ii With reference to evidence from the photograph,
b Describe the planning and decision-making process
explain how marine processes may have created
this landform (lOmarks) involved in the creation ofthe management plan for
the area. (6 marks)
a With reference to one or more examples of cliff coastlines, c Outlinethe plan and suggest w hythe changes outlined
explain how marine and sub-aerial processes have should overcome the identified problem/s. (6 marks)
combined to shape the cliffs. (12 marks)
d Evaluate the success ofthe project. (7 marks)
b i Identify and describe tw o ways in which people
can manage the erosion ofa cliff foot. (6 marks)
13 Study the sand dune area in Figure 6.76.
ii Evaluate the success of one of these management
a i Identify and locate one feature of the photograph
strategies. (7 marks)
which indicates that this area is popular with people.
a Choose two ofthe following micro-morphological features of Explain how it shows the presence of people. (4 marks)
a beach: berm; beach cusps; ridge and runnels; longshore bar. ii Explain one piece of evidence from the photograph
For each feature that you have chosen: which shows that this popularity is causing damage
i Making use of annotated diagrams, describe its shape to the environment. (4 marks)
and location on a beach. (6 marks) b i Suggest one possible effect of the environmental
damage caused in this area. (7 marks)
ii Explain how itisformed. (lOmarks)
b What effect do storm waves have on a beach profilel(9marks) ii Explain how conservation work could overcome the
damage done to this sand dune belt. (lOmarks)
c Describe one method you could use to survey the profile
ofa beach. (5marks)

a Using an annotated diagram only, explain the process by Figure 6.76

which beach material is moved along the coastline. (5marks)
b Choose one landform that is created when beach
material is deposited. Name and describe the landform.
Explain the processes by which the landform is created.
(lOmarks)
c Why do people try to reduce the movement of beach
material on some coastlines? Suggest and explain two
methods for reducing such movement. (lOmarks)

a Using your own case studies, choose two examples of hazards

that occur on marine coasts. For each hazard:
i Identify the hazard and its location. (2 marks)
ii Explain how the action ofthe sea leads to danger on
the coast. (12 marks)

: cam p ra c tic e : essays

- fthe interface between the sea and the land is an area of conflict in 17
nature and for people.'Using examples, explain this statement.
(25 marks)
; Discuss possible causes of future changes in sea-level and explain
now these changes might produce both short-term and long-term 18
effects on the physical and human environment. (25marks)
Choose one system of Coastal classification. Describe and explain
:he principles on which it is based and, making use of examples,
describe some ofthe problems of applying your classification
system to cover all coasta! areas. (25 marks)
Discuss the arguments for and against the managed retreat of
parts ofthe coastline in the UK. Evaluate the strength of these
arguments as they apply to one or more areas that you have
studied. (25 marks)
'Coastal sand dunesform some ofthe most important defences
against the sea, so every effort should be made to conserve and
strengthen our dune systems'
Evaluate this statement. (25 marks)

Coasts 177
 Deserts
'Now the wind grew strong and Imrd and it worked at the
rain crust in the cornftelds. Little by little the sky was dark-
ened by the mixing dust, and the wind felt over the earth,
loosened the dust and carried itawdy.'
J. S teinbeck The Grapes ofWrath, 1939
W h a t is a desert?
'T he deserts o f the world, w h ich occur in every
c o n tin e n t inclu ding Antarctica, are areas where
there is a great deficit of m oisture, pred om inantly
because rainfall levels are low. In som e deserts this
situation is in part the result o f h ig h tem peratures,
w h ich m ean th a t evaporation rates are high. It is
th e shortage of m oisture w h ich determ ines m any
of th e characteristics o f the soils, the vegetation,
th e landform s, th e anim als, and the activities of
h u m ans' (G oudie and W atson, 1990).
A desert en viron m en t has conv entionally
b een described in term s o f its deficiencies - water,
soils, vegetation and population. Deserts include
those parts of th e world th a t produce th e sm allest
am ount of organic m atter and have the lowest net
prim ary production (NPP, page 306). In reality,
m any desert areas have potentially fertile soils, evi-
denced by successful irrigation schem es; all have
som e plant and anim al life, even if special adapta-
tions are necessary for their survival; and som e are
populated by hum ans, occasionally only season-
ally by nom ads but elsewhere perm anently, e.g. in
large cities like Cairo and Karachi.
Figure 7.1
The index of aridity
P is nil extrem e aridity,
th ro u gh o ut 12 consecutive
the year m onths w ith no P
/
/
arid semi-arid
1
1
1
index -100 -40
15 14
178 Deserts
The trad itional d efinition of a desert is an area
receiving less th an 2 5 0 m m of rain per year. W hile
very few areas receive no rain at all (Places 24,
page 180), am ounts o f p recip itatio n are usually
small and occu rrences are b o th in frequ en t and
unreliable. C lim atologists have som etim es tried
to differentiate betw een cold deserts w here for at
least on e m o n th a year th e m ean tem perature is
below 6°C, and h o t deserts. Several geom orph-
ologists have used this to d istinguish the land ­
form s found in th e h o t sub-tropical desert? - our
usual m en tal im age o f a desert - from those
found in colder latitudes, e.g. th e Gobi Desert
and th e tundra.
M odern attem p ts to d efine deserts are m ore
scien tific and are sp ecifically linked to th e water
b alan ce (page 60). This approach is based o n the
relatio n sh ip betw een th e in p u t o f w ater as pre­
cip ita tio n (P), th e o u tp u t o f m oistu re resulting
from evap o tran sp iration (£), and changes in
water h eld in storage in th e ground. In parts
o f th e world w here th ere is little p recip itatio n
an n u ally or w here th ere is a seasonal drought,
th e a c tu a l e v a p o tra n s p ira tio n (AE) is com pared
w ith p o te n tia l e v a p o tra n s p ira tio n (PE) - th e
am o u n t o f water loss th a t w ould occu r if suf­
ficie n t m oistu re was always available to th e veg­
etatio n cover. C.W. T h o rn th w a ite in 1931 was
th e first to d efine an a rid ity in d e x using this
relatio n sh ip (Figure 7.1).
P= E
P greatly exceeds
thro u gh o ut £ thro u gh o ut
the year the year
sub-humid hum id
-20 +10 0
percentage of total world land area
 L o c a tio n a n d c a u s e s o f d e s e r ts
O n th e basis o f clim a tic ch aracteristics, in clu d in g
T h o rn th w aite's aridity index, o n e-th ird o f the
world's land surface can be classified as desert,
i.e. arid and sem i-arid. Alarm ingly, th is figure,
and th erefore th e e x te n t o f deserts, m ay be
increasing (Case Study 7).
As show n in Figure 7.2, th e m ajority of deserts
lie in the centre or on th e west coast of co n ti­
the world
nents betw een 15° and 30° n orth and south of the
Equator. This is th e zone o f sub-tropical high pres­
sure where air is subsiding (the descending lim b of
M m e aridity
th e Hadley cell, Figure 9.3 4 ). O n page 2 2 6 there is
an exp lanation o f how warm, tropical air is forced
to rise at th e Equator, producing conv ectional rain,
-arid
and how later th a t air, once cooled and stripped of
— : essure its m oisture, descends at approxim ately 30° north
m- rszcw and south of the Equator. As this air descends it
:~ :in en t is com pressed, warmed and produces an area of
■g of
perm an ent high pressure. As the air warms, it can
A c *~ :e r
hold an increasing am ount o f water vapour w hich
• = e.g.
causes the lower atm osphere to becom e very dry.
Great
HRM The low relative hum idity, com bined w ith the fact
M th a t there is little surface water for evaporation,
# H gives clear skies.
- M
A secon d cause o f deserts is th e rainsh ad ow
“ an M
e ffect produ ced b y h ig h m o u n ta in ranges. As
- :H
;H th e p rev ailin g w inds in th e su b -tro p ics are th e
HM trade w inds, b lo w in g from th e n o rth -e a st in th e
HU n o rth e rn h em isp h ere and th e so u th -e a st in th e
H U in Sou thern h em isp h ere, th e n an y barrier, such
W n centre)
as th e Andes, prevents m o istu re fro m rea ch in g
■a R
eH th e w estern slopes. W h ere p late m o v em en ts
’ HR U have pushed up m o u n ta in ranges in th e east o f
_ — îH
HR
i r coasts)
•A- - : : ns R
a c o n tin e n t, th e ra in s h a d o w e ffe c t creates a
m u ch larger e x te n t o f desert (e.g. 8 2 per ce n t of
th e land area o f A ustralia) th a n w h en th e m o u n ­
ta in s are to th e west, as in S o u th A m erica.
Aridity is increased as th e trade winds blow
towards th e Equator, b eco m in g w arm er and th ere­
fore drier. W here th e trade winds blow from the
sea, any m oisture w h ich th ey m ig h t have held
will be precipitated o n eastern coasts leaving little
m oisture for m id -con tin en tal areas. The three
m ajor deserts in th e n orth ern hem isp here w hich
lie beyond th e sub-tropical high pressure zone
(the G obi and Turkestan in Asia and th e Great
Basins o f th e USA) are m id -con tin en tal regions far
rem oved from any rain-bearing winds, and sur-
rounded by protective m oun tains.
A third co m b in a tio n o f circum stances giving
rise to deserts is also show n in Figure 7.2. Several
deserts lie along western coasts w here th e ocean
water is cold. In each case, th e prevailing winds
blow parallel to th e coastlin e and, due to the
Earth's ro tatio n , th ey tend to push surface water
seaward at right-angles to th e w ind direction.
The Coriolis force (page 2 2 4 ) p u sh e s air and
water com in g from th e s o u th towards th e left
in th e S o u th e rn hem isphere and water from the
n o rth to th e right in th e n orth ern hem isphere.
C onsequently, very cold water is drawn upwards
to th e ocean surface, a process called upw elling,
to replace th a t driven ou t to sea. Any air w hich
t h e n crosses this cold water is cooled and its
capacity to hold m oisture is d im inished . W here
these cooled winds from th e sea blow o n to a
w arm land surface, advection fogs form (page 2 2 2
and Places 24).

/
16
/ / 'o *S
15

14 30° N
2
10— $ *-V hl
4 3
6 V- j
K / Sir
7 Equator

13 1
30° S

12

11

Deserts 179
 T h e A ta c a m a D esert: clim ate
The prevailing winds in the Atacama, which
lies in the sub-tropical high pressure belt,
blow northwards along the South American
coast.These winds, and the northward-
flowing Humboldt (Peruvian) current over
which they blow, are pushed westwards (to
the left) and out to sea by the Coriolis force
as they approach the Equator.This allows the
upwelling of cold waterfrom the deep Peru-
Chile sea trench (Figure 1.12) that provides
the rich nutrients to nourish the plankton
which form the basis of Peru's fishing industry.
The upwelling also cools the air above which
then drifts inland and over the warmer desert.
The meeting of warm and cold air produces
advection fogs (page 222) which provide
sufficient moisture for a limited vegetation
cover. Inland, parts ofthe Atacama are alleged
to be the only truly rainless desert in the world,
but even here the occasional rainfall event
does occur.

Figure 7.3

TheAtacama Desert
D e s e r t la n d s c a p e s : w h a t d o e s a
d e s e r t lo o k lik e ?
Deserts provide a classic exam ple of how easy it
is to portray or to accept an inaccurate m ental
picture o f different places (or people) in the
world. W h a t is your im age of a desert? Is it a land ­
Figure 7.4 scape o f sand dunes sim ilar to th ose show n in
Figures 7 .1 5 -7 .1 8 , perhaps w ith a cam ei or palm
A rocky (hammada)
desert, Wadi Rum, tree som ew here in th e background? Large areas
Jordan
o f dunes, know n as erg, do exist - but th ey cover
on ly about one-quarter o f the world's deserts.
M ost deserts consist eith er o f bare rock, know n as
h a m m a d a (Figure 7.4), or stone-covered plains,
called reg (Figure 7.5). Deserts co n tain a great
diversity o f landscapes. This diversity is due to
geological factors (tectonics and rock type) as well
as to clim ate (tem perature, rainfall and wind) and
resultant w eathering processes.
Figure 7.5
A stony (reg) desert, Sah

£- - -_L

%M ' *
- _ -

180 Deserts
A r id p ro c e s s e s a n d la n d f o r m s
In th eir attem pts to understand th e d evelopm ent
of arid landform s, geographers have com e up
against three m ain difficulties:
How should th e natu re o f th e w eathering
processes be assessed? D esert w eathering was
in itia lly assum ed to be largely m ech a n ica l
and to result from extrem e d iurnal ranges in
tem perature. M ore recently, th e realisation
th a t water is presen t in all deserts in som e
form or oth er has led to th e view th a t ch em -
ical w eath erin g is far m ore sig n ifica n t th a n
had previously b een th o u g h t. Latest o p in ion s
seem to suggest th a t th e m a jo r processes, e.£
ex fo lia tio n and salt w eathering, m ay involve
a c o m b in a tio n o f b o th m ech a n ica l and ch em -
ical w eathering.
W h a t is th e relative im p ortan ce o f w ind and
water as agents o f erosion, tran sp ortation and
d ep osition in deserts?
How im p o rta n t have b ee n th e effects o f cli­
m atic ch an g e o n desert lan dform s? D uring
som e phases o f th e Q uaternary, and previ­
ously w h en co n tin e n ta l plates were in dif­
feren t latitudes, th e clim ate o f presen t arid
areas was m u ch w etter th a n it is today. How
m an y o f th e landform s th a t we see now are,
therefore, relict and how m an y are still in
th e process o f being form ed?
Traditionally, w eathering in deserts was attrib-
uted to m ech a n ica l processes resultin g from
extrem es o f tem perature. Deserts, especially
th o se away from th e coast, are usually cloud-
less and are characterised by daily extrem es of
tem peratu re. T he lack o f cloud cover can allow
day tem peratu res to exceed 40°C for m u ch o f the
year; w h ile at n ig h t, rapid rad iatio n o ften causes
tem peratures to fall to zero. A lthough in som e
colder, m ore m o u n tain ou s deserts, frost shat-
tering is a co m m o n process, it was believed th at
th e m a jo r process in m ost deserts was in so la tio n
w e a th e rin g . In so la tio n w eatherin g occurs w hen,
during th e day, th e direct rays o f th e sun h eat
up th e surface layers o f th e rock. T hese surface
layers, lack ing any protectiv e v eg etation cover,
m ay reach 80°C . The d ifferent types and colours
o f m inerals in m o st rocks, esp ecially igneous
rocks, h eat up and co o l dow n at d ifferent rates,
cau sing in tern a i stresses and fracturing. This
process was th o u g h t to cause th e surface layers
o f exposed rock to peel o ff - e x fo lia tio n - or
individual grains to break away - g ra n u la r
d isin te g ra tio n (page 41). W here surface layers
do peel away, new ly exposed surfaces experi-
ence pressure release (page 4 1 ). This is believed
to be a co n trib u to ry process in th e fo rm atio n
o f round ed e x fo lia tio n dom es such as Uluru
(Figure 7.6) and Sugarloaf M o u n ta in (Figure 2.3).
D oubts ab ou t in so la tio n w eathering began
w h en it was noted th a t th e 4 500-y ear-o ld
a n cien t m o n u m en ts in Egypt show ed little evi­
dence o f ex fo lia tio n , and th a t m o n u m en ts in
Upper Egypt, w here th e clim ate is extrem ely
arid, show ed m arked ly fewer signs o f decay th a n
th o se located in Lower Egypt, w here there is a
lim ited rainfall. D.T. Griggs (1 9 3 6 ) cond u cted
a series o f laboratory exp erim ents in w h ich he
su b jected graniţe blocks to extrem es o f tem p era­
ture in excess o f 100°C . After th e equ iv alen t of
alm ost 2 5 0 years o f diurnal tem peratu re change,
he found n o d iscernible d ifference in th e rock.
Later, he su b jected th e graniţe to th e same
tem peratu re extrem es w hile at th e sam e tim e
spraying it w ith water. W ith in th e equ iv alent
o f tw o and a h a lf years o f d iurnal tem perature
change, he found th e rock b eg in n in g to crack.
His con clu sion s, and th o se o f later geom or-
phologists, suggest th a t som e o f th e w eathering
previously attrib u ted to in so la tio n can now be
ascribed to ch em ica l changes caused b y m o is­
ture. A lthough rainfall in deserts m ay be lim ited,
th e rapid loss o f tem peratu re at n ig h t freq u ently
produces dew (1 7 5 n ig h ts a year in Israel's
Negev) and th e m in g lin g o f warm and cold air
on coasts (e.g. of th e Atacam a) causes advec-
tio n fog (page 2 2 2 ). There is su fficien t m oisture,
therefore, to co m b in e w ith certain m inerals to
cause th e rock to swell (hy d ration ) and th e outer
layers to peel off (ex fo lia tio n ). At present, it
would appear th a t th e case for in so la tio n w eath ­
ering is n e ith er proven n or d isproven and th at
it m ay be a co n seq u en ce o f eith er m ech an ical
w eathering, or ch em ical w eathering, or b oth .
Deserts 181
 The second m echan ical process in desert
environm ents, salt w eath erin g , is m ore readily
accepted although th e action o f salt can cause
chem ical, as well as physical, changes in the rock
(page 40). Salts in rainwater, or salts brought to
th e surface by capillary action, form crystals as
the m oisture is readily evaporated in the high
tem peratures and low relative hum idities. Further
evaporation causes the salt crystals to expand and
m echanically to break off pieces o f the rock upon
w hich they have form ed (page 40). Subsequent
rainfall, dew or fog m ay be absorbed by salt m in-
erals causing them to swell (hydration) or chem i-
cally to change their crystal structure (page 42).
W here salts accum ulate near or o n th e surface,
Figure 7.7
Carvings in desert
varnish,Wadi Rum,
Jordan
T h e im p o r ta n c e o f w in d a n d w a te r
G eom o rp h o log ists w orking in Africa at th e
end o f th e last centu ry believed th e w ind to be
responsible for m ost desert landform s. Later
fieldw ork, carried ou t m ain ly in th e hig h er and
w etter sem i-arid regions o f N orth Am erica, recog-
nised and em phasised th e im p ortan ce o f ru n n in g
w ater and, in d oing so, de-em phasised th e role of
w ind. Today, it is m ore w idely accepted th a t b o th
w ind and water play a sig n ifican t, bu t locally
varying, part in th e d ev elop m en t o f th e d ifferen t
types o f desert landscape.
A e o lia n (w in d ) processes
T ra n s p o rt
The m o vem ent of particles is determ ined by
several factors. Aeolian m o vem ent is greatest
w here winds are strong (usually over 2 0 km/hr),
turbulent, com e from a con stan t direction and
blow steadily for a len gthy period of tim e. Of
considerable im portance, too, is the nature of the
regolith. It is m ore likely to be m oved if there is n o
v egetation to bind it together or to absorb som e of
the wind's energy; if it is dry and unconsolidated;
if particles are small enough to be transported;
and if m aterial has b een loosened by farm ing
182 Deserts
particles m ay becom e cem ented together to
form d uricrusts. These hard crusts are classified
according to the nature o f their chem ical com posi-
tion. (Students w ith a special interest in geology
or chem istry m ay wish to research the m eaning
o f the term s calcretes, silcretes and gypcretes.)
A nother form of crust, d esert v arn ish , is a hard,
dark glazed surface found o n exposed rocks w hich
have been coated by a film com posed iargely of
oxides of iron and m anganese (Figure 7.7) and,
possibly, bacterial action. It is hoped th at the
dating of desert varnish m ay help to establish a
chronology o f clim atic changes in arid and semi-
arid environm ents.
practices. W hile such con d itions do occur locally
in tem perate latitudes, e.g. Coastal dunes, sum m it‘
of m ountains and during dry sum mers in arable
areas, th e op tim um con d itions for transport by
wind are in arid and sem i-arid environm ents.
W ind can m ove m aterial b y th ree processes:
suspension, saltatio n and surface creep. The
effectiven ess o f each m e th o d is related to partk 1
size (Figure 7.8).
Suspension W here m aterial is very fine, i.e.
less th a n 0 .1 5 m m in diam eter, it can be picked
up by th e w ind, raised to consid erable heights
and carried great distances. T here have b een
occasions, th o u g h perhaps recorded on ly once
a decade, w hen red dust from th e Sahara has
b een carried northw ards and deposited as 'red
rain ' over parts o f Britain. V isibility in deserts is
som etim es reduced to less th a n lOOOm and thi^
is called a d u st sto rm (Figure 7.9). T h e num ber
of recorded dust storm s on th e m argins o f the
Sahara has increased rapidly in th e last 25 years
as th e d rou ght o f th a t region has intensified. In
M au ritania during th e early part of th e 1960s,
there was an average o f on ly 5 days/yr w ith dus:
storm s com pared w ith an average o f 8 0 days/yr
over a sim ilar period in th e early 2000s.
 300 p artid e
prevailing size (m m )
wind
dust storm red Saharan
transport process
dust deposited
in Southern
Europe and
(no ]tjr>i.H|

occasionally under 0.15

even the UK
(also known
suspension (dust)
as loess)

1.0 0.15

saltation (fine sand)

0.1 0.25
(coarse sand
surface creep
and pebbles)
CI 3) 01
2.00

Saltation When wind speeds exceed the

>« of wind threshold velocity (the speed required to initiate
ortation
grain movement), fine and coarse-grained sand
particles are lifted. They may rise almost verti-
cally for several centimetres before returning to
the ground in a relatively flat trajectory of less
than 12° (Figure 7.8). As the wind continues
to blow, the sand particles bounce along, leap-
frogging over one another. Even in the worst
storms, sand grains are rarely lifted higher than
2m above the ground.
Surface creep Every time a sand partide,
transported by saltation. lands, it may dislodge and
push forward larger particles (more than 0.25 mm
in diameter) which are too heavy to be uplifted.
• savement
•tifacts In This constant bombardment gradually moves
;eated by
small stones and pebbles over the desert surface.
4x4 vehicles are being accused of damaging the
ecology of the Sahara Desert and contributing to the
world's growing dust storm problem. Since the
1990s. 4x4 Land Cruisers have replaced the camei as
the vehicle of choice (a process referred to as
‘Toyotarisation’). These vehicles, according to
Professor Goudie, are gradually destroying the thin
layer of lichen and gravei that keeps the desert
surface stable in high winds. In the worst-affected
regions, estimates suggest that 1270 million tonnes
of dust are thrown up each a year - ten times more
than half a century ago. The dust, which may contain
hannful microbes and pesticides, is transported high
into the atmosphere during storms and deposited
(known as blood rain in certain places) as far afield
as the Alps (seen as a red layer on top of the snow),
the Caribbean (where fungal pores carried with it
have been blamed for destroying coral reefs) and on
cars and property in Southern England.

Figure 7.9

Dust storms created by human activity

Erosion
T here are tw o m ain processes o f w ind erosion:
d eflation and abrasion.
D e fla tio n is th e progressive rem oval o f fine
m aterial by th e wind leaving pebble-strew n desert
pavem ents or reg (Figures 7 .1 0 and 7.11). Over
m u ch o f th e Sahara, and especially in Sinai in
Egypt, vast areas o f m o n oto n ou s, flat and colour-
less pavem ent are th e product o f an earlier, w etter
clim ate. Pebbles were transported by water from
th e surrounding highland s and deposited w ith
sand, clay and silt o n th e low land plains. Later,
Figure 7.11 th e lighter particles were rem oved by th e wind,
The process of deflation causing th e rem ain in g pebbles to settle and to
in terlo ck like cobblestones.
silt and sand removed by wind, leaving stones Elsewhere in th e desert, dew m ay co llect in
hollow s and m aterial m ay be loosen ed by ch e m ­
ical w eathering and th e n rem oved by w ind to
land surface is lowered leave closed d epressions or d e fla tio n h ollow s.
Closed depressions are num erous and vary in size
from a few m etres across to th e extensive Q attara
leaving desert p ave m e n t:a coarse mosaic o f stones
resem bling a cobbled Street, w h ich protects against
further erosion Deserts 183

Figure 7.12 D epression in Egypt w h ich reaches a d ep th of
Landshoreyardangs, 134 m below sea-level. Closed depressions m ay
Western Desert, Egypt also have a te cto n ic origin (th e south-w est of
th e USA) or a solution origin (lim estone areas
in M orocco). T he Dust Bowl, form ed in the
A m erican M id-W est in th e 1930s, was a conse-
quence o f d eflation follow ing a severe d rou ght in
a region w here inappropriate farm ing tech n iqu es
had b een introduced. Vast quantities o f valuable
topsoil were blow n away, som e o f w h ich was
deposited as far away as W ashington, DC.
A b ra sio n is a sand blastin g actio n effected
by m aterials as th e y are m oved by saltation .
This process sm ooths, pits, polish es and wears
away rock close to th e ground. Since sand par­
ticles c a n n o t be lifted very high, th e zone of
m axim u m erosion tend s to be w ith in 1 m o f the
Earth's surface. Abrasion produces a nu m ber of
d istin ctiv e lan dform s w h ich inclu d e v en tifacts,
yardangs and zeugen.
V e n tifa c ts are individual rocks w ith sharp
edges and, due to abrasion, sm o o th sides. The
w h ite rock in th e foreground o f Figure 7 .1 0 has a
Figure 7.13 lon g axis o f 25 cm .
Y ard an g s are extensive ridges of rock,
The movement of
a crescent-shaped separated by grooves (troughs), w ith an align-
barchan m en t sim ilar to th a t o f th e prevailing winds
a in plan
prevailing w in d
horn m oves faster than saltation and surface
centre of d une as there creep on gentle slope
is less sand to m ove
horn
barchans migrate, m oving forw ards by up to 30 m/yr
184 Deserts
(Figure 7.1 2 ). In parts o f th e Sahara, Arabian and
A tacam a Deserts, they are large enou gh to be
visible on air p hotograp hs and satellite imagery.
Zeugen are tabular masses o f resistant rock
separated by trenches where th e w ind has cut verti-
cally through the cap in to underlying softer rock.
D e p o s itio n
Dunes develop w hen sand grains, m oved by salta­
tion and surface creep, are deposited. Although
large areas o f dunes, know n as ergs, cover about 25
per cen t of arid regions, they are m ainly confined
to the Sahara and Arabian Deserts, and are virtualh
absent in N orth America. M uch of the early field-
work on dunes was carried out by R.A. Bagnold in
N orth Africa in the 1920s. He noted that some, but
by no m eans all, dunes form ed around an obstacle
- a rock, a bush, a small hill or even a dead camei;
and m ost dunes were located o n surfaces that were
even and sandy and n o t on those w hich were
irregular and rocky. He concentrated on two typer
of dune: the barchan and the seif. The b a rch a n is
a small, crescent-shaped dune, about 30 m high,
w hich is m oved by the wind (Figures 7.13 and
7.15). The seif, nam ed after an Arab curved sword
is m u ch larger (1 0 0 km in length and 2 0 0 m in
height) and m ore com m on (Figure 7.17), although
the process of its form ation is m ore com plex than
initially thought by Bagnold. Textbooks often ove:-
em phasise these two dunes, especially the barchan
w hich is a relatively u n com m o n feature.
W h ile Bagnold had to travel th e desert in spe-
cially converted cars, m odern geographers derh e
their picture o f desert landform s from aerial
photographs and Landsat im ages. These new
techniqu es have helped to identify several types
of dune, and th e m odern classification, still base^
on m orphology, con tain s several ad ditional types
(Figure 7.14). D une m orphology depends upon
th e supply o f sand, wind d irection, availability of
vegetation and th e nature o f th e ground surface.
b in profile
prevailing wind
edd yin g helps to maintain
steep slopes
A steep, up p er slip slope o f coarse grains and w ith continual sand
avalanches d ue to unconsolidated m aterial (unlike a river, coarse
grains are at the top)
B gentle, basal apron w ith sand ripples: the finer grains, as on a beach
g ive a gentler grad ien t than coarser grains
 Supply Wind direction Vegetation Speed of dune
'ţp e o fd u n e Description 'aiul and speed cover movement

’ -rchan individual dunes, crescent limited constant direction, at none highlymobile

shape with horns pointing right-angles to dune
downwind (Figures 7.13
and 7.15)

u-cftanoid ridges asymmetrical, oriented at limited constant direction, at none mobile

right-angles to wind, rows right-angles to dune
ofbarchansforming parallel
ridges

:-sverse oriented at right-angles to abundant steady winds (trades), vegetation sand checked by barriers,
wind but lacking barchanoid (thick) sand constant direction but with stabilisessand limited mobility
structure, resemble ocean cover reducing speeds, at right-
waves (Figure 7.16) anglestodune

dome-shaped (height appreciable strong winds limit height nonevirtually nomovement

restricted by wind) amountsof of dune
coarsesand

-- lear) longitudinal, parallel dunes large persistent, steady winds none regular (even) surface,
with slip faces on either side, (trades), with slight seasonal virtually no movement
can extend for many km or diurnal changes in direction
(Figure 7.17)

hairpin-shapedwithnoses limited constant direction where present, highly mobile (byblowouts

pointing downwind, a type of cananchor in noseofdune)
blowout (eroded) dune where sand
middle section has moved
forward, may occur in dusters

complex dune with a star (star- limited effective winds blow from nonevirtually nomovement
fish) shape (compare areres several directions
radiating from central peak)
(Figure 7.18)

undulating, haphazard shape limited winds ofegualstrength and none virtually no movement
duration from opposite
directions

Figure 7.14
Classification of sand
dunes (oferGoudie)

Deserts 185
 Figure 7.15
Barchan dunes near
Liideritz, Namibia
Figure 7.17
Seif (linear) dunes,
Sossusvlei, Namibia
T h e e ffe c ts o f w a te r
It has already b een n o ted th at, in arid areas,
m oistu re m ust be present for processes of
ch em ical w eathering to operate. We have also
seen th a t o ften rainfall is low, irregular and infre-
quen t, w ith lon g -term flu ctu ation s. A lthough
m ost desert rainfall occu rs in low -in ten sity
storm s, th e o ccasion al sudden, m o reiso la te d ,
heavy dow npour, does occur. T here are records
o f several extrem e desert rainfall events, each
equ iv alen t to th e th ree -m o n th ly m ean rainfall of
L ond on. T he im p act o f w ater is, therefore, very
sig n ifican t in shaping desert landscapes.
Rivers in arid e n v iro n m en ts fall in to three
m ain categories.
186 Deserts
E x o g e n o u s Exogenous rivers are those
like th e C olorad o, N ile, Indus, Tigris and
Euphrates, w h ich rise in m o u n tain s beyond the
desert m argins. These rivers co n tin u e to flow
th ro u g h o u t th e year even if th e ir discharge is
reduced b y evaporation w h en th e y cross th e arid
land. (The last four rivers m en tio n e d provided
th e lo ca tio n for som e o f th e earliest urban set-
tlem en ts - page 3 8 8 .) The C olorad o has, for ove:
3 0 0 km o f its course, cu t dow n vertically to forrr
the G rand C an y on. T he can y on , w hich in place;
is alm ost 2 0 0 0 m (over 1 m ile) deep, has steep
sides partly due to rock structure and partly
due to in su fficien t rainfall to degrade th em
(Figure 7.1 9 ).

E n d o re ic E nd oreic drainage occurs w here
rivers term in a te in inland lakes. Exam ples are th e
River Jo rd a n in to th e Dead Sea and th e Bear in to
th e G reat Salt Lake.
E p h e m e ra l E phem eral stream s, w h ich are
m ore typical o f desert areas, flow in term itten tly ,
or seasonally, after rainstorm s. A lthough often
shortlived , these stream s can generate high levels
of discharge due to several local ch aracteristics.
First, th e to rren tia l natu re o f th e rain exceeds
th e in filtra tio n cap acity o f th e ground and so
m o st o f th e w ater drains away as surface ru n off
(overland flow, page 59). Second , th e high te m ­
peratures and th e freq u en t presen ce o f duricrust
co m b in e to give a hard, im perm eable surface
w h ich in h ib its in filtra tio n . T hird , th e lack of
veg etation m eans th a t no m oistu re is lost or
delayed th rou g h in te rcep tio n and th e rain is able
to h it th e ground w ith m axim u m force. Fourth,
fin e particles are displaced by rainsplash actio n
and, by in fillin g surface pore spaces, further
reduce th e in filtra tio n cap acity o f th e soil. It is
as a result o f these m in im al in filtra tio n rates
th a t slopes o f less th a n 2° can, even under quite
m odest storm co n d itio n s, exp erien ce extensive
overland flow.
Studies in Kenya. Israel and Arizona suggest
th a t surface ru n o ff is likelv to occu r w ith in 10
m inutes o f th e start o f a dow npour (Figure 7.20).
This m ay in itia lly be in the form of a sh eet flo o d
w here the w ater flows evenly over th e land and
is n o t co n fin ed to ch an n els. M u ch o f th e sand,
gravei and pebbles cov ering th e desert floor is
th o u g h t to have b een deposited by this process;
yet, as th e event has rarely b ee n w itnessed,
it is assum ed th a t d ep osition by sheet floods
occurred m ain ly during earlier w etter periods
called plu vials.
Very soon, th e collective ru n off becom es con -
centrated in to deep, steep-sided ravines know n
as w ad is (Figure 7.2 2 ) or arro y os. N orm ally dry,
wadis m ay be subjected to irregular flash floods
(Figure 7 .2 0 and Places 25). T he average occur-
rence o f these floods is o n ce a year in th e sem i-
arid m argins o f th e Sahara, and o n ce a decade in
th e extrem ely arid interior. This in freq u en cy of
floods com pared w ith the great nu m ber and size
o f wadis, suggests th a t th ey were created w hen
storm s were m ore freq u ent and severe - i.e. th ey
are a relict feature.
Figure 7.20
A flash flood
Pediments and playas
Stretching from th e fo ot of th e highlands, there is
often a gently sloping area either o f bare rock or of
rock covered in a th in veil of debris (Figures 7.21
and 7.24). This is know n as a p ed im en t. There is
o ften an abrupt break o f slope at th e ju n ctio n of
th e h ig h lan d area and th e p ed im en t. Two m ain
theories suggest th e origin o f th e p ed im ent,
o n e in v olv in g water. This th eo ry proposes th at
w eathered m aterial from cliff faces, or debris
from alluvial fans, was carried during pluvials by
sh eet floods. T h e sed im en t planed th e low lands
before being deposited, leaving a g en tly concave
slope o f less th a n 7° (Figure 7 .2 4 ). T h e altern a­
tive th eo ry involves th e parallel retreat o f slopes
resulting from w eathering (King's hypothesis,
Figure 2 .2 4 c ).
Deserts 187
 Playas are often found at th e low est p o in t
of th e p ed im ent. T hey are shallow, ephem eral,
saline lakes form ed after rainstorm s. As th e rain
w ater rapidly evaporates, flat layers o f either clay,
silt or salt are left. W here th e dried-out surface
consists o f c la y large d e sicca tio n crack s, up to
5 m deep, are form ed. W h en the surface is
salt-covered, it produces th e 'flattest landform
on la n d ’. Rogers Lake, in th e M ojave Desert,
C alifornia, has been used for spacecraft landings,
w hile th e B on neville saltflats in U tah have been
the lo ca tio n for land-speed record attem pts.

Figure 7.21

Pediment at foot of
highlands, Wadi Rum, Jordan

Camping in a wadi is something that experienced

desert travellers avoid. It is possible to be swept
away by a flash flood which occurs virtually
without warning - there may have been no rain at
your location, and perhaps nothing more ominous
than a distant rumble of thunder. Indeed, the
first warning may be the roar of an approaching
wall of water. One minute the bed ofthe wadi is
dry, baked hard underthe sun and littered with
weathered debris from the previous flood or from
the steep valley sides (Figure 7.22), and the next
minute it is a raging torrent.

The energy ofthe flood enables large boulders

to be moved by traction, and enormous amounts
ofcoarse material to betaken into suspension
- some witnesses have claimed it is more like a
mudflow. Friction from the roughness ofthe bed,
the large amounts of sediment and the high rates of
evaporation soon cause a reduction in the stream's
velocity. Deposition then occurs, choking the
channel, followed by braiding as the water seeks
discharge rainfall
Note the absence of base flow new outlets. Within hours, the floor ofthe wadi is
(cumecs) (mm)
dry again (Figure 7.23).
100 + 100 Figure 7.23
high peak discharge
Typical storm hydrograph The rapid runoff does not replenish groundwater
for a flash flood in a wadi supplies, and without the groundwater contribution
to base flow, characteristic of humid climates, rivers
cease to flow. At the mouth ofthe wadi, where
the water can spread out and energy is dissipated,
material is deposited to form an alluvial fan or cone
(Figure 7.24). If several wadis cut through a highland
close to each other, their semi-circular fans may
merge to form a bahada (bajada), which is an almos:
river has dried up continuous deposit of sand and gravei.

1 2 3 4 5 6
time (hours)

188 Deserts
■adis: steep-sided valleys steep back wall, often 40*
'■ ephem eral streams (both chem ical and
m echanical w eath ering j
■3 worn back to form
pediment a rock platform
-selbergs (in semi-arid areas)
Vv
\ \ V IM»
(not unlike a wave-cut platform);
•nesas and buttes (arid)

4 V v\>
small rills ano gullies but no
river channels; som e coarse playa: an ephem eral lake,
« material on surface surface m ay be desiccated
clay or a salt crust

alluvial fans beginning to

alluvial fans caused by, v V . coalesce to form a bahada; deposition o f sands and
fluvial deposition at' e vid en ce of braided stream s as gravels by sheet floods
exit o ft h e w adi river e nerg y is dissipated

(under 7 °) g entle con cave slope

(under 2 °) (flat)
jn c e d b reak o f slope
oly hidden b y scree (talus)

' 24 O ccasionally, isolated, flat-topped rem n an ts
‘ tsand playas o f form er h ig h land s, know n as m esas, rise sheer
from th e p ed im en t. Som e m esas, in Arizona,
have sum m its large enou gh to have b een used
as village sites by th e Hopi Ind ians. B uttes are
sm aller versions o f m esas. T h e m ost spectacular
m esas and buttes lie in M o n u m en t Valley N avajo
Tribal Park in Arizona (Figure 7.2 5 ).
R e la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n w in d a n d w a te r
Som e desert areas are d om in ated by wind, others
by water. Areas w here w ind appears to be the
d o m in a n t g eom o rp h olog ical agent are know n as
a e o lia n d o m a in s. T h e effectiveness o f th e w ind
increases w here, and w hen, am o u n ts o f rainfall
decrease. As rainfall decreases, so to o does any
veg etation cover. T h is allow s th e w ind to tra n s­
port m aterial un hind ered, and rates o f erosion
(abrasion and d eflation) and d ep osition (dunes)
to increase. Flu vial d o m a in s are th o se w here
water processes are d o m in a n t or, as evidence
in creasin g ly suggests, have b een d o m in an t in
th e past. V eg etation, w h ich stabilises m aterial,
increases as rain fall increases or w here coasta! fog
and dew are a regular occu rrence.
Evidence also suggests th a t w ind and water
can in teract in arid en v iro n m en ts an d th a t land ­
form s produced by each do co -ex ist w ith in the
sam e locality. However, th e b alan ce betw een
th eir relative im p o rtan ce has o ften altered,
m ain ly due to clim a tic chang e eith er over
len g th y periods o f tim e (e.g. th e 18 0 0 0 years
since th e tim e o f m axim u m g laciation ) or during
shorter flu ctu atio n s (e.g. sin ce th e m id -1960s in
th e Sahel). At present, and esp ecially in Africa,
th e decrease in rainfall in th e sem i-arid desert
fringes m eans th a t th e role o f w ater is probably
d eclin ing, w h ile th a t o f th e wind is increasing.

'.25

■: buttes,
t- ’' National
: : na, USA
 C lim a tic c h a n g e
T here h ave already b ee n referen ces to pluvials
w ith in th e Sahara D esert (page 1 8 1 ). Prior to th e
Q u atern ary era, th ese m ay h ave occu rred w h en
th e A frican Plate lay fu rth er to th e so u th and
th e Sahara was in a latitu d e eq u iv a le n t to th a t
o f th e p resen t-d ay savan n as. In th e Q u atern ary
era, th e ad vance o f th e ice sheets resulted in a
sh ift in w in d belts w h ic h caused ch an g es in pre-
c ip ita tio n p attern s, tem p eratu res and evapora-
tio n rates. At th e tim e o f m a x im u m g la cia tio n
(1 8 0 0 0 years ago), d esert c o n d itio n s appear to
Figure 7.26 have b e e n m ore exte n siv e th a n th e y are to d ay
E x te n t of sand dunes (Figure 7 .2 6 ). S in ce th e n , as suggested b y radio-
in Africa ca rb o n d atin g (page 2 4 8 ), th ere have b ee n
a 18 000 years ago b today
areas of sand dunes
Equator Equator
freq u en t, relativ ely sh ort-liv ed pluvials, th e last
occu rrin g a b o u t 9 0 0 0 years ago. E vidence for a
o n ce-w etter Sahara is given in Figure 7 .2 7 .
Herodotus, a historian living in A ncient
Greece, described th e Garam antes civilisation
w hich flourished in th e Ahaggar M ountains 3000
years ago. This people, w ho recorded their exploits
in cave paintings at Tassili des Ajjers, hunted
elephants, giraffes, rhinos and antelope. Twenty
centuries ago, N orth Africa was th e 'granary of the
R om an Em pire'. Wadis are too large and deep and
alluvial cones to o widespread to have b een formed
by today's occasional storms, w hile sheet floods
are too infrequ ent to have m oved so m uch
m aterial over pedim ents. Radiating from the
Ahaggar and Tibesti M ountains, aerial photo-
graphs and satellite im agery have revealed m any
dry valleys w hich once m ust have held p e rm a n e rr
rivers (com pare Figure 6.4 4 ). Lakes were also once
m u ch larger and deeper. Around Lake Chad, shore-
lines 5 0 m above the present level are visible, and
research suggests th a t lake levels m ight once have
been over 100 m higher. (Lake Bonneville in the
USA is on ly on e-ten th of its form er m axim um size
and, like Lake Chad, is drying up rapidly.) Small
crocodiles found in th e Tibesti m ust have been
trapped in the slightly w etter uplands as th e desen
advanced. Also, pollen analysis has show n that
oak and cedar forests abounded in the same regi Da
10 0 0 0 years ago. Groundwater in th e N ubian
sandstone has been dated, by radio-isotope
m ethods, to be over 25 0 0 0 years old, and may
have accum ulated at about the same tim e as fossi
laterite soils (page 321).

O n e o ft h e granaries / Figure 7.27

approxim ate northern limit o f Sahara t o d a y _______ ______ ~r'~
Fossilergs, possibly -
formed by w ater as
well as by wind.
approxim ate S o u th e rn limit of
Sahara to day
/
o f A ncien t Rome.
Fossii laterite soils and fossil Evidence of pluvia1
w a ter 25 000 years old. in the Sahara
~ M \a s M o un tains
/
' “- J " Egyptian Desert
A hagg ar M ountains Tassili des Ajjers N um erous wadis.
Relict rădici drainage. Tibesti M ountains Southern Egypt and
\ , Pollen from oaks northern Sudan
A ncien t G aram antes and cedars.
ţl\9e ' civilisation o f pastoralists Sand, show n b yC o lu m b u s spac:
Sm all crocodiles
shuttle to be 5 m deep, coverin^
w h o left cave paintings. found.
num erous river channels cut in
L. C h a d underlying bedrock.

Once 300 000km2 in area,

120 m deeper than today
L Volta
and large enough to flow
/ southw ards into the sea,
D rought since 1974 has dried up headw aters n o w virtually dried up.
o fth e R. Volta. Lake Volta, an artificial lake Lake terraces v ____Early 20th-century
created in the 1960s, is decreasing in size. 50m high. forests and fa rm la ":
600 km n o w desert.

190 Deserts
 Desertification: fact or fiction? _
S. 7

■~e mid-1970s, desertification, not global
«riing, was perceived as the world's
. ■'environm ental issue. Since then
r nature, extent, causes and effects of
---T'iification have become shrouded in
'■■'oversy.Taken literally, desertification
Pps'the making ofa desert'. More heip-
* has been defined as'the turning of
r and, often through physical processes
jm an mismanagement, into desert'.
• r so, although the term has been in use
•»sr half a century, few can agree on
■ ::|y what it means.The diversity of defi-
" 5 - there are over 100 - is due largely
iertainty over its causes.
Goudie says that'the question has been
asked w hetheBhis process is caused by
temporary drought periods of high magni­
tude, is due to longer-term climatic change
towards aridity, is caused by man-induced
climatic change, or is the result of human
action through man's degradation ofthe
biological environments in arid zones. Most
people now believe that it is produced by
a combination of increasing human and
animal populations, which cause the effects
of drought years to become progressively
more severe so that the vegetation is
placed under increasing stress.'
Those places perceived to be at greatest
riskfrom desertification are shown in
Figure 7.28. In 2005 the UN claimed that
desertification directly affected over 250
million people and threatened another
1 billion living in at-risk countries. It
is generally agreed that the desert is
encroaching into semi-arid, desert
margins, especially in the Sahel - a broad
belt of land on the Southern side ofth e
Sahara (2 -4 in Figure 7.28).
Some ofthe main interrelationships
between the believed causes of desertifica­
tion are shown in Figure 7.29.

P e rc e n ta g e o f
■
!.orst areas p op ulation at risk
Arctic Circle
1 Ethiopia 18
2 Sudan 23
3 C h ad 30
4 N ig er 42
5 S o m a lia 26

_evel of risk
Tropic o f Cancer '
very severe

severe Equator

m oderate Sahel
countries
slight Tropic o f Capricorn

Figure 7.28

5000 km Areas at riskfrom

__ I desertification

less rainfall (total am ounts and

rivers and w ater
reliability), increased drought :> holes dry up
decrease
in protective
(frequency and intensity)
vegetation
vegetation
• : change cover
dies
global w arm ing :hig her
less rainfall
î> tem peratures, increased evaporation, i= > <
reduced condensation
soil exposed
to w ind and u
overgrazing: soil
vegetation rain
- =se in animals in som e areas, livestock num bers dep leted o f nutrients,
. xcann ot .
_ carrying I increased by 40 per cent in w etter land stripped of its
'W e s t a b lis h "
s*jţy, page 378) (pluvial) years preceding mid-1960s protective grass cover
itself
(Figure 7.30)
increase in
^tion grow th: overcultivation: evaporation
farm ers forced to change traditional
m ethods o f land use as m ore land ■reduced soil fertility, I > from soil
birth rates C
needed for food crops (grass ploughed up) soil left exposed
(Figure 7.30) vegetation
■— igrants
rem oved l/ l
jd in g
•_gees from increased
increased dem and for w o o d for deforestation -f\ risk of soil
wars ______
cooking, heating, building (page 543) r' erosion
■ : droughts
 D e s e rtific a tio n : fa c t o r fic tio n ?
Figure 7.30
Desertification and
aovergrazing
bovercultivation
In 1975, Hugh Lamprey, a bush pilot
and environmentalist, claimed itet,
since his previous study 17 years earlier,
the desert in the Sudan had advanced
southwards by 90-100 km. In 1982 and
atth e height of one of Africa's worst-ever
recorded droughts, UNEP (United Nations
Environmental Programme) claimed that
the Sahara was advancing southwards by
6-10 km a year and that, globally, 21 million
hectares of once-productive soil were
being reduced each year to zero produc-
tivity, that 850 million people were being
affected, and 35 per cent ofthe world's
surface w a * risk (figures guoted by UNEP
Figure 7.31
Scientific evaluation
in the mid-1990s
R esearch ers at the Unlversity of Lund, m
satellite pictures of Sudan in an attempt to
zsssssszs™*
L i f e ta t e northern cu ltiv atei Itmit.
î„ " d - “ r ’" , z s
1962, nor was there any
of movement
t i c u l since w
evidence of patches of desert growing around
„ d ls . waterholes o rv ilte » »
by stressing the need for recordm-
scientific standard.
192 Deserts
a tth e 1992 Rio Earth Summit). Since then extent and effects of salinisation (page 273
scientific studies using satellite imagery and Figure 16.53) appear to have increased.
and more detailed fieldwork (Figure 7.31) The semi-arid lands are a fragile envi-
have thrown considerable doubt on the ronment whose boundaries change due
causes, effects and extent of desertification. to variations in rainfall and land use. It is
Today, certain early statistics regarding its often difficult to separate natural causes
advance have proven to be unreliable. It from human ones and short-term fluctua­
is believed that overgrazing is no longer tions from long-term trends (Figure 7.32).
considered so important, fuelwood has The effects of global warming are as yet
not become exhausted as previously pre- an unknown factor, although computer
dicted, while famine and drought are more models suggest that the climate will get
likely to result from poverty, poorfarming even drier. _ ,
Figure 7.32
techniques, civil unrest and warthan from
a Desert retreat or
natural causes (page 503). In contrast, the
b desert advance?
The Southern Sahara Desert is in retreat, making farming again viable in parts of the
Sahel. Satellite images taken this summer show that sand dunes are retreating the v
6000 km across the Sahel region between Mauritania to Eritrea. Nor does it appear
be a short-term trend - analysts claim it has been happening unnoticed since the
mid-1980s. In parts of Burkina Faso, devastated by the droughts of the 1980s, sorti;
the landscape is now showing green, with more trees for firewood and more grasslc-a
for livestock. Farmers also claim their yields of sorghum and millet have nearly
doubled, though this may partly be due to improved farming methods [Figure 10.4
A dapted from New Scientist, 2002
Our 21 st-century civilisation is being squeezed between advancing desert and risir _
seas. leaving less land to support a growing human population. This is illustrated b 1
heavy losses of land to advancing deserts in Nigeria and China, the most populou
countries in Africa and Asia respectively. Nigeria is losing 3500 km2 a year, where^-
China, which lost on average 1500 km2 a year between 1950 and 1975, has been ’: - j
3600 km2 a year since 2000. Satellite images have shown two deserts in Inner
Mongolia and Gansu provinces expanding and merging, as are two larger ones to ir*
west in Xinjiang province. To the east the Gobi Desert has advanced to within 250 !a
of Beijing. Chinese scientists report that some 24 000 villages in the north and we-
. the country have been abandoned or partly depopulated as they were overrun by
drifting sand.
A dapted from Earth Policy Institute, 2006
F u rth e r re fe re n c e
idie, A.S. (2001) The Nature o f the
vironment, WileyBlackwell.
idie, A.S. (2007) 'Dust storms'
Geography Review Voi 21 No 1
:ptem ber).
-die, A.S. andW atson, A. (1990) Desert
morphology, M acm illan.
Ke, R.U., Warren, A. and Goudie, A.S.
93) Desert Geomorphology, Routledge.
Deşerţi fication:
www.fao.org/desertification/default.
asp?lang=en
Desert processes and landform s:
www.uxl.eiu.edu/-cfjps/1300/desert.html
http://geoweb.tamu.edu/courses/
geollOl/grossm an/Deserts.htm l
U nitarian Service C om m ittee of C anada:
www.usc-canada.org/
UN C onvention to C om bat D esertification:
www'.un.org/ecosocdev/geninfo/sustdev/
desert.htm
UN E nviron m en t P rogram m e Global
Deserts Outlook:
www.unep.org/Geo/gdoutlook/

Questions & Activities

A c tiv itie s

a Describe the characteristics that define a hot desert Describe and name an example ofa wadi. (4 marks)
climate. (4 marks) i Sometimes a 'flash flood' rushes through a wadi.
b Study Figure 7.2 (page 179) and describe the location Explain what a flash flood is. (3 marks)
of the world's deserts. (4 marks)
ii Why is there little or no warning that a flash flood is
c Explain two causes of a desert climate. (4 marks) about tohappen? (3 marks)
d Write a paragraph to explain to someone why the typical iii Why do rivers stop flowing very soon after a flood in a
view ofa desert as a'sea of sand'is often not true.(4 marks) deşertarea? (3 marks)
e What is'exfoliation'weathering? (4 marks) In the area where a wadi opens onto lowland there is
f Explain one other denudation process that operates often an alluvial fan. Describe an alluvial fan and explain
in hot desert areas. (5 marks) how it is formed. (6 marks)
Describe a playa and explain how playas are formed.
(6 marks)

E xam p r a c tic e : b a s ic s t r u c t u r e d q u e s tio n s

Describe how wind transports material in a desert a On a sketch or copy of Figure 7.25 page 189, add labels to
environment. (6 marks) show: caprock; free face; bare rock; rectilinear slope; loose
Why is wind transportation a more important method of scree; gently sloping plain. (6marks)
movement in deserts than in wet environments? (3 marks) b Explain why the loose material you can see in the
Choose one type of sand dune. photograph has not been moved away. (5 marks)

i Draw an annotated diagram to show its main features. c i In the Sahara Desert in North Africa there is
evidence that the climate has not always been like
ii Explain how the dune has been formed. (8marks)
this. Choose one piece of evidence to show that
Choose one desert landform created by wind erosion. the climate has changed, state it and explain how it
i Describe its shape and size. shows climate change. (7 marks)
ii Explain the processes that have formed it. (8 marks) ii Choose one piece of evidence to suggest that the
climate of North Africa is changing now. State it and
explain how it shows climate is changing. (7 marks)

E 3m p ra c tic e : s tru c tu re d q u e s tio n a n d essays

a Why do arid conditions occur in continental areas in the tropics?
(lOmarks)
Making good use of examples, describe two ways in which
plants adapt to drought conditions in desert areas. (8 marks)
Explain the term'water balance'used to identify the extent of
tropical desert climates. (7marks)
6 'Semi-arid lands are fragile environments/
Discuss this statement with reference to semi-arid areas that
you have studied. (25marks)
Using Figures 7.3,7.4 and 7.5 (page 180), describe and account
for the range of surface conditions found in desert areas.
(25 marks)

Deserts 193
 Rock types and landforms
‘At first sight it m ay appear thal rock type is th e dom in an t
influence un most lan dsm pes As leom n rphologists, v c
iirc m ore concerned with t/u woy\ in u lucii the characttris-
lics o f rocks respi nd Pi the prui as<-s o f erosion iiiul w eath­
ering than w i t h th e tlcUiiled SLattyo f m ck i th em selv es.'
R .C o lia rd • . ■ landform s and p o ten tia l e co n o m ic use, five
Previous chapters have dem onstrated how
landscapes at b oth local and global scales have
developed from a com bination of processes. Plate
tectonics, w eathering and th e action of m oving
water, ice and wind both create and destroy land ­
forms. Yet these processes, however im portant they
are at present or have been in the past, are insuf­
ficient to explain the m any different and dramatic
changes o f scenery w hich can occur w ithin short
distances, especially in the British Isles.
L ith o lo g y refers to th e ph ysical character-
'I *
istics o f a rock. As each individual rock type
Bedding planes with different ch aracteristics, so it is capable of
jointsandangleofdip
a massively bedded Carboniferous limestone
vertical joints at right-angles horizontal bedding planes separating different
to the bedding planes layers/strata in a sedim entary rock and
indicating different phases of deposition
7 \ _ i
i
b thinly bedded chalk
the angle of dip is the difference b etw e en the actual
inclination o fth e rock and the horizontal
horizontal
194 Rock types and landforms
produ cing its ow n ch aracteristic scenery. Land ­
form s are greatly in flu en ced by a rock ty p e ’s vul-
n erab ility to w eathering, its p erm eability and its
structure.
To show how these th ree factors affect d if­
ferent rocks and to exp lain th eir resultant
rock types have been selected as exem plars.
C arboniferous lim eston e, ch alk and sand stone
(sedim en tary rocks), and graniţe and b asalt (b o tf
igneous) have been ch o sen because, arguably,
these produce som e o f th e m ost d istin ctive types
of land form and scenery.
L ith o lo g y a n d g e o m o rp h o lo g y
Vulnerabilityto weathering
M ech an ical w eathering in B ritain occurs m ore
readily in rocks th a t are jo in ted . W ater can
p enetrate eith er dow n th e jo in ts or along the
b e d d in g p la n e s (Figure 8 .1 ) o f C arboniferous
lim eston e, or in to cracks resulting from pressure
release or co n tra ctio n on co o lin g w ith in graniţe
and b asalt (page 41 and Figure 1 .3 1 ). Subsequen:
freezing and thaw in g along these lines o f weak-
ness causes frost sh atterin g (page 40).
C hem ical w eathering is a m ajor influence
in lim estone and graniţe landform s. Lim estone,
com posed m ostly of calcium carbonate, is slowly
dissolved by th e carbonic acid in rainwater, i.e. th i
process of carb onation (page 43). G raniţe consists
of quartz, feldspar and m ica. It is susceptible to
hydration, where water is incorporated in to the
rock structure causing it to swell and crum ble
(page 42), and to hydrolysis, w hen the feldspar
is chem ically changed in to clay (pages 4 2 -4 3 ).
Quartz, in com parison w ith other m inerals, is on ;
of the least prone to chem ical weathering.
M ottershead has em phasised th a t 'th e
m ech an ical resistance o f rocks depends o n the
strength o f th e individual co m p o n en t m in ­
erals and the bond s betw een th em , and that
chem ical resistance depends o n th e individual
chem ical resistances of th e co m p o n en t m inerals
M echanical strength decreases if ju st one of thesi
com p on en t m inerals becom es chem ically altered.
 P e r m e a b ility
P erm eability is th e rate at w h ich w ater m ay be
stored w ith in a rock or is able to pass th rou g h it.
P erm eability ca n be divided in to tw o types.
1 P rim a ry p erm eab ility o r p o ro sity This
depends on the texture o f th e rock and the
size, shape and arrangem ent o f its m ineral
particles. T he areas betw een th e particles
are called p ore spaces and their size and
alig nm ent d eterm ine how m u ch water can
be absorbed by th e rock. Porosity is usually
greatest in rocks th a t are coarse-grained,
such as gravels, sands, sandstone and oolitic
a large, rounded grains
: e:es and
■on capac ity large grains
b small, rounded grains
although there are more pore spaces, th e y are much
smaller: w a ter clings to grains (surface tension)
preventing the passage of m oisture (Figure 10.12)
■stalsin
jre n ite
■:to g e th e r
- ase lyth an
*1 grains,
the
. •of w a ter
: _ j inhibiting
.em ent of
lim estone, and usually low est in those that
are fine-grained, such as clay and graniţe. (It
is possible to have fine-grained sandstone
and coarse-grained graniţe.) In filtra tio n
c a p a c ity is th e m axim u m rate at w h ich water
percolates in to th e ground. T he in filtratio n
cap acity o f sands is estim ated to average
200m m /h r, w hereas in clay it is o n ly 5 mm/
hr. Pore spaces are larger w here th e grains are
rounded rath er th a n angular and com p acted
(Figure 8 .2 ). Porosity can be given as an index
value based up on th e percentage o f th e to tal
volum e o f th e rock w hich is taken up by pore
space, e.g. clay 2 0 per cent, gravei 5 0 per cent.
W h en all the pore spaces are filled w ith water,
the rock is said to be satu rated. The water table
marks th e upper lim it o f saturation (Figure
8.9). Perm eable rocks w hich store water are
called aquifers.
2 S econd ary p erm eab ility or perviousness
This occurs in rocks that have jo in ts and fis-
sures along w hich water can flow. The m ost
pervious rocks are those where th e jo in ts have
been widened by solution, e.g. Carboniferous
lim estone, or by cooling, e.g. basalt. A rock
m ay be pervious because o f its structure,
though water m ay n o t be able to pass through
the rock mass itself. W here rocks are porous
or pervious, water rapidly passes downwards
to becom e ground water, leaving the surface
dry and w ithout evident drainage - chalk and
lim estone regions have few surface streams.
Im p erm eab le rocks, e.g. graniţe, neither
absorb water n or allow it to pass through them .
T hese rocks therefore have a higher drainage
density (page 67).
S tru c tu re
Resistance to erosion depends on w heth er the
rock is m assive and stratified, folded or faulted.
Usually th e m ore m assive th e rock and th e fewer
its jo in ts and bedding planes, the m ore resistant
it is to w eathering and erosion. Conversely, the
softer, m ore jo in ted and less com p act th e rock,
th e m ore vulnerable it is to denud ation processes.
Usually, m ore resistant rocks rem ain as upland
areas (graniţe), w hile those th a t are less resistant
form lowlands (clay).
However, th ere are excep tion s. C halk, w hich
is relatively soft and m ay be w ell-join ted , form s
rolling hills because it allows w ater to pass
th rou g h it and so fluvial activity is lim ited.
C arboniferous or M o u n tain lim eston e, having
jo in ts and bedding planes, produces jagged karst
scenery because alth ou g h it is pervious it has a
very low porosity.
Rock types and landforms 195
 L im e s to n e
L im eston e is a rock con sistin g o f at least 8 0 per
ce n t calciu m carb on ate. In Britain, m o st lim e ­
stone was form ed during four geological periods,
each o f w h ich experienced d ifferent con d ition s.
The follow ing list begins w ith th e oldest rocks.
Use an atlas to fin d th eir lo ca tio n .
C arb o n ifero u s lim esto n e This is hard, grey,
crystalline and w ell-jointed . It co n ta in s m an y
fossils, in clu d in g corals, crinoids and brachio-
pods. These in d icate th a t th e rock was form ed
on th e bed o f a warm, clear sea and adds to the
evidence th a t th e British Isles o n ce lay in warm er
latitudes. C arboniferous lim eston e has developed
its ow n u n iq u e landscape, know n as k arst, w hich
in B ritain is seen m ost clearly in th e Peak D istrict
and Yorkshire Dales N ational Parks.
M agn esian lim esto n e This is distinctive
because it con tain s a higher proportion o f mag-
nesium carbonate. In Britain, it extends in a belt
from the m o u th of the River Tyne to N ottingham .
In the Alps, it is know n as d o lo m ite.
Ju ra ssic (o o litic) lim e sto n e This form s a
narrow b an d exten d in g southw ards from th e
N orth Yorkshire M oors to th e D orset coast. Its
scenery is sim ilar to th a t typical o f chalk.
C re ta ce o u s ch a lk This is a pure, soft, well-
jo in ted lim eston e. Stretch in g from Flam borough
Head in Yorkshire (Figure 6 .1 9 ), it form s th e
escarp m ent o f th e L in co ln W olds, th e East
Figure 8.3
A nglian H eights and th e N orth and South
A stream disappearing Dow ns, b efore en d in g up as th e 'W h ite C liffs'
downaswallow at D over and at B each y Head, th e N eedles and
hole near Hunt
Swanage. C retaceous ch alk is assum ed to be the
Pot, Pen-y-Ghent,
rem ains o f sm all m arine organism s w h ich lived
Yorkshire Dales
National Park in clear, shallow seas.
The m o st d istin ctive o f th e lim esto n e lan d ­
form s are found in C arboniferous lim eston e
and chalk.
C a rb o n ife ro u s lim e s to n e
This rock develops its ow n particular type of
scenery prim arily because o f three character-
istics. First, it is found in th ic k b e d s separated
by alm ost horizontal bedding planes and with
jo in ts at right-angles (Figure 8 .1 ). Second, it is
pervious b u t n o t porous, m ean in g th a t water can
pass along th e bedding planes and dow n jo in ts
b u t n o t through the rock itself. Third, calcium
carbonate is soluble. C arbonic acid in rainwater
together w ith h u m ic acid from m oorland plants
dissolve th e lim eston e and w iden any weaknesses
in th e rock, i.e. th e bedding planes and joints.
Acid rain also speeds up carb on ation and solution
(page 43). As there is m inim u m surface drainage
and little breakdow n of bedrock to form soil, the
vegetation cover tends to be th in or absent. In
winter, this allows frost shattering to produce
scree at th e fo ot of steep cliffs.
It is possible to classify C arboniferous lim e ­
ston e landform s in to four types:
1 Surface features cau sed by so lu tion
L im esto n e p av em en ts are flat areas of
exposed rock. They are flat because they rep-
resent th e base o f a dissolved bedding p lant
and exposed because th e surface soil m ay ha
been rem oved by glacial activity and never
replaced. W here jo in ts reach th e surface, the'
m ay be widened by th e acid rainw ater
(carbonation , page 43) to leave deep gashes
called grikes. Som e grikes at M alham in north-
west Yorkshire are 0 .5 m wide and up to 2 m
deep. Betw een th e grikes are flat-topped yet
dissected blocks referred to as clin ts (Figure
2 .8 ). In tim e, th e grikes w iden and the clints
are w eathered dow n u n til a lower bedding
plane is exposed and th e process o f solu tion-
carb on ation is repeated.
2 D rainage features Rivers w hich have their
source on surrounding im perm eable rocks,
such as the shales and grits o f northern
England, m ay disappear dow n sw allow
holes or sinks as soon as they reach the lim e­
stone (Figure 8.3). The streams flow under-
ground finding a pathw ay dow n enlarged
joints, form ing p otholes, and along bedding
planes. W here solution is m ore active,
underground caves m ay form . W hile m ost
caves develop above the water table (vadose
caves, Figure 8.8), som e m ay form b eneath i;
(p h reatic caves).

C orrosion o ften w idens th e caverns u n til
atthe foot parts o f th e ro of collapse, providing th e river
!: Yorkshire w ith angular m aterial ideal for corrasion.
Heavy rainfall very quickly infiltrates down-
wards, so caverns and lin kin g passages may
b eco m e w ater-filled w ithin m inutes. The
resultant tu rbu len t flow can tran sp ort large
stones and th e floodw ater m ay prove fatal to
cavers and p otholers. Rivers m ake their way
downwards, o ften leaving caverns abandoned
as th e water finds a lower level, u n til they
reach underlying im perm eable rock. A resur-
gen ce occurs w here th e river reappears on the
surface, o ften at th e ju n c tio n o f perm eable
and im perm eable rocks (Figure 8.4).
3 Surface featu res re su ltin g fro m u n d e r­
g ro u n d d ra in a g e Steep-sided valleys are
likely to have been form ed as rivers flow ed
over th e surface o f the lim eston e, probably
during periglacial tim es w hen perm afrost
acted as an im perm eable layer. W h e n the
rivers were able to revert to th eir subterranean
passages, th e surface valleys were left dry
(Figure 8 .5 ). M any dry valley sides are steep
and gorge-like, e.g. Cheddar Gorge. If th e area
above an individual cave collapses, a small
surface d epression called a d o lin e is form ed.
S hak eh oles are sm aller d oline-like features
found in th e n o rth e rn P en n in es w here glacial
m aterial has subsided in to underground cavi-
ties (Figure 8 .8 ). In th e form er Yugoslavia,
w here th e term 'karst' originated, huge
depressions called poljes m ay have form ed
in a sim ilar way. Poljes m ay be up to 4 0 0 km 2
in area. In th e tropics, th e landscape m ay be
com posed o f eith er cone-shap ed hills and
polygon al depressions know n as 'co ckp it
co u n try ' (e.g. Jam aica) or tall isolated 'tow ers'
rising from wide plains (e.g. near G uilin,
C h in a - Places 26).
4 U nderground depositional features
G roundw ater m ay beco m e saturated w ith
calciu m b icarb o n ate, w h ich is form ed by th e
ch em ical rea ctio n betw een ca rb o n ic acid in
rainw ater and calciu m carb on ate in th e rock.
However, w hen th is 'hard ' water reaches a
cave, m u ch o f th e carbon d ioxid e bubbles ou t
o f so lu tio n back in to th e air - i.e. th e process
o f ca rb o n a tio n in reverse. Aided by th e loss of
som e m oistu re by evaporation, calciu m car­
b o n a te (calcite) crystals are su bseq u ently pre-
cipitated . W ater dripping from th e ceilin g of
the cave in itia lly form s p en d an t soda straws
w h ich, over a very lon g period o f tim e, m ay
grow in to icicle-sh ap ed s ta la ctite s (Figure
8 .6 ). E xperim ents in Yorkshire caves suggest
th a t stalactites grow at ab ou t 7.5 m m per year.
As w ater drips o n to th e floor, further deposits
o f calciu m carb o n ate form th e m ore rounded,
cone-shap ed sta lag m ite s w h ich may, in tim e,
jo in th e stalactites to give p illars.
Rock types and landforms 197
 Li valley, south China: karst scenery

The limestones that outcrop near Guilin have formed

a unique karst landscape.The massively bedded,
crystalline rock, which in places is 300 m thick, has
been slowly pushed upwards from its seabed origin
by the same tectonic movements that formed the
Himalayas and theTibetan Plateau far to the west.The
heavy summer monsoon rain, sometimes exceeding
2000 mm, has led to rapid fluvial erosion by such
rivers as the Li Jiang (Li River).The availability of water
together with the high sub-tropical temperatures
(Guilin is at 25°N) encourage highly active chemical
weathering (solution-carbonation, page 43).

The result has been the formation of a landscape

r*gure 8.7
The karst towers of
Guilin, south China
Limestone covers some 300 000 km2 of China - an
area larger than that ofthe UK. Its scenery is seen
at its most spectacular in theThree Gorges section
of the Yangtze River and where it forms the karst
towers in the Guilin region of Guangxi Province.
which for centuries has inspired Chinese artists and,
recently, has attracted growing numbers of tourists.To
either side ofthe river are natural domes and towers,
some of which rise almost vertically 150 m from
surrounding paddy fields (Figure 8.7), giving the valley
its gorge-like profile. Caves, visible on the sides ofthe
towers, were formed by underground tributaries to
the Li Jiang when the main river was flowing at levels
considerably higher than those of today.

Characteristic features of
d olines and/or shakeholes
Carboniferous limestone
'karst) scenery

swallow hole (sink)

surface drainage
lim estone p avem ent w ith clints and grykes

im perm eab le rock

lim estone plateau
dry valley

sw allow hole (sink)

pervious (perm eable)

li* 1 .
/* * *. g o rg e

W
Carboniferous
lim estone ^ O T S S . - " T L r s tatla*c tite
7 s 1f- ■ - T -
ţ ^4 . v

________________ ab an do ned
horizontal bedding planes cavern cavern
resurgence (spring)

stalagm ites

imp erm eable rock

resurgence (spring)

underground river

198 Rock types and landforms

 dîp S>CD€ s c a r p s lo p e c la y v a le
r*

c e re a ls sheep ro u n d e d c re s t line
W
N mixed farming
W foad
s tre a m ^ absence of
N c o o m b e d e p o s it
b o u rn e s ' ^ s u rfa c e d ra in a g e
o n c la y
xed farming d r y v a lle y s
! >'
stream •• > .0 O.' ob sequen t
/ î stream

y - - sprin g -lin e
*or>eof~ ~ » v illa g e s
W w e t- w e a th e r w a te r ta b le
y L subsequent
''o/, W N n o rm a l w a te r ta b le
p o ro u s c h a lk river
O s p rin g
im p e r m e a b le c la y O w e t- w e a th e r sp rin g

Economic valu e o f C arboniferous lim estone
: ?id v a le H um an settlem en t o n this type o f rock is usually
:an idealised lim ited and dispersed (page 3 9 7 ) due to lim ited
through a
natu ral resources, esp ecially th e lack o f w ater and
;carpmentin
good soil. Villages such as C astleton (D erbyshire)
.-ast England
and M alham (Yorkshire) have grow n up n ear to a
resurgence.
Lim eston e is o ften quarried as a raw m aterial
for th e ce m e n t and Steel industries or as o rn a ­
m en ta l stone, b u t th e resu ltant scars have led
to consid erable controv ersy (Case Study 8). T he
co n flic t is b etw een th e e co n o m ic advantages o f
e x tra ctin g a valuable raw m aterial and providing
local jobs, versus th e visual eyesore, noise, dust
and extra traffic resultin g from th e operations,
e.g. th e Hope valley, D erbyshire.
Farm ing is hind ered by th e dry, th in , poorly
developed soils for, a lth o u g h m ost upland lim e ­
stone areas o f B ritain receive high rain fall totals,
w ater soon flows underground. T he rock does
n o t readily w eath er in to soil-form in g particles,
such as clay or sand, bu t is dissolved and the
residue is th e n leached (page 2 6 1 ). O n hard lim e-
stones, rend zina soils m ay develop (page 2 7 4 ).
’ .10 These soils are un su itable for p lou g h in g and th eir
» Downs
covering o f short, coarse, springy grasses favours
arpment, o n ly sheep grazing. In th e ab sence o f hedges
:s, Sussex and trees, d rystone walls w ere c o m m o n ly bu ilt
as field boundaries. T h e scen ery attracts walkers
and school parties, w hile underground features
lure cavers, p o th olers and sp e le o lo g ists (scien ­
tists w ho study caves).
Chalk
C halk, in co n tra st to C arboniferous lim eston e
scenery, con sists of gently ro llin g hills w ith
rounded crest lines. Typically, ch alk has steep,
rath er th a n gorge-like, dry valleys and is rarely
exposed on th e surface (Figure 8.9 ).
The m ost distinctive feature o f chalk is prob-
ably the esca rp m e n t, or cu esta, e.g. the North
Downs and South Downs (Figures 8 .1 0 and 14.4).
Here the chalk, a pure form of lim estone, was
gently tilted by the earth m ovem ents associated
w ith the collision of the African and Eurasian
Plates. Subsequent erosion has left a steep scarp
slope and a gentle dip slope. In south-east
England, clay vales are found at th e foot o f the
escarpm ent (Figure 3.51b ).
Although chalk - like Carboniferous lim estone
- has little surface drainage, apart from rivers
like the Test and Itchen, its surface is covered in
num erous dry valleys (Figure 8.1 1 ). Given that
chalk can absorb and allow rainwater to percolate
through it, how could these valleys have formed?

Figure 8 .1 1
 G oudie lists 16 d ifferent h y p otheses th a t
have b een put forward regarding th e origins
o f dry valleys. T hese h e has grouped in to
three categories:
1 U n ifo rm ita ria n T hese h y p oth eses assum e
th a t th ere have b een no m a jo r ch anges in
clim ate or sea-level and th a t 'n o rm a l' -
i.e. fluvial - processes o f erosion have oper-
ated w ith o u t in terru p tio n . A typical scenario
w ould be th a t th e drainage system developed
on im p erm eable rock overlying th e chalk,
and su bseq u ently b ecam e superim posed
up on it (page 85).
2 M a rin e T hese h ypotheses are related to
relative changes in sea-level or base level
(page 8 1). O ne, w h ich has a m easure of
support, suggests th a t w h en sea-levels rose
eu statically at th e end o f th e last ice age (page
1 23), w ater tables and springs would also
have risen. Later, w h en th e base level fell,
so to o did th e w ater tab le and spring line,
cau sing valleys to b eco m e dry.
3 P a la e o c lim a tic This group o f h ypotheses,
based on clim a tic ch anges during and since
th e ice age, is th e m o st w idely accepted.
O ne hy p o th esis claim s th a t under perigla­
cial co n d itio n s any w ater in th e pore spaces
w ould have b een frozen, causing th e ch alk to
behave as an im perm eable rock (page 135).
As tem peratures were low, m o st p recip itatio n
w ould fall as snow. Any m eltw ater would
have to flow over th e surface, fo rm in g valleys
th a t are now relict landform s (Figure 8 .1 1 ).
An altern ativ e h y p o th esis stem s from occasion s
w h en places receive excessive am o u n ts o f rainfall
and stream s tem p orarily reappear in dry valleys.
C lim atolog ists have show n th a t there have been
tim es sin ce th e ice age w h en rainfall was consid -
erably greater th a n it is today. Figure 8 .9 show s
the n orm al water table w ith its associated spring
lin e. If th ere is a w etter th a n average winter,
or longer period, w hen m oistu re loss th rou g h
evaporation is at its m in im u m , th e n th e level
of p erm a n en t satu ration will rise. N otice th a t
th e w et-w eather water tab le causes a rise in th e
spring lin e and so seasonal rivers, or b o u rn es,
will flow in th e n orm ally dry valleys. Rem em ber
also th a t th ere will be a consid erable lag tim e
(Figure 3 .5 and page 61) b etw een th e peak ra in ­
fall and th e tim e w hen th e bou rn es w ill b eg in to
flow (th rou g hflow rath er th a n surface ru n o ff on
ch alk). T h e springs are th e source o f ob seq u en t
stream s (page 84).
The presen ce o f co o m b e deposits, resulting
from so liflu ctio n (pages 4 7 and 135), also links
chalk landform s w ith periglacial con d ition s.
200 Rock types and landforms
E co n o m ic v a lu e o f c h a lk
The m ain com m ercial use o f ch alk is in th e pro-
d u ctio n o f cem en t, bu t th ere are o b je ctio n s on
en v iro n m en ta l grounds to b o th quarries and
th e processing works. S ettlem e n t tends to be in
th e form o f n u cleated villages strung ou t in lines
along th e fo ot o f an escarpm ent, originally to
take advantage o f th e assured w ater supply from
the springs (Figures 8 .9 , 8 .1 0 and 14.4). W ater-
storing ch alk aquifers have lo n g b een used as a
natural, underground reservoir by in h ab itan ts of
Lond on. D espite recen t increases in d em and for
this artesian water, th e w ater table under London
has actu ally risen in recen t decades.
C h alk w eathers in to a th in , dry, calcareous
soil w ith a h ig h pH. U n til th is century, th e
springy tu rf o f th e D ow ns was m ain ly used
to graze sheep and to tra in race horses. Horse
racin g is still im p o rta n t locally, as at Epsom
and N ew m arket, b u t m u ch o f th e land has been
plou g hed and con v erted to tb e grow ing of
w h eat and barley. In places, th e ch alk is covered
by a residual d ep osit o f cla y -w ith -flin ts w h ich
m ay have b een an in solu ble c o m p o n e n t of
th e ch a lk or m ay have b een left from a form er
overlying rock. This soil is less porous and m ore
acid ic th a n th e calcareous soil and several such
areas are covered by b ee ch trees - or were, before
th e v io le n t storm o f O cto b er 1 9 8 7 (Places 29,
page 2 3 2 ). F lin t has b een used as a b u ild in g
m aterial and was th e m ajo r source for Sto n e Age
to ols and w eapons.
Bedding planes in Old
Red Sandstone, Old
Man of Hoy, Orkney
 Figure 8.13

Geological periods of various

British sandstones
S a n d s to n e
Geological period/ Examples:
S an d stone is th e m o st co m m o n rock in B ritain.
epoch Type of sandstone location in the UK
It is a sed im en tary rock com posed m ainly of
grains o f quartz, and occasion ally feldspar and Post-Eocene See Figure 1.1

even m ica, w h ich have b ee n com p acted by pres­ Eocene London and Hampshire
sure and cem ented by m inerals such as calcite basins
and silica. T his m akes it a m ore c o h e re n t and Cretaceous Greensand TheWeald (south-
resistant, but less porous, rock th a n sands. T he east England)
sands, b efore co m p actio n , m ay have b een d ep os­
Jurassic
ited in eith er a shallow seas, b estuaries and
deltas, or c h o t deserts. T h e presence o f bedding Triassic Bunterand Keuper English Midlands,
sandstone Cheshire
planes (Figure 8 .1 2 ) in dicates th e laying down
o f successive layers o f sed im ent. Sand stone can Permian New Red Sandstone Exe and Eden valleys,
vary in colou r from dark b row n or red th rou g h to south Arran
yellow, grey and w h ite (Figure 6 .5 2 ), d epending Carboniferous Millstone Grit Southern Pennines
o n th e degree o f oxid atio n or h y d ration (page
Devonian Old Red Sandstone South-west England,
42). Like lim eston e (page 19 6), sand stone has
South Wales, Hereford­
form ed in several geological periods (Figure shire, central and north-
8 .1 3 ), o f w h ich perhaps th e m ost sig n ifican t east Scotland
have been th e follow ing:
Silurian, Ordovician and Cambrian
■ T h e D ev o n ian , or Old Red S an d ston e
(Figure 1.1), w h en sand was deposited in Pre-Cambrian Torridon Wester Ross, Scotland
a shallow sea w h ich covered present-day
m ore resistant, w eathers to form uplands that
sou th-w est England, Sou th W ales and
have largely b een left as m oorland . M illstone Grit
Herefordshire. These deposits, w h ich were
areas provided grindstones for Sheffield's cutlery
o ften m assively bedded, were co n to rted and
industry in th e past, and today these areas are
up lifted b y subsequent earth m ovem ents.
popular for walking, rock-clim bing, grouse m oors
Landform s, in d icative o f an o ften resistant
and reservoirs.
rock, vary from spectacular Coastal cliffs to
th e plateau-like Exm oor, th e n o rth -fa cin g
scarp slope o f th e B recon B eacons and th e G r a n iţe
flatter low lands o f H erefordshire.
G ran iţe was form ed w hen m agm a was intruded
■ T he C arb o n ifero u s period, during part of
in to th e Earth's crust. Initially, as o n D artm oor
w h ich M illsto n e G rit was form ed under river
and in n o rth e rn Arran, th e m agm a created deep-
delta co n d itio n s. This is a darker, coarser and
seated, d om e-shaped b ath o lith s (page 2 9 ). Since
m ore resistant rock interbed ded w ith shales.
th e n th e rock has b een exposed b y various p roc­
In th e Southern P en n in es it can form eith er a
esses of w eatherin g and erosion . H aving been
plateau (Kinder Scout) or steep escarpm ents
form ed at a d ep th and under pressure, th e rate
(Stanage Edge).
o f co o lin g was slow and th is en abled large crys­
T he P e rm ia n , or N ew Red S an d ston e, w hen
tals o f quartz, m ica and feldspar to form . As the
sand was deposited un der h o t desert c o n ­
graniţe co n tin u ed to cool, it con tracted and a
dition s, o ften in shallow w ater (i.e. w hen
series of cracks were created vertically and hori-
B ritain lay in th e latitude o f th e present-day
zontally, at irregular intervals. T hese cracks m ay
Sahara). T h e rock is red, due to oxid ation ,
have b een further enlarged, m illion s of years
and, bein g less resistant th a n th e Old Red
later, by pressure release as overlying rocks were
Sand stone, tend s to form valleys (Exe and
rem oved (Figure 8 .1 4 ).
Eden) or low -lying hills (English M idlands).
The coarse-grained crystals render th e rock
E c o n o m ic v a lu e o f s a n d s to n e non -p orou s but, alth o u g h m an y texts quote
Sandstone is th e m ost co m m o n build ing m aterial graniţe as an exam p le o f an im perm eable rock,
in Britain. In th e past it was o ften used as stone w ater can find its way along th e m an y cracks
for castles and cathedrals and, later, converted m aking som e areas perm eable. D espite this,
in to brick for housing. M uch o f th e New Red m o st graniţe areas usually have a high drainage
Sandstone has w eathered in to a warm, red, light den sity and, as th ey occu r in upland parts of
and easily worked soil of high agricultural value, B ritain w h ich have a h ig h rainfall, th e y are often
in con trast to th e Old Red Sandstone w hich, being covered by m arshv terrain.

Rock types and landforms 201

 A lthough a hard rock, graniţe is susceptible
to b o th ph ysical and ch e m ica l w eathering. The
jo in ts, w h ich ca n hold water, are w idened by
frost sh atterin g (page 4 0 ), w hile th e d ifferent
rates o f exp a n sio n and co o lin g o f th e various
m inerals w ith in th e rock cause granular d isin ­
tegration (page 4 1 ). The feldspar and, to a lesser
e xten t, m ica can be chan g ed ch em ica lly by
hydrolysis (page 42). This m eans th a t calciu m ,
potassium , sodium , m agnesiu m and, if th e pH is
less th a n 5 .0 , iro n and aiu m in iu m , are released
from th e ch em ica l structure. W h ere th e feldspar
is changed near to th e surface it form s a w h itish
clay called k a o lin ite . W h ere th e chan g e occurs
Figure 8.14 at a greater d ep th (perhaps due to h y d rotherm al
actio n ), it produces k ao lin . Quartz, w h ich is
HoundTor, Dartmoor
n o t affected by ch em ica l w eathering, rem ains as
loose crystals (Figure 2.7 ).
T h e m o st d istin ctive gran iţe land form in te m ­
perate cou n tries is th e to r (Figure 8 .1 4 ) and, in
tro p ical regions, th e in selb erg (Figures 2.3 and
7.6). There are tw o m ajo r th eories co n cern in g
th e ir fo rm atio n , based on physical and ch em ical
w eathering respectively. B oth , how ever, suggest
the rem oval o f m aterial by so liflu ctio n and
h e n ce lead to th e o p in io n th a t tors and insel-
bergs are relict features.
T h e first h y p o th esis suggests th a t b locks of
exposed graniţe were broken up, subaerially, by
frost sh atterin g during periglacial tim es. The
w eathered m aterial was th e n m oved dow nhill
by so liflu ctio n to leave th e m ore resistant rock
up stand ing o n h ill sum m its and valley sides.
T h e second , proposed by D.L. L in ton , sug­
gests th a t jo in ts in th e graniţe were w idened by
sub-surface ch em ica l w eathering (Figure 8 .1 5 ).
He suggested th a t deep w eathering occurred
during th e w arm P liocene period (Figure 1.1)
w h en rainw ater p enetrated th e still-unexposed
graniţe. As th e jo in ts w idened, roughly rectan ­
gular b locks or core-stones were form ed. The
w eathered rock is believed to have b een rem o v e:
by so liflu ctio n during periglacial tim es to leave
outcrops o f graniţe tors, separated by shallov»
depressions. The spacing o f th e jo in ts is belie', e<i
to be criticai in to r fo rm ation : large, resistant
core-stones have b een left w here jo in ts were
spaced far apart; w here th e y were closely packei-
and w eatherin g was m ore active, clay-filled
depressions have developed. T h e rounded natu:
o f t h e core-stones (Figure 8 .1 5 ), especially in
tropical regions, is caused by sp h ero id al w e a th ­
ering, a form o f e x fo lia tio n (page 41).

Figure 8.15
1 Pliocene 2 Pleistocene 3 Presen t day

The formation overlying rocks

original land surface
of tors {after D.L. overlying rocks slowly overlying rocks all rerrc
Linton) new land surface removed by solifluction
most rapid weathering where
joints are close
graniţe

joints
formed ,
mm
joints widened by
deep chemical
core-stones
fr~) depression - -
by cooling weathering with kaolir
_ I___

more joints created as slower weathering wherel'

rock continues to cool joints are widely spaced:
close wide close wide and contract; nearer the spheroidal weathering
joints joints joints surface, joints also produces rectangular
joints
created by pressure blocks with rounded
release edges

202
 E co n o m ic v a lu e o f g ra n iţe
As a raw m aterial, graniţe can be used for building
purposes; Aberdeen, for exam ple, is know n as 'th e
graniţe city'. Kaolin, or ch in a clay, is used in the
m anufacture o f pottery. Peat, w hich overlies large
areas o f graniţe bedrock, is an acidic soil w hich
is often severely gleyed (page 2 7 5) and saturated
w ith water, form ing blan k et bogs. T he resultant
heather-covered m oorland is often unsuitable
for farm ing b u t provides ideal terrain for grouse,
and for arm y training. W ith so m u ch surface
water and heavy rainfall, graniţe areas provide
ideal sites for reservoirs. Tors, such as Hound Tor
on D artm oor (Figure 8.1 4 ), m ay becom e tourist
attractions, but graniţe en vironm ents tend to be
in hospitable for settlem ent.
h exag o n al, colu m n ar jo in tin g . B asalt can be
extruded from eith er fissures or a central vent
(page 2 5). W h e n extruded from fissures, th e
lava o ften covers large areas o f land - h en ce
th e term flood basalts - to produce flat plateaus
such as th e D eccan Plateau in India and th e
D rakensbergs in Sou th Africa. Successive erup-
tio n s o ften build upwards to give, som etim es
aided by later erosion, stepped hillsides b en eath
flat, tabular sum m its (e.g. th e D rakensbergs,
Lanzarote and A n trim ). W h en extruded from a
central vent, th e viscous lava produces gently
slopin g shield v o lcan o es (Figure 1 .2 2 b ). Shield
vo lcan o es can reach con sid erable h eig h ts -
M auna Loa (Hawaii) rises over 9 0 0 0 m from th e
Pacific seabed m ak ing it, from base to sum m it,
th e h ig h est m o u n ta in o n Earth.

B a s a lt E co n o m ic v a lu e o f b a s a lt
B asaltic landform s can som etim es be m o n o to -
Unlike graniţe, basalt formed on the Earth’s surface,
nous, such as places covered in flood basalts, and
usually at constructive plate margins. The basic
som etim es scen ic and spectacular, as th e G iant's
lava, on exposure to the air, cooled and solidified
Causeway, th e Haw aiian vo lcan o es and th e
very rapidly. The rapid cooling produced small,
Iguaţu Falls in Brazii (Places 11, page 76). Basaltic
fine-grained crystals and large cooling cracks which,
lava can w eather relatively quickly in to a deep,
at places like the Giant's Causeway in Northern
fertile soil as o n th e D eccan in India and in th e
Ireland (Figure 1.27) and Fingal's Cave on the Isle
coffee-grow ing region o f sou th-east Brazii. It can
of Staffa, are characterised by p erfectly shaped
also be used for road fou nd ations.

Quarrying in northern India

Figure 8.16

Location of Dehra Dun

*h e 1 9 6 0 s N

IXin. the main town in the Dun Valley
■? oopulation exceeding 400 000, is sit-
n the foothills ofthe Himalayas some
~ north ofDelhi (Figure 8.16). Until
' Os, the rich soil ofthe valley allowed
■; to produce high-quality basmati
J the lush green forest surrounding
r. had been used sustainably by
.ople for centuries.That changed in
r-50s when several large quarries were
rd to open up in the valley without
: ;ard for either thejnhabitants ofthe
‘he environment.
As India's economy grew, there was
increasing conflict between develop-
ment and the environment.The extraction
of rocks and minerals was necessary to
provide the new manufacturing industries Dehra
with raw materials and to provide people
with jobs, but mining and quarrying can
be very damaging to the environment and
to fragile ecosystems.The limestone that
D e lh l 0
was quarried in the Dun Valley was either •
N ew
crushed and used in India's Steel industry
D e lh i
or used for road building, concrete and
whitewash.
 Q u a rry in g in n o r th e r n In d ia

Figure 8.18

Conservation methods include

working on flat terraces to stop
boulders and waste material sliding
downhill, and replanting areas
where quarrying has finished

,> -V -­

ţ / m ' • "
i V'-
..- V
'.i 'V V V i f

•• y f:

T h e e ffe c ts
• As new quarries developed, many
ofthe trees growing on the hillsides
were removed. Steep hillsides and
deforestation in an area with a
monsoon climate (page 239) meant
that when the heavy summer rains
feil, the soil was seriously eroded.
Surface runoff led to the fertile soils
being covered in debris and caused
landslides, especially where unstable
quarry waste had been dumped.
Deforestation also meant there was less
fuelwood for people living in nearby
villages.
• Material carried downhill often ended up
in rivers, where it not only polluted water
supplies but also blocked the river with
boulders and waste. Before quarrying
began, one bridge had an arch nearly
20 m above the river, but after quarrying
it was reduced to less than 5 m.
• Before quarrying, settlements in
the area had an all-year supply of
clean water obtained from springs
and resurgences formed when
underground rivers in the limestone
hills re-appeared at the surface
(page 197).The increase in surface
runoff due to quarrying and
deforestation caused the water table
to fall by 5 m in seven years.This meant
that Dehra Dun often received water
for only a few hours a day. W ithout
enough water to irrigate their fields,
local farmers were unable to provide
enough food for their families.
• The blasting of rockcreated noise
and air poliution and caused nearby
buildingsto vibrate.
• The trucks and lorries-m any old and
badly maintained - that transported
the limestone down the steep, narrow
roads caused the road surface to break
up, released poisonous fumes and
created more dust (Figure 8.17).
• The kilns that processed the limestone
also added to the air pollution.
L o c a l p r o te s ts
In the 1980s, many local people grouped
togethertoform the'Friends of Dun'.The
group, led mainly bywealthy and influential
business and retired people, submitted a
petition to the Supreme Court which led,
in 1988, to all the quarries (with one excep-
tion) being closed down. By the end ofthe
20 th century, trees planted by school
children and local people had begun to
mature intoforest, although farmers still
found much of their soil unusable.
S h o u ld t h e o n e q u a r r y
r e m a in o p e n ?
The Supreme Court allowed one quarry
to operate until its lease ran out.This was
partly because the quarry provided hun-
dreds of jobs for local people, although the
were poorly paid, and partly because the
quarry owners attempted to implement
conservation techniques, such as working
on flat terraces to stop boulders and wasfe j
material sliding downhill (Figure 8.18) and
replanting areas where quarrying had
finished.The argument now appears to te
between the wealthy conservation group
who want to protect and restore the Dur
Valley and the poorer workers who, withc _»
the quarry and with few alternative job:
available, would have no income if itc lo se i

F u rth e r re fe re n c e
Goudie, A.S. (2001) T h eN a tu reo fth e M ichigan Karst C onservancy Group: Pretoria Portland C em ent Co. Ltd:
Environment, WileyBlackwell. www.caves.org/conservancy/mkc/ www.ppc.co.za
m ichigan_karst_conservancy.htm

204 Rock types and landforms

 Questions & Activities

A -rciv itie s

s Describe the characteristics of each ofthe following rock types d A stream flows from the edge ofthe map at 893661 to
r terms of chemical composition, rock structure and origin: 894657. South of this point is a dry valley. Suggest why this
Carboniferous limestone; chalk; graniţe; basalt. (12marks) dry valley is here. (6 marks)
z Choose one ofthe rock types in a and draw an annotated e Farming in this area has been described as'marginal; it could
j.agram to identify the characteristic landscape features not exist without subsidies'.
associated with it. (9 marks) Suggest why the physical geography makes farming so
c -or each ofthe rock types identified in a, suggest one reason difficult. (5 marks)
■
■■hy it may be of value as a resource for human use. (4 marks)
a Making good use of annotated diagrams, describe the
-dy the OS map extract ofthe area around Malham in surface features ofa chalk cuesta. (6 marks)
- -e8.19. b Describe and explain the location ofthe water table within
3 i How high above sea-level is the minor road at an area of chalk hills. (6 marks)
GR 907649? (1 mark) c Describe and suggest reasons for the location of settlements
ii What is the feature at GR 906655? (1 mark) close to the foot of a cha Ik cuesta. (4 marks)
dentify and give grid references for two pieces of evidence that d Suggest two reasons why some chalk downs have prehistoric
arge parts of this area have limestone rock outcropping atthe carved figures on them. (4 marks)
surface.
e Chalkescarpments may have'hangers'(areas of beech
Justify each of your choices. (6 marks) woodland on the brow ofthe scarp). Suggest why these
Explain, using one or more diagrams, why there are large areas woodlands are found here. (5marks)
of bare flat rock in the area shown on the map extract.
(6 marks)

: m p r a c tic e : s t r u c t u r e d q u e s tio n s

5: jd y the OS map extract ofthe area around Malham in c This area is both a tourist area and a working farming
r gure 8.19. area. Identify one way these two land uses are in conflict
a identify and locatetwo pieces of evidence to suggest and explain the reasons for this conflict. (8 marks)
that this area is limestone rock. For each explain how the
i Explain how areas of graniţe rock, such as Dartmoor,
evidence shows it to be limestone. (lOmarks)
were formed. (6 marks)
d Why is there so much settlement and other ancient
ii Describe the processes of weathering in graniţe.
remains visible in an area such as this? (7marks)
(6 marks)
b 'Graniţe tors form as a
result ofthe nature and
tA ro a o l i - A rea of
Shake H o lp l 'Shake Holes
structure ofthe rock
ijm H ig h S to n y B a n k and the nature ofthe
weathering processes.'
Describe a typical graniţe
‘Street G ate tor and explain its
Shake
H o le s
formation. (13 marks)

Shake • RO M AN
H o le • CAM P
;T o rle r)
V * /Shake • L o w S to n y Ba n k Area: E x a m p r a c tic e : e s s a y
j *Holet Shake
*j A bbot H iils
C attfk-,
Shake \Gnd ’ Should the quarry in the Dun
Hole»
Prio r Rakes'S» valley be allowed to remain
rttţemcnt» open?
Present the arguments for
two groups that think the
B ro a d Sea rs
quarry should continue and
£e?Malham Lings'
for tw o groups that think it
should be closed.
BgiS \
jomcstfafc Then present a conclusion
% /^ .B ro a d F ia ts Shake taking the arguments
H ole
of both sides into
“ialham » ‘ * k ScttteTiicnts ’^airn5 iK. N ew Clo se,
urii S y s t îin s r * Knotts consideration. (25 marks)
n- -ţ,

Rcck types and landforms 205

 Weather and ritmat*
'1 'fiere is reolly no such t m r 0 a s had weather, only differen t
t\f)es o fg o o d w m th n .'
John Rujkiri.Quote'fonil <>16Avtl-w'v
'l\ tun two Engiishm en m eet, thcii first taik is u f
the w eath er/
Sttmu*! Johnson The WW
The Science o f m eteorology is th e study o f atm os­
pheric p h en om en a; it includes the study o f b o th
w eather and clim ate. T he d istin ction betw een
clim ate and w eather is one o f scale. W eath er
refers to th e state of the atm osphere at a local
level, usually on a short tim escale of m inutes to
m o n th s. It em phasises aspects o f th e atm osphere
th a t affect h u m an a ctiv ity such as sunshine,
cloud, wind, rainfall, hu m id ity and tem perature.
C lim ate is concerned w ith th e long-term behav-
iour of th e atm osphere in a specific area. C lim atic
characteristics are represented by data on te m ­
perature, pressure, wind, precipitation, hum idity,
etc. w h ich are used to calculate daily, m o n th ly
and yearly averages (Fram ework 8, page 2 4 6 ) and
to build up global patterns (C hapter 12).
S tru c tu re a n d c o m p o s itio n o f
th e a tm o s p h e re
The atm osphere is an envelope of transp arent,
odourless gases held to th e Earth by g ravitaţional
a ttra ctio n . W h ile th e fu rthest lim it o f th e a tm o s­
phere is said by in te rn a ţio n a l c o n v e n tio n to be at
1 0 0 0 km , m ost o f th e atm osphere, and th erefore
our clim ate and w eather, is co n cen trated w ith in
16 km o f th e Earth's surface at th e Equator and
8 km at th e poles. Fifty per ce n t o f atm osp heric
m ass is w ith in 5 .6 km o f sea-level and 9 9 per cen t
is w ith in 4 0 km . A tm ospheric pressure decreases
rapidly w ith h eig h t but, as recordings m ade by
radiosondes, w eather b a llo o n s and m ore recen tly
w eather satellites have show n, tem perature
changes are m ore com p lex. C h an g es in te m ­
p eratu re m e a n th a t th e a tm o sp h e re ca n be co n -
v e n ie n tly d ivid ed in to four d istin c tiv e layers
206 Weather and climate
(Figure 9 .1 ); m o v in g ou tw ards fro m th e Earth s
surface:
1 T ro p o sp h ere Tem peratures in th e tropo-
sphere decrease by 6.4°C w ith every 1 0 0 0 m
increase in altitud e (en v iro n m en tal lapse rate
page 2 1 6 ). This is because th e E arth ’s surfact
is w arm ed by in co m in g solar rad iatio n w hich
in tu rn h eats th e air n e x t to it by con d u ctio n
c o n v e ctio n and rad iation. Pressure falls as
th e effect o f gravity decreases, alth ou g h w inc
speeds usually increase w ith h eig h t. The la\ n
is u n stable and co n ta in s m o st o f th e atm os-
phere's water vapour, cloud, dust and pollu-
tio n . T he tropopause, w h ich form s th e u p p t:
lim it to th e Earth's clim ate and w eather, is
m arked by an iso th erm al layer w here tem per­
atures rem ain co n sta n t despite any increase
in h eigh t.
2 S tra to sp h e re The stratosphere is charac-
terised b y a steady increase in tem perature
(tem perature inversion, page 2 1 7 ) caused b^
c o n c e n tra tio n o f o zo n e ( 0 3) (Places 27, page
2 0 9 ). This gas absorbs in co m in g u ltra-v io let
(UV) ra d ia tio n from th e sun. W inds are ligh:
in th e low er parts, but increase w ith height:
pressure co n tin u es to fall and th e air is dry.
T he stratosphere, like th e tw o layers above
it, acts as a p rotectiv e shield against m eteor-
ites w h ich usually b u m ou t as th ey en ter the
E a rth ’s grav itaţion al field. The strato p au se is
a n o th er iso th erm al layer w here tem peratures
do n o t chang e w ith in creasin g h eight.
3 M esosp here Tem peratures fall rapidly as
th ere is n o water vapour, cloud, dust or ozone
to absorb in co m in g rad iation. This layer
exp erien ces th e atm osphere's low est tem p er­
atures (-9 0 °C ) and stron gest winds (neariy
3 0 0 0 km/hr). T h e m eso p au se, like th e tro p o­
pause and stratopause, show s n o change in
tem perature.
4 T h erm o sp h e re Tem peratures rise rapidly
w ith h eig h t, perhaps to reach 1500°C . This
is due to an in creasin g p ro p ortio n of atom ic
oxygen in th e atm osp here w h ich, like ozone.
absorbs in co m in g u ltra-violet rad iation.
 E n e r g y in t h e a t m o s p h e r e
T he sun is the Earth's prim e source o f energy. The
Earth receives energy as in co m in g sh o rt-w ave
solar radiation (also referred to as in solatio n ). It
is this energy th a t Controls our planet's clim ate
and w eather and w h ich, w hen converted by pho-
tosynthesis in green plants, supports all form s of
life. T he a m o u n t o f in co m in g radiation received
by th e Earth is determ ined by four astronom ical
factors (Figure 9 .3 ): th e solar con stan t, th e dis­
tan ce from the sun, th e altitude o f th e sun in
th e sky, and th e length of night and day. Figure
9 .3 is th eoretical in th a t it assumes there is no
atm osphere around th e Earth. In reality, m uch
in solatio n is absorbed, reflected and scattered as it
passes th rou g h th e atm osphere (Figure 9.4).
Absorption of incom ing radiation is m ainly by
ozone, water vapour, carbon dioxide and particles
te m peratu re (°C) o f ice and dust. It occurs in, and is limited to, the
infra-red part of the spectrum. Clouds and, to a
A tm o s p h e ric gases lesser extent, the Earth's surface reflect consider-
■-jes in
The various gases w h ich co m b in e to form th e able am ounts o f radiation back into space. The
- :>=rature
■-xight atm osphere are listed in Figure 9 .2 . O f these, ratio betw een incom ing radiation and the am ount
nitrogen and oxygen together make up 99 per cent reflected, expressed as a percentage, is know n as
fall
by volu m e. O f th e others, w ater vapour (low er the albedo. The albedo varies with cloud type from
constant atm osp here), ozone ( 0 3) (upper atm osphere) and 3 0 -4 0 per cen t in th in clouds, to 5 0 -7 0 per cent in
rise carb on d ioxid e ( C 0 2) have an im p ortan ce far thicker stratus and 9 0 per cent in cum ulo-nim bus
beyon d th e ir seem ingly sm all am ou nts. It is th e (when only 10 per cent reaches the atmosphere
d ep letion o f 0 3 (Places 2 7 ) and th e increase in below cloud level). Albedos also vary over dif­
C O , (Case Study 9B) w hich are cau sing co n cern ferent land surfaces, from less than 10 per cent over
'"ucture of
■ere to scientists. Figure 9.2

The composition ofthe atmosphere

Percentage
fes by volume Importance for weather and climate Other functions/source
-e-nanent gases: nitrogen 78.09 Needed for plantgrowth.

oxygen 20.95 J Mainly passive Produced byphotosynthesis;

reduced by deforestation.
' able gases: water vapour 0.20-4.0 Source of cloud formation and precipitation, reflects/absorbs incoming Essential for life on Earth.
long-wave radiation. Keeps global temperatures constant. Provides Canbestored asice/snow.
majority of natural'greenhouse effect'.
carbon dioxide 0.03 Absorbs long-wave radiation from Earth and so contributes to Used by plants for photosynthesis;
'greenhouse effect'. Its increase due to human activity is a major increased by burning fossil fuels
cause of global warming. and by deforestation.
ozone 0.00006 Absorbs incoming short-wave ultra-violet radiation. Reduced/destroyed by
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
pollutants trace Sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, methane. Absorb long-wave radiation, From industry, power stations
cause acid rain and contribute to the greenhouse effect. andcarexhausts.
■ert gases: argon 0.93

helium, neon, krypton trace

-gaseous: dust trace Absorbs/reflects incoming radiation. Volcanic dust,

Forms condensation nudei necessary for doud formation. meteoriticdust,
soil erosion by wind.
:re: the figures refer to dry air and so the variable amount of water vapour is not usually taken into consideration.

Weather and climate 207

 Sun
1 Prim e source o f energ y on Earth and, throu gh photosynthesis, of life.
2 Affects climate: atm ospheric m otion (winds), ocean cu rrents,typ e
and am o u n t of precipitation, tem peratures.

O
Incom ing, short-wave (solar) radiation.The am o un t of
insolation received by the Earth d ep end s upon:

i f V V ..... -
the solar constant distance from the sun altitude of the sun in the sky length of day and night
This varies according The eccentric orbit o fth e Each radiation bundie has tw ice the area to D ue to the Earth being tilted at 23-î°, there
to sunspot activity Earth around the sun heat up at 6 0 °N than a t t h e Equator, therefore are several m onths w ith no insolation
but is relatively (Figure 4.6) can cause a tem peratu res are low er nearer th e poles. Also, p olew ard of 661
i ° N or S. B e tw e e n 23*2° and
constant, affects 6 per cen t difference in at the Equator, less heat is absorbed/reflected 66h° N and S, there is o ne radiation
long-term clim ate solar constant. because there is less atm o sp here for the m axim um and o ne m inim um . B e tw een
rather than short radiation to pass through. 23*5°N and 2 3 V S , there are tw o radiation
term weather. maxim a and tw o minima.

60° N Earth's radiation

insolation
bundles of solar
insolation \m ax / max
-0°-
Earth's
orbit
atm osphere mln_______
sunrise sunset sunrise sunset

Figure 93 oceans and dark soil, to 15 per cent over coniferous
Incoming radiation forest and urban areas, 25 per cent over grasslands
received by the Earth and deciduous forest, 4 0 per cen t over light-col-
(assuming that there oured deserts and 85 per cen t over reflecting fresh
is no atmosphere) snow. W here deforestation and overgrazing occur,
the albedo increases. This reduces the possibility of
cloud form ation and precipitation and increases the
risk of desertification (Case Study 7). Scattering
occurs w hen incom ing radiation is diverted by par­
ticles of dust, as horn volcanoes and deserts, or by
molecules o f gas. It takes place in all directions and
some of th e radiation will reach the Earth's surface
as diffuse radiation.
As a result o f absorption, reflection and scat­
tering, on ly about 2 4 per cen t o f in com in g
radiation reaches th e Earth's surface directly, with
a further 21 per cen t arriving at ground-level as
diffuse rad iation (Figure 9.4 ). In com in g radiation
is converted in to heat energy w hen it reaches the
Earth's surface. As the ground warms, it radiates
energy back in to th e atm osphere w here 94 per
cen t is absorbed (only 6 per cen t is lost to space),
m ainly by water vapour and carbon dioxide - tht
greenhouse effect (Case Study 9B). W ith ou t the
natural greenhouse effect, w h ich traps so m u ch of
th e ou tgoing radiation, world tem peratures would
be 33°C lower th a n they are at present and life on
Earth would be im possible. (During th e ice age,
it was on ly 4°C cooler.) This ou tgoing (terrestrial ■
radiation is lo n g-w ave or in fra-red radiation.

Figure 9.4

The solarenergy incoming A/ofe:these figures are variable

cascade radiation d ep end in g upon thickness of
( 100%) cloud cover, w ater vap o ur content,
am o un t of dust, etc.

small am o u n t absorbed
in stratosphere (1 % ) clouds absorb small am ounts (3 % )
and reflect larger am ounts (23%)
scattering: 2 1 % reaches Earth as
diffuse radiation, rem ainder
scattered back into space by cloud
and dust reflection 2 4 % absorbed by the atm osp here
small am ounts (4 % ) reflected back
into space from the Earth's surface 2 4 % o f incom ing radiation directly
____________________________________________________________________ reaches the Earth's surface________________________________
Earth's surface
4 5 % o f incom ing radiation reaches Earth's surface:
direct (2 4 % ) + diffuse (2 1 % ) radiation

208 Weather and climate

 T h e atm osphere: ozone
The major concentration of ozone is in the stratosphere,
25-30 km above sea-level (Figure 9.1). Ozone acts as a
shield protecting the Earth from the damaging effects
of ultra-violet (UV) radiation from the sun. An increase
in UV radiation means an increase in sunburn and skin
cancer (fair skin is at greater risk than dark skin), snow-
blindness, cataracts and eye damage, ageing and skin
wrinkling in humans, as well as having a major impact
on Antarctic organisms.
A depletion in ozone above the Antarctic was first
observed, by chance, by the British Antarctic Survey
in 1977, and the first'hole' was described in a scientific
paper published in 1985.The term'hole'is misleading as
it means a depletion in ozone of over 50 per cent (not a
100 per cent loss). Each Antarctic spring (September to
November) the temperature falls so low that it causes
ozone to be destroyed in a chemical reaction with
chlorine. At the time there were two main sources of
chlorine:
• the release of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) from
aerosols such as hairsprays, deodorants, refrigerator
coolants and manufacturing processes that
produced foam packaging (a long-term effect)
• from major volcanic eruptions, e.g. Mount
Pinatubo (Case Study 1- a short-term effect).
The 1985 paper was followed bya spate of experiments
aimed at trying to establish the causes and probable
effects of ozone depletion. Within two years -
a remarkablyshort time for In te rn a tio n a l action-
i *v m i
III I i.i.ll.iM o M
. . •
S o r th P o le E q u a to r S o u th P o le
:udget
the Montreal Protocol was signed by which the more
industrialised countries agreed to set much lower
limitsforCFCproduction,and subsequentlyto reduce
this to zero.The agreement came so quickly, and CFC
production dropped so rapidly, that the Montreal
Protocol has been held up as a'model'international
environmental agreement.
Initially, ozone depletion continued.The first Arctic
'hole'was observed in 1989 following the coldest-
ever recorded January in that region.The'hole'over
Antarctica continued to grow each year until 2003, by
which time it had reached its maximum extent and was
affecting populated parts of Chile and NewZealand.
Since then, mainly due to most ofthe harmful CFCs
having been replaced by gases less toxic to ozone
(though still greenhouse gases), there have been
encouraging signs of ozone replacement and hopes are
high that ozone concentrations will return to normal by
the middle or latter part of this century - a rare success
story for internaţional environment management.
In contrast, vehide exhaust systems generate
dangerous quantities of ozone close to the Earth's
surface, especially during calm summer anticyclonic
conditions (page 234). Under extreme conditions,
nitrogen oxide from exhausts reacts with VOCs
(volatile organic compounds) in sunlightto create a
petrochemical smog.This can cause serious damage to
the health of people (especially those with asthma) and
animals.
The heat budget
Since th e Earth is n e ith er w arm ing up nor
co o lin g dow n, th ere m ust be a b alan ce betw een
in co m in g in so la tio n and ou tg oin g terrestrial
rad iation . Figure 9 .5 show s th at:
■ there is a n e t gain in rad iation everyw here on
th e Earth's surface (curve A) excep t in polar
latitudes w h ich have h ig h albedo surfaces
■ th ere is a n e t loss in rad iation th ro u g h o u t th e
atm osphere (curve B)
* after b alan cin g th e in co m in g and ou tgoing
rad iation , th ere is a n et surplus betw een 35°S
and 40°N (th e differen ce in latitud e is due to
th e larger land m asses of th e n o rth e rn hem i-
sphere) and a n e t deficit to th e polew ard sides
of th o se latitud es (curve C).
This m eans th a t th ere is a p o sitiv e h e a t b a la n ce
w ith in th e tropics and a n e g a tiv e h e a t b a la n ce
b o th at h ig h latitud es (polar regions) and high
altitudes. Two m a jo r tran sfers o f h eat, therefore,
take place to prevent tro p ical areas from over-
h eatin g (Figure 9 .6 ).
Weather and climate 209
 1 H orizo n tal h e a t tran sfers Heat is transferred
away from the tropics, thus preventing the
These are relatively constan t at a given point.
Equator from becom ing increasingly hotter and
the poles increasingly colder. W inds (air move-
m ents including jet streams, page 227; hurri-
canes, page 235; and depressions, page 230) are
responsible for 80 per cent of this heat transfer,
and ocean currents for 2 0 per cent (page 211).
2 V ertical h e a t tran sfers Heat is also transferred
vertically, thus preventing the Earth's surface
from getting hotter and the atm osphere colder.
This is achieved through ra d ia tio n , con d u c-
tion , c o n v e c tio n and the transfer of la te n t
heat. Latent heat is the am ount of heat energy
needed to change the state o f a substance
w ithout affecting its temperature. W hen ice
changes into water or water into vapour, heat is
taken up to help w ith the processes of m elting
and evaporation. This absorption of heat results
in the cooling of the atm osphere. W h en the
process is reversed - i.e. vapour condenses into
water or water freezes in to ice - heat energy is
released and the atm osphere is warmed.
Variations in the radiation balance occur at a
num ber of spaţial and tem poral scales. Regional
differences m ay be due to the uneven distribu-
tion of land and sea, altitude, and the direction of
prevailing winds. Local variations m ay result from
asp ect and am ounts of cloud cover. Seasonal and
diurnal variations are related to the altitude of the
sun and the length of night and day.
G lobal fa cto rs a ffe c tin g in so latio n
Factors that influence the am ount of insolation
received at any point, and therefore its radiation
balance and heat budget, vary considerably over
tim e and space.
Lo n g -term factors
m H e ig h t a b o v e sea -le v e l T h e atm osp here is
n o t warm ed d irectly b y th e sun, b u t by heat
radiated from th e Earth's surface and distrib-
uted by co n d u ctio n and co n v e ctio n . As the
h e ig h t o f m o u n tain s increases, th e y present
a decreasing area o f land surface from which
to h eat th e surrounding air. In ad dition, as
th e d en sity or pressure o f th e air decreases, s<
to o does its ab ility to hold h eat (Figure 9.1).
T his is because th e m o lecu les in th e air w hict
receive and retain h eat b eco m e fewer and
m ore w idely spaced as h e ig h t increases.
■ A ltitud e o f th e sun As the angle o f the sun
in the sky decreases, the land area heated by a
given ray and the depth of atm osphere through
w hich that ray has to pass b o th increase.
Consequently, the am ount of insolation lost
through absorption, scattering and reflection
also increases. Places in lower latitudes th e re fc -
have higher temperatures th an those in highe-
latitudes.
■ Land an d sea Land and sea differ in their
ability to absorb, transfer and radiate heat
energy. The sea is m ore transparent than the
land, and is capable of absorbing heat down
to a depth of 10 metres. It can then transfer
this heat to greater depths through the move-
m ents of waves and currents. The sea also has ă
greater sp ecific h e a t c a p a city th an that of Iar i
Specific heat capacity is th e am ount of energy
required to raise the temperature of 1 kg o f a
substance by 1°C, expressed in kilojoules per
kg per °C. Expressed in kilocalories, the specific
heat capacity of water is 1.0, that of land is 0.5
and that of sand 0.2.

Figure 9.6

Heat transfers in the

atmosphere
net radiation
loss

\ horizontal transfer: w inds (jet streams), hurricanes

and depressions, o cean currents

net radiation net radiation

vertical transfer: radiation atm osphere
surplus loss
convection
conduction
latent heat

/ horizontal transfer

net radiation
loss

210
■■_3l ranges in
- -perature (°C)
This m eans that water requires twice as m uch
energy as soil and five tim es m ore th an sand to
raise an equivalent mass to the same tem pera­
ture. During summer, therefore, the sea heats
up m ore slowly than the land. In winter, the
reverse is the case and land surfaces lose heat
energy m ore rapidly than water. The oceans act
as efficient 'therm al reservoirs'. This explains
w hy Coastal environm ents have a smaller
annual range o f temperature than locations at
the centres of continents (Figure 9.7).
■ P rev ailin g w ind s The tem peratu re o f th e
wind is determ ined by its area o f origin and
by th e ch aracteristics o f th e surface over
w h ich it su bseq u en tly blow s (Figure 9.8 ).
A w ind b low in g from th e sea tend s to be
w arm er in w inter and cooler in sum m er th a n
a corresp o n d ing w ind co m in g from th e land.
■ O cean cu rren ts These are a m ajor com ponent
in th e process o f horizontal transfer of heat
energy. Warm currents carry water polewards
and raise the air temperature of the maritim e
environm ents where they flow. Cold currents
carry water towards the Equator and so lower
the temperatures o f coasta! areas (Figure 9.9).
Season SEA W est coast
a gra m
~e effect
_ g w in ds W in ter Warm warm wind
_: s e a
.•es
Sum m er Cool cool wind
i
Equator
The main ocean currents follow circular routes
- clockwise in the northern hemisphere, anti-
clockwise in the Southern hemisphere.
Figure 9 .1 0 shows the difference between the
mean January temperature of a place and the mean
January temperatures of other places with the same
latitude; this difference is known as a tem perature
anom aly. (The term 'temperature anom aly' is used
specifically to describe temperature differences from
a mean. It should n ot be confused with the more
general definition of 'anom aly' w hich refers to
som ething that does n o t fit into a general pattern.)
For example, Stornoway (Figure 9.10) has a m ean
January temperature of 4°C, w hich is 20°C higher
than the average for other locations lying at 58°N.
Such anomalies result primarily from the uneven
heating and cooling rates of land and sea and are
intensified by the horizontal transfer of energy by
ocean currents and prevailing winds. Remember
that the sun appears overhead in the Southern hem i­
sphere at this tim e of year (January) and isotherms
have been reduced to sea-level - i.e. temperatures
are adjusted to elim inate some of the effects of relief,
thus emphasising the influence o f prevailing winds,
ocean currents and continentality.
LAND East coast SEA Season
COLD cool wind l/l/arm W in ter
WARM w arm wind Cool Sum m er
Weather and climate 211

Figure 9.9
Major ocean currents
N°'
w arm current
(raises Coastal
tem peratures)
cold current
»- (low ers Coastal
tem peratures)
fi A j
. .
Figure 9.10 S = S to rn o w a y
N = N o rth - e a st S ib e ria
Temperature anomalies for
January (offer O.C. Money)
S h o rt-te rm fa c to rs
mS eason al ch a n g e s At th e spring and autum n
eq u in o xes (21 M arch and 2 2 Septem ber)
w hen th e sun is directly over th e Equator,
in so la tio n is distributed equ ally betw een
b o th hem isp heres. At th e sum m er and w inter
solstices (21 Ju n e and 2 2 D ecem ber) w hen,
due to th e Earth's tilt, th e sun is overhead
at th e tropics, th e h em isp here exp erien cin g
'su m m er' will receive m axim u m in so la tio n .
L en g th o f d ay an d n ig h t In solation is on ly
received during daylight hours and reaches
its peak at n o o n . There are no seasonal vari­
ations at th e Equator, w here day and n ig h t
are o f equal len gth throu ghou t th e year. In
extrem e contrast, polar areas receive n o in sola­
tio n during part o f th e w inter w hen there is
con tin u ou s darkness, but m ay receive up to 24
hours o f in solatio n during part o f th e sum m er
w hen the sun never sinks below th e horizon
('th e lands o f the m id n ig h t sun').
Local in fiu e n c e s o n in s o la tio n
■ A sp ect Hillsides alter th e angle at w hich
th e sun's rays h it th e ground (Places 28).
212 Weather and climate
K u r ile
LA
-v * " 7
— 01
30° s
In th e n o rth e rn hem isp here, n o rth -facin g
slopes, b ein g in shadow for m ost or all o f thi
year, are cooler th a n th o se facin g south. The
steeper th e sou th -facin g slope, th e h igher the
angle o f th e sun's rays to it and th erefore the
h ig h er w ill be th e tem peratu re. N orth- and
sou th -facin g slopes are referred to, respec-
tively, as th e a d re t and u b a c.
B1 C lou d co v e r The presence of cloud reduces
b oth in co m in g and ou tgoing radiation. The
thicker th e cloud, the greater th e am ount of
absorption, reflection and scattering of insola­
tion , and of terrestrial radiation. Clouds may
reduce daytim e tem peratures, bu t they also
act as an insulating b lan k et to retain heat at
night. This m eans th a t tropical deserts, where
skies are clear, are warm er during th e day and
cooler at n ig h t th an hu m id equatorial regions
w ith a greater cloud cover. The world's greatest
diurnal ranges o f tem perature are therefore
found in tropical deserts.
■ U rb an isatio n This alters the albedo
(page 2 0 7 ) and creates urban 'h eat islands'
(page 24 2 ).
 A t m o s p h e r ic m o is tu r e
W ater is a liquid com p ou n d w h ich is converted
by heat in to vapour (gas) and by cold in to a
solid (ice). T he presence o f w ater serves three
essential purposes:
1 It m a in ta in s life on Earth: flora, in th e form
o f natu ral v eg etation (biom es) and crops;
and fauna, i.e. all living creatures, in clu d in g
hu m ans.
2 W ater in th e atm osphere, m a in ly as a gas,
absorbs, reflects and scatters in so la tio n to
keep our p lan et at a h ab itab le tem perature
(Figure 9.4 ).
3 A tm ospheric m oistu re is o f vital significan ce
as a m eans o f tran sferring surplus energy
from trop ical areas eith er h o rizo n tally to
polar latitud es or vertically in to th e a tm o s­
phere to b alan ce th e h eat bud get (Figure 9.5).
D espite th is need for water, its existen ce in
a form readily available to plants, an im als and
hu m ans is lim ited . It has b ee n estim ated th at
9 7 .2 per ce n t o f th e w orld's w ater is in th e oceans
and seas; in th is form , it is on ly useful to plants
to le ra n t o f saline co n d itio n s (h a lo p h y te s ,
page 29 1 ) and to the populations o f a few w ealthy
cou ntries th a t can afford d esalin isation plants
(th e G u lf oii states).
A p proxim ately 2.1 per ce n t o f w ater in th e
hyd rosphere is held in storage as polar ice and
snow. O n ly 0 .7 per ce n t is fresh w ater found
eith er in lakes and rivers (0.1 per ce n t), as soil
m oistu re and groundw ater (0 .6 per cen t), or in
th e atm osphere (0 .0 0 1 per cen t).

A n a lp in e v a lle y : as|

Many alpine valleys in Switzerland and Austria have
an east-west orientation which means that their
valley sides face either north or south. South-facing
adret slopes are much warmer and drier than those
facing north (Figure 9.11).The south-facing slopes
have more plant species, a higher tree4ine, and
a greater land use with alpine pastures at higher
altitudes and fruit and hay lower down; also, they
usually provide the best sites for settlement. In
contrast, north-facing ubac slopes are snow-covered
for a much longer period, they are less suited to
farming, the tree-line is lower, and they tend to be
left forested. However, on the valley floors, as severe
frosts are likely to occur during times of temperature
inversion (page 217), sensitive plants and crops do
notflourish.

O
height of sun
on 21 Ju n e

O
-right of sun
■21 D ecem ber

coniferous
iconiferous forest

2500

bare rock
2000 surfaces with -2 0 0 0
snow

south-facing
north-facing slope 1500
slope receives
in sh ado w all year
sun thro u gh o ut
o* (lim ited insolation)
the year (m axim um
j| 1000 - insolation)

edge of shadow at e d g e of sh ad o w at noon

500 on 21 D ecem b er 500
noon on 21 Ju n e
in shadow for all but a in sh ado w for o nly a few
fe w m onths in sum m er weeks in w in ter
; effect of aspect in
Tast—west oriented
^e valley in the
"hem hemisphere

Weather and climate 213

 condensation gives various
horizontal transfer of types of precipitation (rain,
w ater vap o ur by winds snow, hai I, frost, d ew ,fog)
Figure 9,12
vertical transfer of w a ter vap o ur
vertical transfer of
The hydrological cycle
moisture as precipitatioi^
(compare with Figure 3.1)

transpiration from plants,evaporation from

rivers (land) and seas (oceans)

o f rain. There m ust th erefore be a co n sta n t recy-

At an y given tim e, th e atm osp h ere o n ly holds, clin g o f water betw een th e oceans, atm osphere
o n average, su fficien t m oistu re to give every and land (Figure 9 .1 3 ). T his recycling is achieved
place on th e Earth 2 .5 cm (abou t 10 days' supply) th rou g h th e h y d ro lo g ica l c y cle (Figure 9 .1 2 ).
Figure 9.13
evaporation precipitation
The world's water
transfer of w a ter vapour (84 per cent of (74 per cent
balance
evaporation precipitation 10 per cen t (balance of total evaporation) o f total
(16 per cent (26 per cent precipitation/evaporation p recipitation)
of total of total o ver oceans)
evaporation) precipitation) i

runoff
land 10 per cen t (balance of
p recipitation/evaporation over land)

H u m id ity air m easured in gram s per cu bic m etre (g/rn^).

S pecific h u m id ity is sim ilar b u t is expressed
H um idity is a m easure o f th e water vapour
in gram s o f water per kilogram o f air (g/kg).
c o n te n t in th e atm osphere. A b solu te h u m id ity
H um idity depends upon th e tem peratu re o f the
is th e mass o f water vapour in a given volu m e of
air. At any given tem peratu re, th ere is a lim it to
Figure9,14
th e a m o u n t o f m oistu re th a t th e air can hold .
40
Air temperatures and W h e n th is lim it is reached, th e air is said to be
absolute humidity for
s a tu ra te d . Cold air can hold o n ly relatively
saturated air
sm all q u an tities o f vapour before b eco m in g
30.04 saturated b u t this a m o u n t increases rapidly
30
as tem peratures rise (Figure 9 .1 4 ). This m eans
th a t th e a m o u n t o f p recip itatio n ob tain ed from
w arm air is generally greater th an th a t from
20 cold air. R elative h u m id ity (RH) is th e am o u n t
17.12 o f water vapour in th e air at a given tem p era­
ture expressed as a percentage o f th e m axim um
a m o u n t o f vapour th a t the air cou ld hold at that
9.4 tem peratu re. If th e RH is 100 per cen t, th e air is
10
saturated. If it lies b etw een 8 0 and 99 per cent,
4.6 th e air is said to be 'm o ist' and th e w eather is
2.1 hu m id or clam m y. W h en th e RH drops to 50 per
0.S
cen t, th e air is 'd ry '- figures as low as 10 per cent
-20 -10 0 +10 +20 +30 have been recorded over h o t deserts.
air tem perature °C

214 Weather and climate

 If unsaturated air is cooled and atm ospheric
pressure rem ains constan t, a criticai tem perature
will be reached w hen the air becom es saturated
(i.e. RH = 100 per cent). This is know n as the dew
p oin t. Any further cooling will result in the con-
d ensation o f excess vapour, either in to water drop-
lets where con d ensation nuclei are present, or in to
ice crystals if the air tem perature is below 0°C. This
is shown in th e follow ing worked exam ple.
1 T he early m o rn in g air tem peratu re was 10°C.
A lthough th e air could have held 1 0 0 u n its of
water at th a t tem perature, at th e tim e o f the
reading it held o n ly 9 0 . This m ean t th a t th e
RH was 9 0 per cen t.
2 D uring th e day, th e air tem peratu re rose to
12°C. As th e air warmed it b ecam e capable
o f h o ld in g m ore w ater vapour, up to 120
units. O w ing to evaporation, th e reading
reached a m axim u m o f 108 u n its w h ich
m ean t th a t th e RH rem ained at 9 0 per ce n t
- i . e . ( 1 0 8 - 120) x 100.
3 In th e early evening, th e tem peratu re fell
to 10°C at w h ich p o in t, as stated above, it
could hold o n ly 1 0 0 u n its. However, the air at
th a t tim e co n ta in e d 108 units so, as th e te m ­
perature fell, dew p o in t was reached
and th e 8 excess un its o f water were lost
th rou g h co n d en satio n .
C o n d e n s a tio n
This is th e process by w h ich w ater vapour in
th e atm osp here is chan ged in to a liquid or, if
th e tem peratu re is below 0°C , a solid. It usually
results from air b ein g cooled u n til it is saturated.
C o olin g m ay be achieved by:
1 R ad iatio n (co n tact) c o o lin g This typically
occurs on calm , clear evenings. The ground
loses h eat rapidly th rou g h terrestrial rad iation
and th e air in co n ta c t w ith it is th e n cooled
ooling
e n e r g y u sed in e x p a n s io n
10°C c a u se s a loss o f h e a t a n d
a d ro p in te m p e r a tu r e
air e x p a n d s a n d rises as a
20°C w a r m b u b b le o f less
d e n s e air
k 4
p a rc e i o f air n e x t to g ro u n d
30° C h e a te d b y c o n d u c tio n
q ro u n d h e a te d b y in so la tio n
by co n d u ctio n . If th e air is m oist, som e
vapour will con d en se to form rad iation fog,
dew, or - if th e tem peratu re is below freezing
p o in t - h oar frost (page 2 2 1 ).
2 A d v ectio n c o o lin g This results from warm,
m oist air m oving over a coo ler land or sea
surface. A dvection fogs in C aliforn ia and
th e Atacam a Desert (Places 24, page 180 and
page 122) are form ed w h en w arm air from the
land drifts over cold offshore ocean currents
(Figure 9 .9 ).
As b o th rad iation and ad vection in volve h o ri­
zontal rath er th a n v ertical m o v em en ts o f air, th e
a m o u n t o f c o n d e n sa tio n created is lim ited .
3 O ro g ra p h ic and fro n ta l u p lift W arm , m oist
air is forced to rise eith er as it crosses a m o u n ­
tain barrier (orograp hic ascen t, page 2 2 0 ) or
w hen it m eets a colder, denser mass o f air at a
fro n t (page 2 2 9 ).
4 C o n v e ctiv e or a d ia b a tic c o o lin g T his is
w hen air is w arm ed during th e d aytim e and
rises in pockets as th e rm a ls (Figure 9 .1 5 ). As
th e air expands, it uses energy and so loses
h eat and th e tem peratu re drops. Because air
is cooled b y th e red u ction o f pressure w ith
h eig h t rath er th a n by a loss o f h eat to the
surrounding air, it is said to be ad iabatically
cooled (see lapse rates, page 2 1 6 ).
As b o th orographic and ad iabatic co o lin g involve
vertical m o v em en ts o f air, th e y are m ore effective
m ech an ism s o f co n d en satio n .
C o n d en sa tio n does n o t occu r readily in
clean air. Indeed, if air is ab solu tely pure, it can
be cooled below its dew p o in t to beco m e super-
sa tu ra te d w ith an RH in excess o f 1 0 0 per cent.
Laboratory tests have show n th a t clean, satu­
rated air ca n be coo led to -4 0 ° C b efore co n d e n sa­
tio n or, in th is case, su b lim a tio n . Su b lim ation
is w hen vapour cond en ses directly in to ice crys­
tals w ith o u t passing th rou g h th e liquid state.
However, air is rarely pure and usually co n tain s
large num bers o f co n d e n sa tio n n u clei. These
m icrosco p ic particles, referred to as h y g ro sco p ic
n u cle i becau se th e y attract water, inclu d e v o l­
ca n ic dust (heavy rain always accom p an ies
v o lca n ic eru p tions); dust from w ind blow n soil;
sm oke and sulphuric acid orig in atin g from u rban
and industrial areas; and salt from sea spray.
H ygroscopic n u clei are m ost nu m erou s over
cities, w here th ere m ay be up to 1 m illio n per
cm 3, and least co m m o n over ocean s (only
10 per c m 3). W h ere large co n c en tra tio n s are
found, co n d e n sa tio n can occu r w ith an RH
as low as 75 per ce n t - as in th e sm ogs o f Los
Angeles (Figure 9 .2 5 and Case Study 15A).
Weather and climate 215
Figure 9,16
a environmental lapse rates (ELR)
Examples oflapserates
shown in temperature 1000
ELR in a SW airstream
-height diagrams in summer is 4°C per
1000 m
(tephigrams) 800
E 600 ELR in a NW airstream
in summer is 5°C per
CTl 1000 m
^ 400
200
O
-2 2 4 6 10
tem peratu re °(C)
Lap se ra te s
The e n v iro n m e n ta l lapse ra te (ELR) is the
decrease in tem perature usually expected w ith
an increase in h eig h t th rough th e troposphere
(Figure 9.1 ). T he ELR is approxim ately 6.5°C per
10 0 0 m, but varies according to local air co n d i­
tions. It m ay vary due to several factors: h e ig h t -
ELR is lower nearer ground-level; tim e - it is lower
in w inter or during a rainy season; over different
surfaces - it is lower over co n tin e n ta l areas; and
betw een different air m asses (Figure 9.16a).
The a d ia b a tic lapse ra te (ALR) describes
w hat happens w hen a parcei o f air rises and th e
decrease in pressure is accom p an ied b y an associ-
ated in crease in volu m e and a decrease in te m ­
perature (Figure 9 .1 5 ). Conversely, descend ing
air will be su b ject to an increase in pressure
causing a rise in tem peratu re. In eith er case,
there is negligible m ixin g w ith th e surrounding
air. T here are tw o ad iabatic lapse rates:
1 If th e upward m o v em en t o f air does n o t lead
to co n d en satio n , th e energy used by expan-
sion will cause th e tem peratu re o f th e parcei
of air to fall at th e d ry a d ia b a tic lapse ra te
(DALR on Figure 9 .1 6 b ). T he DALR, w h ich
is th e rate at w h ich an un saturated parcei o f
air cools as it rises or warm s as it descends,
rem ains co n sta n t at 9.8 °C per 1 0 0 0 m (i.e.
ap p roxim ately 1°C per 100 m ).
2 W h en th e upward m o v em en t is sufficiently
prolonged to enable th e air to cool to its dew
p o in t tem perature, co n d en satio n occurs and
th e loss in tem perature w ith h eig h t is th e n
partly com pensated by th e release o f la ten t
heat (Figure 9 .1 6 b and page 2 1 0 ). Saturated
air, w h ich therefore cools at a slower rate th a n
unsaturated air, loses h eat at th e satu rated
ad ia b a tic lapse ra te (SALR). The SALR can
vary because th e w arm er th e air th e m ore
m oisture it can hold, and so th e greater the
am o u n t o f laten t h eat released follow ing
216 Weather and climate
b adiabatic lapse rates (ALR)
1000
aircools less rapidly atSALR , e.g.
5°C per 1000 m due to release
of latent heat (note that the
800 DALR if dew . V graph appears to get steeper)
point temperature^
had not been reached>
E 600 -and latent heat had not^
been released
dew point occurs in tjhis condensation level
400 -example at 500 m, release of
laien! heat. base of cipuds
I DALRtemperaturex
200 I decreases at
I constant rate of
I 9.8°C per 1000 m
2 4 6 10
te m peratu re °(C)
co n d en sation . T he SALR m ay be as low as 4°C
per 1 0 0 0 m and as h ig h as 9°C per 1 0 0 0 m. It
averages about 5.4°C per 1 0 0 0 m (i.e. approxi­
m ately 0.5°C per 1 0 0 m ). Should tem peratures
fall below 0°C, th e n th e air will co o l at the
freezin g a d ia b a tic lap se ra te (FALR). This is
th e sam e as th e DALR as very little m oisture is
presen t at low tem peratures.
A i r s t a b i l i t y a n d in s t a b ilit y
Parcels o f warm air w h ich rise th rou g h th e lower
atm osp here coo l adiabatically. The rate and
m a in te n a n ce o f an y vertical u p lift depend on the
tem p eratu re-d en sity b alan ce b etw een th e rising
parcei and th e surrounding air. In a sim plified
form , this b alan ce is th e relatio n sh ip betw een
th e e n v iro n m en ta l lapse rate and th e dry and
saturated ad iabatic lapse rates.
S ta b ility
The state o f s ta b ility is w h en a rising parcei of
unsaturated air cools m ore rapidly th a n th e air
surrou nding it. This is show n d iagram m atically
w hen th e ELR lies to th e righ t o f th e DALR, as
in Figure 9 .1 7 . In th is exam p le th e ELR is 6°C
per 1 0 0 0 m and th e DALR is 9.8 °C per 1 0 0 0 m.
By th e tim e th e rising air has reached 1 0 0 0 m,
it has cooled to 10.2°C w h ich leaves it colder
and denser th a n th e surrounding air w h ich has
o n ly cooled to 1 4°C. If there is n o th in g to fo r u
th e parcei o f air to rise, e.g. m o u n tain s or fro n t5
it will sink back to its starting p o in t. The air is
described as stable because dew p o in t m ay not
have been reached and th e o n ly clouds w hich
m ig h t have developed w ould be shallow , flat-
topped cum ulus w h ich do n o t produce precipit
tio n (Figure 9 .2 0 ). Stability is o ften linked with
a n ticy clo n es (page 23 4 ), w h en any co n v ectio n
currents are suppressed by sin king air to give d : .
sunn y con d ition s.
 Figure 9.18

Instability and cloud

development

10.2" C
10.2 14.0" C 3.0 ■C 12.6
1000 1000 “f
uplifted air is therefore cumulo-nimbus
3.8°C cooler than thp cloud
at 1000 m, the uplifted
800 -surrounding air at 800 air is now 1,2°C warm er
1000 m and so it sinks
than the surrounding
air and so it will continue
I h -Ii jlll (III j

600 E 600 to rise

ELR in this example dew point
is 6°C per 1000 m ELR in this example
(a hot summer day) if dew point is reached (e.g. at 500 m),
400 the temperature will be 15.1 °C and
DALR 9.8'C is 1 T C per 1000 m
the air wil! then cool at the SALR
per lOOOm
200 200 DALR constant at
9.8° C per 1000 m
0 0
-5 5 10 15 20 -5 5 10 15 20
tem peratu re °(C) te m p e r a t u r e °(C )

•ţ w 1. 9.17 In s ta b ility It will now co n tin u e to rise freely, even if the

changes up lifting m ech a n ism is rem oved, as it is now in
C ond itions of in s ta b ility arise in Britain on h ot
r rates and an unstable state. Instability is co n d iţio n al upon
days. Localised heating of the ground warms the
-“ oerature th e air being forced to rise in th e first place, and
- ‘ t ght ad jacen t air by cond u ction, creating a higher lapse
later beco m in g saturated so th a t co n d en sation
rate. The resultant parcei of rising unsaturated air
occurs. The associated w eather is usually fine in
cools less rapidly th a n the surrounding air. In this
areas at altitudes below co n d en sa tio n level, but
case, as show n in Figure 9 .1 8 , th e ELR lies to th e
cloud y and show ery in th o se above.
left o f the DALR. The rising air rem ains warmer
and lighter th a n the surrounding air. Should it
be sufficiently m oist and if dew p o in t is reached,
T e m p e ra tu re in v e rs io n s
th e n the upward m ovem ent m ay be accelerated As the lapse rate exercises have show n, th e tem p­
to produce tow ering cum ulus or cu m ulo-nim bus erature of th e air usually decreases w ith altitude,
type cloud (Figure 9.2 0 ). Thunderstorm s are likely b u t there are certain cond ition s w h en the reverse
(Figure 9.2 1 ) and th e saturated air, follow ing the occurs. T em p eratu re in v ersio n s, where warmer
release of laten t heat, will cool at th e SALR. air overlies colder air, m ay occur at three levels
in the atm osphere. Figure 9.1 showed th at tem ­
C o n d iţio n a l in s ta b ility peratures increase w ith altitude in b o th th e strato-
sphere and the therm osphere. Inversions can also
This type o f in stability occurs w h en th e ELR is
occur near ground-level and high in the tropo-
lower th an th e DALR bu t higher th a n th e SALR.
sphere. High-level inversions are found in depres-
In Britain, it is th e m ost co m m o n o f th e three
sions where warm air overrides cold air at the
con d ition s. T h e rising air is stable in its lower
warm front or is undercut by colder air at th e cold
layers and, b ein g coo ler th an th e surrounding
front (page 22 9 ). Low-level, or ground, inversions
air, would n orm ally sink back again. However,
usually occur under an ticy clo n ic cond itions (page
if th e m ech an ism w h ich in itially triggered the
2 3 4 and Figure 9.2 4 ) w hen there is a rapid loss of
up lift rem ains, th e n th e air will be cooled to its
heat from th e ground due to radiation at night,
dew point. B eyond th is point, coo lin g takes place
or w hen warm air is advected over a cold surface.
at th e slower SALR and the parcei m ay becom e
Under these cond itions, fog and frost (page 221
w arm er th a n th e surrounding air (Figure 9.1 9 ).
and Figure 9.2 3 ) m ay form in valleys and hollows.

:-al instability 1200

\ \ uplifted air 12.6“C at 1000 m
\ \ . (warmer than surrounding air
1000 \ y and so continues to rise) unstable air
surrounding air \\
12°Cat lOOOm ^ — SALR5°Cper 1000m
800
^air becomes unstable
at approx.750 m
x 600
dew point (cloud base)
uplifted air 15.1*Cat 500 m ELR 8’ C per
400 • stable air
1000 m in this
example
DALR constant at 9.8°C
200 per 1000 m (cooler than
surrounding air but forced
to risel
0
S 10 15 20
tem perature “(C)
Group Height
1 Cirrus (ice crystals)
(km)
13
10 Cum ulo-nim bus Cb
(water droplets and ice crystals)

(a n v il)

Detached, wispy, delicate white clouds.

May have feathery filaments, known as
'mares' tails', indicating strong upper-
atmosphere winds.
An extreme vertical extension ofthe
(No precipitation)
cumulus. It may develop an 'anvil' at its
head (ice crystals) and may become
blackat its base.
(Heavy showers;thunderstorms; hail)

High 2 Cirrocum ulus (ice crystals) 3 Cirrostratus Cs

clouds (ice crystals) (+ halo)

( lumii
Thin layers of small, globular masses with A thin, milky layer appearing like a veil.
a rippled appearance (also known as The sun or moon may shine through it

w l l l t v r t Iii iii 11 « 11 1 111 • I<<U1<I111 in m u l

'mackerel sky'). with a halo effect.
(No precipitation) (No precipitation)

A
4A ltocum ulus Ac 5 Altostratus As 9 Cum ulus (water droplets) Cu
(water droplets and some ice crystals) (water droplets and some ice crystals)

Middle
clouds
White-grey cloud usually resembling
waves or lumps, separated by patches
of blue sky.The sun or moon may be
surrounded by a corona.
(Very occasional,small amounts of
precipitation)
JL
A greyish, uniform sheet of clouds, Detached, white cloud with a
largely featureless. A 'watery' sun may pronounced flat base and sharp outlines;
just be visible. grows vertically and may resemble a
(Very occasional, small amounts of cauliflower.
precipitation) (Very scattered showers)

V
6 Stratus St 7 Nimbostratus Ns 8 Stratocum ulus Sc
(water droplets) (water droplets) (water droplets)

Low
clouds

A thick, dark grey-black cloud,

Ground-level usually uniform but may have
A p e rs is te n t,grey, u nffo rm sheet detached, darker patches A grey-white, patchy cloud
appearing in long rows or in rolls. Figure 9.2C
o f cloud. beneath it.
(Drizzle) (Continuous rain/snow) (Occasional showers)
218 Cloud type:
C lo u d s falls to the ground, flakes m elt into raindrops.
Experim ents to produce rainfall artificially by
Clouds form w hen air cools to dew p oint and
cloud-seeding are based upon this process.
vapour condenses in to water droplets and/or ice
The Bergeron-Findeisen theory is supported
crystals. There are m an y different types o f cloud,
by evidence from tem perate latitudes where
bu t th ey are often difficult to distinguish as their
rainclouds usually extend vertically above the
form con stan tly changes. T he general classifica­
freezing level. Radar and high-flying aircraft
tio n of clouds was proposed by Luke Howard in
have reported snow at high altitudes w hen it is
1803. His was a descriptive classification, based on
raining at sea-level. However, as clouds rarely
cloud shape and h eig h t (Figure 9 .2 0 ). He used four
reach freezing p oint in the tropics, the form a­
Latin words: cirru s (a lock o f curly hair); cu m u lu s
tion o f ice crystals is unlikely in those latitudes.
(a heap or pile); stratu s (a layer); and n im bus
2 The co llisio n an d co ale sce n ce process was
(rain-bearing). He also com piled com posite nam es
suggested by Longmuir. 'W arm ' clouds (i.e.
using these four term s, such as cum ulo-nim bus,
those co n tain in g n o ice crystals), as found in
cirrostratus; and added th e prefix 'alto-' for
th e tropics, co n ta in num erous water droplets
m iddle-level clouds.
of differing sizes. D ifferent-sized droplets are
swept upwards at different velocities and,
P r e c ip it a tio n in doing so, collide w ith oth er droplets. It
is th o u g h t th a t the larger the droplet, the
C o n d ensation produces m inu te water droplets,
greater th e ch an ce o f collision and subsequent
less th an 0 .0 5 m m in diam eter, or, if the dew
coalescence w ith sm aller droplets. W h en coa-
p o in t tem perature is below freezing, ice crystals.
lescing droplets reach a radius of 3 m m , their
T he droplets are so tin y and weigh so little th a t
m o tio n causes th e m to disintegrate to form a
th ey are kept buoyant by th e rising air currents
fresh supply o f droplets. The thicker th e cloud
w hich created th em . So althou gh con d ensation
(cum ulo-nim bus), the greater the tim e the
form s clouds, clouds do n o t necessarily produce
droplets have in w h ich to grow and th e faster
precipitation. As rising air currents are often
th ey will fall, usually as thu nd ery showers.
strong, th ere has to be a process w ithin th e clouds
Latest opinions suggest th at these two theories m ay
w hich enables th e small water droplets and/or ice
com plem ent each other, but that a m ajor process
crystals to beco m e sufficiently large to overcom e
o f raindrop enlargem ent has yet to be understood.
the uplifting m ech an ism and fall to th e ground.
There are cu rren tly tw o m ain th eories th a t
a ttem p t to exp lain th e rapid grow th o f water
T y p es o f p re c ip ita tio n
droplets: A lthough th e d efin itio n o f p recip ita tio n includes
1 The ice crystal m e ch a n ism is often referred sleet, hail, dew, h oar frost, fog and rim e, only
to as th e Bergeron-Findeisen m echanism . It rain and snow provide sig n ifican t to tals in the
appears that w hen the tem perature of air is hyd rological cycle.
betw een -5 °C and -2 5 °C , supercooled water
R a in fa ll
droplets and ice crystals exist together. Super-
There are th ree m ain types o f rainfall, d istin-
cooling takes place w hen water rem ains in
guished by th e m ech an ism s w h ich cause the
the atm osphere after temperatures have fallen in iţia l up lift of th e air. Each m ech a n ism rarely
below 0°C - usually due to a lack of cond en­ operates in iso lation .
sation nuclei. Ice crystals are in a m inority 1 C on vergen t and c y clo n ic (frontal) rainfall
because th e freezing nuclei necessary for their
results from th e m eeting o f two air streams in
form ation are less abundant th an condensation
areas o f low pressure. W ithin the tropics, the
nuclei. The relative hum idity of air is ten tim es
trade winds, blow ing towards the Equator, m eet
greater above an ice surface th an over water.
at the inter-tropical convergence zone or ITCZ
T his m eans that the water droplets evaporate
(page 22 6 ). The air is forced to rise and, in con-
and th e resultant vapour condenses (subli-
ju n ctio n w ith convection currents, produces
mates) back on to th e ice crystals w hich then
the heavy afternoon thunderstorm s associ-
grow in to hexagonal-shaped snowflakes. The
ated w ith the equatorial clim ate (page 316). In
flakes grow in size - either as a result o f further
tem perate latitudes, depressions form at the
cond ensation or by fusion as their numerous boundary o f two air masses. At the associated
edges interlock on collision w ith other flakes. fronts, warm, m oist, less dense air is forced to
They also increase in num ber as ice splinters rise over colder, denser air, giving periods of
break off and form new nuclei. If the air tem ­ prolonged and som etim es intense rainfall. This
perature rises above freezing point as the snow is often augm ented by orographic precipitation.

Weather and climate 219

 12 upper air has a negative (-) charge
ice crystals have a positive (+) charge
m o ve m e n t of up p er air
updraught
-c 6
0 °C d ow nd rau gh t
cool d ow ndraught:
heat absorbed
- falling hail
has a negative
{-) charge
hail
heavy rain th u n d e ra n d lightning
ground has a positive (+) charge
Figure 9,21 O ro g ra p h ic or r e lie f rainfall results w hen
Convectional rainfall: near-saturated, w arm m aritim e air is forced
the development of a to rise w here co n fro n ted by a coastal m ou n-
thunderstorm tain barrier. M o u n tain s reduce th e water-
h o ld in g cap acity o f rising air by enforced
co o lin g and can in crease th e am ou nts of
cy clo n ic rainfall by retard ing th e speed of
d epression m o v em en t. M o u n tain s also tend
to cause air stream s to converge and fu n n el
th rou g h valleys. R ainfall to tals increase
w here m o u n tain s are parallel to th e coast,
as is th e C an ad ian C oast Range, and w here
winds have crossed warm offshore ocean cu r­
rents, as th e y do before reach in g th e British
Isles. As air descends on th e leeward side o f a
m o u n ta in range, it b eco m es com pressed and
w arm ed and co n d e n sa tio n ceases, creatin g a
ra in s h a d o w effect w here little rain falls.
C o n v e c tio n a l rain fall occurs w h en th e
ground surface is lo cally overheated and
th e a d ja cen t air, heated by co n d u ctio n ,
expands and rises. D uring its ascen t, th e air
m ass rem ains w arm er th a n th e surrounding
e n v iro n m en ta l air and it is likely to b eco m e
unstable (page 2 1 7 ) w ith tow erin g cu m ulo-
nim bu s clouds form ing. These u n stable
co n d itio n s, possibly augm ented by fro n tal
or orograp h ic uplift, force th e air to rise in
a 'c h im n e y ' (Figure 9 .2 1 ). The updraught is
m a in ta in ed by energy released as la ten t h eat
at b o th co n d e n sa tio n and freezing levels. T he
cloud su m m it is characterised by ice crystals
in an anvil shape, th e top o f th e cloud being
flatten ed b y upper-air m o vem en ts. W h e n
th e ice crystals and frozen w ater droplets,
220 W eather and climate
+ anvil: ice crystals form ing
+
cirrus cloud
+
-25°C +
_l_ form ation o f ice crystals: w a ter d roplets turn into hail
sw ep t upw ards m any times
by co n vection currents
ch im n e y o f w arm air m aintained
by release o f latent heat
freezing level (release of latent heat)
w ater droplets sw ept upwards in convection
currents (30 m per sec)
uplift o f warm , m oist air
condensation level and cloud base
t 25°C (release o f latent heat)
local overheating: equatorial areas daily,
south-east Britain in sum m er
i.e. h ail, b eco m e large enou gh, th ey fall
in a dow ndraught. T he air th rou g h w hich
th ey fall rem ains coo l as h eat is absorbed b\
evap o ration. T h e dow ndraught reduces the
warm air supply to th e 'c h im n e y ' and th ere­
fore lim its th e lifespan o f th e storm . Such
storm s are usually a ccom p an ied by th u n d e:
and lig h tn in g . How storm s develop im m er.
am o u n ts o f electric ch arge is still n o t fully
un derstood . O ne th eo ry suggests th a t as ra:.
drops are carried upwards in to colder regio?
th ey freeze on th e outside. This ice-shell
com presses th e wrater inside it u n til th e she.
bursts and th e water freezes in to positively-
charged ice crystals w hile th e heavier she'l
fragm ents, w h ich are neg atively charged,
fall tow ards th e cloud base in d u cin g a posi­
tive charge o n th e Earth's surface (Figure
9 .2 1 ). L ig h tn in g is th e visible discharge of
e lectricity b etw een clouds or betw een c lo n :
and th e ground. T h u n d e r is th e sound of tr
pressure wave created by th e h eatin g o f air
along a lig h tn in g flash. C o n v e ctio n is one
process by w h ich surplus h eat and energy
from th e Earth's surface are transferred ver:
cally to th e atm osp here in order to m ainta:
th e h e a t b alan ce (Figure 9 .6 ).
T hunderstorm s associated w ith the so-called
S p a n ish p lu m e can affect Southern England
several tim es during a h ot, sultry summer. The*,
occur w h en very h o t air over th e Sierra Nevada
m ountains (Southern Spain) m oves northwards
over th e Bay of Biscay where it draws in cooler
m oist air. Should th e resultant storm reach
Britain, it can cause flash flooding, landslips
and electricity blackouts.
 Western Britain Scotland
This area receives relatively Cold air from Arctic (Am) is w arm ed
little snow, but in a depression on Crossing the sea and picks up
(Pm air): there m ay be some moisture. Still cold, it is forced to rise
snow in ad van ce o fth e warm (orographically) o ver the Scottish
front (giving w ay to rain); or Highlands, resulting in very heavy
January 1987 there m ay be som e sn ow after
the cold front (if rain gives
snowfalls. This situation often occurs
after a low pressure area has passed
w a y to snow). to the north o f Scotland and polar air
is d raw n southwards.

Eastern Britain
Sweden This area gets its heaviest
Sources o f air
Norway ~^5 <- (Figure 9.40) snowfalls w h e n cold air
-26°C from the co n tin ent (Pc)
Am = A rctic M aritim e crosses the North Sea.
Pc = Polar Continental W arm ed slightly, it picks
Pm = Polar M aritim e up som e m oisture w hich
North Sea is later deposited on
+ 7°C Denmark coastal areas, e.g. in
Britain -15°C Ja n u a ry 1987, parts of
-7 °C Kent and East Anglia w ere
Mild S W w inds and the
;nfluence o f North cut off for several days.
Atlantic Drift
500 km
limit snowfall.
200 km

r 9.22
uneven Snow, sleet, glazed frost and hail
patterns Snow form s under sim ilar con d ition s to rain
:1 tain (B ergeron-Find eisen process) except th a t as
dew p o in t tem peratures are under 0°C, th e n the
vapour cond enses directly in to a solid (sublim a­
tion , page 2 1 5 ). Ice crystals will form if hygro­
scopic or freezing nuclei are presen t and these
m ay aggregate to give snow flakes. As warm air
holds m ore m oisture th a n cold, snow falls are
heaviest w hen th e air tem perature is just below
freezing. As tem peratures drop, it becom es 'to o
cold for sn ow ’. Figure 9 .2 2 shows th e typical c o n ­
ditions under w hich snow m ig h t fall in Britain.
Sleet is a m ixtu re o f ice and snow form ed
w h en th e upper air tem peratu re is below
freezing, allow ing snow flakes to form , and the
low er air tem peratu re is around 2 to 4°C, w hich
allow s th eir parţial m elting.
Glazed fro st is th e reverse o f sleet and occurs
w h en water droplets form in th e upper air bu t
tu rn to ice on co n ta c t w ith a freezing surface.
W h e n glazed frost form s o n roads, it is know n
as 'b lack ice'.
Hail is m ade up of frozen raindrops w hich
exceed 5 m m in diameter. It usually forms in
cu m ulo-nim bus clouds, resulting from the uplift
o f air by con v ectio n currents, or at a cold front.
It is m ore co m m o n in areas w ith warm summers
where there is sufficient heat to trigger th e uplift of
air, and less co m m o n in colder clim ates. Hail fre-
quently proves a serious clim atic hazard in cereal-
growing areas such as the Am erican Prairies.

Dew; hoar frost, fog and rime

Dew, hoar frost and radiation fog all form under
calm , clear, a n ticy clo n ic con d ition s w h en there
is rapid terrestrial radiation at n ig h t. Dew p o in t is
reached as th e air cools by co n d u ctio n and m o is­
ture in the air, or transpired from plants, co n ­
denses. If dew p o in t is above freezing, dew will
less-warm a ir..
300 form ; if it is below freezing, h o a r fro st develops.
•'og in a valley, warmer air Frost m ay also be frozen dew. Dew and h oar frost
usually occur w ithin 1 m of ground-level.
temperature inversion If th e lower air is relatively warm, m o ist and
200
1 --------------- con tain s hygroscopic nuclei, and if th e ground
trapped pollutants
cools rapidly, ra d ia tio n fog m ay form . W here
visibility is m ore th an 1 km it is m ist, if less th an
.4 100 1 km , fog. In order for rad iation fog to develop, a
ELR g entle w ind is needed to stir the cold air ad jacen t
cold air
■el tem perature
to th e ground so th a t co o lin g affects a greater

-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 Weather and climate 221

tem peratu re °(C)
Figure 9.25

Formation of radiation
fog and smog

m etres a Anticyclone builds up b Radiation fog c Smog

sunshine too w e a k and w ind

calm, clear anticyclonic insufficient to disperse fog; warmer, warm , less dense, clear air
conditions less dense air acts as a blanket

stratus cloud forms w here

cold and w arm air m eet smoke, sulphur dioxide, car
sm oke from industry, pow er
stations, traffic and houses fum es,etc. co m b in e w ith fog
cold air cann ot rise above
to form smog trap ped by
the ceiling o f warm , less
rising air is cooled, becom es blanket o f w arm air
dense air
cooler than the surrounding air air in co n tact w ith cold
radiation fog
(stable) and so it sinks surface cools further,
forms next to
increasing the thickness
ground and rivers
of th e fog

cold land surface, rapid land surface even colder extrem ely cold land surface
radiation at night

thickness o f air. Radiation fogs usually occu r in
Rime frost, North valleys, are densest around sunrise, and consist
Carolina, USA o f droplets w h ich are sufficien tly small to rem ain
b u oy an t in th e air. Fog is likely to th ick en if
tem perature inversion takes place (Figures 9 .2 3
and 9 .2 4 ), i.e. w hen cold surface air is trapped by
overlying warmer, less dense air. It is under such
con d ition s, in urban and industrial areas, th a t
sm oke and oth er pollutants released in to th e air
are retained as sm og (Figures 9 .2 5 and 15 .5 5 ).
A d v e ctio n fo g form s w hen warm air passes
over or m eets w ith cold air to give rapid coo lin g .
In th e coastal A tacam a D esert (Places 2 4 , page
18 0 ), su fficien t droplets fall to th e ground as
'fog-d rip' to enable som e v eg etatio n grow th.
R im e (Figure 9 .2 6 ) occurs w h en supercooled
droplets o f water, often in th e form o f fog, com e
in to co n ta ct w ith, and freeze o n , solid o b jects
such as telegraph poles and trees.
A cid ra in
This is an um brella term for the presence in rain­
fall of a series of pollutants w hich are produced
m ainly by the burning o f fossil fuels. Coal-fired
power stations, heavy industry and vehicle
exhausts em it sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides. These are carried by prevailing winds
across seas and n aţional frontiers to be deposited
either directly o n to th e Earth's surface as dry dep
sition or to be converted into acids (sulphuric and
nitric acid) w hich fall to th e ground in rain as we:
deposition. Clean rainwater has a pH value of 5.i i.
w hich is slightly acidic due to the natural p resen a
of carbonic acid (dissolved carbon dioxide). Tod^
rainfall over m ost o f north-w est Europe has a pH
of about 5, the lowest ever recorded being 2 .2 ith.
same as lem on juice).
The effects of acid rain include th e increase
in water acidity w hich caused th e deaths of fish
and plant life, m ainly in Scandinavian rivers anu
lakes, and th e pollution o f fresh water supplies.
Forests can be destroyed as im p ortant soil nutri-
ents (calcium and potassium ) are washed away
and replaced by m anganese and alum inium , b otv
of w hich are harm ful to root growth. In tim e tree;
shed their needles (coniferous) and leaves (decid-
uous) and becom e less resistant to drought, frost
and disease.
However, betw een 1 9 8 0 and 2 0 0 0 em issior.'
o f sulphur d ioxid e were reduced by neariy 60 pa
ce n t in W estern Europe and by ab ou t 30 per ce: •
in N orth A m erica (alth o u g h in C h in a and Sou:
east Asia th ey neariy doubled, albeit from a Iov.
base). A lthough th e p ro blem of acid rain still
exists, it is b eco m in g less p ro m in en t, especialh
in W estern Europe w here rivers and lakes are
b eg in n in g to recover.

222 Weather and climate

 under 250 mm
250-499 mm
m ainly summer,
I
most vu ln erable
to drought
500-999 mm
w in ter maxim um
500-999 mm Equator
sum m er
: : m aximum
Tropic of Capricorn
over 1000 mm
evenly distributed
over 1000 mm
sum m er rain
m onsoon)
■i n W o rld p re c ip ita tio n : d is tr ib u tio n a n d
: edpitation: r e lia b ility
nual totals
G eographers are in terested in describing dis-
."ion trib u tion s and in id en tify in g and a cco u n tin g
for an y resu ltant pattern s. W here p recip itatio n
is con cern ed , geographers have, in th e past,
co n cen tra ted o n lon g -term d istrib u tions w h ich
show e ith er m ean an nu al am o u n ts or seasonal
variations. L ong-term flu ctu atio n s vary consid-
erably across th e globe but, nevertheless, a map
show ing w orld p recip itatio n does show id entifi-
able patterns (Figure 9 .2 7 ).
Equatorial areas have h ig h an nu al rainfall
to tals due to th e co n tin u ou s up lift o f air resulting
from the conv ergence o f th e trade winds and
strong con v ectio n al currents (page 2 2 6 ). The
presence o f th e ITCZ ensures th a t rain falls
th rou g h o u t th e year. Further away from the
Equator, rainfall totals decrease and th e length
o f th e dry season increases. These tropical areas,
especially those inlan d , experien ce con v ectio n al
rainfall in sum m er, w hen the sun is overhead,
follow ed by a dry winter. Latitudes ad jacen t to
th e tropics receive m in im al am ou nts as th ey cor-
respond to areas of h ig h pressure caused by sub-
siding, and th erefore w arm ing, air (Figure 7.2).
To the poleward side of this arid zone, rainfall
quantities increase again and the length of the
dry season decreases. These tem perate latitudes
receive large am ounts of rainfall, spread evenly
throughout the year, due to cyclonic conditions
and local orographic effects. Towards th e polar
areas, where cold air descends to give stable cond i­
tions, precipitation totals decrease and rain gives
way to snow. Between 30° and 40° north and south
(in the west o f continen ts) the M editerranean
clim ate is characterised by winter rain and summer
drought. This general latitudinal zoning of rainfall
is interrupted locally by the apparent m ovem ent of
" ' ; a \ 4
the overhead sun, the presence of m ou ntain ranges
or ocean currents, the m onsoon, and continen-
tality (distance from th e sea).
M ore recently, geographers have b eco m e
increasingly con cern ed w ith shorter-term vari­
ations. In m an y parts o f th e world, e co n o m ic
d ev elop m en t and lifestyles are m ore closely
linked to th e d uration, in ten sity and reliability
o f rain fall th a n to annu al am ou nts. P recip itation
is m ore valuable w h en it falls during th e grow ing
season (C anad ian Prairies) and less effective if
it occurs w hen evap o tran sp iration rates are at
th eir h ig h est (Sahel cou ntries). In th e sam e way,
len g th y episodes o f steady rainfall as experienced
in Britain provide a m ore b en eficial w ater supply
th a n storm s o f a short and in ten siv e duration
w h ich occu r in tro p ical sem i-arid clim ates. This
is becau se m oistu re penetrates th e soil m ore
gradually and th e risks o f soil erosion, flood ing
and w ater shortages are reduced.
O f utm ost im p ortan ce is th e reliability of
rainfall. There appears to be a strong positive cor-
relatio n (Fram ew ork 19, page 6 1 2 ) b etw een rain ­
fall totals and rain fall reliability - i.e. as rainfall
totals increase, so to o does rainfall reliability. In
B ritain and th e Am azon Basin, rain fall is reliable
w ith relatively little v ariation in annu al totals
from year to year (Figure 9 .2 8 ).
Elsewhere, especially in m o n so o n or tropical
c o n tin e n ta l clim ates, th ere is a p ro n ou n ced
w et and dry season. C onsequently, if th e rains
fail o n e year, th e result can be disastrous for
crops, and possibly also for anim als and people.
T h e m ost vu ln erab le areas, such as n orth -east
Brazii and th e Sahel cou ntries, lie n ear to desert
m argins (Figure 9 .2 8 ). Here, w here even a sm all
v ariation o f 10 per ce n t below th e m ean can be
criticai, m an y places o ften exp erien ce a v ariation
in excess o f 3 0 per cent.
Weather and climate 223
 figure 9.28

World rainfall
reliability

d
Tropic of Cancer

Percentag e departure
Equator
from the m ean

LJ o ver 30 Tropic of Capricorn

”~| 21-30

~] 11-20
10 and under

A t m o s p h e r ic m o t io n Average pressure at sea-level is 1013 m b. However.

The m ovem ent o f air in the atm ospheric system
m ay be vertical (i.e. rising or subsiding) or hori­
zontal; in the latter case it is com m on ly know n as
w ind. W inds result from differences in air pres­
sure w hich in turn m ay be caused by differences
in tem perature and the force exerted by gravity,
as pressure decreases rapidly w ith h eight (Figure
9.1 ). An increase in tem perature causes air to heat,
expand, becom e less dense and rise, creating an
area o f low pressure below. Conversely, a drop in
tem perature produces an area of high pressure.
D ifferences in pressure are show n on m aps by
isobars, w hich are lines jo in in g places of equal
Figure9.29 pressure. To draw isobars, pressure readings are
The two basic norm ally reduced to represent pressure at sea-
pressure systems level. Pressure is measured in m illibars (m b) and
affecting Britain it is usual for isobars to be drawn at 4 m b intervals.
a low pressure b high pressure
w in d direction
w in ds b lo w to w ard s the centre (rising as g entle out-blowing w in ds;d escen ding
th e y do so) at an angle slightly across the air flows in a clockw ise direction
isobars and in an anticlockw ise direction;
w inds are usually strong d u e to the steep
pressure gradient
th e isobar pattern is usually m ore im portant in
term s of explaining th e w eather th an the actual
figures. T he closer together the isobars, th e greater
th e difference in pressure - th e pressure gradient
- and th e stronger the wind. W ind is nature's way
o f balancing ou t differences in pressure as well as
tem perature and hum idity.
Figure 9 .2 9 shows th e tw o basic pressure
systems w h ich affect th e British Isles. In addi-
tion to th e differences in pressure, wind speed
and wind direction, th e diagrams also show that
winds blow neith er directly at right-angles to the
isobars along the pressure gradient, nor parallel to
them . This is due to the effects o f the Coriolis force
and of friction, w h ich are additional to the forces
exerted by the pressure gradient and gravity.
T h e C o rio lis fo rc e
If th e Earth did n o t rotate and was com posed
entirely o f eith er land or water, there would be
one large con v ectio n cell in each hem isphere
(Figure 9 .3 0 ). Surface winds would be parallel to
pressure gradients and would blow directly from
h ig h to low pressure areas. In reality, th e Earth
does rotate and th e d istribution of land and sea
is uneven. Consequently, m ore th an one cell
is created (Figures 9 .3 4 and 9 .3 5 ) as rising air,
warm ed at th e Equator, loses heat to space - there
is less cloud cover to retain it - and as it travels
further from its source o f heat. A further conse-
quence is th a t m oving air appears to be deflected
to th e right in th e north ern hem isphere and to
the left in th e Southern hem isphere. This is a
result of the Coriolis force.

224 Weather and climate

:old air descends, POLE
T3ting high pressure

PO LE
an astronaut in a space shuttle, th e path would look
straightj. This helps to explain why the prevailing
winds blow ing from the tropical high pressure zone
approach Britain from th e south-west rather than
one from the south. In theory, if th e Coriolis force acted
convection alone, the resultant wind would blow in a circle.
cell in each
W inds in the upper troposphere, unaffected
hem isphere
by friction w ith the Earth's surface, show that
there is a balance betw een the forces exerted by
the pressure gradient and the Coriolis deflection.
PO LE The result is the g eo stro p h ic w in d w hich blows
: sld air descends, tropopause parallel to isobars (Figure 9.32). The existence of
rî:in g high pressure the geostrophic wind was recognised in 1857 by a
POLE
D utchm an, Buys Ballot, whose law states that 'if
»-30 Im agine th at Person A stands in the centre of you stand, in th e northern hem isphere, w ith your
a large rotating disc and throws a ball to Person B, back to the wind, low pressure is always to your left
-nentona
"ee Earth standing on the edge of that m oving disc. As Person and high pressure to your right'.
A watches, the ball appears to take a curved path F riction, caused by the Earth's surface, upsets
away from Person B - due to the fact that, while the the balance betw een the pressure gradient and the
ball is in transit, Person B has been moved to a new Coriolis force by reducing the effect of the latter.
p o sition b y the rotation o fth e disc (Figure 9.31). As the pressure gradient becom es relatively more
Similarly, the Earth's rotation through 360° every im portant when friction is reduced w ith altitude,
2 4 hours m eans that a wind blow ing in a northerly the wind blows across isobars towards the low pres­
T1
direction in the northern hem isphere appears to sure (Figure 9.29). Deviation from the geostrophic
s force wind is less pronounced over water because its
have been diverted to the right on a curved trajec-
"hern
tory by 150 of longitude for every hour (though to surface is sm oother than th at o f land.
■ere
Person B's position Figure 9.32
w h e n ball is throw n
The geostrophic
___ • 1012 mb 1008 1004 1000 wind and the
^ b a ll'a p p e a rs 'to effect of friction
1 the pressure gradient: w inds
ţ curve to the right (in the northern
at right-angles to isobars
and to miss Person B hemisphere)

Person A throw s
2 the Coriolis force
from centre of disc
High Low
due to Earth's pressure pressure
rotation, wind
appears to be 4 friction reduces Coriolis
d iverted to the force: w in d blow s at
low pressure
right and to blow a gentle angle across
south w in d expected to
from the south- 3 the geostrophic wind, th e isobars and tow ards
blow from 'high' to 'lo w '
w est a b alance b etw een th e low pressure

sub-tropical 1 and 2: blows

high nressure zone parallel to isobars

I I
Earth (disc) rotates from w e st to east

A h ierarch y o f a tm o s p h e ric m o tio n Although defining four levels, he stressed that there
were im portant interrelationships betw een each
An appreciation of th e m ovem ent of air is funda­
(Figure 9.33).
m ental to an understanding of the workings of
the atm osphere and its effects on our weather and
Characteristic
clim ate. The extent to which atm ospheric m otion horizontal size i'km) Systems
influences local w eather and clim ate depends on
1 Planetary 5000-10000 Rossby waves, ITCZ
winds at a variety of scales and their interaction in
a hierarchy of patterns. One such hierarchy, w hich 2 Synoptic (macro) 1000-5000 Monsoons, hurricanes,
is useful in studying the influence o f atm ospheric depressions, anticydones

m otion, was suggested by B.W. Atkinson in 1988. 3 Meso-scale 10-1000 Land and sea breezes,
mountain and valley winds,
Figure 9.33 fohn, thunderstorms

A hierarchy of atmosphere motion 4 Small (micro) 0,1 10 Smoke plumes, urban

systems (after Atkinson, 1988) turbulence
 P la n e t a r y s c a le : by Hadley (1 7 3 5 ). The discovery o f three cells
was m ade by Ferrel (1 8 5 6 ) and refined by Rossby
a t m o s p h e r ic c ir c u la tio n
(1 9 4 1 ). Despite m any m odern advances using
It has already been show n th a t there is a surplus ra d io so n d e readings, satellite im agery and co m ­
o f energy at th e Equator and a deficit in th e outer puter m odelling, this tricellular m odel still forms
atm osphere and nearer to th e poles (Figure 9.6 ). th e basis o f our un derstand ing o f th e general cir­
Figure 9.34 Therefore, theoretically, surplus energy should be cu latio n o f th e atm osphere.
transferred to areas w ith a deficien cy by m eans of
Tricellular model
showing atmospheric
a single conv ectiv e cell (Figure 9 .3 0 ). This would T h e tr ic e llu la r m o d e l
circulationinthe be th e case for a n o n -ro ta tin g Earth, a co n cep t The m eetin g o f th e trade w inds in th e equ atorial
northern hemisphere first advanced by H alley (1 6 8 6 ) and expanded reg io n form s th e in te r-tro p ic a l co n v e rg en ce
zon e, or ITCZ. T h e trade w ind s, w h ich p ick up
la te n t h e a t as th e y cross w arm , tro p ica l ocean s,
PFJS polar front je t stream are fo rced to rise b y v io le n t c o n v e c tio n cur-
STJS sub-tropical je t stream
ren ts. T h e u n sta b le, w arm , m o ist air is rapid ly
cold air sinks giving ITCZ inter-tropical con verg en ce zone
high pressure and co o le d a d ia b a tica lly to p ro d u ce th e to w erin g
dry, stable
conditions
cu m u lo -n im b u s cloud s, fre q u e n t a fte rn o o n
w arm air from tropics meets th u n d ersto rm s and low pressure ch a ra cte ristic
cold air from polar areas:
7-10 km 4 instability; depressions o f th e eq u a to ria l clim a te (page 3 1 6 ). It is these
I w eak stro n g upw ard cu rren ts th a t fo rm th e 'pow er-
' Polar cell w arm air
N .Po le h o u se o f th e general g lo b a l c irc u la tio n ' and
rises
high pressure w h ic h tu rn la te n t h e a t first in to sen sible h e at
at poles: d ivergence PFJS d escend ing air w arm s by and later in to p o te n tia l energy. At grou nd -lev el
co n verg en ce and Ferrel cell com pression, giving
uplift create an area of cloudless, stable th e ITCZ e x p e rien ces o n ly very g en tle, variable
low pressure:depressions conditions w inds k n ow n as th e d o ld ru m s.
horizontal m ovem ent cold air sinks As rising air cools to th e tem perature o f the
by warm ,south-w esterly
w inds
surrounding en v iron m en tal air, uplift ceases and
STJS up p er air cools
diverg ence and
as it m oves it begins to m ove away from th e Equator. Further
subsidence create an
northw ards and
area of high pressure cooling, in creasing density, and diversion by the
therefore sinks
H ad ley cell C oriolis force cause th e air to slow dow n and
horizontal transfer
by trad e w inds
\ air cools to
te m peratu re of
to subside, form ing th e d escend ing lim b o f the
H ad ley cell (Figures 9 .3 4 and 9 .3 5 ). In looking
at th e n o rth ern hem isp here (the Southern is its
con verg en ce at ITCZ
w arm surrounding air: m irror im age), it can be seen th a t th e air subside^
of trade w inds: uplift
ITCZ air rises instability;
creates area o f low at about 30°N o f th e Equator to create th e sub­
co n vectional rain
pressure (doldrum s)
tropical h ig h pressure belt w ith its clear skies and
15-20 km dry, stable con d ition s (Figure 9 .3 6 ). O n reaching
th e E arth ’s surface, th e cell is com p leted as som e

J o f th e air is returned to th e Equator as th e north-

east trade winds.

tropical tropopause
15

p olar front
\ •(udet'0P5p-a'
cumulo-
mulo-
§ 10 nim
nbus
bus

i
clouds (mirror image
in Southern
H ad ley cell
Ferrel cell hemisphere)
Polar cell
!! I ITCZ I

Figure 9.35

Tricellular model to show N orth Pole 60° N 30° N Equator Latitude

atmospheric circulation in high low high low Pressure
the northern hemisphere
easterlies w arm south-westerlies north-east trades Global winds
and within the tropopause

226 Weather and climate

 T he rem aining air is diverted polewards.
form ing the warm south-w esterlies w hich collect
m oisture w hen th e y cross sea areas. These warm
. 0.36
winds m eet cold Arctic air at the polar front
lakenby the
(about 60°N) and are uplifted to form an area of
:at geosynchro-
ie llite . Notice
low pressure and the rising lim b of th e Ferrel and
jds resulting P o lar cells (Figures 9 .3 4 and 9 .3 5 ). The resultant
. ?!ift at the ITCZ unstable con d ition s produce th e heavy cy clon ic
: :ontinuous belt), rainfall associated w ith m id-latitude depressions.
■ skies over the
Depressions are an oth er m ech an ism by w hich
the polar front
■■-■north Atlantic,
surplus h eat is transferred. W hile som e o f this
repression over rising air eventually returns to th e tropics, som e
travels towards th e poles where, having lost its
R ossby w a v e s a n d je t s tre a m s
Evidence of strong winds in th e upper troposphere
first cam e w hen First World War Zeppelins were
blown off-course, and several inter-war balloons
were observed travelling at speeds in excess of
2 0 0 km/hr. Pilots in th e Second World War, flying
at heights above 8 km, found eastward flights
m uch faster and their return westward journeys
m uch slower than expected, while n orth -sou th
flights tended to be blow n off-course. The expla-
nation was found to be the Rossby w aves, w hich
often follow a m eandering path (Figure 9.37a),
distorting th e upper-air westerlies. The num ber of
meanders, or waves, varies seasonally. w ith usually
heat. it descends to form an oth er stable area of
high pressure. Air returning to th e polar front
does so as the cold easterlies.
This overall pattern is affected by the apparent
m ovem ent of th e overhead sun to th e n o rth and
south of th e Equator. This m o vem en t causes the
seasonal shift o f th e heat Equator, th e ITCZ, the
equatorial low pressure zone and global wind and
rainfall belts. Any variation in the characteristics
o f th e ITCZ - i.e. its lo catio n or w idth - can have
drastic consequences for the surrounding cli­
m ates, as seen in th e Sahel droughts o f th e early
1970s and m ost of th e 1980s (Case Study 7).
four to six in sum m er and three in winter. These
waves form a com plete pattern around the globe
(Figure 9 .3 7 b and c).
Further investigation has show n th a t the
velocity o f these upper westerlies is n o t inter-
nally un iform . W ith in th em are narrow bands of
extrem ely fast-m oving air know n as je t stream s.
Je t streams, w h ich help in th e rapid transfer of
energy, can exceed speeds o f 2 3 0 km/hr, w hich
is sufficient to carry a balloon, or ash from a
volcano, around th e Earth w ithin a week or two
(Figure 9 .3 9 and Case Study 1). O f five recognis-
able je t streams, two are particularly significant,
w ith a third having seasonal im portance.
Weather and climate 227
 The p o la r fro n t je t stream (PFJS, Figure 9.34)
varies betw een latitudes 40° and 60° in b o th
hem ispheres and forms th e division betw een th e
Ferrel and Polar cells, i.e. the boundary betw een
warm tropical and cold polar air. The PFJS varies
in exten t, location and intensity and is m ainly
responsible for giving fine or w et w eather on th e
Earth's surface. W here, in the n orthern h em i­
sphere, the je t stream m oves south (Figure 9.38a),
it brings w ith it cold air w hich descends in a clock-
wise d irection to give dry, stable cond itions associ-
ated w ith areas o f high pressure (a n ticy clo n e s,
page 23 4 ). W h en the now -w arm ed jet stream
Figure 9.37 backs northwards, it takes w ith it warm air w hich
rises in an anticlockw ise direction to give the
Rossby waves and jet
streams (northern strong winds and heavy rainfall associated w ith
hemisphere) areas of low pressure (d epressions, page 230). As
the usual path o f the PFJS over Britain is oblique -
i.e. towards th e north-east - this accounts for our
frequent wet and w indy weather. O ccasionally,
this path m ay be tem porarily altered by a station-
ary or b lo c k in g a n tic y c lo n e (Figures 9.38b
and 9.4 8 ) w h ich m ay produce extrem es o f clim ate
such as the hot, dry sum mers o f 1976 and 1989 or
the cold Janu ary o f 1987.
T he s u b tro p ic a l je t stre a m , or STJS, occurs
about 25° to 30° from th e Equator and form s the
b ou nd ary b etw een th e Hadley and Ferrel cells
(Figures 9 .3 4 and 9 .3 5 ). This m eanders less th an
th e PFJS, has low er w ind v elocities, bu t follow s a
sim ilar w est-east path.
T h e e a ste rly e q u a to ria l je t s tre a m is m ore
seasonal, b ein g associated w ith th e sum m er
m o n so o n o f th e In d ian s u b c o n tin e n t (page 2 3 9 .

a Rossby waves N P North Pole b in winter vie w e d from ab o ve North Pole c in summer
(northern hemisphere) R ridge
T trough

Figure 9.38 a the PFJS b the PFJS with blocking anticyclone

The polar front jet stream
path of je t stream
(PFJS) (northern hemisphere) usual path
o f je t stream

w arm air from

ridge tropics taken ridge
_ northw ards^^^' a tem po rary area
(high pressure) (high pressure)
of high pressure
Id
cold a ir ^ J^ b lo c k s th e je t
from polar stream, causing :
areas carried to divide so that
southw ards trough depressions can
(low pressure) pass to the nortF
and south of
Britain

Figure 9 3 9

Orbiter 3's first balloon flight around the w : ’«

March 1999 6th 11 th 15th
4th 18th
Avoiding action Speed slows, but fuel Voice contact re-
Jet stream over Africa consumption better Pilots report being short
Ist taken to skirtno-fly established after 20th
takes balloon east. than expected. Balloon of breath and have to
Breitling 0rbiter3 zones in Yemen. four-day silence. By Crossing longitude
Towards Lfbya, Piccard heads towards Hawaii take oxygen.Jones
carrying Bertrand Fresh food runsout. Strong winds now 9.27°W, Breitling Orbiter
climbs out of capsule to where Branson ditched believes cause is build-
Piccard and Brian Jones carrying the balloon 3 completes the first
hack off ice. Outside up of carbon dioxide in 20th
leaves shielded Swiss previous December. at 160 km/hr. circumnavigation ofthe
temperature below -25°C the capsule. Touchdown in
valley chosen as launch globe in a balloon.
Egyptian Desert
site toallow safe
(Mut) 500 km
inflation of balloon.
south-west of Cairc.
North
America A tla n tic Ocean

Pacific Ocean
Africa

9.27 W
 M a c r o -s c a ie : s y n o p tic s y s te m s
T he co n cep t o f air m asses is im p o rta n t because
air m asses help to categorise world clim ate types
(C hapter 12). In regions w here on e air mass is
d o m in a n t all year, there is little seasonal varia­
tio n in w eather, for exam p le at th e tropics and
at the poles. Areas such as th e B ritish Isles, w here
air m asses co n sta n tly in terch an g e, experien ce
m u ch greater seasonal and d iurnal variation in
th eir weather.
A ir m asses a n d fro n ts : h o w th e y a ffe c t
th e B ritis h Isles
If air rem ains station ary in an area for several
days, it tends to assum e th e tem peratu re and
hu m id ity properties o f th a t area. S tation ary air
is m ain ly fo u n d in th e h ig h pressure b elts o f th e
subtropics (the Azores and th e Sahara) and in
h ig h latitudes (Siberia and n o rth e rn Canada).
The areas in w h ich h om og en eo u s air masses
develop are called so u rce reg io n s. Air m asses can
be classified accord in g to:
m th e la titu d e in w h ich th e y originate, w h ich
determ ines th eir tem peratu re - A rctic (A),
Polar (P ), or Tropical (T)
£ th e natu re o f th e su rface over w h ich they
develop, w h ich affects th eir m oistu re co n te n t
- m aritim e (m), or co n tin e n ta l (c).
T h e five m a jo r air m asses w h ich a ffect th e B ritish
Isles at various tim es o f th e year (Am, Pm, Pc, Tm
and Tc) are derived b y c o m b in in g these charac-
teristics o f latitu d e and h u m id ity (Figure 9 .4 0 ).
W h en air m asses m ove from th e ir source region
th e y are m o d ified by th e surface over w h ich th e y
pass and th is alters th e ir tem p eratu re, h u m id ity
Figure 9.40
Air masses that affect
the British isles
\ Am
Arctic maritime air
from the Arctic Ocean;
northerly air type
Pm
Polar maritime air
from northern Canada
and the Arctic Ocean;
north-westerly air type
Tm
/ Saharan sub-tropicaî1
Tropical m aritim e air
from th e Azores
high pressure area;
south-westerly air type
and stability. For exam p le, tro p ical air m oving
northw ards is coo led and b eco m es m ore stable,
w hile polar air m o v in g sou th b eco m es w arm er
and in creasin g ly u n stable. Each air m ass th e re ­
fore brings its ow n ch a ra cteristic w eather co n d i­
tio n s to th e B ritish Isles. T h e general co n d itio n s
expected w ith each air mass are given in
Figure 9 .4 1 . However, it should be rem em bered
th a t each air m ass is u n iq u e and d ep end ent on:
th e clim a tic co n d itio n s in th e source region at
th e tim e o f its d ev elop m en t; th e p ath w h ich it
subsequently follow s; th e season in w h ich it
occurs; and, sin ce it has a th ree-d im en sion al
form , th e v ertical ch aracteristics o f th e atm o s­
phere at th e tim e.
W h en two air masses m eet, th ey do n o t m ix
readily, due to differences in tem perature and
density. T he p o in t at w hich they m eet is called a
fro n t. A w a rm fro n t is found where warm air is
advancing and being forced to override cold air. A
co ld fro n t occurs w hen advancing cold air under-
cuts a body o f warm air. In b o th cases, th e rising
air cools and usually produces clouds, easily seen
on satellite w eather photographs (Figures 9 .6 7
and 9 .6 8 ); these clouds often generate precipita­
tion. Fronts m ay be several hundred kilom etres
wide and th e y extend at relatively gentle gradi-
ents up in to the atm osphere. The m ost notable
type o f front, th e p o la r fro n t, occurs w hen warm,
m oist, Tm air m eets colder, drier, Pm air. It is at the
polar fron t th a t depressions form . D epressions
are areas o f low pressure. T h ey form m o st readily
over th e oceans in m id-latitudes, and track
eastwards bringing cloud and rain to western
m argins o f co n tin e n ts.
Pc
Polar continental air
from Siberian high
pressure area (winter);
easterly air type
Tc
Trqpical co n tin e n taU iir from the
high"presbure
area; south or south-easterly air type
Weather and climate 229
 Polar maritime (Pm) Very Arctic maritime (Am) Very cold conditions in
common air mass over Britain. winter;cold in spring; rare in summer. Slowly
Gives cool conditions heats up as it crosses the sea, picking up some
throughout the year. Warms moisture and becoming unstable in its lower
slightly as it crosses the layers. Snow in winter in Scotland; hail in spring,
Atlantic to become unstable often in heavy showers. Usually good visibility.
in its lower layers. Gives heavy Often lasts several days.Temperatures in London
showers as it crosses may be just above freezing point in winter and
highlands, separated by bright precipitation is limited. Winds often strong in
intervals. Associated with the north.
cumuloform clouds.
Good visibility. Often strong winds and galeş occur after the
passing of a cold front. northerly

Polar continental (Pc] Gives very coid

temperatures in winter (London below 0°C).
north- Begins stable, but warms slightly Crossing
w e s te r ly the North Sea to become unstable in lower
layers and giving heavy snow in eastern
Britain (bright and
P m a n d T m m e e t a lo n g th e p o la r fro n t. clear on west coast).
F o rm a tio n o f d e p re s s io n s w it h w a rm a n d e a s te rly Often lasts several
c o ld fro n ts w h ic h g iv e h e a v y rain (fro n ta l days if blocking
a n d o ro g ra p h ic ). anticyclone interrupts
prevailing westerlies.
Wind chill factor is
high. If this air stream
occurs in summer,
it brings warm
conditions and is
more stable.

Tropical maritime (Tm)

A common air mass over Britain.
Occurs during warm sector ofa
depression.Very mild and wet in
winter, with a thick cloud cover.
Often stratus cloud giving hill and
coastal fog. Poor visibility. No frost.
Warm in summer,though not hot.
Lower air is stable but if forced to
rise over hills the upper layers can
become conditionally unstable to
give thundery showers. Winds usually moderate to fresh.
s o u th e rly
SOUth-
w e s te rly
Tropical continental (Tc) Only occurs
in summer when sub-tropical high
pressure moves north. Heatwave
conditions (1976,1989). Very stable in
lower layers (drought),though upper
layers may become unstable with
thunderstorms (convectional uplift).
Gentle winds, dusty haze. North-west
Scotland can be cloudy and wet.

Figure 9.41 D e p re s s io n s 1 T h e e m b ry o d e p re ssio n begins as a small

Air masses and the
British weather
The polar fro n t th eo ry was put forward by a wave on th e polar fro n t. It is here th a t warm
group o f N orw egian m eteorolog ists in th e early m oist, tro p ical (Tm) air m eets colder, drier.
1920s. A lth ough som e aspects have b een refined polar (Pm) air (Figure 9 .4 2 ). R ecent studies
since th e in n o v a tio n o f rad iosond e readings and have show n th e b ou nd ary b etw een th e twi >
satellite imagery, th e b asic m odel for th e fo rm a ­ air m asses to be a zone rath er th a n th e simţ.
tio n o f fro n tal depressions rem ains valid. T he linear d ivision claim ed in early m odels. The
follow ing a cco u n t describes a 'ty p ica l' or 'm o d el' con v erg en ce o f th e tw o air m asses results in
depression (Fram ew ork 12, page 3 5 2 ). It should th e warmer, less dense air b ein g forced to r:-_
be rem em bered, how ever, th a t individual depres­ in a spiral m o vem en t. This upward m o ve­
sions m ay vary w idely from th is m odel. m en t results in 'less' air at th e Earth's surfa:s
D epressions follow a life-cycle in w h ich three creatin g an area o f below -average or low
m ain stages can be iden tified : em bryo, m atu rity pressure. The d eveloping depression, with *
and decay (Figures 9 .4 2 , 9 .4 3 and 9 .4 4 ). warm fro n t (the leading edge o f th e tropiCa,

co ld er, d e n se r, p o la r air
u n d e rc u ts th e w a r m e r air
warm front marking
advance of warmer air
'w a v e 1o n th e
p o la r fro n t
c o ld fro n t m a rk in g
Figure 9.42 a d v a n c e o f c o ld e r air w a rm , m o ist, lighter, tro p ic a l
Life-cycle of a air is fo rc e d u p w a rd s o v e r th e
depression: Stage 1 - c o ld e r air
embryodepression

230 Weather and climate

 air) and cold fro n t (th e lead ing edge o f the
polar air), usually m oves in a north-easterly
d irection under th e in flu en ce o f th e upper
w esterlies, i.e. th e polar fro n t jet stream .
2 A m a tu re d epression is recognised by the
increasing am plitude o f the in iţial wave
(Figure 9.4 3 ). Pressure continu es to fall as m ore
warm air, in the warm sector, is forced to rise.
As pressure falls and th e pressure gradient
steepens, th e inw ard-blow ing winds increase in
strength. Due to the Coriolis force (page 224),
these anticlockw ise-blow ing winds com e from
the south-w est. As th e relatively warm air of
th e warm sector con tin u es to rise along the
warm front, it eventually cools to dew point.
Som e of its vapour will cond ense to release
large am ounts of laten t heat, and clouds will
develop. C ontinu ed uplift and coo lin g will
cause precipitation as th e clouds becom e
b o th thicker and lower.
Satellite ph otograp h s have show n th a t there
is likely to be a band o f 'm eso-scale p recip ita­
tio n ’ exten d in g several hu ndred kilom etres in
length and up to 1 5 0 km in w idth along, and
just in fro n t of, a warm fro n t. As tem peratures
rise and th e up lift o f air decreases w ith in th e
warm sector, th ere is less ch a n ce o f p recip i­
ta tio n and th e low cloud m ay break to give
som e su nshine. The cold fro n t m oves faster
lo w p re ss u re u su al p a th o f
caused by
I w a r m air
o lo w a n tid o c k w is e
" i e d e p re s s io n a n d
se in s tre n g th as th e
j r e g ra d ie n t
tises
fo rc e s th e w a r m a ir to rise; u p w a rd s
p re c ip ita tio n resu lts fro m
th e w a r m air b e in g c o o le d
c o ld e s t a ir :d r a w n fro m
co ld , polar, s o u rc e a rea s
w a rm a ir rises o v e r c o ld air a n d is
c o o le d to d e w p o in t, g iv tn g c o n d e n s a tio n ,
c lo u d s a n d p re c ip ita tio n
eof a depression: Stage 2 - maturity
and has a steeper gradient th a n th e warm
fro n t (Figure 9 .4 5 ).
Progressive u n d ercu ttin g by cold air at the
rear o f th e warm sector gives a second episode
o f p recip itatio n - alth o u g h w ith a greater
in te n sity and a shorter d u ration th a n at the
warm front. This band o f m eso-scale pre­
cip ita tio n m ay be on ly 1 0 -5 0 km in w idth.
A lthough th e air beh in d th e cold fro n t is
colder th a n th a t in advance o f th e warm
fro n t (hav ing originated in and travelled
th rou g h m ore n o rth erly latitudes), it becom es
un stable, fo rm in g cu m u lo-n im b u s clouds
and heavy show ers. W inds o ften reach their
m axim u m streng th at th e cold fro n t and
ch an g e to a m ore n orth-w esterly d irection
after its passage (Figure 9 .4 5 ).
.■5 T he depression begins to d e ca y w hen th e cold
fro n t catch es up th e warm fro n t to form an
o cclu sio n or o cclu d ed fro n t (Figure 9 .4 4 ). By
this stage, th e Tm air will have b een squeezed
upwards leaving n o warm sector at ground-
level. As th e u p lift o f air is reduced, so too
are (or will be) th e a m o u n t o f co n d en satio n ,
th e release o f la ten t heat and th e am o u n t
and p attern o f p recip itatio n - th ere m ay be
on ly on e episode o f rain. Cloud cover begins
to decrease, pressure rises and w ind speeds
decrease as th e cold er air replaces th e uplifted
air and 'in fills' th e depression.
\ \
lo w p re ss u re n o w b e g in n in g to fiii
■ v
o c c lu s io n : c o ld fro n t has c a u g h t up
th e w a r m fro n t a n d all th e w a r m air
has b e e n u p lifte d ; n o fu r th e r d e cre a se ^
in p re ssu re; in - b lo w in g w in d s b e g in to
’in fiir th e d e p re s sio n
b a n d o f c lo u d
, 1000 and
p re c ip ita tio n
s tro n g w in d s in s te e p p re ssu re a lo n g fro n ts
g ra d ie n t d e c re a s e as d e p re s s io n
b e g in s to fiii; b rig h te r, s h o w e r y
w e a th e r
w a r m air
tra ilin g ' c o ld fro n t: fu rth e r
w a v e s lik e ly to d e v e lo p , —
fo rm in g n e w d e p re s s io n s
Figure 9.44
Life-cyde of a depression: Stage 3 - decay
Weather and climate 231
 tropopause
Figure 9,45 12000

Weather associated
with the passing upper-air w esterlies (jet stream):
Cb
ofatypical mid- depression m oves north-eastwards
latitude depression
9000
o.
o w arm sector
Cs

" 6000 w arm air forced Ac

Ac to rise

cold air As
3000 u n d e rc u ttin g ***
w a rm air Ns
Ns St Sc cold air

Cu
sea-level

read from right to left (i.e. from 1 to

5. Behind the cold 4. Passing of tne
front cold front 3. Warm sector 2. Passing ofthe warm front 1. Approach of depression
Pressure rise continues more sudden rise steady fall ceases steady fall
slowly

Wind direction NW veersfromSWtoNW sw veersfromSSEtoSW SSE

Wind speed squally; speed slowly very strong to gale decreases (e.g. force 2-4) strong (e.g. force 5-6) slowly increases (e.g. force 1-3)
decreases (e.g.force force (e.g. force 6-8)
3-6)

Temperature cold (e.g.3°C) sudden decrease warm/mild (e.g. 10°C) sudden rise cool(e.g. 6°C)
(e.g. winter)

Relative rapid fall high during steady and high high during precipitation slow rise
humidity precipitation

Cloud decreasing; in very thick and low or may clear; St, Sc, Ac lowand thick Ns high and thin; in succession, Ci, Cs,
(Figure 9.20) succession, Cb and Cu toweringCb Ac, As

Precipitation heavy showers short period of heavy drizzleorstops raining continuous rainfall, steady none
rain or hail and quite heavy

Visibility very good; poor in poor often poor decreases rapidly good but beginning to decrease
showers

S to r m s in S o u th e rn E n g la n d

South-east England: 'The Great Storm', 76 O c to b e r 0030 hrs: Radio weather forecast:
16 October 1987 warning of severe galeş.

This storm, the worstto affect south-east England
since 1703, developed so rapidly that its severity
was not predicted in advance weather forecasts.
1 7 O c to b e r : High winds and heavy rain forecast for
the end ofthe week.
75 O c to b e r 1 200 hrs: Depression expected to move
along the English Channel with fresh to strong winds.
0130 hrs: Police and fire services alerted about
extreme winds.
0500 hrs: Winds reached 94 km/hr at Heathrow and
100 km/hr on parts ofthe south coast.
0800 hrs: Centre o f depression reached the North
Sea. Winds over S o u t h e r n England dropped to
50-70 km/hr.

2130 hrs: TV weather forecast: strong winds 1200 hrs:'The Great Storm'was over.
gusting to 50 km/hr.

232 Weather and climate

 North Sea

Centre 960 mb
0600 hrs 16 October

predicted path
actual path Centre 958 mb
0400 hrs 16 October

Centre 960 mb
0000 hrs 16 October

Centre 964 mb
The Great Storm', 1800 hrs 15 October
’6October 1987

The storm began on 15 October as a small wave
on a cold front in the Bay of Biscay, where the
few weather ships give only limited information.
It was caused by contact between very warm air
from Africa and cold airfrom the North Atlantic.
It appeared to be a 'typical'depression until, at
about 1800 hrs on 15 October, it unexpectedly
deepened giving a central pressure reading
of 964 mb and creating an exceptionally
steep pressure gradient. The exact cause of this
is unknown but it was believed to result from a
combination of an exceptionally strong jet stream
(initiated on 13 October by air spiralling upwards
along the east coast of North America in Hurricane
Floyd) and extreme warming over the Bay of Biscay
(see hurricanes, page 235). Together, these could have
caused an excessive release of latent heat energy
which North American meteorologists compare
with the effect ofdetonating a bomb. Itwasthis
unpredicted deepening, combined with the change
of direction from the English Channel towards the
Midlands, which caught experts by surprise.
The depression moved rapidly across Southern
England, clearing the country in six hours (Figure
9.46). Winds remained light in and around the
centre (Birmingham 13 km/hr), but the strong
pressure gradient on its Southern flank resulted in
severe winds from Portland Bill (102 km/hr, gusting to
141 km/hr) to Dover (115 km/hr, gusting to 167 km/hr).
Although the storm passed within a few hours, and
luckily during the night when most people were
asleep, it left a trail of death and destruction. There
were 16 deaths; several houses collapsed and many
others lost walls, windows and roofs; an estimated
15 million trees were blown over, blocking railways
and roads; one-third of the trees in KewGardens
were destroyed; power lines were cut and, in some
remote areas, not restored for several days; few
commuters managed to reach London the next
day; a ferry was blown ashore at Folkestone; and
insurance claims set an all-time record.
Once every 50 years, winds exceeding 100 km/hr
with gusts of over 165 km/hr can be expected north
ofa line from Cornwall to Durham,and even stronger
winds, gusting to 185 km/hr, once in 20 years in
western and northern Scotland.The winds associated
with the Great Storm were remarkable not so much
for their strength as for their occurrence over south-
east England. Here, the predicted return period can
be measured in centuries rather than decades.
10 March 2008
Southern Britain experienced the worst storm for
over 20 years with winds of 150 km/hr recorded
on the Isle of Wight and torrential rain falling over
Wales and S o u th e rn England. Flights to and from
Heathrow were either cancelled or diverted and
there were delays at other London airports. Cross-
Channel ferries to France and Ireland were also
cancelled and over 10 000 homes in south-west
England lost their electricity.

Weather and climate 233

 A n tic y c lo n e s
An a n ticy clo n e is a large mass o f subsiding air
w h ich produces an area o f h ig h pressure o n the
Earth's surface (Figure 9 .4 7 ). The source o f the
air is th e upper atm osphere, where am ounts of
water vapour are lim ited. O n its descent, th e air
Figure 9.47
warms at the DALR (page 21 6 ), so dry cond ition s
Anticyclone over result. Pressure gradients are gentle, resulting in
the British Isles weak winds or calm s (Figure 9 .2 9 b ). T h e winds
50 N
tra c k s o f fro n ta l d e p re s sio n s
u p p e r w e s te r ly flo w w ith
fro n ta l d e p re s sio n s
► s u rfa c e flo w
p o s itiv e te m p e r a tu r e a n o m a lie s
n e g a tiv e te m p e r a tu r e a n o m a lie s
234 Weather and climate
blow outwards and clockw ise in the n orth ern
hem isphere. A nticyclones m ay be 3 0 0 0 km in
diam eter - m uch larger th a n depressions - and,
o n ce established, can give several days or, under
extrem e cond itions, several weeks, of settled
weather. There are also differences, again unlike ir
a depression, betw een th e expected w eather co n ­
d itions in a sum m er and a w inter anticyclone.
W e a th e r c o n d itio n s o v e r B rita in
S u m m e r Due to th e ab sen ce o f cloud, there
is in ten se in so la tio n w h ich gives hot, su n n y dav-
(up to 30°C in Southern England) and an absence
o f rain. Rapid rad iation at n ig h t, under clear
skies, can lead to tem peratu re inversions and
th e fo rm atio n of dew and m ist, alth ou g h these
rapidly clear th e follow in g m o rn in g . Coastal
areas m ay experien ce ad vection fogs and land
and sea breezes, w hile h ig h lan d s have m ountain
and valley winds (pages 2 4 0 -2 4 1 ) . If th e air has
its source over N orth Africa - th a t is, if it is a Te
air mass (Figure 9 .4 0 ) - th e n heatw ave co n d i­
tio n s ten d to result. O ften, after several days of
in creasin g therm als, there is an increased risk of
th u nd erstorm s and th e so-called Spanish plum e
(page 2 2 0 ).
W in te r A lthough th e sinking air again gives
cloudless skies, there is little in co m in g radiation
during th e day due to the low angle o f th e sun.
At n ight, the absence o f clouds m eans low tem ­
peratures and th e d evelopm ent of fog and frost.
These m ay take a long tim e to disperse the next
day in th e weak sunshine. Polar co n tin en tal (R
air (Figure 9 .4 0 ), w ith its source in central Asia
and a slow m ovem en t over the cold European
land mass, is cold, dry and stable u n til it reaches
th e N orth Sea where its lower layers acquire soni
w arm th and m oisture. This can cause heavy
snow falls on th e east coast (Figure 9.22).
B lo c k in g a n tic y c lo n e s
These occur w hen cells o f h igh pressure detach
them selves from th e m ajor h igh pressure areas
o f th e subtropics or poles (Figure 9 .3 8 b ). Once
created, th ey last for several days and 'b lock'
eastw ard-m oving depressions (Figure 9 .4 8 ) to
create anom alous co n d itio n s such as extrem es :
tem perature, rainfall and sunshine - as in Brita:
in th e sum m er o f 1995 and the w inter o f 1 9 8 - .
Figure 9,48
A blocking anticyclone over Scandinavia: the
upperwesterlies divide upwind ofthe block
and flow around itw ith their associated rain­
fall; there are positive temperature anomalies
within the southerly flow to the west ofthe
block and negative anomalies to the east
 T ro p ic a l c y clo n es at low levels, and can have a d iam eter o f up to
6 5 0 km. U nlike depressions, hurricanes occur
Tropical cyclones are system s of in ten se low pres­
w hen tem peratures, pressure and h u m id ity are
sure know n locally as h u rric a n e s, ty p h o o n s and
un iform over a wide area in th e lower tropo-
c y c lo n e s (Figure 9 .4 9 ). T hey are characterised by
sphere for a len g th y period, and a n ticy clo n ic
winds o f extrem e velocity and are accom pan ied
con d itio n s exist in th e upper troposphere. These
by to rrential rainfall - two factors th a t can cause
con d itio n s are essential for th e d evelopm ent,
widespread dam age and loss o f life (Places 31,
near th e Earth's surface, o f in ten se low pressure
page 2 3 8 ). As yet, there is still in su fficien t con-
and strong winds. To enable th e h u rricane to
clusive evidence as to th e process o f th eir fo rm a­
m ove, there m ust be a con tin u ou s source o f heat
tio n , alth ou gh know ledge has been considerably
to m a in ta in th e rising air currents. There m ust
im proved recently due to airflights th rou g h and
also be a large supply o f m oisture to provide the
over individual system s, and th e use o f w eather
la ten t heat, released by co n d en sation , to drive
satellites. Tropical cyclones tend to develop:
th e storm and to provide th e heavy rainfall. It
■ over warm trop ical oceans, w here sea
is estim ated th a t in a single day a hu rricane can
tem peratures exceed 26°C and w here there
release an am o u n t o f energy equ iv alent to th at
is a consid erable depth o f w arm water
released by 5 0 0 0 0 0 ato m ic bom bs th e size o f the
■ in autum n , w hen sea tem peratu res are at th eir
on e dropped o n H iroshim a in th e Second World
h ig hest
War. O nly w hen th e storm has reached m aturity
■ in th e trade w ind belt, w here th e surface
does th e central eye develop. This is an area o f
winds w arm as they blow towards th e Equator
subsiding air, som e 3 0 -5 0 km in diam eter, w ith
■ betw een latitud es 5° and 20° n o rth or south
lig h t winds, clear skies and anom alous high
o f th e Equator (nearer to th e Equator the
tem peratures (Figure 9 .5 0 ). The descend ing air
C oriolis force is in su fficien t to enable the
increases in stab ility by w arm ing and exaggerates
feature to 'sp in ' - page 2 2 5 ).
th e storm 's intensity.
O nce form ed, th e y m ove westwards - o ften on
The h u rrican e rapidly declines o n ce th e
erratic, u n p red ictab le courses - sw inging pole-
source o f h eat is rem oved, i.e. w h en it m oves
ward o n reach in g land, w here th eir energy is
over colder water or a land surface; these increase
rapidly dissipated (Figure 9 .4 9 ). They are an oth er
frictio n and c a n n o t supply su fficien t m oisture.
m ech a n ism by w h ich surplus energy is trans-
T he average lifespan o f a trop ical cy clo n e is
ferred away from th e tropics (Figure 9.6 ).
7 to 14 days. T he ch aracteristic w eather co n d i­
H u rric a n e s tio n s associated w ith th e passage o f a typical
H urricanes are th e tropical cy clon es o f th e hu rricane are show n d iagram m atically in
- ?.49 A tlantic. They form after th e ITCZ has m oved to Figure 9 .5 0 , and from space in Figure 9 .5 1 .
ationand its m ost n o rth erly e x ten t en ablin g air to converge
~equencyof
: .yclones

m e a n n u m b e r o f tro p ic a l tim e o f
A u g u s t - O c to b e r Hurricane lo cal n a m e □ sea te m p e r a tu re o v e r 2 7 °C
c y c lo n e s p e r y e a r o c c u rre n c e

. ‘ Cancer
’s . 9 Hurricanes 2 6 Typhoons
13 Hurricanes ’ A u g u s t - O c to b e r M ay - D ecem b er
J u n e - O c to b e r
_6 Cyclone
O c to b e r - N o v e m b e r
^ — 8 Cyclones 10
^ D e c e m b e r - M a rc h Cyclones
Ja n u a ry - M a rc h

Weather and climate 235

Weather associated
with the passage
ofa hurricaneor
tropical cyclone

eye
approach of hurricane 20 - 3 0 km 20 -30 km end of hurricane
3 0 -5 0 km

Vertical updraughts increasing updraughts increasing subsiding air spiral uplift updraughts decreasing
movement --------------------- ► ----------------------►
Clouds few Cu Cu Cu ana some Cb giant CB and Ci none giant Cb and Ci Cu and some Cb Cu small Cu
(Figure 9.20)
Precipitation none showers heavy showers torrential rain none torrential rain heavy showers showers none
250mm/day 250mm/day

Wind speed gentle fresh, gusty locally very hurricane force calm hurricane force locally very fresh gusty gentle
strong 160 km/hr 160 km/hr strung

Wind direction NNW NW WNW WNW calm SSE SSE SE ESE

Temperatures high (30°C) still high (30°C) falling (26°C) low (24°C) high (32°C) low (24°C) ■ rising (26°C) high (28°C) high (30°C
(plus examples)

Pressure average, steady, slowly falung, rapid fall low, rapid rise slowly rising, steady, average,
1012 mb 1010 mb 1006 mb 960 mb 1004mb 1010 mb 1012 mb

Tropical cy clon es are a m a jo r natu ral haza:

Figure 9.51
Satellite image of Hurricane
Mitch, October 1998. The
'eye'is very noticeable
w h ich o ften cause consid erable loss o f life and
dam age to p roperty and crops (Places 31). The
are four m ain causes o f dam age.
1 H igh w inds, w hich often exceed 160 km h:
and, in extrem e cases, 3 0 0 km/hr. W hole
villages m ay be destroyed in econom ically
less developed countries (of w hich there are
m any in the tropical cyclone belt), while e1. -:
reinforced buildings in the south-east USA
m ay be damaged. Countries w hose econom
rely largely o n the production o f a single crcţ
(bananas in Nicaragua) m ay suffer serious
econ om ic problem s. Electricity and
Communications can also be severed.
2 O cean sto rm (tid al) surges, resultin g froq;
th e h ig h w inds and low pressure, m ay inun­
date coastal areas, m any o f w h ich are der.'
populated (Bangladesh, Places 19, page 1­
3 F lo o d in g can be caused eith er by a storm
(tidal) surge or b y th e to rren tia l rainfall. i
1 9 7 4 , 8 0 0 0 0 0 people died in H onduras a:
th eir flim sy h om es were w ashed away.
4 L an d slid es ca n result from heavy rainfa!
w here build in gs have b een erected o n st:
u n stab le slopes (H ong Kong, Figure 2.33

236 Weather and climate

 H ong Kong: typhoon warning, I May 1999
'The Number 8 signal may be raised today as
Typhoon Leo moves closer to Hong Kong. Its Figure 9.53

approach forced the Hong Kong observatory to Passage ofTyphoon H ong Kong ’•£

hoist the strong wind signal Number 3 yesterday Leo, South China \Midnight 1 May j
Sea, 1 May 1999 30 April ?: ^
afternoon [Figure 9.52] - the first time it had ever Typhoon signal
been raised in April [Figure 9.55], Leo intensified No.3 hoisted at
!4 15 pm on 30 April
into a typhoon yesterday, with central wind 29 April
Strong wind signal
speeds of up to 130 km/hr. At midnight, it was No.1 hoisted at
310 km south-south-east of Hong Kong, and 28 April 9.40 am on 29 April
O
was moving at about 8 km/hr [Figure 9.53],The
typhoon is expected to be closest to Hong Kong
V Flgur«9.S4
early tomorrow morning, by which time weather
N‘ Weather chart for
will deteriorate further and average rainfall could
Hong Kong, 8 pm
exceed 500 mm [Figure 9.54].
on 30 April 1999
■-9.52

- n warning
Hong Kong
^ \ 1008
I
'

,Bangkok

The Education Department has ordered

kindergartens, schools for the mentally and
physically handicapped, and nursing schools to
remain closed.The Home Affairs Department's
temporary shelters will open if Signal 8 goes up.
People in need ofsheltercan makeenquiries by
callingthehotline.'
: ning Source: South China Morning Post
" : Kong
°c Saturday: O vercast w ith rain, h eavy at times.
21 18 Wind: east to northeast force 6 to 7, becoming force 7 to 8 later.
Sunday: O vercast w ith freq uent h eavy rain.
22 20 Wind; east to southeast force 7 to 8.
Coastal waters
Hong Kong adjacent waters: East to northeast force 7 to 8, up to force 10 later
today in the south.Occasional heavy rain. Rough to very rough seas becoming high.

Meaning ofth e signal A/hat you should do

ies of tropical cydone Specific advice is contained in weather broadcasts, but the
id speed) following general precautions can be taken

1 A tropical cydone is centred within about 800 km of Hong Kong. Listen to weather broadcasts. Some preliminary precautions
Hong Kong is placed on a state of alert because the tropical cydone are desirable and you should take the existence ofthe tropical
is a potential threat and may cause destructive winds later. cyclone into account in planning your activities.

i nd- ^ Strong wind expected or blowing, with a sustained speed of
: 2 depression 41 -6 2 km/hr and gusts that may exceed 110 km/hr. The timing
ofthe hoisting ofthe signal is aimed to give about 12 hours'
advance warning of a strong wind in Victoria Harbour but the
warning period may be shorter for more exposed waters.
Take all necessary precautions. Secure all loose objects, particu-
larly on balconies and rooftops. Secure hoardings, scaffolding and
temporary structures. Clear gutters and drains.Takefull precautions
forthesafety of boats. Ships in port normally leave for typhoon
anchorages or buoys. Ferry services may soon be affected by wind or
waves. Even atthis stage heavy rain accompanied by violet squalls
may occur.

Gale or storm expected or blowing, with a sustained wind speed
j itorm 4 -8 of 63-117 km/hr from the quarter indicated and gusts that may
exceed 180 km/hr. The timing of the replacement of the Strong
Wind Signal No.3 by the appropriate one of these four signals, is
aimed to give about 12 hours'advance warning ofa gale in Victoria
Harbour, but the sustained wind speed may reach 63 km/hr
within a shorter period over more exposed waters. Expected
changes in the direction ofthe wind will be indicated
by corresponding changes of these signals.
Complete all precautions as soon as possible. It is extremely
dangerous to delay precautions until the hoisting of No.9 or
No.10 signals as these are signals of great urgency. Windows
and doors should be bolted and shuttered. Stay indoors when
the winds increase to avoid flying debris, but if you must go out,
keep well clear of overhead wires and hoardings. All schools and
law courts dose and ferries will probably stop running at short
notice. The sea-level will probably be higher than normal, par-
ticularly in narrow inlets. Ifthis happens near the time of normal
high tide then low-lying areas may have to be evacuated very
quickly. Heavy rain may cause flooding, rockfalls and mudslips.

gale or storm- Gale or storm expected to increase significantly in strength. This
•:pical storm signal will be hoisted when the sustained wind speed is expected
to increase and come within the range 88 -1 17 km/hr during the
next few hours.
Hurricane-force winds expected or blowing, with a sustained wind
10 speed reaching upwards from 118 km/hr and with gusts that may
Stay where you are if reasonably protected and away from
exposed windows and doors. These signals imply that the
centre of a severe tropical storm or a typhoon will come close
to Hong Kong. if the eye passes over there will be a lull lasting
from a few minutes to some hours, but be prepared for a sudden
resumption of destructive winds from a different direction.

exceed 220 km/hr.

 T h e W est Indies and Myanmar: tropical storm s

West Indies, September 2004 2 million people had been evacuated along a 675 km
stretch ofthe Gulf coast, 12 deaths were reported.This
The year 2004 experienced the'mother of
might have been worse had Ivan veered westwards
hurricanes season'. Following hurricanes Charlie,
where parts ofthe Louisiana coast lie 3 m or more
which killed 16 people and caused damage in
below sea-level and are protected by huge levees.
Florida only once previously exceeded, and Frances,
Hurricane Ivan began its destructive course.
Myanmar, May 2008
Hurricane Ivan, deservedly nicknamed 'theTerrible',
Bangladesh frequently experiences tropical cyclones
began its trail of destruction on Grenada on
which move northwards, accompanied by winds
5 September-thefirsttimethe island had been
with speeds exceeding 200 km/hr, up the narrowing,
affected by a major hurricane since 1955. Reports put
shallowing Bay of Bengal. These cyclones can create
the death toii at 34; water, electricity and air transport
storm surges of over 8 m that affect the flat delta
were disrupted for several days, and two-thirds of
region ofthe Ganges-Brahmaputra (Places 19,
the island's 100 000 residents were made homeless
page 148). Improvements in coastal defences and
(Figure 9.56).
early warning systems have reduced considerably
After several days of warning, Ivan hit Jamaica on the amount of damage and the number of deaths
11September.The laid-backapproach of many from 200 000 after the 1970 storm to 140 000 in 1990,
Jamaicans contrasted strongly with the well-practised 135 000 in 1991,40 000 in 1994 and 10 000 in 1999.
response of people in Florida. Many of those However, in 2008 tropical cyclone Nargis hit the still
Jamaicans who lived in shanty settlements refused to unprotected Irrawaddy delta lying to the south in
leave their flimsy, often makeshift homes, and only a Myanmar.
few thousand ofthe half million ordered to evacuate
Little warning was given before Nargis, with wind
heeded the government's warning, many preferring
speeds of 200 km/hr, swept over the flat Irrawaddy
to protect what might be left of their possessions from
delta before affecting the former capital city of
post-hurricane looting.The resultant death toii was
Rangoon. Unlike other recent catastrophes such
put at 20. By the time Ivan ravaged the Cayman Islands
as the Indian Ocean tsunami (Places 4) and the
a day later, it had become a category 5 event - one of
China earthquake (Places 2) where the world was
only a handful of that intensity in the last 100 years.
immediately aware ofthe event, here, due to a lack
Winds reached 260 km/hr while torrential rain and
of contact with the military regime, it was two days
6 m waves caused extensive flooding but, fortunately,
before news began to leak out of Myanmar and
no deaths were reported. In Cuba, next in Ivan's
then only to admit to 350 deaths.
path, 2 million people were evacuated in advance of
what was considered the most violent hurricane for Later it became known that a tidal surge that
over 50 years but at almost the last minute it veered followed the cyclone created devastation of tsunami
sufficiently for the eye to pass just to the west ofthe proportions. Crops had been totally destroyed in the
island. Ivan, by now slightly reduced in strength, country's so-called rice bowl, as had coastal shrimp
Figure 9.56 made landfall in the USA between Mobile (Alabama) farms and fishing boats. Huge areas were left without
Thepath of Hurricane and Pensacola (Florida) on 16 September, with wind fresh water, electricity or transport. Although the
Ivan, September 2004 speeds of 210 km/hr and a tidal surge of 4 m. Although military junta made a rare appeal for help, outside
aid workers were not to be allowed into the country
/ and a week later many isolated areas had received
USA Pensacola
no internai relief of any kind. By this time it was
s Ivan's path
1 6 S ep t (4 )
(4) category announced that the death toii was 22 000 with a

\
Mobile further40 000 missing in a declared disasterzone
of 24 million people. Reports talked of flood waters
Gulf o f Mexico Cuba receding to leave rotting, bloated bodies, both

\
13 S ep t (5 )
Haiti Dominican human and animal, reminiscent ofthe 2004 post-
Mexico
Republic tsunami scenes. Indeed two weeks after Nargis hit
Cayman Is the country and with overseas aid still being rejected
12 S ep t (5 ) "
the UN suggested that up to 200 000 Burmese had
Jamaica either died at the time, afterwards through a failure
11 Sep t {4 )

to provide relief, or were unaccounted for - a figure

Caribbeon Sea
close to that ofthe 2004 tsunami.
0
1______SOO
| km
238 Weather and climate
.-•'9.57 hot = low pressure
(rainshadow)
jnsoon in the Indian
: _:inent Himalayas
ţe<,sute ITC? Cherrapunji
Bombay • \
Arabian
Sea
Bay of
Bengal
* I
inblowing \iinds Crossing
a warm moist sea .tquator
\ Indian Ocean
\ tfT
Them onsoon
T h e word m o n s o o n is derived from th e Arabic
word for 'a season ', bu t th e term is m ore com -
m o n ly used in m eteoro lo g y to d en ote a seasonal
reversal o f w ind direction.
T h e m a jo r m o n so o n occurs in sou th-east Asia
and results from th ree factors:
1 The extrem e h ea tin g and co o lin g o f large
land m asses in relatio n to th e sm aller h eat
changes over a d ja cen t sea areas (page 2 1 0 ).
This in tu rn affects pressure and winds.
2 The northw ard m ovem ent o f the ITCZ (page
22 6 ) during th e n orthern hem isphere summer.
3 T he u p lift o f th e H im alayas w h ich , som e 6
m illio n years ago, b ecam e su fficien tly h ig h to
interfere w ith th e general circu la tio n o f th e
atm osp here (Places 5, page 2 0 ).
The s o u th -w e s t o r s u m m e r m o n so o n
As th e overhead sun appears to m ove northw ards
to th e Tropic o f C an cer in Ju n e, it draws w ith
it th e con v erg en ce zone associated w ith the
ITCZ (Figure 9 .5 7 a ). T h e increase in in so la tio n
over n o rth e rn India, Pakistan and cen tral Asia
m eans th a t heated air rises, creatin g a large area
of low pressure. C on seq u ently , w arm m oist Em
(equatorial m aritim e) and Tm air, from over the
Ind ian O cean, is draw n first northw ards and
th e n , becau se o f th e C oriolis force, is diverted
north-eastw ards (page 2 2 4 ). T he air is hum id,
u n stable and cond u civ e to rainfall. A m ounts of
p recip itatio n are m o st substan tial o n India's west
coast, w here th e air rises over th e W estern G hats,
and on th e windward slope o f th e H im alayas:
B om bay has 2 0 0 0 m m and C h errap u nji
13 0 0 0 m m in four sum m er m o n th s. The
cold = high pressure
(out-blowing winds from
Himalayas dry source area)
sub-tropical
jet stream
Arabian
Sea
Bay of
Bengal
Indian Ocean
Equator
,na\ jet s
ad vent o f m o n so o n storm s allow s th e p lan tin g
o f rice (Places 67, page 4 8 1 ). Rainfall to tals are
accen tu ated as th e air rises by b o th orographic
and co n v e ctio n a l u p lift and th e 'w et' m o n so o n is
m ain tain ed by th e release o f substantial am ounts
of la ten t h eat. T h e average arrival date is 10 May
in Sri Lanka and 5 Ju ly at th e Pakistan border - a
tim e-lap se o f seven weeks (Places 32).
The n o rth -e a s t o r w in te r m o n s o o n
D uring th e n o rth ern winter, the overhead sun,
th e ITCZ and the subtropical je t stream all move
southwards (Figure 9 .5 7 b ). At th e sam e tim e,
central Asia experiences intense coo lin g w hich
allows a large high pressure system to develop.
Airstreams th a t m ove outwards from th is high
pressure area are dry because their source area is
sem i-desert. They beco m e even drier as they cross
th e Himalayas and adiabatically warm er as they
descend to th e Ind o-G angetic plain. B om bay
receives less th an 100 m m o f rain during these
eight m onth s. The south-w est m o n so o n usually
begins its retreat from the extrem e north-w est of
India on 1 Septem ber and takes un til 15 November,
i.e. 11 weeks, to clear th e Southern tip.
The m onsoon, w hich in reality is m uch more
com plex than the m odel described above, affects
the lives of one-quarter of the world's population.
Unfortunately, m onsoon rainfall, especially in the
Indian subcontinent, is unreliable (Figure 9.28). If
the rains fail, th en drought and fam ine ensue: 1987
was the n in th year in a decade w hen the m onsoon
failed in north-w est India. If, on the other hand,
there is excessive rainfall then large areas of land
experience extrem e flooding (Bangladesh in 1987,
1988 and 1998).
Weather and climate 239
 D e lh i: t h e m o n s o o n c lim a te
June
'Rain brought welcome relief to the indian capital
yesterday, a day after 18 people collapsed and
died on the streets in the blistering heat, pushing
the summer death toii in northern India to nearly
350. Heavy showers cooled the furnace-like city,
reeling under a three-week heatwave that has kept
daytime temperatures at an almost constant 45°C
and which had, the previous day, experienced its
hottest day in 50 years when the mercury soared
to 42.6°C. It was the first pre-monsoon rain ofthe
season to lash Delhi, and children celebrated by
soaking themselves in the rain, with many elderly
M e s o -s c a le : lo c a l w in d s
O f th e th ree m eso-scale circu lation s described
here, tw o - la n d an d sea breezes and m o u n ta in
an d v a lle y w ind s - are caused b y local tem p era­
ture differences; th e th ird - th e fo h n - results
from pressure d ifferences o n eith er side o f a
m o u n ta in range.
T h e la n d a n d sea b re e z e
This is an exam ple, on a diurnal tim escale, o f a cir-
culation system resulting from differential heating
and cooling betw een land surfaces and ad jacent
sea areas. T he resultant pressure differences,
although small and localised, produce gentle
breezes w hich affect coastal areas during calm,
clear a n ticy clo n ic cond itions. W h e n th e land
heats up rapidly each m orning, lower pressure
forms and a gentle breeze begins to blow from the
sea to the land (Figure 9.58a). By early afternoon,
this breeze has strengthened sufficiently to bring
a freshness w hich, in the tropics particularly, is
m uch appreciated by tourists at th e b each resorts.
Yet by sunset, th e air and sea are both calm again.
Figure 9.58 A lthough th e circu lation cell rarely rises
Land and sea breezes above 5 0 0 m in h eig h t or reaches m ore th a n
in Britain 2 0 km in la n d in B ritain, th e sea breeze is capable
a day air drifts out to sea,
cools, b ecom es denser
and sinks
cooling m ay
provide a 'cloud
curtain'
low
descending air
sea breeze creates an area
air in co n tact w ith land is blow s from of higher pressure
heated, rises, and form s an high to low
area of low er pressure pressure
high
land heated more
rapidly than sea
(insolation)
citizensjoining them in the belief that monsoon
rains help cure blisters and skin diseases caused by
extreme heat. More thunderstorms are expected by
the weekend, which should mark the onset ofthe
summer monsoon.'
July
The July death toii from relentless monsoon rains
across India and Pakistan rose to more than 590
as several waves of severe storms passed across the
subcontinent. Many streets in Delhi are still under
water.'
of low ering coastal tem peratu res by 15°C and
can produce ad vection fogs such as th e 'sea-fret
or 'h aar' o f eastern B ritain.
At n ig h t, w h en th e sea retains h eat longer
th a n th e land, th ere is a reversal of th e pressure
gradient and th erefore o f w ind d irection (Figure
9 .5 8 b ). The land breeze, th e gentler o f th e two,
begins ju st after sunset and dies away by sunrise.
T h e m o u n ta in a n d v a lle y w in d
T his w ind is likely to blow in m o u n tain ou s areas
during tim es o f calm , clear, settled weather.
D uring th e m ornin g , valley sides are heated by
th e sun, especially if th ey are steep, south-facin#
(in the n o rth ern hem isphere) and lacking in
vegetation cover. T he air in co n ta ct w ith these
slopes will heat, expand and rise (Figure 9.59ai
creating a pressure gradient. By 1 4 0 0 hours, the
tim e o f m axim u m heating, a strong up hill or
a n a b a tic w in d blow s up the valley and th e val --
sides - ideal co n d itio n s for hang-gliding! The ai:
b ecom es co n d itio n a lly un stable (Figure 9.19).
often producing cum ulus cloud and, under ve:\
warm con d ition s, cu m u lo-n im bu s w ith th e pos-
sibility o f thu n d erstorm s o n th e m o u n tain ridge
A com p en satory sinking o f air leaves th e centre
th e valley cloud-free.
b night air drifts over land, cools,
becom es denser and sinks
high
land breeze
descending air sea retains heat io n c.
blow s from
creates an area than land: relative
high to low
o f higher w arm air rises to give :
pressure
pressure area of low er press
low
land cools more
rapidly than sea
(radiation)
: quri» 9,59 a day (anabatic flow) b night (katabatic flow)

ountain and updraughts m ay produce descending air 2 under clear skies, cold
■alley winds cloud on hills gives clear skies dense air sinks under
gravity: can form fog and
3 w in ds less strong if frost hollow s in valley
valley sides face (tem perature inversion)
north (less heatingl

«m 1w

is s
■
1 w in d blows up-valley 1 wind blows down-valley

D uring th e clear evening, th e valley loses co n d en sation occurs at 1 0 0 0 m, th ere will be a

heat th rou g h rad iation. T he surrounding air now
cools and b eco m es denser. It begins to drain,
under gravity, dow n th e valley sides and along
th e valley floo r as a m o u n ta in w ind or k a ta b a tic
w in d (Figure 9 .5 9 b ). This gives rise to a tem p era­
ture inversion (Figure 9 .2 4 ) and, if th e air is m o ist
enou gh, in w inter m ay create fog (Figure 9 .2 3 ) or
a fro s t h o llo w . M axim u m w ind speeds are gener-
ated ju st before dawn, n orm ally th e cold est tim e
of the day. K atabatic winds are usually gentle in
Britain, b u t are m u ch stronger if th ey blow over
glaciers or p erm a n en tly snow -covered slopes. In
A n tarctica, th e y m ay reach h u rrican e force.
Thefohn
T he fo h n is a strong, warm and dry w ind w h ich
blow s period ically to th e lee o f a m o u n ta in
range. It occurs in th e Alps w h en a depression
passes to th e n o rth o f th e m o u n ta in s and draws
in warm, m o ist air from th e M ed iterranean. As
th e air rises (Figure 9 .6 0 ), it cools at th e DALR of
1°C per 1 0 0 m (page 2 1 6 ). If, as in Figure 9 .6 0 ,
release o f la ten t h eat and th e rising air will cool
m ore slowly at th e SALR o f 0.5°C per 100 m. This
m eans th a t w hen th e air reaches 3 0 0 0 m it will
have a tem perature o f 0°C instead of th e -1 0 °C
had la ten t h eat n o t been released. H aving crossed
th e Alps, th e descending air is com pressed
and warmed at th e DALR so th at, if th e land
drops sufficiently, th e air will reach sea-level at
30°C . This is 10°C warm er th a n w h en it left the
M editerranean. Tem peratures m ay rise by 20°C
w ith in an hour and relative hu m id ity can fall to
10 per cent.
T his w ind, also know n as th e c h in o o k on th e
A m erican Prairies, has consid erable effects on
hu m an activity. In spring, w h en it is m o st likelv
to blow, it lives up to its N ative A m erican nam e
of 'sn ow -eater' b y m eltin g snow and enablin g
w heat to be sow n; and in Sw itzerland it clears the
alpine pastures o f snow. Conversely, its w arm th
can cause avalanches, forest fires and th e prem a­
ture bud ding o f trees (Case Study 4a).

■thefChn b temperature-height graph for fbhn conditions

3000-
descending air warm s
a tth e DALR, reaches
sea-level at 30°C

cloud
follow ing release of
2000- air w ith a
latent heat, rising air
tem perature
cools at SA LR o f 0.5°C
of 2 0 °C is
per 100 m and will reach
forced to
3000 m at 0 °C (instead of
rise to
-1 0 °C had latent heat not
cross the
been released)
m ountains
'000-
condensation level

rising air cools at DALR

of 1°C per 100 m; will
reach 1000 m at 10°C
Alps

tem peratu re (°C)

 M ic r o d im a t e s
M ic ro c lim a to lo g y is th e study o f clim ate over
a sm all area. It includes chan ges resulting from
the c o n stru ctio n o f large u rban cen tres as well as
th o se existin g natu rally betw een d ifferent types
o f land surface, e.g. forests and lakes.
U rb a n c lim a te s
Large cities and con u rb atio n s exp erien ce cli­
m atic co n d itio n s th a t differ from th o se o f the
surrounding cou ntryside. T hey generate m ore
dust and co n d en sa tio n n u clei th a n natural
en v iron m en ts; th ey create h eat; th e y alter the
ch em ica l co m p o sitio n and th e m oistu re c o n te n t
of th e air above th em ; and th e y affect b o th the
albedo and th e flow o f air. U rban areas th erefore
have d istin ctive clim ates.
T e m p e ra tu re
Although tow er blocks cast m ore shadow, norm al
build ing m aterials tend to be n on -reflective and
so absorb heat during th e daytim e. D ark-coloured
roofs, con crete or brick walls and tarm ac roads all
have a h ig h therm al cap acity w h ich m eans th a t
th ey are capable o f storing h eat during th e day
and releasing it slowly during th e n ig h t. Further
heat is o b tain ed from car fum es, factories, power
stations, cen tral h eatin g and people them selves.
The term u r b a n h e a t isla n d acknow ledges that,
under calm con d ition s, tem peratures are h ig hest
in th e m ore built-up city cen tre and decrease
towards th e suburbs and open countryside
(Figure 9 .6 1 ). In urban areas:
■ daytim e tem peratures are, o n average,
0 .6 °C h ig h er
■ n ig h t-tim e tem peratures m ay be 3° or 4°C
hig h er as dust and cloud act like a b la n k et to
reduce rad iation and build ings give ou t heat
like storage radiators
■ is o th e rm s (°C )
|1 lim it o f th e n
-
'-' b u ilt- u p a re a
0 5 km
1_______ I
242 Weather and climate
I th e m ean w inter tem peratu re is 1° to 2°C
hig h er (rural areas are even cold er w hen
snow -covered as this increases th eir albedo)
I ' th e m ean sum m er tem peratu re m ay be
5°C h ig her
I th e m ean annu al tem peratu re is higher
b y b etw een 0 .6 °C in C h icag o and 1.3°C
in L ond on com pared w ith th a t o f the
surrou nding area.
N ote how, in Figure 9 .6 1 , tem peratu res n o t onlv
decrease towards Lond on 's bound ary bu t also
beside th e T ham es and Lea rivers. The urban
heat island explain s w hy large cities have less
snow, fewer frosts, earlier bud ding and flow ering
of plants and a greater need, in sum m er, for air-
co n d itio n in g th a n n eig h b ou rin g rural areas.
S u n lig h t
D espite h av in g hig h er m ean tem peratures, cities
receive less su n sh in e and m ore cloud th a n their
rural cou nterp arts. Dust and o th er particles mav
absorb and reflect as m u ch as 5 0 per ce n t o f inso­
lation in w inter, w hen th e sun is low in th e sky
and has to pass th rou g h m ore atm osphere, and
5 per cen t in sum m er. H igh-rise build ings also
block ou t lig h t (Figure 9 .6 2 ).
W in d
W ind v e lo city is reduced b y buildings w h ich
create frictio n and act as w indbreaks. Urban
m ean an n u al v elocities m ay be up to 3 0 per cent
lower th a n in rural areas and periods o f calm
m ay be 1 0 -2 0 per cen t m ore freq u ent. In c o n ­
trast, high-rise buildings, such as th e skyscrape*s
of New York and H ong Kong (Figure 9 .6 2 ), forn.
'ca n y o n s' th ro u g h w h ich w ind m ay be ch an -
nelled. These w inds m ay be strong enou gh to
cause tall buildings to sway and pedestrians to
be b low n over and troubled by dust and litter.
T he heat island effect m ay cause local th erm ab
and reduce th e w ind chill factor. It also tend s to
generate consid erable sm all-scale tu rbu lence arie
eddies. In 19 th -cen tu ry B ritain, th e m ost sough:-
after houses were usually on th e w estern and
sou th-w estern sides o f cities, to be up-w ind of
indu strial sm oke and p o llu tio n (M ann's m odel,
pages 4 2 2 -4 2 3 ) .
R e la tiv e h u m id ity
Relative h u m id ity is up to 6 per c e n t low er in
urban areas w here th e w arm er air can hold more
m oistu re and w here th e lack o f v egetation and
w ater surface lim its evap otransp iration.
Figure 9.61
An urban heat island: minimum temperatures
over London, 14 May 1959 (after Chandler)

C lo u d
Urban areas appear to receive
th ick er and up to 10 per cen t
m ore freq u en t cloud cover th a n
rural areas. This m ay result from
co n v e ctio n currents generated by
th e h ig her tem peratures and the
presence o f a larger nu m ber of
co n d en sa tio n nuclei.
P re c ip ita tio n
T he m ean an n u al p recip itatio n
to tal and th e nu m ber o f days
w ith less th a n 5 m m o f rainfall
are b o th b etw een 5 and 15 per
ce n t greater in m a jo r u rban areas.
Reasons for th is are th e same
as for cloud fo rm atio n . Strong
therm als increase th e lik elihood
of th u n d er by 25 per cen t and
th e occu rrence o f h ail by up to
4 0 0 per cen t. T h e h ig h er urban
tem peratu res m ay tu rn th e snow
of rural areas in to sleet and lim it,
by up to 15 per cen t, th e nu m ber
o f days w ith snow lying on the
ground. O n the other hand, the
frequency, length and intensity of
fog, especially under an ticy clo n ic
con d ition s, is m u ch greater -
th ere m ay up to 1 0 0 per cen t
m ore in w inter and 2 5 per ce n t
m ore in sum m er, caused by th e
co n c en tra tio n o f co n d en sa tio n
n u clei (Figure 9 .6 3 ).
? 9.62
streets with
: -’isebuildings
1 Microclimate
~iore likely to
1 feature Forest (coniferous and deciduous)
« op micro-
res than those Incoming radiation Much incoming radiation is absorbed and trapped.
•rewiderand and albedo Albedo for coniferous forest is 15%; deciduous 25% in
- owerbuildings; summer and 35% in winter; and desert scrub 40%.
■ -ork City Temperature Small diurnal range due to blanket effect of canopy.
Forest floor is protected from direct sunlight.
Some heat lost by evapotranspiration.
Relative humidity Higher during daytimeand in summer, especially in
deciduous forest.
Amount of evapotranspiration depends on length of day,
leaf surface area, wind speed, etc.
Precipitation Heavy rain can be caused by high evapotranspiration rates,
e.g. in tropical rainforests.
On average, 30-35% of rain is intercepted: more in
deciduous woodland in summerthan in winter.
r.re9.64 Wind speed and Trees reduce wind speeds, especially at ground level.
oclimates offorests direction (They are often planted as windbreaks.)
,ater surfaces Trees can produce eddies.
Thick fog is continuing to cause travel chaos among
those looking forward to spending Christmas abroad.
Over the last few days, thousands of passengers have
experienced severe delays or cancellations of flights
at numerous UK airports.
Yesterday 350 flights, 40 per cent of the total,
were cancelled from Heathrow alone and. wilh fog
set to remain today. British Airways has already
decided to cancel all domestic flights to and from
that airport. The problem with fog is that it means,
for safety reasons, the distance between aircraft on
approach to runways has to be doubled, thus
redacing the number of landings.
22 December 2006
Figure 9.63
Fog causes Christmas chaos
A tm o s p h e ric c o m p o s itio n
There m ay be three to seven tim es m ore dust par­
ticles over a city th a n in rural areas. Large quanti-
ties o f gaseous and solid im purities are em itted
in to urban skies by th e b u rn in g o f fossil fuels, by
industrial processes and from car exhausts. Urban
areas m ay have up to 2 0 0 tim es m ore sulphur
dioxide and 10 tim es m ore n itrogen oxide (the
m ajor co m p o n en ts o f acid rain) th a n rural areas,
as well as 10 tim es m ore h yd rocarbons and tw ice
as m u ch carbon dioxide. These pollutants tend
to increase cloud cover and precipitation, cause
sm og (Figure 9 .2 5 ), give higher tem peratures and
reduce sunlight.
F o re s t a n d la k e m ic ro c lim a te s
D ifferen t land surfaces produce d istin ctive local
clim ates. Figure 9 .6 4 sum m arises and com pares
som e o f th e ch aracteristics o f m icroclim ates
found in forests and around lakes. As w ith urban
clim ates, research and further in fo rm a tio n are
still needed to co n firm som e o f th e statem ents.
Water surface (lake, river)
Less insolation absorbed and trapped.
Albedo may be over 60%, i.e. higher than over seas/oceans
(pjge 207). Higher on calm days.
Small diurnal range because water has a higher specific
heat capacity.
Cooler summers and milder winters.
Lakesides have a longer growing season.
Very high, especially in summer when evaporation rates
are also high.
Air is humid.
If forced to rise, air can be unstable and produce cloud
and rain.
Amounts may not be great due to fewer condensation nuclei.
Fogs form in calm weather.
Wind may be strong due to reduced friction.
Large lakes (e.g. L. Victoria) can create land and sea breezes
(page 240).
Weather and climate 243
 W e a t h e r m a p s a n d f o r e c a s tin g
in B r ita in
A w eather m ap or sy n op tic c h a rt shows the
weather for a particular area at one specific tim e
(Figures 9 .6 7 and 9 .6 8 ). It is the result o fth e col-
lection and collation of a considerable am ount
of data at num erous w eather stations, i.e. from a
num ber o f sam ple points (Framework 6, page 159).
These data are th en refined, usually as quickly as
possible and now using com puters, and are plotted
using in ternationally accepted w eather symbols. A
selection o f these sym bols is show n in Figure 9 .6 5 .
W eather maps are produced for different purposes
and at various scales.
1 T h e daily w eather m ap, as seen o n televisio n
or in a n a ţio n a l newspaper, aim s to give a
clear, b u t h ig h ly sim plified, im pression o f the
w eather.
2 At a h ig her level, a sy n op tic m ap shows
selected m eteoro lo g ical ch aracteristics for
Figure 9.65
specific w e a th e r sta tio n s. T h e sta tio n m o d el
Weather symbols for in Figure 9 .6 6 show s six elem en ts: tem p era­
cloud, precipitation,
ture, pressure, cloud cover, presen t w eather
wind speed,
temperature, (e.g. type o f p recip itatio n ), w ind d irection
pressure and wind and w ind speed.
direction
3 At th e h ig h est level, th e M eteorolog ical
O ffice produces m aps show ing fin ite detail,
e.g. am o u n ts o f various types o f cloud at low,
m ed iu m and h ig h levels, dew p o in t tem p era­
tures, barom etric te n d en cy (i.e. trends of
pressure chang e), etc.
The role of the weather forecaster is to try to deter­
m ine the speed and direction of m ovem ent of
various air masses and any associated fronts, and to
try to predict the type of w eather these m ovem ents
will bring. Forecasters now make considerable use
o f satellite im ages (Figures 9 .6 7 and 9.68). Satellite
images are photos taken by weather satellites as
they continually orbit the Earth. These photos,
w hich are relayed back to Earth, are invaluable
in th e prediction of short-term weather trends.
Although forecasting is increasingly assisted by
inform ation from satellites, radar and computers,
w hich show upper air as well as surface air cond i­
tions in a three-dim ensional m odel, the com plexit.
and unpredictability of the atm osphere can still
catch the forecaster by surprise (Places 29, page
232). Part of this problem is related to the fact that
m eteorological inform ation is a sample (Framework
6, page 159) rather than a total picture o f the
atmosphere, and so there is always a risk of the
anom aly becom ing the reality.

Cloud Weather (present) Wind speed Temperature

Symbol Cloud amount (oktas) Symbol Weather Symbol Speed (knots) Force
3‘Celsius
----
O 0 mist (Ţ__ j) calm 0

® 1 orless -— fog
Pressure
> 0 1-2 1
2 drizzle
0 3-7 2
Pressure is show n by
• isobars and is

t°
3 rain and drizzle
9 m easured in
8-12 3
4 rain mii.ibars
3 -
• 13-17 4
5 rain and snow
0 ♦ ------------------- 1 0 1 2 —

For each additional half-feather add

6 * snow m ean sea-level pressure
5 knots or add an extra force up to
•
7 rain show er
O V L = centre of an area of
* 48-52 11 low pressure
8 snow show er
• V
H = centre of an area of
sky obscured hail show er Wind direction
0 'v' high pressure
Indicates a north-westerly
missing or doubtful data thunderstorm
& K
w in d direction

Figure 9.66
Model Example
A weather station
model and an example tem peratu re CC) pressure (in miHibars 92
last 2 figures only)
present w eath er
tem perature 7°C

O pressure 992 mb
cloud cover 7 oktas
w in d speed w in d direction
present w e a th e r drizzle
(variable location)
w in d direction SW
w in d speed 13-17 knots
or force 4

244 Weather and climate

•sure 9.67
'p tic chartand F iSu r e 9 -6 7 show s th e sy n op tic ch art (w eather Figure 9 .4 3 ). Figure 9 .6 8 show s th e sam e depres­
i i ite image, m ap) and satellite (infra-red) im age o f a depres- sion 2 4 hours later, by w h ich tim e it had passed
:?ptember 1983 sion ap p roach in g th e B ritish Isles (com pare over th e B ritish Isles (com pare Figure 9 .4 4 ).

N CLOUDY CLOUDV
200 hours
7 S e p te m b e r 1983 V -Î9
CLOUDY

CLOUPY
ii,

CLOUDY
CIOUDY CtOUDY
CLOUDY
SHOWER
14
-—3.1
CLOUDY
15

CLOUDY

SHOWER
13/ CLOUDY
CLOUDY
ie 15 CLOUDY
CLOUDY S
-— - 14
CLOUDY
CLOUDY 15
16

CLOUDY
vi 8

CLOUDY
.00 hours
S e p te m b e r 1983 VV.16

CLOUDY
--1 0

CLOUDY
cloud:
.- ii- .
CLOUDY
IOUDY / 15
STORM / 15 /
. RAlSTl
3 A L E // CLOUDY
SHOWER 15’
;CLOUDYj

DRIZZLE SUNNY
14 A 19
CLOUDY
100 8-^ 15 c .i

SUNNY
SUNNY 22

CLOUDY

t 9.68

c chart and satellite Weather and climate 245

t 18 September 1983
 F ra m e w o rk 8 M e a s u r e s o f d is p e rs io n

Throughout this chapter on weather and climate,
mean climatic figures have been quoted.To build
up these pictures of global, regional and local
climate patterns, statistics have been obtained by
averaging readings, usually for temperature and
precipitation, over a BO-year timescale. However,
these averages themselves are often not as
significant as the range or the degree to which they
vary from, or are dispersed about, the mean.
For example, two tropical weather stations may
have equal annual rainfall totals when measured
over 30 years. Station A may lie on the Equator and
experience reliable rainfall with little variation from
one year to the next. Station B may experience a
monsoon climate where in some years the rains may
fail entirely while in others they cause flooding.
The measure of dispersion from the mean can
be obtained by using any one of three
statistical techniques:
These techniques are induded here because
meteorological data both require and benefitfrom
their use, but they may be applied to most branches
of geography where there is a danger that the mean,
taken alone, may be misleading (the problems of
overgeneralisation are discussed in Framework 11,
page 347). Again, it must be stressed that use of a
quantitative technique does not guarantee objective
interpretation of data: great care must be taken to
ensure that an appropriate method of manipulating
the data ischosen.
It has already been seen how it is possible, given
a data set, to calculate the mean and the median
(Framework 5, page 112). However, neither statistic
gives any idea ofthe spread, or range, of that data.
As the example above of two tropical weather
stations shows, mean values on their own give
only part ofthe full picture.The spread ofthe data
around the mean should also be considered.

• the range
Figure 9,69
Range
• the interquartile range, or
This very simple method involves calculating the
The interquartile
range • the standard deviation. difference between the highest and lowest values
ofthe sample population, e.g. the annual range in
1 temperature for London is 14°C (July 18°C, January
Temperatures 0°C
Rank (ranked) 4°C).The range emphasises the extreme values and
-13 ignores the distribution ofthe remainder.
10

-9 10
Interquartile range
10 The interquartile range consists ofthe middle 50 per
7 cent ofthe values in a distribution, 25 per cent each
3* side of the median (middle value). This calculation is
5 6 upper quartile
useful because it shows how closely the values are
• 7 5 grouped around the median (Figure 9.69). It is easy to
•
calculate; it is unaffected by extreme values; and it is
JO 4
2 a useful way of comparing sets of similar data.
10 3
The example in Figure 9.69 gives temperatures for
3* 3 19 weather stations in the British Isles at 0600 on
10 2 median (middle quartile) 14 January 1979. These temperatures have been
10"
50 per cent of ranked in the table.
1
values fall into _
the interquartile 1
range
0

-1

15 -2 lower quartile

-3

-3

-9

-13

246 Weather and climate

 The upper quartile (UQ) is obtained by using where: a = standard deviation
the formula:
x = each value in the data set
In + A /19 + 1
UQ - i.e. =5
\— i l 4 x = mean of all values in the data set, and

n = number of values in the data set.

This means that the UQ is the fifth figure from the
top ofthe ranking order, i.e. 6°C.The lower quartile
(LQ) is found by using a slightly different formula:
In + 1
LQ x 3 x 3 = 15
' 4
This shows the LQ to be the 15th figure in the
ranking order, i.e. -2°C. You will notice that the
middle quartile is the same as the median. The
interquartile range is the difference between the
upper and lower quartiles, i.e. 6°C — 2°C = 8°C.
Another measure of dispersion, the quartile
deviation, is obtained by dividing the interquartile
range by two, i.e. 8°C 2 = 4°C
The smallerthe interquartile range, or quartile
deviation, the greater the grouping around the
median and the smallerthe dispersion or spread.
Let us suppose that the minimum temperatures
for 10 weather stations in Britain on a winter's day
were, in °C, 5,8,3,2,7,9,8,2,2 and 4.The standard
deviation of this data set is worked out in Figure 9.70,
proceeding asfollows:
1 Find the mean (x).
2 Subtract the mean from each value in the set:
x - f.
3 Calculate the square of each value in 2, to
removeany minus signs: (x-x)2.
4 Add together all the values obtained in 3:
I (x - x ) 2.
5 Divide the sum of the values in 4 by n:
I (x-x)2
n

6 Take the square root of the value obtained in 5

Standard deviation
to obtain the standard deviation:
This is the most commonly used method of
I(x - x )2
measuring dispersion and although it may involve
lengthy calculations it can be used with the
arithmetic mean and it removes extreme values. The resulting standard deviation of o = 2.65 is
The formula for the standard deviation is: a low value, indicating that the data are closely
grouped around the mean.
*70 X t- x )*

-'hestandard
- V

Minimum temperatures for 10 weather stations in Britain on a winter's day

The mean of 5, 8, 3,2, 7, 9, 8, 2,2,4:

- 50 = 5
c I Weather station Temperature at each station (x) X-» (x - x )2 i
x= —
10
1 5 5 - ■5 = 0 0

2 8 8- 5 = 3 9

3 3 3- 5 = -2 4

4 2 2 - 5 = -3 9

5 1 7-■5 = 2 4

6 9 9-■5 = 4 16

7 8 8--5 = 3 9

8 2 2-■5 = -3 9

9 2 2--5 = -3 9
ZP
10 10 4 4 - ■5 = -1 1

X (x - x )2 = 70
standard deviation = 2.65
V

Weather and climate 247

 Climatic change
C lim ates have changed and still are co n sta n tly
ch a n g in g at all scales, from local to global, and
over varying tim espans, b o th lon g -term and
short-term (Case Studies 9A and 9B). However,
th ere have been surges o f ch an g e over tim e
w h ich m eteorolog ists and earth scientists are
co n tin u a lly trying to clarify and explain.
E v id e n c e o f p a s t c lim a tic c h a n g e s
■ R ocks are found today w h ich were form ed
under clim a tic co n d itio n s and in e n v iro n ­
m en ts th a t n o lon g er exist (Figure 1.1). In
B ritain, for exam p le, coal was form ed under
h o t, w et tropical co n d itio n s; sand stones were
laid dow n during arid tim es; various lim e-
stones accu m ulated on th e floors o f warm
seas; and glacial deposits were left b eh in d by
retreating ice sheets.
■ Fossil lan d sca p e s exist, produced by certain
g eom o rp h olog ical processes w h ich no longer
operate. Exam ples in clu d e glacially eroded
h ig h lan d s in n o rth and w est B ritain (C hapter
4), graniţe tors o n D artm oor (page 2 0 2 ) and
wadis form ed during w etter periods (pluvials)
in deserts (Places 2 5 , page 188).
■ Evidence exists o f ch a n g e s in sea-level (b oth
iso static as o n Arran - Places 2 3 , page 166)
an d eu static (as at p resen t in th e M aldives -
page 169) and changes in lak e levels (Sahara,
Figure 7.2 7 ).
mV eg etatio n belts have shifted th rou g h som e
10° o f latitud e, e.g. changes in th e Sahara
D esert (Figure 7.27).
S P ollen an alysis show s w h ich plants were
d o m in a n t at a given tim e. Each plant species
has a d istinctively-shaped p ollen grain. If
these grains land in an oxygen-free environ-
m en t, such as a peat bog, th ey resist decay.
A lthough p o llen can be tran sported consider-
able distances by th e w ind and by w ildlife, it
is assumed th a t grains trapped in peat form a
representative sam ple o f th e v egetation th a t
was grow ing in th e surrounding area at a
given tim e; also, th a t th is v eg etation was a
response to the clim atic con d ition s prevailing
at th a t tim e. V ertical sections m ade through
peat show changes in p o llen (i.e. vegetation),
and these changes can be used as evidence
o f clim atic chan g e (th e v eg e ta tio n -clim a tic
tim escale in Figures 1 1 .1 8 and 1 1 .1 9 ).
■ D e n d ro ch ro n o lo g y , or tree-ring dating, is
th e te ch n iq u e of o b ta in in g a core from a tree-
tru nk and using it to d eterm in e th e age o f the
tree. Tree grow th is rapid in spring, slower
by th e autum n and, in tem p erate latitudes,
248 Weather and climate
stops in w inter. Each year's grow th is show n
by a single ring. However, w h en th e year is
w arm and w et, th e ring will be larger because
th e tree grows m ore quickly th a n w h en the
year is cold and d ry Tree-rings therefore
reflect clim a tic changes. R ecen t w ork in
Europe has show n th a t tree grow th is greates-
under in ten se cy clo n ic activ ity and is m ore
a response to m oistu re th a n to tem perature.
Tree-ring tim escales are bein g established by
using th e rem ains o f oak trees, som e nearh
10 0 0 0 years old, found in river terraces in
so u th -cen tra l Europe. B ristlecone pines, stil:
alive after 5 0 0 0 years, give a very accurate
m easure in C aliforn ia (page 2 9 4 ).
■ C h e m ica l m e th o d s include the study of
oxygen and carbon isotopes. An isotope is one
o f two or m ore forms of an elem ent w hich
differ from each other in atom ic weight (i.e.
they have th e same num ber of protons in the
nucleus, but a different num ber o f neutronsi.
For exam ple, two isotopes in oxygen are 0 -1 6
and 0 -1 8 . T he 0 - 1 6 isotope, w hich is slighth
lighter, vaporises m ore readily; whereas 0 -1 8 .
being heavier, condenses m ore easily. During
warm, dry periods, the evaporation of 0 -1 6
will leave water enriched w ith 0 - 1 8 w hich,
if it freezes in to polar ice, will be preserved as
a later record (Places 14, page 104). Colder,
w etter periods will be indicated by ice w ith a
higher level of 0 -1 6 . The m ost accurate form
dating is based on C-14, a radioactive isotope
carbon. C arbon is taken in by plants during the
carbon cycle (Figure 11.25). C arbon-14 decav<
radioactively at a know n rate and can be corr_-
pared with C -12, w hich does n o t decay. U sin;
C -12 and C -14 from a dead plant, scientists caz-
determ ine th e date of death to a standard err ■:
of + 5 per cent. This m ethod can accurately dir
organic m atter up to 50 0 0 0 years old.
■ H istorical record s o f clim atic change inel jo s
- cave paintings of elephants in central Saha-
(Figure 7.27) and giraffes in Jord an (Figure
7.7)
- vines grow ing successfully in Southern
England betw een AD 1 0 0 0 and 1300
- graves for h u m an burial in G reenland
w h ich were dug to a d ep th o f 2 m in the
1 3 th century, b u t o n ly 1 m in th e 14th
century, and could n o t be dug at all in th i
1 5 th cen tu ry due to th e e x te n sio n o f perrr
frost - in co n tra st to its retreat in th e 20(»:«
(Case Study 5)
- fairs held o n th e frozen River Tham es in
Tudor tim es
- th e m easu rem ent o f recen t advances and
retreats o f alpine glaciers and polar sea-ite
Causes o f c lim a tic c h a n g e
Several suggestions have been advanced to try to
explain clim atic change over different tim escales
(Figure 4.2) and epochs (Figure 1.1). M ost clim a-
tologists now accept that each o f th e causes o f cli­
m atic change described below has a role to play in
explaining change in the past, w heth er over long
or short periods o f tim e.
1 V ariations in solar energy Although it was ini-
tially believed th a t solar energy output did n ot
vary over tim e (hence the term 'solar constan t'
in Figure 9.3), increasing evidence suggests that
sunspot activity, w hich occurs in cycles, m ay
significantly affect our clim ate - tim es o f high
annual temperatures on Earth appear to corre-
spond to periods of m axim um sunspot activity.
2 A stron om ical relationships betw een th e sun
and th e E arth There is increasing evidence
supporting M ilankovitch's cycles o f change
in the Earth's orbit, tilt and w obble (Figure
4.6), w hich would account for changes in the
am ounts o f solar radiation reaching the Earth's
surface. This evidence is m ainly from cores that
have been drilled through undisturbed ocean-
floor sedim ent w hich has accum ulated over
thousands of years (compare Places 14, page
104).
3 C hanges in o ce a n ic circu latio n Changes
in ocean ic circulation affect the exchange of
heat betw een the oceans and the atm osphere.
This can have b o th long-term effects on world
clim ate (where currents at the onset o f the
Quaternary ice age flowed in opposite direc-
tions to those at the end of th e ice age) and
short-term effects (El N ino, Case Study 9A). The
latest theory com pares the N orth Atlantic Drift
w ith a conveyor belt that brings water to north-
west Europe. Should this conveyor belt be
closed down, possibly by a huge influx o f fresh
water in to th e sea, th en th e clim ate will becom e
dram atically colder.
4 M eteorites A m ajor extin ction event, w hich
included the dinosaurs, took place about 65
m illion years ago. This event was believed to
have been caused by one or m ore m eteors col-
liding with th e Earth. This seems to have caused
a reduction in incom ing radiation, a depletion
of the ozone layer and a lowering of global tem ­
peratures.
5 V olcanic a ctiv ity It has been accepted for
some tim e th a t volcanic activity has influ-
enced clim ate in the past, and continues to do
so. W orld tem peratures are lowered after any
large single eruption, e.g. M o u n t Pinatubo
(Case Study l j and Krakatoa (Figure 1.29 and
Places 35, page 2 8 9 ) or after a series o f v o l­
can ic eruptions. This is due to th e increase in
dust particles in th e lower atm osphere w hich
will absorb and scatter m ore o f th e in co m in g
radiation (Figure 9 .4 ). Evidence suggests th at
these m ajor eruptions m ay tem porarily offset
th e greenhouse effect. Precipitation also
increases due to th e greater n u m ber of
hygroscopic nuclei (dust particles) in the
atm osphere (page 21 5 ).
6 P late te c to n ic s Plate m o v em en ts have led
to red istribu tions o f land m asses and to
lon g -term effects o n clim ate. T hese effects
m ay result from a land m ass 'd riftin g ' in to
different latitudes (British Isles, page 22);
or from th e seabed b ein g pushed upwards
to form h ig h fold m o u n tain s (page 19).
T he presence o f fold m o u n ta in s can lead to
a colder clim ate (a suggested cause o f the
Q uaternary ice age, page 103) and can act as a
barrier to atm o sp h eric circu latio n - th e Asian
m o n so o n was established by th e creation of
th e T ib e ta n Plateau (page 2 3 9 ).
7 C o m p o sitio n o f th e a tm o sp h e re Gases in
th e atm osp here can be increased and altered
follow ing v o lca n ic eruptions. At presen t there
is increasing co n c ern at th e build-up o f C 0 2
and oth er green h ou se gases in th e atm o s­
phere (Case Study 9B), to g eth er w ith th e use
o f aerosols and th e release o f CFCs (Places 27,
page 2 0 9 ), w h ich are blam ed for th e d eple­
tio n o f ozone in th e upper atm osphere.
C lim a tic c h a n g e in B rita in
Britain's clim ate has undergone changes in the
longest term (page 2 2 and Figure 1.1); during and
since th e onset o f th e Q uaternary (Figure 4.2);
and in the m ore recen t short term (Figure 11.18).
Follow ing th e 'little ice age' (w hich lasted from
about AD 1 5 4 0 to 1700), tem peratures generally
increased to reach a peak in about 1 9 4 0. After
th a t tim e, th ere was a ten d en cy for sum m ers to
b eco m e cooler and wetter, springs to be later,
autum ns m ilder and w inters m ore unpredict-
able. However, since th e on set o f th e 1980s there
appears to have b een a considerable w arm ing,
w ith eight o f th e ten w arm est years on record
being in th e last decade. This, to g eth er w ith th e
apparent increase in variations from th e norm
for Britain's expected autum n, w inter, spring
and even, since 2 0 0 5 , sum m er w eather, tends
to add further evidence to th e co n c ep t of global
w arm ing (Case Study 9B).
Weather and climate 249

A Short-term change:
El Ninoand La Niria
The oceans, as w e have seen, have a co n sid ­
erable heat storage capacity w h ich makes
th e m a m ajor influence on w o rld clim ates. If
ocean tem p era tu re s change, this w ill have a
considerable effect up o n w e a th e r patterns
in adjacent land masses. Interactions b e t­
w een th e ocean and th e a tm osphere have
becom e, recently, a m ajor scientific study.
The m ost im p o rta n t and interesting
exa m ple o fth e o c e a n -a tm o s p h e re inter-
relationsh ip is p ro vid e d by th e El N ino and
La NiPia events w h ich o ccu r p e rio d ica lly in
th e Pacific Ocean. U nder norm al a tm o s­
pheric c o n d itio n s, pressure rises over th e
60 cm h ig h e rth a n in Panama and
eastern Pacific Ocean (o ff th e coast o f
S outh A m erica) and falls over th e w estern
C o lo m b ia
Pacific O cean (tow ards Indonesia and th e
a llo w w ater, flo w in g w e stw a rd as th e
e q u a to ria l c u rre n t, to rem ain near
P hilippines).The d e sce n d in g air over th e
to th e ocean surface w h e re it can
eastern Pacific gives th e clear, d ry c o n d i­
g ra d u a lly heat.T his gives th e w e s te rr
tio n s th a t create th e Atacam a D esert in Peru
Pacific th e w o rld 's h ig h e s t ocean
(Figure 7.2 and Places 24, page 180), w h ile
te m p e ra tu re , usually a bove 28°C. In
th e w arm , m o ist a scending a iro v e rth e
contrast, as w a rm w a te r is pushed awa
w e ste rn Pacific gives th a t region its heavy
fro m S outh A m erica, it is replaced by =
co n ve ctio n a l rainfall (page 226).This m o v e ­
u p w e llin g o f colder, n u trie n t-ric h w aie
m e n t o f aircreates a circu la tio n cell, nam ed
This c o ld e r w a te r low ers tem peratures
after W alker w h o first d escribed it, in w h ich
s o m e tim e s to b e lo w 20°C, b u t does
th e u p p e r air m oves fro m w e st to east, and
p ro vid e a p le n tifu l s u p p ly o f p la n k to n !
th e surface air fro m east to w e st as th e trade
w h ic h fo rm s th e basis o f Peru's fishina
w in d s (Figure 9.71).The tra d e w inds:
industry.
• push surface w a te r w e stw a rd s so th a t
Figure9.71
sea-level in th e P h ilip p in e s is n o rm a lly
The Walker
circulation cell

a atmospheric circulation
high altitude flow
rising, warm , moist air j descending, w arm ing air gives
gives h eavy rainfall ITCZ dry conditions

) - Equator
Indonesia surface flo w (trade w inds)
Ecuador high pressure
Peru
low pressure
Australia Pacific Ocean
up w elling of cold,
nutrient-rich water:
ideal forfish

/ /
V rising air

descending
120° E 180° 120” W 60” W

b section through the Pacific Ocean dry, offshore

winds

V ocean currents

heavy rainfall
V
ve ry w arm
28°C
trade w inds

equatorial current
\ dry

w arm
Indonesia
26° C South
cooler upwelling
24° C America
equatorial undercurrent of cold w ater
cool

250 Weather and climate


Niho
N ino event, scientifically referred to
' El Nlfife S outhern O scillation (ENSO),
periodically - on average every three
fijp y e a rs . It is called'El N inoi w h ich means
. lild 'in Spanish, because, in those
- 'h a t it does occur, it appears ju s t after
rm as. An El N ino e vent usually lasts for
n onths.
■ z a ntra stto norm al conditions
; re 5.71) there is a reversal, in th e e q u a t-
_ -acific region, in pressure, p recipitation
~en, w inds and ocean currents
9.72). Pressure rises over th e w estern
: : and falls over th e eastern Pacific,
a ows th e ITCZ (Figure 9.34) to m igrate
a atmospheric circulation
descending air warms
to give dry conditions
n arrival or failure of
-:"> 60ons;occasional
\
ght in south-
Indonesia
t • Asia and
:ralia; severe
cal storms in
_:n Pacific Australia
iapan
/ /
120° E 180°
s e c tio n through the Pacific Ocean
/ \
equatorial current w eakens
or even reverses direction
ndonesia
equatorial undercurrent
; :o lle c te d d u rin g th e El N ino
'" 9 8 2 - 8 3 (a tth e tim e th e b ig g e s t
; rded), 1986 and 19 9 2 -9 3 , increas-
ijg e s te d th a t th e ENSO had a m a jo r
■olaces far b e y o n d th e Pacific
■as w ell as on th o s e b o rd e rin g th e
seif in its lo w latitudes. A p a rt fro m
Short-term and long-term clim atic changes
southw ards and causes th e trade w in d s to
w eaken in strength, or, som etim es, even to
be reversed in th e ir direction.T he descend­
ing air, n o w over S outh-east Asia, gives th a t
region m uch drier co n d itio n s th a n it usually
experiences and, on extrem e occasions, even
causing dro u g h t. In contrast th e air over th e
eastern Pacific is n o w rising, g ivin g m uch
w e tte r co n d itio n s in places, like Peru, th a t
norm ally experience desert conditions.T he
change in th e d irection o f th e trade w inds
means that:
• surface w a te r te n d s to be pushed
eastw ards so th a t sea-level in S outh-
east Asia falls, w h ile it rises in tro p ic a l
S outh A m erica
high-altitude flo w rising air gives heavy
\ rainfall on Pacific coast
from Peru to California
surface flo w (trade winds).
Ecuador
Peru
Pacific Ocean
/ /
120° W 60° W
trade w inds fail or
reverse direction
ve ry w arm
2 8°C warm
26° C
24° C
cooler
cool
th e d rie r c o n d itio n s in S ou th -e a st Asia and
th e w e tte r c o n d itio n s in S outh A m erica:
• severe d ro u g h ts w e re e xp e rie n ce d
in th e Sahel (Case S tu d y 7) and
Southern A frica as w e ll as across th e
Indian s u b c o n tin e n t
£■» O
• surface w a te r te m p e ra tu re s in
excess o f 28°C e x te n d m u c h fu rth e r
eastw ards and th e u p w e llin g o f cold
w a te r o ff S outh A m erica is reduced,
a llo w in g sea te m p e ra tu re s to rise by
u p to 6°C.The w a rm e r w a te r in th e
eastern Pacific lacks oxyg e n , n u trie n ts
and, th e re fo re , p la n k to n and so has an
adverse e ffe c t o n Peru's fish in g industry.
NASA-Mir astronauts w ere able, d urin g the
record-breaking 199 7 -9 8 El Nino, to observe,
p h o to g ra p h and d o c u m e n t th e global
im pacts o fth e event.These, to g e th e r w ith
g ro u n d observations and recordings,are
sum m arised in Figure 9.73.
Figure 9.72
An El Nino event
Equator
c > high pressure
ITCZ
lo w pressure
V rising air
V descending air
ocean currents
V
w in d can blow in
reverse direction
South
O America
• th e re w e re e x tre m e ly c o ld w in te rs in
central N o rth A m erica, and sto rm y
c o n d itio n s w ith flo o d s in C alifornia
• e x c e p tio n a lly w e t, m ild and w in d y
w in te rs w e re e xp e rie n ce d in Britain and
n o rth -w e s t Europe.
Weather and climate 251
 Short-term and long-term clim atic changes

The 7997-98 event: the biggestyetexperienced

Early 1997 E vidence o fa rapid rise in sea te m p e ra tu re s in th e eastern Pacific.
July El N in o c o n d itio n s intense.
September O ver 24 m illio n k m 2 o f w a rm w a te r (size o f N o rth and C entral A m erica)
e x te n d e d fro m th e In te rn a tio n a l D a te lin e to S outh A m erica.
1998 April E vidence o f El N iiio w e a ke n in g .
June NASA sa te llite su rve illa n ce sh o w e d a s ig n ific a n t d ro p in sea te m p e ra tu re s
in th e eastern Pacific.
Autumn Signs o fa La N ina e v e n t (page 253).
Figure 9.73

The effects ofthe

1997-98 El Nino event

N W USA ~vannylal ice-pack British Isles

v â n d Brftish diiyiot devei da and
extremely mild ^ mild, wet and
JC o lu m b ia / -X Qreat ■ NW Europe \__y windy winter
winter, very little\
snow in Rockies Lakes
temperature
winter storms K ) California drops to 4°C
The late arrival of
and flooding v—- the monsoon. Bangladesh
Mexico Citv Caribbean
/*• n hurricane season
record smog levels O suppressed ( Indian ) v- South-east
resulting from fires subcontinent
in rural areas ; U . canal closed to Asia
drought
Panama

c
Pacific Ocean"^ Kenya
parts over 6°C warmer tha
usual - highest sea
temperatures ever recorded0
Peru
o NE Brazii
6 months'drought
Indonesia
forest fires
cause severe smoke
haje Over.several *__ Australia
Atacama some plants bloom
DeserJ first time in
) 100 years
heavy rain
increases
wildlife
)
O Lake Eyr<
up. retor
harvest

PERU For each o f 12 days in early M arch, Peru received th e
e q u iv a le n t o f six m o n th s o f n o rm a l rain. O ver several m o n th s, flash
flo o d in g caused 292 deaths, in ju re d m o re th a n 16 000 p eople,
le ft 400 m issing, d e stro ye d 13 200 houses, w re cke d 250 000 km o f
roads, s w e p t aw ay bridges, d a m a g e d crops and schools and dis-
ru p te d th e liv e s o fu p to h a lfa m illio n Peruvians.
KENYA Parts o f Kenya received o ve r 1000 m m o f rainfall d u rin g .
m o n th s (up to 50 tim e s m o re th a n th e average) at a tim e norm a
c o n sid e re d to be th e d ry season'. Roads and th e m a in lin e railwaş
w e re s w e p t away, th e la tte r cau sin g th e d e ra ilm e n t o fth e Nairofc -
M o m b a sa train. Later, m o re th a n 500 p e o p le d ie d o f m alaria as f v
re ce d in g flo o d w a te rs created ideal m o s q u ito -s p a w n in g pools.

A mild El Nino episode: 2006-07 El N iflo. However, th e rise was slight, sug- on g lobal w e a th e r patterns. It declined w ir
In S eptem ber 2006, NASA's Jason a ltim e tric gesting th a t th e e vent m ig h t be short-lived six m o n th s w ith o u t e n d in g th e d ro u g h t in
satellite d e tected a rise in th e sea-level o fth e and, being far less intense th a n th e 199 7 -9 8 south-w est o fth e USA.
Pacific O cean w h ich indicated th e return o f El N ifîo episode, unlikely to have a great effect

252 NNeather and dim ate

 Short-term and long-term clim atic changes

3 N in a In a La N ifia event, in c o n tra st to n o rm a i • push large a m o u n ts o f w a te r

-3S El N ino w as e n d in g in June 1998,
: zasters w e re p re d ic tin g - based on an
- in sea te m p e ra tu re s in th e eastern
■: in M ay - th e arrival th a t w in te r o f a
l ">a event. La Nina, o r 'little g irl' has
■ - : c c o n d itio n s th a t are th e reverse o f
'f El N i n o . H ow ever, a lth o u g h w h e n
does ap pear it is ju s t b e fo re o r ju s t
E N ino, its o c cu rre n c e has been less
- - ~ t (the last was b e tw e e n June 1988
-oruary 1989) and, c o n se q u e n tly, it
:: easy to p re d ic t its possible effects
- se th e re is less evidence.
c o n d itio n s in th e Pacific O cean (Figure
9.71), th e lo w pressure o ve r th e w e ste rn
Pacific b e co m e s even lo w e r and th e h ig h
pressure o ve r th e eastern Pacific even
h ig h e r (Figure 9.74).This m eans th a t rainfall
increases o ve r S ou th -e a st Asia (was th e
La N ifia e v e n t o f 1988 re s p o n s ib le fo rth e
severe flo o d in g a t th a t tim e in Bangla­
desh?), th e re are d ro u g h t c o n d itio n s in
S outh A m erica and, d u e to th e increased
d iffe re n ce in pressure b e tw e e n th e tw o
places, th e tra d e w in d s s tre n g th e n .T h e
s tro n g e r tra d e w in d s:
w e stw a rd s, g iv in g a h ig h e r th a n
n o rm a l sea-level in in d o n e sia and
th e P hilippines
• increase th e e q u a to ria l u n d e r-
c u rre n t and s ig n ific a n tly e n h ance
th e u p w e llin g o f c o ld w a te r o ff th e
Peruvian coast.
S cientists s u g g e st th a t La Nina can be
linked w ith increased h u rrica n e a c tiv ity in
th e C aribbean (Places 31) and th a t it can
in te rru p t th e je t stream o v e r Britain to give
s to rm ie r (Places 29), w e tte r (Case S tudy 3C)
and c o o le r c o n d itio n s.

• ‘-.74

■ae ve nt

ve ry low pressure
very high pressure

drier
conditions
heavier

\
than usual
stronger than normal

V
rainfall than (drought)
trade winds
average

ve ry w arm increasein
28°C stronger equatorial upw elling of
26°C current South
w arm cold w ater
24°C America
cooler
cool
stronger equatorial undercurrent

higher temperatures,
storms and flooding

flooding

.2 Nina episode: 2007-08 w e lc o m e d by th e pa rch e d s o u th -w e s t o f By th e n , it had caused to rre n tia l rain in

: n a ltim e tric sa te llite n o te d , in th e USA.This La Nina episode, th e s tro n g e st Australia, b re a kin g a lo n g c ro p -ru in in g
. 2007, a tra n s itio n fro m th e w a rm fo r several years, lasted fo r o v e r 12 m o n th s d ro u g h t, and had g ive n ce n tra l C hina an
■: :o th e co o l La N ifia, a c h a n g e n o t u n til it b e g a n to w eaken in A pril 2008. e x c e p tio n a lly co ld , sn o w -c o ve re d w in te r.

Weather and climate 253

 Short-term and long-term clim atic changes

B Long-term change: global warming - rigure9.76

an update Average global temperatures, 1880-2007

2 0 0 5 a n d 2 0 0 7 : the w a rm e s t tw o years on record °C

Scientists cla im e d it w as clear th a t te m p e ra tu re s a ro u n d th e w o rld w e re

c o n tin u in g th e ir u p w a rd c lim b .T h e g lo b a l average fo r th e se years w as
14.76°C in 2005 and 14.73°C in 2007 - th e tw o w a rm e s t since reliable
in s tru m e n ta l records b e gan 126 years earlier and, a cco rd in g to palaeo-
clim a to lo g is ts u sing e vid e n ce fro m a n c ie n t tre e -rin g s (page 248), p ro b ­
ably th e h ig h e s t in o ve r 1200 years. Records c o lle c te d by NASAGISS
also sh o w e d th a t e ig h t o f th e te n w a rm e st years have been in th e last
d e ca de and th a t 2007 was th e 31 st c o n se c u tiv e year w h e n th e g lo b a l
m ean surface te m p e ra tu re exce e d e d th e lo n g -te rm average (Figure
9.76). M ore a la rm in g ly, w hereas th e g lo b a l m ean rose by o n ly 0.23°C in
th e 100 years b e tw e e n 1880 and 1979, in th e 27 years since th e n it has
increased by 0.62°C. A lth o u g h th e m ain reason fo r th e rise in g lo b a l te m ­
pe ra tu re (Figure 9.76) is th e lo n g e r-te rm e ffe ct o fth e c o n tin u e d release
o f g re e n h o u s e gases in to th e a tm o sp h e re (Figures 9.77 and 9.78), th e re is
increasing e vid e n ce s u g g e stin g th a t te m p e ra tu re s increase m o re ra p id ly year

d u rin g an El N in o ra th e rth a n in a La N ifla e p iso d e

(Case S tudy 9A). Figure9.77
Atmospheric concentration of
carbon dioxide, 1000-2007

The major greenhouse gases

Gas Sources ( and )

water vapour evaporation from the ocean, evapotranspiration from land

carbon dioxide burning of fossil fuels (power houses, industry, transport),

burning rainforests, respiration
methane decaying vegetation (peat and in swamps), farming
(fermenting animal dung and rice-growing), sewage
disposal and landfill sites
nitrous oxide vehicle exhausts, fertiliser, nylon manufacture,
power stations
CFCs refrigerators, aerosol sprays, solvents and foams
year

a the radiation balance b the greenhouse effect

incom ing short-wave less heat escapes
Figure 9,79
radiation (ultra-violet) into space
passes directly through
The radiation
th e natural greenhouse balance and the
m ost outgoing long-wave
gases radiation (infrared) is
greenhouse effe.“
radiated back into space

increase in g reenhouse gases

natural g reenhouse gases due to hum an activity

som e o utgoing radiation is

absorbed by, or trapped
beneath, the g reenhouse gases

as m ore heat is trapped

previously a balance: and retained, so th e
C 0 2 g iven off by hum ans and anim als = C 0 2 taken in b ytre e s Earth's atm osphere
O , given out b ytre e s = O , used by hum ans and animals becom es w arm er (global
w arm ing)

short-wave radiation is transform ed into long-wave radiation

(heat) on co n tact w ith the Earth's surface
 Short-term and long-term clim atic changes Q 2 B E 8 D

~|ne Earth is w a rm e d d u rin g th e day by By a d d in g these gases to th e a tm o s ­ p re d icte d increase in su m m e r te m p eratures

:o m in g , sh o rt-w a v e ra d ia tio n (insola- phere, w e are increasing its a b ility to tra p o f o ve r 3°C, heat waves w ill b e co m e a m ore
' fro m th e sun and co o te d at n ig h t by heat (Figure 9.79). M o st scientists n o w regular occu rre nce and th e re w ill be m any
. :-g o in g , longe r-w a ve , infra-red ra d ia tio n a cce p t th a t th e g re e n h o u s e e ffe c t is m ore days w h e n th e rm o m e te rs exceed
- ge 207). As, over a le n g th y p e rio d o f causing g lo b a l w a rm in g . W orld te m p e ra ­ 25°C. Changes in th e w e a th e r w ill be greater
T =. th e Earth is n e ith e r w a rm in g u p n or tu re s have risen by 0.9°C in th e last 100 in th e so uth-east th a n in th e no rth -w est.
: ;ng d o w n , th e re m u s t be a balance years. Latest p re d ic tio n s s u g g e st th a t th e y H owever, som e c o m p u te r predictions are
■ ţpeen in c o m in g and o u tg o in g radia­ are likely to increase by b e tw e e n 1°C and suggesting th a t Britain's clim ate could, over
nt (page 209). W h ile in c o m in g ra d ia tio n 6°C by th e year 2100. Som e o fth e p re d icte d a long period o f tim e, g e t colder. This could
e to pass th ro u g h th e a tm o sp h e re g lo b a l e ffe cts o f th is c lim a te c h a n g e are happen ifth e release o f fresh w a te r from
;h is 99 pe r c e n t n itro g e n and oxygen, sh o w n in Figure 9.81. Greenland's m e ltin g ice-cap pushed the
. .re 9.2), som e o fth e o u tg o in g radia­ N orth A tlantic D rift fu rth e r south so th a t it no
' is tra p p e d by a b la n k e t o f trace gases. Britain's w e a th e r forecast lo n g e r affected all, o rce rta in ly parts, o f Britain.
js e th e y tra p heat as in a greenhouse, fo rth e 2 0 8 0 s
:e are referred to as greenhouse gases Effects o f c lim a te ch an g e in
The latest g o v e rn m e n t re p o rt predicts, in
_.'e9.79). W ith o u t these natural gre e n - th e U K
general, an increasingly g rim forecast for
:e gases, th e Earth's average te m p e ra -
th e next 70 years. Heavy w in te r rains, u p to DEFRA's claim s, based o n th e p re d icte d
K p j l d be 33°C lo w e r th a n it is to d a y
30 per c e n t in excess o f today, w ill lead to fo re ca st o f m ilder, w e tte r, s to rm ie r w in te rs
’ to o cold fo r life in any fo rm . (D u rin g
m ore fre q u e n t flo o d in g , as was seen in th e and w a rm e r, d rie r sum m ers, are su m m a -
- =st ice age, te m p e ra tu re s w e re o n ly 4°C
English M id la nd s in 2007 (Case S tudy 3C) rised in Figure 9.80. its tw o m ain concerns
W ater v a p o u r provides th e m a jo rity
and d e stru ctive galeş w ill be m ore fre q u e n t are:
natural g re e n h ou s e effect, w ith
and severe. W ith a p re d icte d rise in sea-level • th e p o te n tia l effects o f c h a n g in g
r ' c o n trib u tio n s fro m ca rb o n d ioxide,
o f b e tw e e n 2 and 10 cm , storm surges and rainfall p a tte rn s on h y d ro lo g y a n d
f î ‘■ane, nitro u s o x id e and ozone.
h ig h e r tides w ill th re a te n coastal areas (Case ecosystem s
_.'ing th e last 150 years th e re has been,
S tudy 6). However, th e chances o f e xtre m e ly • rising sea-levels and m o re fre q u e n t
I b f t ie e x c e p tio n o f w a te r v a p o u r w h ic h
co ld w inters, and th e risk o f fo g and heavy storm s in coastal area? w h e re th e re is
ns a c o n s ta n t in th e system , a rise in
snowfalls, w ill decrease. Days w ith m ore a iarge p ro p o rtio n o f Britain's p o p u l­
" nouse gas c o ncentra tio n s (Figure 9,78).
th a n 25 m m o f rain, at present an e xtre m e a tio n , its m a n u fa c tu rin g industry,
as been d u e la r g e ly to th e increase
event, c o u ld o c c u rth re e o rfo u rtim e s a year. e n e rg y p ro d u c tio n , m ineral e x tra ctio n ,
~'ld p o p u la tio n and a c o rre s p o n d in g
Sum m ers w ill be d rie r w ith a decrease in rain va lu e d n atural e n v iro n m e n ts and
~h in h u m a n a ctivity, especially agri-
o f u p to 30 per c e n t in th e so u th -e a st w h e re re creaţional am enities.
. ■.. ‘al and in d u stria l activities.
d ro u g h t w ill b e co m e m ore c o m m o n . W ith a

Higher temperatures could reduce water-holding capacities and increase soil moisture deficits, affecting the types of crops and trees. Less
organic matter due to drier summers (less produced) and wetter winters (more lost).
►'fauna Higher temperatures and increased water deficit could mean loss of several native species. Warmer climate would allow plants to grow
further north and at higher altitudes. Earlier flowering plants and arrival of migrant birds.

-^":ulture Grasses helped by longer growing season (extra 15 days) but cereals hit by drier summers. Increase in number of pests. Maize and vines in the
south. Need for irrigation in summer.

-arestry Certain trees able to grow at higher altitudes. New species could be introduced from warmer climates.Threats from fires, diseases and pests.

ustal regions Rise in sea-level plus increase in frequency/number of galeş and frequency/height of storm surges would mean more flooding, especially
around estuaries, and increased erosion. Major impact on housing, industry, farming, energy, transport and wildlife, including marine eco­
systems.

>iierresources Water resources would benefit from wetter winters, but hotter, drier summers would increase demands/pressures. Need for irrigation
in summer in south-east. More frequent riverflooding.

issrgy Space heating demand would fall in winter but need for air-conditioning would rise in summer. Probable overall fall in demand. Many power
stations are in threatened coastal areas.

rvjfacturing/construction Problem for coastal industries. Fewer days lost in construction due to less snow/frost.

'-snsport Many types of transport are sensitive to extreme weather conditions. Benefit of less snow, ice and perhaps fog. Loss due to more frequent and
severe storms and flooding, including flash floods.

creation/tourism Tourism would benefit from longer, warmer, drier summers, but insufficient snow for skiing in Scotland.

9,80 Source: DEFRA

* o fic effects of climate

ge in the UK
Weather and climate 255
256

Figure 9.81 G lo b a l in c re a s e in droughts, floods and storms

Some predicted effects of global warming
Weather and clim ate

Greenland -
r. m elting ice sheet

Short-term
Alaska
m elting glaciers Canada - loss o f sea ice Siberia - perm afrost thaw ing ,
threatens polar bears northern extension o f coniferous forest
Britain - m ore storms
Canada - to o w arm Xf
for salm on and trout Netherlands - flooding by sea
Prairies - sharp fall Alps - glaciers melting
Japan - earlier

and long-term
in crop yields
SW USA d rought Mediterranean - d rought flow ering plants
Tibet -
California - wildfires and wildfires perm afrost
Mexico - lizards Florida -
thaw ing China - threat to broad-leaf forests
th reaten ed w ith coastal flooding
Bangladesh -
extinction
West Indies more flooding b y sea
d estructive hurricanes
Sahel - hig her crop yields South-east Asia - reduced yields o f rice

Peru - failure of
an ch o v y fishing
climatic c h a n g e s
Congo - possible Maldives
loss of rainforest subm erged by the sea Pacific islands -
Brazii - possible loss subm erged by sea
o f A m azon rainforest

Southern Africa - loss of

un iqu e natural veg etatio n Australia - b leaching kills coral

South Africa - earlier arrival

Oceans - increased carbon
o f m igratory birds
dioxide is turning sea m ore
acidic and affecting m arine life

Southern Ocean - d eclin e in krill stocks

Antarctica - d eclin e in penguins,

m elting ice sheets
Temperature in 2080s (predicted annual mean) Precipitation in 2080s (predicted average precipitation change)

w e tte rth a n no w

drier than now

flo od in g by rising
sea-level

2 l O.1; 0.7ţ 0 0.25 0.5 1 2 I

piri ipil.iinm i h.intjt' (mm pn «l.iy)
Further reference
irry, R.G. and Chorley, R.J. (2003)
Atmosphere, W eather and Clim ate,
îutledge.
rntley, M. (2005) 'Antarctic ozone hole',
leography Review V oi 18 No 3 (January).
rt, T. (2005) 'Rain in the hills',
jeography Review Voi 18 No 4 (March).
şby, B. (2005) 'El Nino Part 1',
eography Review Voi 19 No 2
Xovember).
zbv, B. (2006) 'El Nino Part 2' Geography
\Lview Voi 19 No 3 Qanuary).
: adie, A.S. (2001) The Nature o ft h e
Invironment, WileyBlackwell.
- Diden, J. (2008) Introduction to Physical
heography and the Environment, Prentice
H a li.
^dleton, N. 'Acid shock’, Geography
Re\ iew Voi 18 No 4 (March).
Hara, G., Sweeney, J. and O ’Hare, G.
1986) The Atmospheric System, Oliver &
: jyd.
ithson, P, Addison, K. and Atkinson,
2008) Fundam entals o f Physical
ography, Routledge.
C enter for O cean-A tm ospheric
Prediction Studies, resources:
http://coaps.fsu.edu/lib/elninolinks/
them es
E arth Space Research Group, Indian
m onsoons:
www.icess.ucsb.edu/esrg/IOM2/Start2_
IOM .htm l
Je t Propulsion Laboratory, NASA, El
Nino:
www.jpl.nasa.gov/earth/ocean_motion/
el_nino_index.cfm
UK Clim ate Im pacts Program m e:
www.ukcip.org.uk/index.php
UK M eterological Office (Met Office):
www.metoffice.gov.uk/
UK Met Office w eath er charts:
www.meto.gov.uk/education/data/
charts.htm l
U nion o f C oncerned Scientists (UCS),
global w arm ing:
http://ucsusa.org/warming/index.html
U nion of C oncerned Scientists (UCS),
ozone depletion:
www.ucsusa.org/global_warming/
science_and_impacts/science/
faq-about-ozone-depletion-and.htm l
US E n viron m en tal P rotection Agency,
global w arm ing:
www.epa.gov/climatechange/index.
htm l
US E n viron m en tal P rotection Agency,
glossary o f clim ate chan ge term s:
http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/
globalwarming.nsf/content/glossary.html
US E nviron m en tal P rotection Agency,
ozone S cie n ce :
www.epa.gov/ozone/strathome.html
US N ation al O ceanographic and
A tm ospheric A dm inistration (NOAA)
Clim ate Prediction Center:
www.cpc.noaa.gov/
US NOAA, El Nifio / La Nina:
www.cpc.noaa.gov/products/analysis_
monitoring/ensostuff/
www.elnino.noaa.gov/
US NOAA, hurricanes:
http://hurricanes.noaa.gov/
US NOAA, re s e a rc h :
www.cdc.noaa.gov/ENSO

Questions & Activities

Activities
a What is the'atmosphere'of the Earth? (3 marks) b Use Places 29 (page 232) to answer the following questions:
i What was the weather forecast on 11-15 October 1987?
b What is the difference between 'weather'and 'climate'?
(3 marks)
(4 marks)
ii Describe the meteorological conditions over the
c Describethe'solarcascadeofenergy'totheEarth. (4marks) Western Approaches and Bay of Biscay at 6.00 pm
on 15 October. (3 marks)
d What is the importance of i carbon dioxide and ii clouds iii Describe the track ofthe storm over the next
in the energy balance ofthe Earth? (4 marks) 12 hours. (4 marks)
e Ozone in the troposphere is a danger to health. Why is there iv What happened to the weather over Southern England
concern that ozone in the stratosphere is being depleted? during this 12-hour period? (4 marks)
(5 marks) v Describe threeeffects ofthe storm on people. (3 marks)

f What measures can be taken to restrict the potential c Explain two reasons why meteorologists failed to forecast
damage due to ozone depletion? (5 marks) the very strong winds of 15 October. (4 marks)

2 a How does a meteorologist get information to forecast

the weather? (4 marks)

Weather and climate 257

 E xam p ractice: basic s tru c tu re d q u e s tio n s

3 a Explain howeach ofthefollowing factors affects the winds that c Why does fog often form over a coastal area in the
cross them: autumn? (6 marks
i alargebodyofwater(e.g.asea) (4 marks) d Explain theformation of smog overan urban area. (8marks
ii a mountain range. (6marks)
a Describe the causes ofthe ITCZ. (5 marks
b On a field course in Switzerland a geography student noted:
'On the north-facing side ofthe valley the forests came close b What weather conditions are associated with the ITCZ?
to the valley floor while the settlement huddled at the foot (lOmarks
ofthe south-facing slope and here there were ploughed c Why does the ITCZ move with the seasons? (lOmarks
fields.There were forests but they started higher up the
slope.' 6 Study Figure 9.82 and answer the following questions.
Suggest the cause of these differences in land use. (6 marks) a What is the name ofthe pressure system shown? (2 nwfcs

c A January weather forecast for the UK stated:'Although it will b What is the weather like at place A (Doncaster)? (4 marks
be cool today, temperatures will stay above freezing tonight c What is the red line with half circles on it? (5 marks
because ofthe cloud cover'. d Locate the warmest and the coolest place in the British
Explain the effect of cloud on temperature. (4 marks) Isles. (2mar-
d Why is it warmer in summer than in winter? (5 marks) e i Over the next 12 hours the pressure system moves s:
that it is in the North Sea.
4 a i Whatis'stratus'cloud? (2marks)
Give a weather forecast for place A (Doncaster) over
ii What is'cumulo-nimbus'cloud? (2marks) this period. (6 mar-:
b Making good use of diagrams, explain why rain falls when
ii Why would you expect this to happen? (6 mar-:
an onshore wind blows over an upland area. (7 marks)

E xam p ra c tic e : s tru c tu re d q u e s tio n s

7 a StudyFigures9.82and9.83.Describethechangesinthe c Choose either stability or instability. Describe and

weather being experienced at Limerick (place C) over explain the weather conditions normally associated
this 24-hour period. (8 marks) with that atmospheric condition. (6 m c*.
b Explain what has happened to the frontal system over
this period of time. (8 marks) 9 a i Using an annotated diagram only, illustrate the
variation of temperature and pressure with altitude
c Describe, and explain the causes of, the types and
in the atmosphere. (6 mc
distribution ofthe precipitation shown in Figure 9.83.
(9 marks) ii Explain the variations in temperature with altitude
in the atmosphere. (6 mc
8 a Describe three mechanisms that are likely to trigger upward b i Study Figure 9.5 (page 209). Making good use of
movement ofa parcei of airfrom sea level. (6 marks) the data, explain why there is a general trend of
Study Figure 9.84. movement of heat energy from the Equator to the
i What is meant by the term 'ELR'? (4 marks) poles. (6 mc--:
ii Describe how heat is transferred from the tropics
ii Identify the height ofthe base of clouds. (1 mark)
towards the poles. (7 m c .
iii Explain why this height is the cloud base. (4 marks)
iv Identify the air stream(s) (A, B, C) that would have 10 a Describe and explain what happens to incoming sola'
cloud cover. State why this is so. (2 marks) radiation (insolation) once it reaches the edge ofthe
Earth's atmosphere. (lO rrc-
v At what height would condensation in a cloud be
in theform of ice? (2 marks) b Explain the importance of each ofthefollowing in
relation to heat energy in the atmosphere:
latitude
altitude
land and sea. (1 0 r : t
altitude (m )

c The greatest amount of insolation is experienced clcsr ?

£ the Equator. Why does this area not become increas - -
hot? (5 r :
L
Q. 11 a Suggest one way you could test the hypothesis that —
temperatures in an urban area are different from tb Dse m
the surrounding countryside. Describe the method .:
would ufetocollectand record the data to carryou--
proposed test.
tem perature (°Q

258 Weather and climate

 V 03
O *
-60N '

05 ^ > 06

© "

H
30‘W l(M0 20W
_ 4 - - ■ --

: ■er map for 1200 hrs, Weather map for 1200 hrs,
. --^ary 1984 13January1984

b Explain tw o reasons why temperatures in urban areas
may be higher than those in surrounding rural areas.
(lOmarks)
c Suggest tw o ways in which planning policies can
reduce the problems caused by microclimatic features
of urban areas. (8marks)
"i a Explain the difference between absolute humidity and
relative humidity. (8marks)
b Making good use of diagrams, show how condensation
14
occurs as air rises through the atmosphere. (lOmarks)
c Explain the cause of low-level clouds (mist) as shown in
Figure 9.23 (page 221). (7 marks)
': The following are meteorological conditions that develop a
■ange of weather conditions over the British Isles:
a an anticyclone centred overthe English Midlands in
winter
b a mature depression with its centre over the Central
Valley of Scotland in summer
c a depression centred over Paris and an anticyclone to the
north of Scotland in January.
Choose two ofthe situations a-c and, in both cases,
describe how weather conditions would vary in two
contrasting locations in the British Isles.
Explain these variations. (12 + 13 marks)
a Study Figure 9.49 (page 235). Describe the major
distribution of tropical storms as shown on the map.
(6 marks)
b Choose any one type of tropical storm. Describe and
explain the sequence of weather associated with the
passage of the storm. (lOmarks)
c Explain how people respond to the hazard posed by
tropical storms. In your answer refer to countries at
different stages of economic development. (9 marks)

Exam practice: essays

he polarfront jet stream is one ofthe most important 17 'There is now overwhelming scientific evidence that
nfluences on the climate ofthe British Isles.' human activity is causing major changes to the global
Discussthis statement. (25marks) climate.'
Is this statement true? Justify your answer. (25 marks)
~he passage of a depression overthe British Isles leads to
oredictable changes in the weather over a period of time.
Describe and explain the sequence of weather experienced in
.iverpool over a 12-hour period as a mature depression passes
■>om west to east. (25 marks)

Weather and climate 259

 Soils
• • • • • • • • •

r'ib m any people who do nul live on the tund, soil appears Soil formation
to b e an inert , uniform, dark-brow n rolow vd, uninteresting
The first stage in th e fo rm a tio n o f soil is the
m aterial in which plants happen Io grow. In faci little could a ccu m u la tio n o f a layer o f loose, broken,
be further from the tn ith . ' u n consolid ated p arent m aterial know n as rego-
B r ia n K n a p p , Soil Processes, 1979 lith . R egolith m ay be derived from eith er the
in sitn w eathering o f bed rock (i.e. th e parent o:
Soil form s th e th in surface layer o f th e Earth's underlying rock) or from m aterial th a t has been
crust. It ca n be defined as th e u n con solid ated tran sp orted from elsew here and deposited, e.g.
m ineral and organic m aterial o n th e Earth's as alluvium , glacial drift, loess or v o lcan ic ash.
surface, o ften characterised by horizon s or layers The second stage, th e fo rm a tio n o f tru e soil
(Figure 10 .5 ), th a t serves as a natu ral m ed iu m for or to p so il, results from th e ad d ition o f water
th e grow th o f plants and th erefore th e support of gases (air), living organism s (biota) and decayd
anim al life on land. It has b ee n su b jected to, and organic m atter (hum us).
show s th e effects of, g en etic and en v iro n m en ta l P ed olog ists hav e id e n tifie d five m ain
factors of: clim ate (in clu d in g water and tem p era­ fa cto rs in v o lv e d in soil fo rm a tio n (Figure 10.1
ture), m acro- and m icro-organ ism s, relief and the As all o f th e se are clo sely in te rc o n n e c te d a n :
un derlying p aren t rock (Figure 1 0 .1 ). It develops in te rd e p e n d e n t, th e ir re la tio n sh ip m ay be
over a period o f tim e th rou g h th e in te ra ctio n of su m m arised as fo llow s:
several physical, ch em ical, b iolog ical and m or- soil = f(p a re n t m aterial + clim ate +
p h o lo g ical properties and ch aracteristics. topograph y + organism s + tim e)
Figure 10.1
T he study o f soil, its origins and ch aracteris­ w here: f = fu n ctio n of.
Factors affecting the tics (p ed ology) is a science in itself.
formation of soil P a re n t m a te r ia l
W h e n a soil d evelops from an u n d erlying rock
its supply o f m in erals is largely d ep end ent or.
parent material
th a t rock. The m inerals are susceptible to dir-
perm eability time human influences
mineral con ten t
feren t rates an d processes o f w eath erin g - see
texture exam p le o f graniţe, Figure 1 0 .2 . P arent m ate
soil climate
nutrients co n trib u tes to co n tro l o f th e d ep th, texture.
w eathering
precipitation drainage (perm eability) and q u ality (n u trier*
organisms (biota) topography (relief)
tem perature co n te n t) o f a soil and also in flu en ces its col
organic m atter altitude
aspect
In m o st o f B ritain, p aren t m aterial is th e ma
nutrient cycle/recycling
mixing and aeration slope angle facto r in d eterm in in g th e soil type, e.g. lim e­
stone, graniţe or, m ost com m on ly , drift.

usually:
coarser tex*
m ainly affected by sands and good drair
(prim ary ___
— quartz (a 'harder' mineral) physical (m echanical) silts left as shallower
minerals)
w eath ering residues few er nutr

graniţe — usually:
fin e rte x tL
mica m ainly affected clays poor drair
(secondary
softer’ minerals) by chem ical -► left as d eep er soi
minerals)
— feldspar w eath ering residues m ore nu t-

Figure 10.2
The influence ofaparf
260 Soils
graniţe - on soilforr
 C lim a te
Clim ate determ ines th e type of soil at a global
scale. The d istribution o f world soil types corre-
sponds closely to patterns o f clim ate and vegeta­
tion . C lim ate affects th e rate o f w eathering of the
parent rock, w ith th e m ost rapid breakdow n being
in hot, hum id environm ents. C lim ate also affects
the am oun t o f hum us (organic m aterial) in the
soil. The a m o u n t is a balance betw een th e input
and output, th e input and output being a func-
tion o f th e effects o f tem perature and m oisture
on biological activity. O ne m ight expect tropical
rainforest soils to have m ore hum us th an tundra
soils because o f the greater mass o f vegetation.
However, it is possible for som e tundra soils to
have m ore hum us accu m u lation due to a lower
output, and som e tropical rainforest soils to have
less because of greater hum us breakdow n.
Rainfall to tals and in te n sity are also im p or­
tan t. W here rainfall is heavy, th e dow nward
m o vem en t o f water th rou g h th e soil transports
m in eral salts (i.e. soluble m inerals) w ith it, a
process know n as le a ch in g . W here rainfall is
lig h t or w here ev ap otran sp iration exceeds pre­
cip itatio n , water and m ineral salts m ay be drawn
upwards towards th e surface by th e process of
c a p illa ry a c tio n .
Tem peratures d eterm ine th e len g th o f th e
grow ing season and affect th e supply o f hum us.
T he speed o f v eg etation decay is fastest in hot,
wet clim ates as tem peratu res also in flu en ce
(i) th e activity and n u m ber o f soil organism s and
(ii) th e rate o f evap oration, i.e. w h eth er leach in g
or capillary a ctio n is d om in an t.
T o p o g ra p h y (re lie f)
As th e h eig h t o f th e land increases, so to o do
am o u n ts o f p recip itatio n , cloud cover and
w ind, w hile tem peratures and th e len g th of
th e grow ing season b o th decrease. Aspect is
flatter upland (plateau): shedding (degrading or
hill peat d evelops on eluviation) zone: sheds w ater
colder, waterlogged, (well drained), soil, organic
acidic soils and mineral m atter
infiltration
pth leaching
I '
bedrock
m o vem ent of w ater
an im p o rta n t local facto r in m id -latitu d es
(page 21 2 ), w ith sou th -facin g slopes in th e
n o rth e rn h em isp h ere b ein g w arm er and drier
th a n those facin g n o rth . T h e angle o f slope
affects drainage and soil d epth. G reater m o is­
ture flows and th e increased effect o f gravity on
steeper slopes can accelerate m ass m o vem en t
and th e risk o f soil erosion . Soils on steep slopes
are likely to be th in , poorly developed and rela-
tively dry. T h e m ore gentle th e slope, th e slower
th e rate of m o v em en t o f water th rou g h th e soil
and th e greater th e lik elih oo d o f w aterlogging
and th e fo rm atio n o f peat on plateau-like sur­
faces at the top o f th e slope (Figure 10.3). There
is little risk o f soil erosion b u t th e increased rate
o f w eathering, due to th e extra water, and the
receip t o f m aterial m oved dow nslope, ten d to
produce deep soils at th e fo ot o f th e slope. A
c a te n a is w here soils are related to th e to p og ­
raphy o f a hillsid e and is a sequ ence o f soil
types dow n a slope. The catena (Figure 10.3) is
described in m ore detail o n page 2 7 6 .
O rg a n is m s (b io ta )
P lants, m icro-org an ism s such as b a cteria and
fungi, and an im als all in te ra ct in th e n u trie n t
c y c le (page 3 0 0 ). P lants take up m in eral nu tri-
ents from th e soil and retu rn th e m to it after
th e y die. This recy clin g o f p la n t n u trien ts
(Figure 12 .7 ) is ach iev ed by th e activ ity o f
m icro-org an ism s, w h ich assist in n itro g e n fixa-
tio n (page 2 6 8 ) and th e d eco m p o sitio n and
d ecay o f dead v eg eta tio n . At th e sam e tim e,
m acro -org an ism s, w h ich inclu d e w orm s and ter-
m ites, m ix and aerate th e soil. H um an activ ity is
in creasin g ly a ffectin g soil d ev elop m en t th rou g h
th e ad d ition o f fertiliser, th e b reaking up o f hori-
zons by p lou g h in g , d rainin g or irrig ating land,
and by u n w ittin g ly acceleratin g or d eliberately
c o n tro llin g soil erosion.
Figure 10.3
A catena: the relationship
between soil type and slope
(not drawn to scale)
transfer (translocation) zone:
rapid m ovem ent o f water, soi.s
and minerals giving a thinner,
less acidic, drier soil
receiving (accum ulation or
surface illuviation) zone: receives
runoff water, soil, o rganic and
mineral matter; valley peat
develops on w aterlo g g ed
thro u gh flow or gleyed soil
 pore space containing and/or
(can be 45% wat« ,or
usually a proportion of each)
= 45% +
, but is more + =55% in situ w eathering con sists o f sands rath er th an
clays, and in h o t, w et clim ates rath er th a n in
colder and/or drier en v iro n m en ts.
A m ature, fully-developed soil consists o f fo 'j;
co m p on en ts: m ineral m atter, organic m atter
inclu d ing b iota (page 2 6 8 ), water and air. The
relative p roportions o f these co m p o n en ts in a
'n o rm al' soil, by volum e, is given in Figure 1 0 .-

The soil profile

The soil p ro file is a vertical sectio n th rou gh the
soil show ing its different h orizo n s (Figure 1 0 .ă)
It is a produ ct o f th e b alan ce betw een soil systerr:
inputs and outputs (Figure 10 .6 ) and th e redist-
b u tio n of, and ch em ica l ch anges in, th e various
soil co n stitu en ts. D ifferen t soil profiles are
Hgure ‘ 0.4 Tim e
described in C h apter 12, b u t an idealised profile
Relative proportions, Soils usually take a lon g tim e to form , perhaps up
by volume, of compo­ is given here to aid fam iliarisation w ith severa:
to 4 0 0 years for 10 m m and, under extrem e c o n ­
nents in a'normal'soil new term s.
dition s, 1 0 0 0 years for 1 m m . It can take 3 0 0 0
(after Courtney and T he th ree m a jo r soil horizon s, w h ich m a r o
to 12 0 0 0 years to produce a su fficien t d ep th of
Trudgill) subdivided, are referred to by specific letters to
m ature soil for farm ing, a lth ou g h agriculture can
in d icate th e ir g en etic origin.
be successful o n new ly deposited alluvium and
■ T h e upper layer, or A h o riz o n , is where
v o lca n ic ash. Newly fo rm in g soils tend to retain
b io lo g ical activity and hu m us c o n te n t are
m an y ch aracteristics o f th e p arent m aterial from
at th eir m axim u m . It is also th e zone th at
w h ich th ey are derived. W ith tim e, th ey acquire
is m o st affected by th e leach in g o f soluble
new ch aracteristics resulting from th e ad d ition
m aterials and by th e dow nw ard m o v em en -
o f organic m atter, the activ ity o f organism s,
or e lu v ia tio n , o f clay particles. E lu viatior
and from leach in g . H orizon s, or layers (Figure
th e w ashing ou t o f m aterial, i.e. th e rem ov ■_
10.5), reflect th e b alance b etw een soil processes
o f org anic and m ineral m atter from th e .4
and th e tim e th a t has b een available for th eir
h orizo n (Figure 10.5).
d ev elopm en t. In n o rth e rn Britain, upland soils
■ B en eath th is, th e B h o r iz o n is th e zone of
m ust be less th a n 10 0 0 0 years old, as th a t was
a ccu m u latio n , or illu v ia tio n , where clays
th e tim e o f th e last g laciation , w h en any existin g
and oth er m aterials rem oved from th e A
soil cover was rem oved by ice. T h e tim e taken
h orizo n are redeposited. Illu viatio n is the
îig u re lO .5 for a m atu re soil to develop depends prim arily
process o f inw ashing, i.e. th e redeposition
An idealisedsoil on p arent m aterial and clim ate. Soils develop
organic and m ineral m atter in th e B horizon
profile in Britain m ore rapidly w here parent m aterial derived from
T he A and B h orizo n s to g eth er m ake up the
true soil.
leaf litter
fermentation (decomposition) layer (page 266) ■ T h e C h o riz o n con sists m ain ly o f recenth
humus layer w eathered paren t m aterial (regolith) restii..
soil depth measured on th e bedrock.
from this point
horizon or a A lthough th is th reefold division is useful and
zone of co n v en ien t, it is, as will be seen later, over-
eluviation mixed mineral/organic layer
(outwashlng) sim plified. Several exam p les show this:
some organic material, as well as clay
■ Hum us m ay be m ixed th ro u g h o u t th e d ep :'
lighter colour due to
removal of clay and iron
and calcium, removed by water, a o f th e soil, or it m ay form a d istin ct layer.
process known as translocation
W here hu m us is in corp o rated w ith in the
possible iron accumulation soil to give a crum bly, black, n u trien t-rich
B brighter colounng due To layer it is know n as m u ll (page 2 6 6 ). W here
horizon or deposition of oxidised organic enriched mineral layer hu m us is slow to d ecom pose, as in cold, we-
zone of iron {rust);aluminium
illuviation is also deposited
upland areas, it produces a fibrous, acidic ar*ă
(accumulation of mechanically and
(inwashing) n u trien t-d eficien t surface h orizon know n
chemically downwashed material)
as m o r (page 2 6 6 ) (peat m oorland s).
j weathered
I J Parent c
a T h e ju n c tio n s o f horizons m ay n o t always
mineral layer
^ 1 materia! be clear.
(in situ) ____

BEDROCK RorD
(unaltered)
 ■ All horizons need n ot always be present.
■ The depth of soil and o f each horizon vary at
different sites. Local conditions produce soils
with characteristic horizons differing from the
basic A, B, C pattern: for exam ple, a waterlogged
soil, having a shortage of oxygen, develops a
gleyed (G) horizon (page 275).
The soil system
Figure 10.6 is a m odel show ing the soil as an open
system where materials and energy are gained and
lost at its boundaries. The system comprises inputs,
stores, outputs and recycling or feedback loops
(Framework 3, page 45). Inputs include:
■ water from the atm osphere or throughflow
from higher up the slope
■ gases from the atm osphere and the respiration
o f soil anim als and plants
■ m ineral nutrients from weathered parent m ate­
rial, w hich are needed as plant food
■ organic m atter and nutrients from decaying
plants and animals, and
■ solar energy and heat.
Outputs include:
■ water lost to th e atm osphere through
evapotranspiration
■ nutrients lost through leaching and through­
flow, and
loss o f soil particles through soil creep
and erosion.
Recycling
Plants, in order to live, take up nutrients from the
soil (page 268). Som e o f the nutrients m ay be stored
until:
■ either the vegetation sheds its leaves (during the
autum n in Britain), or
■ the plants die and, over tim e, decom pose
due to the activity of micro-organisms
(biota, page 268).
■C.6
w ater gases
inputs into the
en soil system
* soil system (air)
These two processes release th e stored nutrients,
allowing them to be returned to the soil ready
for future use - the so-called n u trien t (or humus)
cycle.
Soil properties
The four m ajor com ponents o f soil - water, air,
m ineral and organic m atter (Figure 10.4) - are all
closely interlinked. The resultant interrelationships
produce a series of 'properties', ten o f w hich are
listed and described below.
1 m ineral (inorganic) matter
2 texture
3 structure
4 organic m atter (including humus)
5 moisture
6 air
7 organisms (biota)
8 nutrients
9 acidity (pH value)
10 temperature.
It is necessary to understand the workings o f these
properties to appreciate how a particular soil can
best be managed.
1 M in e ra l (in o rg an ic) m a tte r
As shown in Figure 10.2, soil m inerals are
obtained m ainly by the weathering of parent
rock. W eathering is the m ajor process by w hich
nutrients, essential for plant growth, are released.
P rim ary m inerals are minerals that were present
in the original parent material and w hich remain
unaltered from their original state. They are present
throughout th e soil-form ing process, m ainly
because they are insoluble, e.g. quartz. S econdary
m inerals are produced by w eathering reactions
and are therefore produced w ithin th e soil. They
include oxides and hydroxides of primary minerals
(e.g. iron) w hich result from the exposure to air and
water (page 40).
solar evapotranspiration
energ y

outputs from the

soil system

recycling U I
organic m atter from
fallen leaves and
d ecaying vegetation excretions from
plant roots

nutrients taken up
leaching and by plant roots
thro u gh flow
soil creep
and erosion

-
nutrients from
weathered parent rock
a sieving b field technique by 'feel' c sedimentation
100g o f dispersed dried soil (easier
to gain a p ercentage figure)

clay
2.0 mm mesh stone
sand: a gritty fe e l;w h e n rubbed,
does not form a ball or leave
0.2 mm mesh : -i" l _ coarse a film on finger
sand
silt
0.02 mm mesh _ _ _____ fine silt: sm ooth,silky or soapy feel
sand
siltand
electrical shaking
clay fine sand
apparatus — clay: plastic and sticky w h e n wet;
gives a polished surface w hen coarse
rubbed: rolts into a ball sand

Figure 10.7 2 Soi! te x tu r e eith er o f tw o laboratory m easurem ents, b o th of

Measuring soil w h ich are d ep end ent upon p artid e size. The Soi.
The term 'textu re' refers to th e degree of coarse-
texture (after Survey o f England and Wales uses th e British
ness or fineness o f the m ineral m atter in th e soil.
Courtney and Standards classification, w h ich gives th e follou ir
Trudgill) It is determ ined by th e proportion o f sand , s ilt
d iam eter sizes:
and c la y particles. Particles larger th an sand are
grouped together and described as stones. In the Heading Description from case study
field, it is possible to decide w heth er a soil sample coarse sand between 2.0 and 0.6 mm
is m ainly sand, silt or clay by its 'feel'. As show n
in Figure 10.7b, a sandy soil feels gritty and lacks mediumsand between 0.6 and 0.2 mm

coh esion ; a silty soil has a sm oother, soaplike feel fine sand between 0.2 and 0.06 mm
as well as having som e coh esion ; and a clay soil is
silt between 0.06 and 0.002 mm
sticky and plastic w hen wet and, being very cohe-
sive, m ay be rolled in to various shapes. clay less than 0.002 mm
This m eth o d gives a quick guide to the texture,
O ne m ethod o f m easuring texture involves the
but it lacks th e precision needed to determ ine the
Figure 10.8 use o f sieves w ith different m eshes (Figure 1 0 .“-
p roportion o f particles in a given soil w ith any
The sample m ust be dry and needs to be well-
Thetexture of accuracy. This precision m ay be obtained from
different soil types shaken. A m esh of 0 .2 m m , for exam ple, allows
fine sand, silt and clay particles to pass througr.
silt loam sandy loam it, while trapping the coarse sand. The weight dî
particles rem aining in each sieve is expressed .
percentage of the total sample.
In the second m ethod, sedim entation
(Figure 10.7c), a weighed sample is placed in a
beaker o f water, thoroughly shaken and then
allowed to settle. According to Stoke's Law, 'th
settling rate of a partide is proporţional to the
diam eter o f that partide'. Consequently, the larr-:
coarser, sand grains settle quickly at the bottorr.
clay loam the beaker and the finer, clay particles settle las:
closer to the surface (compare Figure 3.22). The S:
Survey and Land Research Centre tends to use :
m ethods because sieving is less accurate in m e i
uring the finer material and sedim entation is lei:
accurate w ith coarser particles.
T h e results o f sieving and sed im entation
usually p lotted eith er as a pie ch art (Figure I *>
or as a triangu lar graph (Figure 1 0 .9 ). As the
p rop ortions o f sand, silt and clay vary com ic^
silt sand clay
ably, it is trad itio n al to have 12 textu re catee -
(Figure 10 .9 ).

264 Soils
 co n ta in lim ited am o u n ts o f org anic m atter. They
100A0
analysis also need consid erable am o u n ts o f fertiliser
:=nes may vary 7 because n u trien ts and organic m atter are o ften
oaks) / leached ou t and n o t replaced.
Silty soils also tend to lack m ineral and
(read in this % silt organ ic n u trien ts. T he sm aller pore size m eans
direction)
oam (read in this th a t m ore m oistu re is retained th a n in sands bu t
%clay direction) heavy rain tend s to 'seal' or ce m e n t th e surface,
increasing th e risk o f sheetw ash and erosion.
Clay soils tend to co n ta in h ig h levels of
n u trien t and organic m atter bu t th ey are difficult
to plough and, after heavy rain and due to their
small p artid e size (Figure 8.2b ) w h ich helps to
retain water (page 2 6 7 ), are prone to w aterlogging
and m ay becom e gleyed (pages 2 7 2 and 275).
Plant roots find difficulty in penetration. Clays
expand w hen wet, shrink w hen dry and take the
longest tim e to warm up.
T he ideal soil for agriculture is a lo a m
100
90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 (Figures 10.8 and 10.9). This has sufficient clay
% sand (read in this direction) (20 per cent) to hold m oisture and retain nu tri­
% clay % s ilt % sand ents; sufficient sand (40 per cent) to prevent water­
a 65 18 17 logging, to be well aerated and to be light enough
b 35 59 6 to work; and sufficient silt (40 per cen t) to act as
c 27 17 56 an adhesive, hold ing the sand and clay together. A
loam is likely to be least susceptible to erosion.
r 10.9 The im p o rta n c e o f te x tu r e
3 S oil s tru c tu re
-•'ure analysis: As textu re Controls th e size and spacing o f soil
ofa pores, it d irectly affects th e soil w ater c o n ten t, It is th e aggregation o f individual particles that
_,ar graph gives the soil its structure. In undisturbed soils,
water flow and e x te n t o f aeration . C lay soils tend
to hold m ore w ater and are less well drained and these aggregates form different shapes know n as
aerated th a n sandy soils (page 2 6 7 ). peds. It is th e shape and alignm ent of th e peds
Texture also Controls th e availability and w hich, com bin ed w ith partid e size/texture,
re te n tio n o f n u trien ts w ith in th e soil. N utrients determ ine th e size and num ber o f th e pore spaces
stick to - i.e. are adsorbed o n to - clay particles through w h ich water, air, roots and soil organism s
and are less easily leached by in filtra tio n or can pass. The size, shape, location and suggested
th rou g h flo w th a n in sandy soils (page 2 6 8 ). agricultural value o f each of th e six ped types are
P lant roots can p en etrate coarser soils m ore given in Figure 10.10. It should be noted, however,
easily th a n fin er soils, and 'lig h ter' sandy soils th a t som e soils m ay be structureless (e.g. sands),
are easier to plou gh for arable farm in g th a n som e m ay have m ore th an one ped structure
'h eavier' clays. (Figure 10.11), and m ost are likely to have a dis­
Texture greatly in flu en ces soil structure. tinctive ped in each horizon. It is accepted that
soils w ith a good crum b structure give th e highest
H o w does te x tu re a ffe c t fa rm in g ? agricultural yield, are m ore resistant to erosion
T h e follow in g co m m en ts are generalised as it and develop best under grasses - w h ich is why
m ust be rem em bered th a t soils vary enorm ously. fallow should be included in a farm ing crop rota-
Sandy soils, b ein g well drained and aerated, tion. Sandy soils have the weakest structures as
are easy to cu ltivate and perm it crop roots (e.g. they lack th e clays, organic co n ten t and secretions
carrots) to p en etrate. However, th e y are vulner- o f organisms needed to cause the individual par­
able to drought, m ain ly because, due to th eir rel­ ticles to aggregate. A crum b structure is ideal as it
atively large p a rtid e size (Figure 8 .2 a ), th e y lack provides the optim um balance betw een air, water
th e m icrop ores th a t would retain m oisture and nutrients.
(page 2 6 7 ) and partly becau se th e y usually

Soils 265
Type of Size of
structure structure Location (horizon: texture)
(ped) (mm) Descriptionofpeds Shape of peds and formation Agricultural value
crumb 1-5 A horizon: loam soil; formed by action of soil the most productive; well
breadcrumbs; porous fauna (e.g. earthworms, mites and termites), aeratedanddrained-good
high content offibrous roots (grasses) and for roots
excretion of micro-organisms

granular 1-5 small individual particles; usually A horizon: clay soil; formation as for crumb fairly productive; problems
non-porous structure with drainage and aeration

platy 1-10 vertical axis much shorterthan 8 horizon: silts and clays; formed by contraction the least productive; hinde^:
horizontal, like overlapping plates; by tree roots, especially when trees (e.g. Scots water and air movement;
restrictflow of water pine) sway in wind. Also due to ice lens, and restricts roots
compaction due to farm machinery

blocky 10-75 irregular shape with horizontal and B horizon: clay-loam soils; formation productive: usually well
vertical axes about equal; may be associated with wetting-drying drainedandaerated
rounded or angular but dosely and freeze-thaw processes
fitting

prismatic 20-100 vertical axis much larger than fi and C horizons: often limestones usually quite productive:
horizontal; angular caps and sides or clays; formation associated with wetting- formed by wetting and dryir
to columns drying and freeze-thaw processes adequate water movemen'
androotdevelopment

columnar 20-100 vertical axis much larger than B and C horizons; alkaline soils; quite productive (if water
horizontal; rounded caps and sides formation associated with available)
to columns accumulationofsodium

rigure 10.10 4 O rg a n ic m a tte r 1 L or le a f litte r layer: p lan t rem ains are still
Different soil visible.
O rganic m atter, w hich includes hum us, is derived
structures 2 F or fe rm e n ta tio n (d e co m p o sitio n ) layer:
m ain ly from decaying plants and anim als, or from
decay, w h ich b io ch em ica lly involves yeast
th e secretions o f living organism s. Fallen leaves
m o st rapid, alth ou g h som e p lan t rem ains a:-,
and decaying grasses and roots are the m ain
still visible.
source o f organic m atter. Soil organism s, such as
3 H or h um us layer: prim arily organic in natu:-
bacteria and fungi, break dow n th e organic m atter
where, follow ing d ecom position, all recog-
and, depending on th e nature o f the soil-form ing
Figure 10.! I nisable plant and anim al rem ains have been
processes (Figure 10.17), help develop up to three
broken dow n in to a black, slimy, am orphou
Differences in peds distinct organic layers at th e surface o f th e soil
(dfterCourtney organic material.
profile (Figure 10.5):
andTrudgill) W herever soil biolog ical activity is low (due to
one or a c o m b in a tio n o f acidity, low tem p era­
p o ro u s n o n - p o ro u s tures, w etness or th e d ifficu lty in d eco m p o sin ;
crumb to p so il g ra n u la r to p so il organic m atter), soil organism activity is great'
reduced or absent. As th e litter layer ca n n o t be
m ixed in to th e soil, th e n organ ic horizons b u ;.:
b lo c k y
up to give th e d istin ct L, F and H layers o f a m
W here soil organism s are active, th e y will
platy
readily m ix th e litter in to th e soil, dispersing -
30 cm 30 cm th ro u g h o u t th e A h orizo n w here it decom posr
columnar
in to an A h orizo n rich in hu m us - th e m u ll 1î ;. t
W h ere organic m aterial and m ineral m atter d.:
p ris m a tic m ix, m ain ly due to earthw orm activity, th e re' ■
is th e cla y -h u m u s c o m p le x (page 2 6 8 ). The
cla y -h u m u s com p lex is essential for a fertile sc
as it provides it w ith a h ig h w ater- and n u trien :
h old in g cap acity and, b y b in d in g particles
together, helps reduce th e risk o f erosion.

266 Soils
 Humus gives th e soil a black or dark-brown
colour. The highest am ounts are found in the
ch ern ozem s, or black earths (page 327), of the
N orth Am erican Prairies, Russian Steppes and
A rgentinean Pampas. In tropical rainforests, heavy
rainfall and high biological activity cause the rapid
decom position o f organic m atter w hich releases
nutrients ready for their uptake and storage by
plants (Figures 10.6 and 11.29c) or, if the forest is
cleared, for leaching out o f the system. In drier cli­
mates there m ay be insufficient vegetation to give
an adequate supply.
5 Soil m o is tu re
Soil moisture is im portant because it affects the
upward and downward m ovem ent of water and
nutrients. It helps in the developm ent of horizons;
it supplies water for living plants and organisms; it
provides a solvent for plant nutrients; it influences
soil temperature; and it determines the incidence
o f erosion. The am ount of water in a soil at a given
tim e can be expressed as:
W °c R - (E + T + D)
(input) - (outputs)
where: W = water in the soil
oc = proporţional to
R = rainfall/precipitation
T = transpiration
E = evaporation
D = drainage.
Drainage depends on the balance betw een the
w ater reten tio n cap acity (water storage in a soil)
and the infiltration rate. This is controlled by
porosity and perm eability w hich in turn is co n ­
trolled by the soil's texture and structure. It has
already been shown how texture and structure
affect the size and distribution of pore spaces. Clays
have num erous small pores (m icropores) w hich
;.12
can retain water for long periods, giving it a high
sD ility of soil
water retention capacity, but w hich also restrict
'ore for plant use
infiltration rates (page 59). Sands have fewer but
m uch larger m acrop ores w hich perm it water to
pass through m ore quickly (a rapid infiltration
rate), but have a low water retention capacity. A
loam provides a m ore balanced supply of water, in
the micropores, and air, in the macropores.
The presence of moisture in the soil does not
necessarily m ean th at it is available for plant use.
Plants growing in clays m ay still suffer from water
stress even though clay has a high water-holding
capacity. Soil water can be classified according to
the tension at w hich it is held. Following a heavy
storm or a lengthy episode o f rain or snowmelt,
all the pore spaces m ay be filled, w ith the result
that the soil becom es saturated. W h en infiltration
ceases, water w ith a low surface tension drains away
rapidly under gravity. This is called g ravitaţion al
or free water w hich is available to plants w hen the
soil is wet, but unavailable w hen water has drained
away. Once this excess water has drained away, the
rem aining m oisture that the soil can hold is said to
be its field ca p a city (Figures 3.3 and 10.12).
Moisture at field capacity is held either
as hygroscop ic w ater or as cap illary water.
Hygroscopic water is always present, unless the
soil becom es com pletely dry, but is unavailable for
plant use. It is found as a th in film around the soil
particles to w hich it sticks due to th e strength o f its
surface tension. Capillary water is attracted to, and
forms a film around, the hygroscopic water, but
has a lower cohesive strength. It is capillary water
that is freely available to plant roots. However, this
water can be lost to the soil by evapotranspiration.
W hen a plant loses m ore water through transpira­
tion than it can take up through its roots it is said to
suffer w ater stress and it begins to wilt. At w ilting
point, photosynthesis (page 295) is reduced but,
provided water can be obtained relatively soon or
if the plant is adapted to drought conditions, this
need not be fatal. Figure 10.12 shows the different
water-holding characteristics of soil.

:-ily magnified) wilting field capacity

’ point ■

film of ^ soil pore spaces\

- hygroscopic / ) particles filled by air "
• water

w e spaces U /rv
~

/ capillary ( :
^
all pore s p a c e s ---- -x
/ | soli particles with filled with —
Q>
so'l particles
ed with air __ >
—' water hygroscopic water water ---- —^

hygroscopic water capillary water gravitaţional water

drought soil saturated
increasingly dry increasingly w et

--- .. _ — i
decreases

hygroscopic w ater capillary w a ter available for plant g ravitaţional w a ter unavailable for
unavailable for plant roots; lost by evapotranspiration plant roots; lost by gravity
partide roots; alw ays present
 6 A ir O rganism s are responsible for three importai
soil processes:
Air fills the pore spaces left unoccupied by soil
D e co m p o sitio n : detritivores, such as eartr -
m oisture. It is oxygen in the air th a t is essential
worm s, ants, term ites, m ites, w oodlice ane
for plant growth and living organism s. Com pared
slugs, begin th is process by burying leaf
w ith atm ospheric air, air in the soil contains m ore
litter (detritus), w h ich h astens its decay, a n a
carbon dioxide, released by plants and soil biota,
eatin g som e o f it. T heir faeces (w orm easts
and m ore water vapour; bu t less oxygen, as this
etc.) increase th e surface area o f detritus up> a
is consum ed by bacteria. Biota need oxygen and
w h ich fungi and b acteria can act. Fungi aiM
give off carbon dioxide by respiration and through
b acteria secrete enzym es w h ich break down
th e oxid ation o f organic m atter. These gases are
th e organic com p ou nd s in th e detritus. Th
exchanged through the process o f diffusion.
releases n u trien t ion s essential for plant
grow th (soil n u trien ts, Figure 10.13), in to : -
7 Soil organisms (biota)
soil w hile som e organic com p ou nd s remair.
Soil organism s inclu de bacteria, fungi and earth- as hum us.
w orm s. T h ey are m ore active and p len tifu l in ■ F ix a tio n : by this process, b acteria can trans­
warmer, w ell-drained and aerated soils th a n th ey form n itro g en in th e air in to nitrate, which a
Nutrients needed are in c °lder, m ore acidic and less w ell-drained an essential n u trien t for p la n t grow th.
by plants and aerated soils. ■ D ev elo p m en t of stru ctu re: fungi help to
b in d individual soil particles together to givt
Carbon C
s
a crum b structure, w hile burrow ing anim als
’O create passageways th a t help th e circulation
S Hydrogen H Needed for basic cell construction. Obtained from air
e
■ air and water and facilitate root penetration.
3 and water.
O*
tu
e* Oxygen 0
8 Soil nutrients
.s
| Nitrogen N Basis of plant proteins. Promotes rapid growth. Improves N u trie n t is th e term given to ch em ical elem en:
& quality and quantity of leaf growth.
etu I found in th e soil w h ich are essential for plant
3E
•E grow th and th e m a in te n a n ce o f th e fertility c f
s Phosphorus P Encourages rapid seedling growth and early root formation.
c
Helps in flowering and with seed formation. a soil (Figure 1 0 .1 3 ). T he tw o m ain sources of
2
*v Sulphur S Especially important for root crops. n u trien ts are:
1
1 th e w eathering o f m inerals in th e soil, and
I
& Potassium K Helps with production of proteins and in overcoming disease. 2 th e release o f nutrients on th e decom position
I Strengthens stems and stalks. of organic m atter and hum us by soil organisrr. ■
S Calcium Ca Reduces acidity. Helps with growth of roots and new shoots. N utrients can also be o b tain ed throu gh:
s. 3 rainw ater, and
1
4 th e artificial ap p licatio n o f fertiliser.
I Magnesium Mg Used in photosynthesis, being a basic constituent of chloro-
phyll. important for arable crops. N utrients occur in the soil solu tion as positivelv
------------
Helps to increase yields.
charged (+) ions called ca tio n s and negatively
Sodium Na
charged (-) ions know n as an io n s. It is largely in
th e io n ic form th a t plants can utilise nutrients
Manganese Mn Used in respiration, protein synthesis and enzyme
reactions. in th e soil. B oth clay and hum us, w h ich have
negative charges, attract th e positively charged
3 Copper Cu Reduces toxicity of other elements in soil. Helps
c m inerals in th e soil solution, n otab ly Ca2+, M g--
Of
cc | enzyme reactions.
K+ and Na+. This results in th e cations being
—
<v Zinc Zn Helps in fruit production.
Ol adsorbed (i.e. th ey b eco m e attached ) to the
1
2
I Molybdenum Mo Needed in nitrogen fixation by activating enzymes. clay and hum us particles. T he process o f ca tio n
vi
*—
c
0i
e> e x c h a n g e allows cations to be m oved betw een:
5 Silicon Si Important constituent of grasses. ■ soil particles of clay and/or hum us and the
s
soil solu tion

1
Boron B Helps growth. ■ p la n t roots and eith er th e surface o f the
soil particles or from th e soil solu tion
Chlorine CI Can increase yields of some crops. (Figure 1 0 .1 4 ).

Cobalt Co Helps fruit trees and bushes.

268 Soils
 C a 1*

:ations adsorbed on clay-humus

: article from weathering of parent
’ock and decay of organic matter

10.i4 As well as providing nutrients for p lant roots, the althou gh in upland Britain acidity increases as
'.cessof cation exchan ge releases hydrogen w h ich in turn th e heavier rainfall leaches out elem ents such
■exchange increases acidity in th e soil (see below ). Acidity as calcium faster th an they can be replaced by
Ijurtney and accelerates w eathering o f parent rock, releasing w eathering. Acid soils therefore tend to need co n ­
m ore m inerals to replace those used by plants stant lim ing if th ey are to be farm ed successfully.
or lost th rough leaching. T he c a tio n e x ch a n g e A slightly acid soil is the op tim um for farm ing
c a p a c ity (CEC) is a m easure o f th e ability o f a soil in Britain as this helps to release secondary m in ­
to retain cations for plant use. Soils w ith a low erals. However, if a soil becom es to o acidic it
CEC, such as sands, are less able to keep essen­ releases iron and alum inium w h ich, in excess,
tial plant nutrients th a n th ose w ith a h ig h CEC, m ay becom e to xic and poisonous to plants and
like clays and hum us; conseq u ently th ey are less organism s. Increased acidity m akes organic
fertile. m atter m ore soluble and therefore vulnerable to
leaching; and it discourages living organism s,
9 A c id ity (p H ) thus reducing th e rate o f breakdow n o f plant litter
As m en tion ed in th e previous section, soil and so is a factor in th e form ation o f peat.
con tain s positively charged hydrogen cations. In areas where there is a balance betw een pre­
A cidity or alk a lin ity is a m easure o f th e degree cipitation and evapotranspiration, soils are often
of co n c en tra tio n o f these cation s. It is measured neutral, as in th e Am erican Prairies (page 327);
o n th e pH scale (Figure 10.15), w h ich is loga- w hile in areas w ith a water deficiency, as in deserts
rith m ic (com pare the Richter scale, Figure 1.3). (page 323), soils are m ore alkaline.
10.15 This m eans th a t a reading o f 6 is 10 tim es m ore
acidic th an a reading of 7 (w hich is neutral), and 1 0 Soil te m p e r a tu r e
■H scale showing
Jityand 100 tim es m ore acidic th an on e o f 8 (w hich is In com in g radiation can be absorbed, reflected
-,ity alkaline). M ost British soils are slightly acidic, or scattered by the Earth's surface (Figure 9.4).
The topsoil, especially if vegeta­
increasingly acid neutral increasingly alkaline
tion cover is lim ited, heats up m ore
;H rapidly th an th e subsoil during
garithmic)
th e daytim e and loses heat m ore
1 2 3 10 11 12 13 14
rapidly at n ight. A 'w arm ', m oist
battery lem on vineg ar distilled am m onia caustic soil will have greater b iota activity,
acid juice w ater i soda
giving a m ore rapid breakdow n of
i 2.2 low est clean rain organic m atter; it will be m ore likely
i recorded acid rain (in equilibrium w ith atmosphericCO-,) to co n ta in nutrients because the
chem ical w eathering o f th e parent
soils acidic J slightly acidic alkaline m aterial will be faster; and seeds will
germ inate m ore readily in it th a n in
a 'cold ', dry soil.
dominant
:ation H+ Ca2+ NaT
clement

Fe a n d Al re le a se d Soils 269
 T h e soil pit: soil study in the field
Begin by reading a bookthat describes in detail
how to dig a soil pit and how to describe and
explain the resultant profile (e.g. Courtney and
Trudgill, 1984, or O'Hare, 1988; see References at
end of chapter).
First, make sure you obtain permission to dig a pit.
The site must be carefully chosen. You will need
to find an undisturbed soil - so avoid digging
nearto hedges, trees, footpaths oron recently
ploughed land. Ideally, make the surface ofthe pit
approximately 0.7 m2, and the depth 1 m (unless
you hit bedrockfirst). Carefully lay the turf and
soil on plastic sheets. Clear one face ofthe pit,
preferably one facing south as this will get the
maximum light, to get a 'clean' profile so that you
can complete your recording sheet. (The one in
Figure 10.16 is a very detailed example.) Sometimes
you will not be able to take all the readings due
to problems such as lack of clarity between
boundaries, time and equipment; sometimes some
details will not be relevant to a particular enquiry.
Make a detailed fieldsketch before replacing the
soil and turf. You may have to complete several
tasks in the laboratory before writing up your
description. You can gather information from a soil
without needing to know how it formed or what
type it is. Remember, it is unlikely that your answer
will exactly fit a model profile. It may show the
characteristics of a podsol (Figure 12.40) ifyou live
in a cooler, wetter and/or higher part of Britain; or of
a brown earth (Figure 12.34) ifyou live in a warmer,
drier and/or lower part ofthe country - but you
must not force your profile to fit a model.

a soil site

Figure 10.16
Recorded by iate 1Locality 1Six-figure grid reference
Soil recording sheets
Parent rock Altitude Angle of slope Aspect Relief
(geological map) (estimated from (Abney level) (bearingor (uniform, concave or
Ordnance Survey map) compass point) convex slope, terrace
Exposure Drainage Natural vegetation Previousfew days' Other local details
(exposed, (shedding or receiving site, or type of farming weather (remember your
sheltered) floodplain, terrace, boggy) (tree species, ground (warm, cold, wet, dry) labelled fieldsketch;
vegetation, crops,
b soil profile animals)

Depth of
horizon Structure Consist- Moisture Cart
Harizon (cm) (peds) ency PH content Porosity Roots ates
Howto measure sharp, use percent­ size of structure- loose, pH weigh time type, weigh, adddilute number
read, fromtop abrupt, Munsell age clay, stones, less friable, paperor sample, taken estimate burn (10%) types
estimate ofsoil clear, colour silt or number crumb, firm, soil- evaporate fora percent­ sample hydro-
and surface indis- chart sand; of stones, etc. hard, testing water, beakerful age, (and chloric
measure tinct, 'feel'; shapeof plastic, kit ' reweigh of water measure roots), acid; if it
gradual, sieves; stones sticky, sample,or to depth reweigh effer-
irregular, sedimen­ soft use a infiltrate sample, vesces,
smooth, tation moisture calculate sample is
broken meter percent­ over 1%
age carbonate

270 Soils
 4 (i) Humification and
(ii) cheluviation
3 Organic sorting/reorganisation processes
2] Translocation d u e to m oisture
(i) Eluviation and (ii) Leaching
illuviation (page 262)
(iv) G leying (v) Calcification
[ l ] 1 W eatherin g: p a re n t rock (i), hydroylis
(pages 42-43) (jv ) reduction
Processes of soil formation
N um erous processes are involved in th e form ation
o f soil and the creation of the profiles, structures
and other features described above. Soil-form ing
processes depend on all the five factors described
on pages 2 6 0 -2 6 2 . Som e of th e m ore im portant
processes are show n in Figure 10.17.
7 W e a th e rin g
As described on page 2 6 3 and in Figure 10.2,
w eathering leaves prim ary m inerals as residues
and produces secondary m inerals as well as deter-
m in in g th e rates o f release o f nutrients and th e
soil depth, texture and drainage. In systems term s,
this m eans th a t m inerals are released as inputs
in to the soil system from th e bedrock store and
transferred in to the soil store (Figure 10.6).
2 H u m ific a tio n a n d c h e lu v ia tio n
H u m ificatio n is the process by w hich organic
m atter is decom posed to form hum us (page 2 6 6 ) -
a task perform ed by soil organism s. H um ification
is m ost active either in the H horizon o f the soil
profile (Figure 10.5) where it can result in m ull (pH
5 .5 to 6.5), or in th e upper A horizon where it can
produce m or (pH 3.5 to 4.5) (page 26 6 ). M oder
(pH 4.5 to 5.5) is transitional betw een the m or and
m ull (page 26 2 ).
As organ ic m atter decom poses, it releases
n u trien ts and org an ic acids. These acids, know n
as c h e la tin g ag en ts, attack clays and oth er m in ­
erals, m ain ly in th e A horizon, releasing iron and
aiu m iniu m . T h e ch ela tin g agents th e n com bin e
(iii) Podsolisation
(vi) Salinisation
(ii) hydration (iii) oxidation
(v) solution
w ith th e cation s o f th e iron and aiu m iniu m
to form org an ic-m etal com p ou nd s know n as
ch e la te s. C h elates are soluble and are readily
transp orted dow nwards th rou g h th e soil profile
- th e process o f ch e lu v ia tio n . T h e iro n and aiu­
m in iu m m ay be deposited in th e low er profile as
th ey b eco m e less soluble in th e slig htly higher
pH levels found th ere (Figure 10.5).
3 O rg a n ic s o rtin g
Several processes operate w ith in th e soil to re-
organise m ineral and organic m atter in to horizons,
and to co n trib u te to th e aggregation o f particles
and the fo rm atio n o f peds.
4 T ra n s lo c a tio n o f s o il m a te ria ls
T ra n slo ca tio n is th e m o v em en t o f soil co m p o ­
n en ts in any form (solu tion , suspension, or by
anim als) or d irection (dow nward, upward).
It usually takes place in associatio n w ith
soil m oisture.
In B ritain, th ere is:
■ usually a soil m o istu re bud get surplus due to
an a n n u a l excess o f p re cip ita tio n over
evapotranspiration (water b alance - Figure 3.3)
■ locally, an increase in soil m oistu re due to
p oor drainage.
T h e increase in soil m oisture, resulting from
these tw o factors, can lead to:
eith er th e tra n slo ca tio n processes o f leach in g
and p o d solisation , or
gleying associated w ith areas o f poor drainage.
Soils 271
(i) E lu v ia tio n a n d illu v ia tio n
See page 2 6 2 . p recipitation exceeds evapotranspiration

(ii) L e a c h in g
L eaching is th e rem oval o f soluble m aterial in
— L'
f
solution. W here p recip itatio n exceeds evap otran ­
spiration and soil drainage is good, rainw ater I I I I
organic acids, H+
- co n ta in in g oxygen, carb o n ic acid and organic
acids, collected as it passes th rou g h the surface I I i 1
v eg etation - causes ch em ical w eathering, the slow b reakdow n o f clays A ho
breakdow n of clays and th e dissolving o f soluble rem oval o f Ca, Mg, Na and K (elu\
salts (bases). Ca and M g are eluviated from th e A acidic
horizon, m aking it increasin gly acid as th e y are
replaced by hydrogen ions, and are subsequently
i 1 1
soluble mineral salts (bases) nutrients
J
illuviated to th e underlying B horizon, or are
leached out o f th e system (Figure 10 .1 8 ).
I I I 1
redeposition o f clay (and 6 ho
perhaps a little iron) (illu.
(iii) P o d s o lis a tio n
P od solisation is m ore co m m o n in coo l cli- some loss of nutrients to the soil ^ q-
.
m ates w here p recip itatio n is greatly in excess system by thro u gh flow

of evapotranspiration and w here soils are well parent m aterial

drained or sandy. P od solisation is also defined
as th e rem oval o f iron and alu m in iu m oxides,
to g eth er w ith hum us. As th e surface v eg etation Figure 10.18

is o ften conifero u s forest, h e a th la n d or m oors, The processes of leaching

rain p ercolatin g th rou g h it b eco m es progres-
sively m ore acid ic and m ay reach a pH o f 5 .0
or less (Figure 1 0 .1 5 ). This in tu rn dissolves an p recipitation g reatly exceeds evapotranspiration
in creasin g a m o u n t and n u m ber o f bases (Ca, Mg,
Na and K), silica and, ultim ately, th e sesquiox-
m or hum us 11
ides o f iro n and alu m iniu m (Figure 1 0 .1 9 ). The
1
resultant p o d so l so il (Figure 1 2 .4 0 ) therefore has J L _ i 1 1

tw o d istin ct horizons: th e b leach ed A horizon, 1 m any o rganic acids, H+ and ch elating agents

drained o f coloured m inerals by leach in g ; and rapid breakdow n o f clays

the reddish-brow n B h o riz o n w here th e ses- leaching o f bases: Ca, Mg, Na and K
pH under 5.0 releases Fe and Al
quioxid es have b een illuviated. O ften th e iron
deposits form an iro n p a n w h ich is a character-
w h ite/g rey acidic horizon
istic o f a podsol.
♦ i i i
(iv ) G le y in g Ca Mg Na K Fe Al Si N
some deposition of organic material
This occurs w hen th e ou tp u t o f w ater from
’ * iron pan ^*
th e soil system is restricted, giving a n a e ro b ic
or w a te rlo g g e d co n d itio n s (page 2 7 5 ). This is redeposition in sequence of
Fe, Al, and clay n
m ost likely to occu r on gen tle slopes, in depres­ V,
sions w here th e underlying rock is im perm eable, serious loss of bases to the C sJ
soil system by throughflow
w here th e w ater table is h ig h en ou g h to en ter
parent material (lc>"
th e soil profile (e.g. along river floodplains) or in
the
areas w ith very heavy rain fall and poor drainage.
U nder such co n d itio n s th e pore spaces fiii w ith Figure 10.19
stag n an t water w h ich b eco m es d e-oxygenised.
The process of podsolisation
The reddish-coloured oxidised iron, iron III (Fe3+
or ferric iron ), is ch em ica lly reduced to form
iron II (Fe2+ or ferrous iron) w h ich is grey-blue in
colour. O ccasionallv, pockets o f air re-oxygenise
th e iron II to give scatterings o f red m ottles C o u rtn ey and Trudgill (Figure 1 0 .2 0 ) have
(Figure 1 0 .2 6 ). A lthough m an y B ritish soils sum m arised th e relatio n sh ip b etw een leachir.^
show som e evidence o f gleying, th e co n d itio n s p o d solisation and gleying, and p recip itatio n
develop m ost exten sively on m o orlan d plateaus. and drainage.
 good gooc
-” [19 processes
.vater balance
3.3) (after low input high input
, andTrudgill) leaching podsolisation
good d rainage good drainage

v
Ol
IU
c
E
■o

low input high input

gleying peat grow th
poor drainage poor drainage

poor poor
low- ■high low - ►high
precipitation (w ater input) precipitation (w ater input)

(v ) C a lc ific a tio n Zonal, azonal and intrazonal soils

C alcifica tio n is a process typical o f low -rain fall
areas w here p recip itatio n is eith er equal to,
Z o n a l soils
or slightly h ig her th a n , evap otran sp iration. Zonal soils are m ature soils. They result from the
A lthough there m ay be som e leach in g , it is in su f­ m axim um effects o f clim ate and living m atter
ficie n t to rem ove all th e calciu m w h ich th e n (vegetation) upon parent rock in areas where there
accu m ulates, in relatively sm all am ou nts, in are no extrem es o f weathering, relief or drainage
th e B h orizon (Figure 1 0 .2 1 ; and chernozem s, and where the landscape and clim ate have been
page 3 2 7 ). stable for a long tim e. Consequently, zonal soils
have had tim e to develop distinctive profiles and,
(v i) S a lin is a tio n usually, clear horizons. However, it is m isleading
This occurs w h en p o ten tia l evapotranspiration
to im ply th a t all zonal soils have d istinct horizons;
is greater th a n p recip ita tio n in places w here the
brow n earths (page 329), chernozem s (page 327)
w ater table is near to th e surface. It is therefore
and prairie soils (page 328) have ind istinct hori­
foun d locally in dry clim ates and is n o t a ch a ra c­
zons w h ich merge in to each other. A description
teristic o f desert soils. As m oistu re is evaporated
of th e m ajor zonal soils, and how their form a­
from th e surface, salts are drawn upwards in
tion can be linked to clim ate and vegetation, is
so lu tio n by capillary actio n . Further evapora­
given in Chapter 12 and Figure 12.2. It should be
tio n results in th e d ep osition o f salt as a hard
stressed th a t this linkage is regarded by soil scien­
crust (Figure 1 0 .2 2 ). Salin isatio n has b eco m e a
tists as greatly outdated and a grossly sim plified
criticai problem in m an y irrigated areas, such as
m odel - but it is still the one used in all th e latest
C aliforn ia (Figure 1 6 .5 3 ).
AS, A-level and Scottish Higher syllabuses that
Figure 10.22 exam ine soils!
: fication The process of salinisation
precipitation m uch less than A z o n a l soils
precipitation equal to or slightly potential evapotranspiration Azonal soils, in co n tra st to zonal soils, have a
greater than evapotranspiration rapid evaporation
m ore recen t origin and occu r w here soil-form ing
processes have had in su fficien t tim e to operate
salt crust
fully. As a co n seq u en ce, these soils usually show
1 i t th e ch aracteristics o f th eir origin (i.e. parent
J I 1
som e gains o f bases
m aterial, w h ich m ay have resulted from in situ
organic acids,H+
I I
capillary m o vem ent
1 w eath ering o f p aren t rock or have b ee n tran s­
I 1 I ported from elsew here and deposited), do n o t
very slight leaching i i
high w a ter table
1 have well defined horizons, and are n o t associ-
ated w ith specific c lim a tic-v eg e ta tio n a l zones.
1 1 i Azonal soils, in Britain, inclu d e scree (w eath ­
slight accum ulation
o f Ca, Mg, Na, K
saturated soil ering), allu v iu m (fluvial), till (glacial), sands
and gravels (glacifluvial), san d d unes (aeolian
and m arine), s a ltm a rsh (m arine), and v o lc a n ic
(tecto n ic) soils.
ve ry slight loss of bases

Soils 273
parent material parent material
 rendzina
rendzina with a thin C a lc im o rp h ic
vegetation cover
1 R en d zin a T h e rendzina (Figure 1 0 .2 4 )
bare limestone
valley sides develops w here softer lim eston es or chalk
are th e p arent m aterial and w here grasses
(th e English Dow ns) and b eech w oodland
(th e C h ilterns) form th e surface vegetation.
T h e grasses produce a leaf litter th a t is rich in
limestone parent rock bases. This encourages consid erable a ctiv in
by organism s w h ich help w ith th e rapid recy-
rendzina
clin g o f nu trien ts. T he A h o rizo n therefore
rich in Ca,
consists o f a black/dark-brow n m u ll hum us.
thin humus layer thin, dark,
high pH brown/black Due to th e co n tin u a l release o f calcium
enriched mull humus
from th e p aren t rock and a lack o f hydrogen
clays with
iron oxide cation s, th e soil is alkaline w ith a pH of
grey/yellow
(illuviated) b etw een 7 .0 and 8 .0 . T h e calcium -saturated
lower horizon,
blocks of clays, w ith a crum b or b lo ck y structure, tend
CaC03
grey/yellow to lim it th e m o v em en t o f w ater and so there
CaCO^ higher is relatively little leach in g . C o n seq u en tly
CdC03 c
fragments in drier areas
there is n o B h orizo n . T h e un d erlying lim e­
limestone limestone stones, affected by ch e m ica l w eathering,
parent rock parent rock leave very little in solu ble residue and this,
to g eth er w ith th e perm eable natu re o f the
bed rock, results in a th in soil w ith lim ited
m oistu re reserves.
Figure 10.23 In tra z o n a l soils 2 T erra rossa As its n am e suggests, terra rossa
Calcimorphic soils: terra (Figure 1 0 .2 5 ) is a red-coloured soil (it has
Intrazo nal soils reflect th e d o m in a n ce o f a single
rossa and rendzina
local factor, such as p aren t rock or extrem es been called a 'red ren d zin a'). It is found in
areas o f heavy, even if seasonal, rainfall where
of drainage. As th e y are n o t related to general
th e calciu m carb on ate p aren t rock is ch e m i­
clim a tic Controls, th e y are n o t found in zones.
cally w eathered (carb on atio n ) and silicates
They can be divided in to th ree types:
are leach ed ou t o f th e soil to leave a residua.
■ C a lc im o rp h ic or ca lc a re o u s soils develop
deposit rich in iro n hydroxides. It usually
on a lim esto n e p aren t rock (rendzina
occurs in depressions w ith in th e lim eston e
and terra rossa, Figure 1 0 .2 3 ).
and in M ed iterranean areas w here th e vegeti-
mH y d ro m o rp h ic soils are th o se hav in g a
tio n is garrigue (Figure 1 2 .2 4 ).
co n sta n tly higb w ater c o n te n t (gleyed
soils and p e a t-F ig u re s 1 0 .2 6 and 10.27).
figure 10. ■ H a lo m o rp h ic soils have h ig h levels of

A rendzina, Kent
soluble salts w h ich render th e m saline.

Terra rossa, Cut:

274 Soils
Hydromorphic page 188) in w h ich only salt-resistant plants
1 Gley soils G leying occurs in saturated soils (haloph vtes, page 2 9 1 ) can grow.
w hen th e pore spaces becom e filled w ith water
to the exclusion o f air. The lack o f oxygen leads
to anaerobic cond itions (page 272) and the
reduction (chem ical w eathering) o f iron com -
pounds from a ferric (Fe3+) to a ferrous (Fe2+)
form . The resultant soil has a grey-blue colour
with scatterings o f red m ottles (Figure 10.26).
Because gleying is a result of poor drainage and
is alm ost independent o f clim ate, it can occur
in any of th e zonal soils. Pedologists often dif-
ferentiate betw een surface gleys, caused by
slow infiltration rates through the topsoil, and
g ro u n d w ater gleys, resulting from a seasonal
rise in the water table or the presence of an
im perm eable parent rock.
2 P eat W here a soil is waterlogged and the
clim ate is too cold and/or wet for organism s to
break down vegetation com pletely, layers of
peat accum ulate (Figure 10.27). These cond i­
tions m ean th a t litter input (supply) is greater
th an th e rate of d ecom position by organism s
w hose activity rates are slowed dow n by the
low tem peratures and th e anaerobic cond i­
tions. Peat is regarded as a soil in its ow n right
w hen th e layer of poorly decom posed m aterial
exceeds 4 0 cm in depth. Peat can be divided
according to its location and acidity. B lan ket
p eat is very acidic; it covers large areas of wet
upland plateaus in Britain (Kinder Scout in the
Peak District); and it is believed to have form ed
5 0 0 0 to 8 0 0 0 years ago during the A tlantic
clim atic phase (Figure 11.18). Raised bogs, also
com posed of acidic peat, occur in lowlands
w ith a heavy rainfall. Here th e peat accum u-
lates until it builds up above the surrounding
countryside. Valley, or basin, p e a t m ay be
alm ost neutral or only slightly acidic if water
has drained o ff surrounding calcareous uplands
(the Som erset Levels and th e Fens); otherwise,
it too will be acid (R annoch M oor in Scotland).
Fen peat is a high-quality agricultural soil.

Halomorphic
H alom orphic soils co n tain h ig h levels o f soluble
salts and have developed th rou g h th e process of
salinisation (page 2 7 3 and Figure 1 6 .5 3 ). T hey are
m ost likely to occu r in hot, dry clim ates where, in
th e absence o f leaching, m ineral salts are brou ght
to th e surface by capillary actio n and where th e
parent rock or groundw ater co n ta in s h ig h levels
of carbonates, b icarb on ates and sulphates, espe-
cially as salts o f calciu m and m agnesiu m and Figure 10.27
som e sodium ch lorid e (co m m on salt). The water,
Peat in the Flow Country,
on reaching th e surface, evaporates to leave a
Sutherland, Scotland
th ick crust (e.g. B on neville saltflats in Utah,

Soils 275
 T h e soil c a te n a where the ratio o f erosion and deposition varies
betw een th e different slope facets. Soils o n lower
A ca te n a (Latin for 'ch ain ') is a sequence o f soil
slopes tend to be deeper and w etter th an those on
types down a slope where each soil type, or facet
upper slopes, as well as being m ore enriched by a
is different from , but linked to, its ad jacent facets
range o f leached materials. The th in n est and driest
(Figure 10.3). Catenas therefore illustrate the way
soils are likely to be found on central parts o f the
in w h ich soils can change down a slope where
slope. It takes a considerable period o f tim e for
there are no marked changes in clim ate or parent
catenary relationships to becom e established and
m aterial. Each catena is an exam ple o f a small-
therefore th e best catenas can be found in places
scale, open system involving inputs, processes
with a stable environm ent, such as in parts of
and outputs. The slope itself is in a delicate state
Africa, where there have been relatively few recent
of dynam ic equilibrium (Figure 2.1 2 ) w ith the
changes in either the landscape or the clim ate.
soils and landform s being in a state of flux and

A rran: a soil catena

Figure 10.28 shows a catena based on fieldwork
conducted on the Isle of Arran.The transect was
taken from a relatively flat, peat-covered upland area
Figure 10.28
above the glaciated Glen Rosa valley, down a steep
Readingstaken valley side to the Rosa Water (parallel to, and south
along a catena
ofth e Garbh Allt tributary located on Figure 4.37).
in Glen Rosa
Notice, with referenceto Figure 10.3, the location on
the transect ofthe shedding (eluviation or input),
transfer (translocation) and receiving (illuviation or
output) zones, and the relationships between the
angles of slope and (i) soil depth, (ii) pH and
(iii) soil moisture.

d epth of soil (not to scale)

300

0 | .. - ' l --- l ---- r~ I 1

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
o
O
O _______

distance (m)

A B C D E F G H I J K
Soil depth
170 110 45 42 24 18 28 20 21 70 90
(cm)

pH 4.4 3.8 4.4 4.7 5.0 5.6 5.9 5.7 5.8 4.5 4.2

Soil moisture/
moisture meter
6.0 5.2 3.5 2.0 2.2 2.0 2.5 ,s 15 3.5 4.8

.......- input zo n e---- transfer zone * .........- output zone............. -a

(includes heavy rainfall) (excludes the action of the river)
 Framework 9 Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
Forcenturies cartographersand geographers have
been drawing and analysing maps by hand but, with
recent technological developments, this work is
increasingly being carried out by computers. Advances
gure 10.29
in geomatics - the Science of handling geographic
■ogle Earth image
information - mean that huge amounts of data can be
• London, overlain
:h geographic combined with digital maps and computer graphics >n
"ormation Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
• a GIS software package - this will contain
the tools for manipulating the map and the
information
• the information itself- contained in a database, as
photographs, text or any other kind of digital data.
The base map can be made up ofa number of layers
showing geographical components such as height,
soils, settlement patterns or vegetation.These maps
come from many different sources including remote
sensing companies or mapping organisations such
as Britain's Ordnance Survey.

The GIS software is the linkthat enables data to

It is estimated that around 80 per cent of all
digitally stored information has a spaţial element
or is tied to a certain place. Powerful GIS software
packages enable geographers to view, analyse,
interpret, question and display this data in order
to reveal relationships, patterns and trends that
may otherwise be hidden.
be positioned on the base map (Figure 10.30) and
contains tools to manipulate the base map, add
information layers and display the results.The data
added can be tailored to fit the end users ofthe
GIS. Public Utilities such as electricity, gas and water
companies, for instance, can add information layers
showing the locations of their cables and manholes.
Data is not just limited to the surface but can
include features such as underground pipelines,
and computers can display the information as
a three-dimensional representation of reality.
Technicians can enter this virtual environment on
their screens, walking underneath the streets of
our cities to analyse the problems that occur within
such complex networks (Figure 10.31).

Increasing numbers of businesses now use

GIS to make decisions about a wide range of
subjects. Examples include:

• where to site gas and electricity services

• the optimal place to build a wind farm

• the most efficient way to route emergency
vehicles

• how to protect and conserve sensitive

wetland areas.

In the home, through basic internet-based

packages such as Google Earth (Figure 10.29),
many people use GIS to learn about the world
and to plan their leisure time and holidays.

A computer-based GIS needs three main

components:

• a computerised map - used as a backdrop

on which to place all the other information;
this can be a convenţional map, an aerial
Linking layers through a Geographic
photograph or a satellite image Information System

Soils 277
 GIS in the real world
'The application of GIS is limited only by the
imagination of those who use it.'
Dr Ja c k D a n g e rm o n d , Presid ent o f pio neering

G IS c o m p a n y ESRI

Across the globe, governments, local councils, the

military, private companies and individuals use GIS
daily to provide the services we take for granted.
Problems such as finding the best position for a
new power station or where to build a new cinema
or housing estate are all analysed using GIS. At an
individual level, self-employed businessmen can use
home PC-based systems to improve their productivity.
Farmers, for instance, log on to analyse information
on weather patterns, soil type and economic trends in
order to determine the best time to plant crops.
GIS in the future
'Imagine looking down a S tre e t but instead of simply
seeing houses, shops and offices, your view has
added extras liketravel news,tours and even games'
O rdnance Survey w ebsite
As the capability of computers increases, software
developers are looking at ways in which GIS can
provide information in the future. Businesses are
Figure 10.32
constantly on the lookout for more digital data,
Howthe emergency especially if it is available in real time, and many are
services and the . . . . . . . . . .
police use GIS looking to run increasingly complex simulations
Figure 10.31
Underground water pipe network in
Ballerup, Denmark shown in ArcGIS
through GIS before spending huge sums of money on
big building projects. Governments and internaţional
organisations, meanwhile, are using systems to mode
the effects of climate change, sea-level rise, pollution
incidents and other environmental disasters.
For personal users, the Ordnance Survey is developing
The Magic Window, a handheld device that will
superimpose geographic data on real-world images
using a virtual 1:1 scale map ofGreat Britain (Figure
10.33). Developments in the sharing of data through
the internet will also influence the availability of
free GIS packages, bringing the easy-to-understand
analysis of geographic information to millions of
homes around the world.

Emergency services
Avoiding delays w h en sending an am bulance on an em er­
gency call can be a m atter o f life or death. W h en opera-
tors take a p h o n e call th ey ask for the lo ca tio n w here
help is needed and inp u t th e in fo rm a tio n in to a GIS. The.
system quickly identifies th e nearest available am bulance
(som etim es by receiving data from satellites), builds a
picture o f expected traffic patterns based on th e tim e of
day and analyses th e data to determ ine th e quickest route
th e am bulance crew should take.
Figure 10.33

The Magic Window

Mapping crime Further reference

C rim inal analysts w orking for th e police use GIS to
locate, track and analyse incid en ts and help the police
predict where and w h en crim es are likely to take place.
Car thefts, for in stance, often happen at n ig h t but are n o t
reported u n til th e m o rn in g w hen th e owners wake up.
By looking at patterns o n their databases o f abandoned
cars, overlain w ith in form ation o n know n offenders, the
DeMers, M. (2009) GIS for D iim m ies, Jo h n W iley and
Sons.
Sommer, S. and Wade, T. (2006) A to Z GIS: An
IUustrated D ictionary o f Geographic Inform ation
Systems, ESRI Press.
^ http://mapzone.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/mapzone
giszone.htm l

police are able to target resources and have had notable www.gis.com/whatisgis/index.html
successes in catch in g crim inals. www.gis.rgs.org/whatisgis.htmi

278
 -s w e have seen (page 262), soil can takes
'h ou sa n d s o f years to b e co m e su fficie n tly
:e e p and d e v e lo p e d fo r e c o n o m ic use
(exce ptions in c lu d e a llu v iu m d e p o s ite d
: . rivers and ash eje cte d fro m volcanoes).
L u rin g th a t tim e , th e re is always som e
UK soil degradat
So'J d eg rad ai m voivesbof
atu ral loss th ro u g h leaching, mass m o v e -
~ e n t and erosion by e ith e r w a te r o r w in d . qual/ty
of topsoi], Currentiy. 2_2
.orm ally th e re is an e q u ilib riu m , h o w e ve r mijii, ,n tonnea ol
topsou j , crotloU ar wetter sto ”’* * * * * * * * £Xtremes with
"a g ile , b e tw e e n th e rate at w h ic h soil fo rm s over 17 annual,>''>theUKand drier su m,eiW,mers;,nd warmer,
5ud th a t at w h ic h it is e ro d e d o rd e g ra d e d . summers [Page ^ i. Wpttp .
“ ~at natural balance is b e in g d is tu rb e d by 1C S U f r f r r . mean wateri0ggeds0ikandrJ imers
° r more o f severa] factors; "
■,m a n m is m a n a g e m e n t w ith increasing 111 w*ererosion, while drier
' Phys,'ca, degradation is when soil son» are more hkelv tn h
- e a u e n c y and w ith serious consequences.
rC'iills from the .. «Osion w ind erosion. * * ** «>
R ecent e stim ates s u g g e st th a t 7 per 1m ihe action of (hc wind or
:e n t o fth e w o rld 's to p s o il is lost each year. Lr grass
' when USeCanaffeCtthe ^ il. J * examn!
isrpm exainPle
_ ' e W orld Resources In s titu te claim s th a t U||, ’movedfo « (po8e,he 4oij
less widespread and |es* fre,
: „'k in a Faso loses 35 to n n e s o f soil per frequent than '■wwho“ n>0ttiobin<tft
erosion by wa
f ."tare per year. O th e r c o m p a ra b le figures * * * Inn uhon n <Joeg occur soiJ becomes unstable.

r e E thiopia 42, Nepal 70, and th e loess often more severe

thatJA ere- £ «imates suggest
* 4percent0f arable|andjsatri^
::e a u o f N o rth C hina 251 (Figure 10.35).
emg eroded by physica] nrn
■ re m oved d u rin g a sin g le rain sto rm o r > J v“yucal processes
Chemicals carried by water cm
- .s t s to rm m ay never be re p la ce d .T h e Soil Hiff,,.- ,, r can cause
' .'v e y o f E ngland and Wales claim s th a t .... useP°IIuti°n, while hioJosiL-,1 i

— oer c e n t o f arable soils in th e UK, an area *............. r*

:e co nsid e re d n o t to be u n d e r th re a t, ....................„ « r ""
out ofthe soi].
e no w at risk (Figure 10.34).

Soil degradation Fîţş^re 10. J4

egra dation is th e result o f h u m a n failures Soil erosion in Britain

■; j 'd e rs ta n d and m a n a g e th e soil.T he
= or cause o f soil ero sio n is th e rem oval
' :ne natural v e g e ta tio n cover, leaving th e
I t e l j n d exposed to th e e le m e n ts.T h e m o st
t ' ous o f such rem ovals is d e fo re sta tio n .
:o u n trie s such as E thiopia (Places 76,
. ige 520), th e loss o f trees, re su ltin g fro m
: :o u la tio n g ro w th and th e extra need
: ' ‘‘arm land and fu e lw o o d , m eans th a t
_r ^e avy rains, w h e n th e y d o occur, are
o n g e r in te rc e p te d by th e v e g e ta tio n .
; a'f'splash (th e d ire c t im p a c t o f rain-
jo s , Figure 2.12) loosens th e to p s o il
d prepares it fo r rem oval by sheetw ash
.e rla n d flo w ). W ater flo w in g o v e rth e
."'a c e has little tim e to in filtra te in to th e
: or recharge th e soil m o is tu re store
■ g e s 5 9 -6 0 ). M ore to p s o il te n d s to be
■ad aw ay w h e re th e re is little ve g e ta -
:n because th e re are n e ith e r p la n t roots
: ' organic m a tte r to b in d itto g e th e r. Small
channels o r rills may be fo rm e d w h ich , in
tim e, m ay de ve lo p into large gulleys, m aking
th e land useless for agriculture (Figure 10.35).
Even w here th e soil is n o t actually w ashed
away, heavy rain may accelerate leaching
and rem ove nutrients and organic m atter at
a rate faster than th a t at w h ich th e y can be
replaced by th e w e a th e rin g o f b e d ro cka n d
parent m aterial and th e d e co m p o sitio n o f
vegetation (e.g. th e Am azon Basin, Figurel 2.7
and Places 66, page 480).The loss o f trees
also reduces th e rate o f transpiration and
therefore th e a m o u n t o f m oisture in th e air.
There are fears th a t large-scale deforestation
w ill tu rn areas at present under rainforest into
deserts.
A lth o u g h th e N o rth A m e rica n Prairies
and th e A frican savannas w ere grassland
w h e n th e European settlers firs t arrived, it
is n o w believed th a t these areas to o w ere
o n ce fo rested and w e re cleared by fire -
m a in ly natural du e to lig h tn in g , b u t p a rtly
by th e local p e o p le (Case S tudy 12B).The
b u rn in g o f v e g e ta tio n in itia lly provides
n u trie n ts fo r th e soil, b u t on ce these have
been leached by th e rain o r u tilised by
crops th e re is little re p la ce m e n t o f n u tri­
ents. W here th e grasslands have been
p lo u g h e d u p fo r cereai c ro p p in g , th e break­
d o w n o f soil stru ctu re (peds) has o fte n led
to th e ir d ryin g o u t and b e c o m in g easy prey
to w in d erosion (Figure 10.34). Large qu a n -
titie s o f to p s o il w ere b lo w n aw ay to create
th e A m erican D ust Bowl in th e 1930s, w h ile
a sim ilar fate has m o re re ce n tly been ex­
p e rie n ce d by m any o fth e Sahel countries.
In Britain, th e rem oval o f hedges to create
larger fields - easier fo r m o d e rn m a ch in e ry
- has led to accelerated soil erosion by
w in d (page 495).

Soils 279
 Soil erosion and soil m anagem ent

Loess plateau
of North China Loess in China

This region, more than 2.5 times the

size o f the UK. experiences the most
rapid soil loss in the world. During
and following the ice age,
Arctic winds transported large
amounts o f loess and deposited
this fine, yellow material to a
depth o f 200 m in the Huang
He basin. Following the removal
o f the subsequent vegetation
cover o f trees and grasses to
allow cereai farming (especially
under the directions o f Chairman
M ao), the unconsolidated material
has been washed away by the heavy
summer monsoon rains, or blown
by yellow dust storms, at the rate
o f 1 cm per year. It is estimated
that 1.6 bn tonnes o f soil reach by any river in the world, has o f silt settles annually on the be breached. the river can
the Huang He River during given the Huang He its name river’s bed so that it now flows drown thousands o f people
each annual summer flood. - i.e. the ‘Yellow River'. A 10 m above its floodplain. (over 1 million in the 1939
This material, the most carried further problem is that 6 cm Should the large flood banks flood) and ruin all crops.

P lo u g h in g can have adverse e ffects on W here th e re is a rapid p o p u la tio n areas th a t w e re p revio u sly c o nsid ere d to be
soils. D eep p lo u g h in g destroys th e soil g ro w th , land th a t was p re vio u sly a llo w e d to o m a rg in a l fo r crops. M o n o c u ltu re - th e
s tru ctu re by b re a kin g u p peds (page 265) a fa llo w resting p e rio d n o w has to be c u lţi- c u ltiv a tio n o fth e sam e c ro p each year on
and b u ry in g o rg a n ic m a te ria l to o d e e p va te d each year (Figure 10.36) - as are o th e r th e sam e piece o f land - re p e a te d ly uses
fo r p la n t use. It also loosens th e to p s o il u p th e sam e soil n utrients.
fo r fu tu re w in d and w a te r erosion. The
w e ig h t o f fa rm m a c h in e ry can c o m p a c t
Burkina Faso
As the size of cattle and goat herds sedentary farmers who are already crops. These farmers have lorr
th e soil surface o r p ro d u ce p la ty peds, has grown. the already scant dry struggling to produce sufficient been aware that three years'
b o th o f w h ic h reduce in filtra tio n c a p a city scrub savanna vegetation on the food for their own increasing cropping had to be followed
and in h ib it a e ra tio n o fth e soil. P lo u g h in g Southern fringes of the Sahara has numbers. This disruption of at least eight fallow years in r-j.
been totally removed over equilibrium further reduces the for grass and trees to re-estab
u p - and d o w n -h ill creates fu rro w s w h ic h
increasingly large areas. As the land carrying capacity Lpage 378] themselves and organic matte-
increase th e rate o f surface ru n o ff and th e Sahara ’advances', the herders - i.e. the number of people that be replenished. The arrival of
process o f g u lly in g . are forced to move southwards the soil and climate of an area herders has brought a land
O vergrazing, especially o n th e A frican into moister environments where can permanently support when shortage resulting in crops bea
they compete for land with the land is planted with staple grown on the same plots eve-
savannas, also accelerates soil erosion.
year, and the
M any A frican trib e s have lo n g m easured
nutrient-deficic II
th e ir w e a lth in te rm s o fth e num b e rs, ra th e r soil, typical of r 4
th a n th e q u a lity, o f th e ir a n im a l herds. As of tropical Afrn
th e h u m a n p o p u la tio n s o fth e s e areas rapidly becom. .
even less
c o n tin u e to e x p a n d rapidly, so to o d o th e
productive. Th‘
n u m b e rs o f h e rb ivo ro u s anim als ne e d e d to overcropping. a
s u p p o rt th e m .T h is a lm o s t in e v ita b ly leads problem in mai
to o ve rg ra zin g and th e re d u c tio n o f grass the world’s
subsistence are
co ver (Case S tu d y 7). W h e n n e w shoots
uses up organu
a ppea r a fte r th e rains, th e y are eaten im m e - matter and other
d ia te ly by cattle, sheep, goats and camels. nutrients. weakc"
The arrival o fth e rains causes e ro s io n ;th e soil structures .
leaves the sun.
fa ilu re o fth e rains results in a n im a l deaths. exposed and thL •
susceptible to
accelcrated ercina*
280 Soils Overgrazing: Burkina Faso
 Soil erosion and soil m anagem ent

The Soil Protection Review is carried out by Britain’s farmers as part of

.'ross-compliance. It involves identifying soil issues, deciding on measures be returned to th e soil as th e v egetation
: manage and protect soils, and then reviewing the results. The 2006 review Mitigation strategies dies and decom poses. W hen a cro p is har-
:c ncluded with the following recommended options to protect the soil from for soil degradation vested there is less organic m aterial left to
rhysical decline and erosion: be recycled. As n u trie n ts are taken o u t o fth e
• reducing mechanical operations on wet ground soil system and n o t replaced, there w ill be
• planting crops early in autumn to protect the soil during the winter from an increasing shortage o f m acro-nutrients,
water erosion
particularly nitrogen, calcium , phosphorus
• ploughing across slopes where it is safe to do so (compare Figure 10.38)
and potassium . W here this occurs, and w h e n
■ using low ground-pressure set-ups on machinery
o th e r nutrients are dissolved and leached
• shepherding livestock and rotating forage areas
• planting and/or maintaining hedges or shelter belts to reduce wind erosion fro m th e soil, fertiliser is essential if yields are
ir.d measures to protect the soil’s organic matter: to be m aintained. Soils need to be m anaged
• leaving straw and other crop residues on the land after a crop has been carefully if th e y are to p ro d u ce m axim um
..arvested a g ricu ltu ra l yields and cause least e n v iro n ­
• ncluding grass in crop rotations m e n ta l d a m a g e (Figure 10.37).
■ pplying animal manure, compost and sewage sludge If th e m o st serious cause o f erosion is th e
■ using reduced or shallow cultivation to maintain or increase near-surface rem oval o f v e g e ta tio n cover, th e best w a y to
rganic matter.
p ro te c t th e soil is likely to be by th e add itio n
\fan_v farmers suggest that these options are often already adopted but need
o f v e g e ta tio n . A fforestation provides a lo n g -
-cner co-ordination together with continued targeted advice, information and
onitoring. te rm so lu tio n because, on ce th e trees have
g ro w n , th e ir leaves in te rc e p t rainfall w h ile
th e ir roots h e lp to b in d th e soil to g e th e r
Tiany parts o fth e w o rld w h e re Fertiliser and pesticides are n o t always and reduce surface ru n o ff.T h e g ro w in g
:o<tk are k e p t and fire w o o d is a t a beneficial if applied repeatedly over long o f g ro u n d -c o ve r crops reduces rainsplash
• ‘" iu m , d u n g has to be used as a fuel periods. C hem ical fertiliser does n o t add and surface runoff, and can p ro te c t n ew ly
r3 d o f b e in g a p p lie d to th e land. In organic m aterial and s o fails to im prove or p lo u g h e d land fro m exposure to clim a tic
o f Ethiopia, th e sale o f d u n g - m ixed m aintain soil structure.There is considerable extrem es. M arram grass anchors sand,
" ; : raw and d rie d in to ta k e s '- is o fte n concern over th e leaching o f nitrate fe rti­ w h ile gulleys can be seeded and planted
: nly source o f in c o m e fo r rural dw ellers. liser in to streams and u n d e rg ro u n d w a te r w ith b ru sh w o o d .C e rta in crops and plants,
.d u n g w e re to be a p p lie d to th e fields, supplies. W here nitrates reach rivers th e y especially le g u m in o u s species such as
th a n sold to th e to w n s, harvests enrich th e w a te r and encourage th e rapid peas, beans, c lover and gorse, are capable
_ ; be increased by o ve r 20 p er cent. g ro w th o f algae and o th e r aquatic plants o f fixin g a tm o sp h e ric n itro g e n in th e soil,
;:e r is essential fo r a p ro d u ctive soil. w h ich use u p oxygen, th ro u g h th e process th u s im p ro v in g its quality.Trees can also be
r early civilisations, w h ic h g re w u p in o fe u tro p h ic a tio n ,to leave insufficient for p la n te d to act as w indbreaks and shelter-
=■.alleys (Figure 14.1), relied o n irriga- p la n t life (Figure 16.50).The use o f pesticides belts. This reduces th e risk o f w in d erosion as
. j do m any areas o fth e m o d e rn w o rld . (including insecticides and fungicides) can w e ll as p ro vid in g h a b ita ts fo rw ild life .
: ^ jn a te ly , irrig a tio n in a hot, d ry clim ate increase yields by up to 100 per ce n t by killing Soil can also be m a naged by im p ro v in g
:s :o lead to salinisation, w ith dissolved o ff insect pests. However, th e ir excessive and fa rm in g m ethods. M o st arable areas b e n e fit
ceing b ro u g h t, b y c a p illa ry action, in to random use also kills vital soi! organisms, fro m a ro ta tio n o f crops, in c lu d in g grasses,
:c zone o f a gricultural trees and crops w h ich means organic m a tte r decom poses w h ic h im p ro ve soil structures and reduce
: _'e 16.53).W e lls ,s u n k in d ry c lim a te s , m ore slow ly and th e release o f n utrients is th e likel ih o o d o f so il-b orn e diseases w h ich
t _z reserves o f g ro u n d w a te r w h ic h m ay retarded. C hem ical pesticides are blam ed for m ay d e v e lo p u n d e r m o n o c u ltu re . M any
e taxen m any centuries to a ccu m u la te the decline in Britain's bee p o pulation. tro p ica l soils need a recovery p eriod o f 5 -1 5
:ch c a n n o t be replaced q u ickly (fossil years u n d e r shrub or fo re st fo r each 3 -6
’î ' stores, page 190).The resultant lo w - years u n d e r crops. In areas w h e re slopes
•'the w a te r ta b le makes it h a rd e rfo r
Soil management reach u p to 12°, p lo u g h in g sh o uld fo llo w
■ io o ts to o b ta in m o isture .T h e sinking Fertility refers to th e a b ility o fa soil to th e co n to u rs to p re ve n t excessive erosion.
? ^ in sub-Saharan A fric a ,fo llo w in g th e pro vid e fo rth e unconstrained o ro p tim u m On even steeper slopes (Figures 10.41 and
: o fth e early 1980s, h a s u n in te n - g ro w th o f plants. The capacity to p roduce 16.29), te rracing helps to slo w d o w n runoff,
created difficu Ities. The presence h ig h o r lo w yields depends u p o n th e n u trie n t g iv in g w a te r m ore tim e to in filtra te and thus
^csured w a te r s u p p ly has a ttracted co n te n t, structure, texture, drainage, acid ity red u cin g its erosive ability.
. _ e'ous m igrants and th e ir anim als and and organic c o n te n t o fa p articular soil as S trip c ro p p in g can in vo lve e ith e r th e
■n accelerated th e d e stru ctio n o f w ell as th e relief, clim ate and fa rm in g tech- p la n tin g o f crops in strips a lo n g th e c o n ­
T~iaining trees and exacerbated th e niques. For ideai g ro w th , plants m u st have to u rs o r th e in te rc ro p p in g o f d iffe re n t crops
■ ems o f overgrazing (Places 65, page access to nine m a cro -n u trie n ts and nine in th e sam e fie ld . B oth m e th o d s are illus-
.en w e ll-in te n tio n e d aid projects m ay m icro -n u trie n ts (Figure 10.13). U nder norm al tra te d in Figure 10.38.The c rops m ay d iffe r in
-~:re b e e n v iro n m e n ta lly d a m a g in g . recycling (Figure 10.6). these n u trie n ts w ill h e ig h t, tim e o f harvest and use o f nutrients.

Soils 281
 Soil erosion and soil m anagem ent
W here evapotranspiration exceeds pre­
cip ita tio n , d ry fa rm in g can be adopted.This
entaiis covering th e soil w ith a m u lch o f
straw a n d /o r w eeds to reduce m oisture loss
and lim it erosion. In th e Sahel countries, th e
drastic d e p o p u la tio n o f cattle fo llo w in g th e
d ro u g h ts o fth e 1980s has given herders a
chance to restock w ith sm aller (reducing
overgrazing), b e tte r-q u a lity (giving m ore
m eat and milk) herds so th a t incom es d o no t
fall and th e soils are given tim e to recover.
The a d d itio n o f o rg a n ic m aterial helps
to b in d loose soil and so reduces its vu ln e r-
a b ility to erosion (Figures 1 0 .3 8 and 10.39).
Soil stru ctu re and te x tu re m ay be im p ro ve d ,
the ore tically, b y a d d in g lim e to acid soils,
w h ic h reduces th e ir a c id ity and helps to
m ake th e m w a rm e r; b y a d d in g hum us,
clay or peat to sands, to g ive b o d y and to
Stone lines in
Burkina Faso
Figure 10.40
Stone lines in Burkina Faso
viiamins ihan ordinary n ^vvhich lests have shown uin S >
which î the fatty -
and obesity. were also of heiirî disease.
^cnU a^BulleM he'livestock projcct
n ^ s did not swiich comp'etely .o ^
eet health benefits.
T h is p ro je ct, begun by O x fa m in 1 979,
aim ed to introduce w ater-harvesting
tech n iq ues fo r tree planting. It m et with
resista n ce fro m lo ca l p eop le w ho w ere
reluctant to divert land and labour fro m food
p roduction, or to risk d ry-season w ater
needed fo r drinking.
A ttention w as therefore diverted to
im proving foo d production by using the
traditional lo c a l tech n iq u e o f p lacin g lines o f
stones a cross slopes to reduce ru n off
[F igu res 1 0 .4 0 and 1 6 .6 4 J. W h en aligned
w ith the co n tou rs, these lin es dam m ed
rain fall, g ivin g it tim e to infiltrate.
U nfortunately, m ost slopes w ere so gentle,
under 2 ° , that lo ca l farm ers could not
determ ine the con tou rs. A d ev ice co stin g less
than £ 3 solved the problem . A calibrated
transparent h ose, 15 m lon g , is fixed al each
end to the tops o f stakes o f equal lengths and
diahtte^
O .e ga-3 wh.c«
cven „
^>nied out that organic m»lV
^ and to buy.
..................... ” ..... r
Organic farming i
Washington
im p ro v e th e ir w a te r-h o ld in g capacity; and
by a d d in g sand to heavy clays, so i m p r o v i *
d ra inage and aeration and m akin g th e m
lig h te rto w o rk. In practice, such m e th o d s
are rarely used d u e to th e expense involvec
C hem ical (inorganic) fertilisers h elp to
replenish d e ficie n t nutrients, especially
nitro g e n , p otassium and phosphorus.
However, th e ir use is expensive, especially
to farm ers in e co n o m ic a lly less d eve lo ped
countries, and can cause e n v iro n m e n ta l
dam age. M any farm ers in poo rer countries
c a n n o t afford such fertilisers and have to
rely u p o n o rg a n ic fertiliser. A nim al d u n g a n :
straw left after th e cereai harvest are m ixed
to g e th e r and spread over th e g ro und.T his
im proves soil structure and, as it decays,
returns n u trie n ts to th e soil. W here c ro p
rotations are practised, grasses add organic
m atter, and legum es p ro vid e nitrog en.
filled with water. W h en the w ater lev el is
equal at both ends o f the hose, the bottom o f
the stakes m ust be on the sam e contour. The
lines ca n b e m ade during the dry season
when labour is not needed fo r farm ing.
A lthough they take up o nly 1 o r 2 per cen t of
cropland, they can in cre a se y ield s by over 50
p er cent. T h ey also help to replenish falling
w ater tables and can regenerate the barren,
crusted earth becau se so il, organic m atter
and seeds c o lle c t on the upslope side o f the
stone lin es and plants begin to grow again.
S in ce 2 0 0 0 , P ra ctica i A ctio n has been
fm an cin g the co n stru ction o f crescen t-shap ed
terraces w h ich , built o f earth along the
con tou rs o f the land, last lon ger and hold on
to vital rainw ater m ore e fficien tly than
traditional square dam s. C rops grow n here
thrive in soil, rich in nutrients, that was
previou sly w ashed away.
 Soil erosion and soil m anagem ent 2 2 f fi3 ©

Britain and N orth A m erica, a g ro w in g
im b e r o f farm ers are tu rn in g to organic
-m ing for e n v iro n m e n ta l reasons (Figure
. .39 and page 497 and Case S tudy 16B).
Vlany soils suffer fro m eith e r a shortage
a surfeit o f w ater. in irrigated areas, w a te r
m ust be c o n tin u a lly flusl ed th ro u g n th e
system to p re ve n t salinisation. In areas o f
heavy a n d /o r seasonal rainfall, dam s m ay be
b u ilt to co n tro l flo o d in g and to store surplus
w ater.The drainage o f w a te rlo g g e d soils can
be im p ro ve d by a d d in g fie ld drains.
In several Sahelian c o u n trie s, pe o p le
use stones to b u ild sm all d am s w h ic h tra p
w a te r fo r lo n g e n o u g h fo r som e to in filtra te
in to th e g ro u n d ; th e y also c o lle c t th e soil
carried aw ay by surface ru n o ff (Figures
10.40 and 16.64).

Soil conservation in northern Shaanxi (China)

According to historic records, the northern province of Shaanxi was
once a region w ith p len ty of w ater, fertile loess soil, lush grass and Figure 10.41
livestock. Since then, o vercultivation and deforestation have led to
^ • Soil-terraced gBf-1
severe soil erosion [Figure 10.35]. This has in turn caused serious
hillsides in Shaanxi **
desertification [Case Stud y 7], creating drifting sand dunes w h ich
have buried farm land and villages, w h ile freq uent droughts, floods
and dust-storms have hindered the d eve lo p m e n t o fth e local farm ing
econom y. Agriculture fell into a vicious circle: people, because of
:neir poverty, reclaim ed land but the m ore land th e y reclaim ed, the
ooorer th e y b ecam e because this land w as also subject to erosion.

Since the early 1980s, how ever, the central g o vernm ent has
encouraged and supported a co m p rehensive p rogram m e for erosion
:ontrol on the loess plateau. The tw o main aims have been to control
Bnd stabilise drifting sand in northern Shaanxi and to transform the
soil th ro u gh o ut th e province. This has invo lved the d eve lo p m e n t of
Tigation projects, the terracing o f hillsides [Figure 10.41], the
_ anting of trees as a shelter-forest netw ork against the shifting sand loess soil deposited behind
check-dam m ade of
: igure 10.42] and th e construction o f check-dams [Figure 10.43]. check-dam: im m ediately
pulverised loess
usable for farm ing

outlet pipe to drain

Theshelter w a ter aw ay
network

Figure 10.43
fi bed o f form er gulley
A check-dam

^ jrin g th e 1990s, the Loess Plateau Rehabilitation Project w as set
.o with the tw in aims o f increasing the incom e of local farm ers
; d reducing sedim ent flow into the Huang He. The project has
■/olved eng ag ing th e local farm ers and g o ve rn m e n t officials in
c*anting more trees, bushes and grasses that w ere previously
■=tive to the region; creating terraces for agriculture; planting
:-:hards and vineyards; and constructing m ore sedim ent control
:=nris and irrigation networks. At first the farm ers and officials
re sceptical ab o ut restoring so m uch land and leaving it for
- =:ure, but the d esperate poverty of the plateau region led them
o-operate.
Each year m ore than 4 per cent o fth e eroded area is targ eted for soil
and w a ter conservation projects.
The success o fth e Loess Project can be seen in the huge tracts of
land that are n o w nurturing you ng forests; the crops g ro w n in new ly
created fields along valley floors; the reduction in the am o u n t o f soil
w ashed into the Huang He or b low n tow ards Beijing in dust-storms;
the restoration of an ecosystem ; and, w ithin a decade, the quadru-
pling of the incom e o f local people. T he project has helped prom ote
sustainable and p roductive agriculture and im proved the standard of
living and quality of life o f local people.

nrther reference
n ţ E.M. (1997) World Soils, O'Hare, G. (1988) Soils, Vegetation and the Soil salinity and erosion co n tro l in
'ridge University Press. Ecosystem, Oliver & Boyd. Alberta, Canada:
lev F.M. and Trudgill, S.T. (1984) Trudgill, S. (1988) Soil and Vegetation www.agric.gov.ab.ca/app21/rtw/index.
oii: An Introduction to Soil Study, Systems, Clarendon Press. jsp - use search option
der Amold. UN C onvention to Com bat
D epartm ent o f E n viron m en t
' and Meilor, A. (1995) Soils and (M alaysia), con trollin g soil erosion: D esertification:
ninent, Routledge. www.jas.sains.my/doe/new/index.html www.unced.int/main.php

B. (1979) Soil Processes, AUen & N ature journal: UN Food an d Agriculture O rganisation,
" 'v in . www.nature.com/nature/ desertification:
www.fao.org/desertification/default.
asp?lang=eng

Soils 283
 Questions & Activities

Activities
1 a i Whatarethetwomaincomponentsofasoil? (2marks) d Explain the processes by which a brown earth is formed.
ii Study Figure 10.1 (page 260) and describe how two of (6 marusi
these factors affect the formation of a soil. (4 marks) e In what type of area would you expect to find a brown earth
iii Why does the water content of a soil vary from the top of within the British Isles? (3marKU
aslopetothebottom? (4marks) f What effect is a farmer trying to achieve when ploughing a
b Whatisa'soil horizon? (4marks) brown earth? (5marts

c Choose one soil that you have studied. 4 Choose one example of soil you have studied in the field.
i Name the soil. a i Identifytheaimsandobjectivesofthestudy. (3marr_
ii Draw an annotated soil profile to show the main ii Describe the main features of the area where the
characteristics ofthe soil. (6 marks) fieldwork was carried out. (3mar*s
d Why do farmers plough their arable land? (5 marks) iii Explain how the fieldwork was planned before the trip
took place. (3 marţs.
2 a What can happen to water when it lands on the surface of a
soil? (4marks) b Describe the methods used to collect the data (your
response should include'what"why;'where','how'and
b i What does it mean when'precipitation exceeds
'howitwasrecorded'). (8marrc
evapotranspiration'? (4 marks)
c i For one piece of analysis you have carried out, explain
ii What happens to the soil when leaching occurs? (5 marks)
how the data were sorted to prepare them for analysis.
c Name and describe a soil that resultsfrom the process of (4 marţi
leaching. (4 marks)
ii How were results prepared for presentation after the
d i Why would a farmerwantto change soil acidity? (2 marfa,) fieldwork trip? (4 mana
ii What can a farmer do to change the pH of a soil? (2 marks)
5 a Identify and explain the five main factors affecting the
iii How does the activity you have described in ii change the
formation of a soil. (10 mar
pH? (4 marks)
b Whatis:
3 a Whatisa'soil horizon'? (3marks) i soil texture
b Draw an annotated diagram to show the main features of a ii soil structure? (8mar...
brown earth soil. (5marks) c For either soil structure or soil texture, describe how you
c What natural vegetation type and climatic type is associated would identify it in a soil. In your answer you should identic
with formation of a brown earth soil? (3 marks) equipment used and explain how to interpret the results.
(7 mai-

Exam practice: basic structured questions

a Study Figure 10.9 on page 265. b Study soil profile B.
i Identify the constituents of soils a, band c,and suggesta i Describe the humus layer in soil Band explain how it ha:
name for each soil. (3 marks) been formed. (5mar>ţ
ii Plot the soil textures from Figure 10.44ontoa triangular ii Describe the texture of the/4 horizon in soil B and expla :
graph. (5 marks) how the texture affects farming. (5 mar^
b Explain how soil texture and soil structure can influence c Explain why a farm on the Charnwood Forest would be
farming. (9marks) different from one on the Lincoln Edge. (5 mar
c Identify two ways in which a farmer can improvethefertility
ofthe soil. In your answer you should explain the effect ofthe
activity on the farmer's output. (8marks) Sample Clay (%) Silt(% ) SandC
d 61 26 13
Study Figures 10.45 and 10.46 which show four soils and their
locations. e 33 7 60

a i Describehowthedepthsofsoil vary across this area. f 8 79 13

(4 marks)
g 5 5 90 Figure 10.44
ii Account for the differences that you observed in a i.
(6 marks) h 34 36 30
Five soil samples

284 Soils
 Charnwood Forest Vale of Belvoir Lincoln Eclge The floodplain ofthe
River Witham Figure 10.4S
Average annual
excess of Cross-section through
290 mm 200 mm 50 mm
orecipitation
parts of Leicestershire
over evapotrans-
^iration at each and Lincolnshire
□f sites A-D
300

^etres 200
=oove
iea-level 1Q0

south-west north-east
0 10 km
1__________I Glacial sands and gravels | | Jurassic limestone
horizontal scale
| Till (boulder clay) | | Clays
A-D sites of soil profiles A-D
(Figure 10.46) Pre-Cambrian crystalline rocks

Profile A pH cm Profile B pH cm Profile C pH cm Profile D pH

4.5 °- " " • 5.0 6.4 °- black peat
dark red-brown loam, with
16.1
4,7 light brown loam, weak crumb
5.1 occasional fragments of 6.8
structure
_Hmestone,_fi ne cr um b structure
25- 25 25
red-brown sandy clay loam
light brown sandy loam, with some
4.8 with occasional fragments of 7.0 6.4
stones, weak granular structure
limestone, weak platy structure
50- red-brown sandy loam, containing 50- 50-
many stones, weak granular 5.0
structure Jurassic limestone parent rock
□■ian crystalline parent oltvc qrey d a y loam w * h
material 75- 75 promuxrro r v j brown mocilrsv 6.4
compact blocky sl^icture
glacial sands and gravels
. 10.46
parent material
tfies of soils at sites 100 100 100- light brown clay loam with
olive-grey mottles 6.4
on Figure 10.45

125 125 125

N.B. S o lid lines re p re se n t n a rro w b o u n d a rie s b e tw e e n s o il h o riz o n s a n d d o tte d lines re p re se n t m e rg in g b o u nd a rie s.

Exam practice: structured questions and essay

■ a Using Figures 10.45 and 10.46, identify which ofthe soils are ii Explain why itisclassified as azonal. (3 marks)
zonal, azonal and intrazonal. (4marks) b Why do geographers and othersclassify soils? (5 marks)
b Select either soil B or soil C. c Identify one scientific soil classification system you have
i Describe the main characteristicsofyourchosen soil. studied. Making use of example soils, explain the basis on
(4 marks) which the classification is made. (lOmarks)
ii Account for the nature ofthe A horizon inyourchosen soil.
11 a Whatisa'soilcatena? (3 marks)
(6 marks)
b Explain how and why soil depth varies down the slope ofa
c Soil D is a peaty gley. Explain two aspects of this soil that
catena. (7marks)
makeitdifficult for a farmerto cultivate. (6 marks)
d Suggest two reasons why soil A is a very shallow soil.(5marks) c Peat can develop in both the upland and the lowland areas of
a soil catena.
a Why does soil move downhill? (5marks) Explain how this happens, making reference tothe
b Describe two unintended effects of human activity on soils. differences in the nature ofthe peat in the two areas.
(lOmarks) (15 marks)
c Explain two ways in which farmers can combat accelerated
12 With reference tocountriesat different stages of development,
soil erosion. (lOmarks)
explain why farmers need to manage their soils more carefully
a i Choose one azonal soil you have studied and draw an if farming isto be sustainable. (25 marks)
annotated diagram to show the characteristics ofthe soil.
(7 marks)
 Biogeography

'The Earth's green cover is a prerequisite for the rest o flife.
Plants alone, through the alchem y ofphotosynthesis, can
use sunlight energy, and convert it to the chem ical energy
aniw als need for survival.'
James Lovelock, The GaiaAtlas of Planet Management, 1985
Biogeography m ay be defined as the study of the
distribution o f plants and anim als over th e Earth's
surface. The biogeographer is interested in describ-
ing and explaining m eaningful patterns of plant
and anim al distributions in a given area, either at a
particular tim e or through a tim e-period.
Seres and climax vegetation
A sere is a stage in a sequence of events by w hich
the vegetation of an area develops over a period
of time. The first plants to colonise an area and
develop in it are called the pioneer co m m u n ity (or
species). A prisere is the com plete chain of succes-
sive seres beginning with a pioneer com m unity and
ending w ith a clim ax vegetation (Figure 11 .la).
F.E. Clements suggested, in 1916, that for each cli­
m atic zone only one type of clim ax vegetation could
Figure 11.1 evolve. He referred to this as the clim atic clim ax
vegetation, now known as the m o n o clim a x
Aseralprogression,
with possible concept. The climatic clim ax occurs when the veg­
interruptions etation is in harm ony or equilibrium with the local
environm ent, i.e. when the natural vegetation has
reached a delicate but stable balance with the clim a:;
and soils of an area (Chapter 12). Each successive
seral com m unity usually shows an increase in the
num ber of species and the height o fth e plants, an
increase in carbon storage and enhanced biogeo-
chem ical cycling and soil formation.
Each individual sere is referred to by one or
more of the larger species w ithin th at communit3
- the so-called d o m in a n t species. The dom inant
species m ay be the Iargest plant or tree in the
com m unity w hich exerts the m axim um influente
on the local environm ent or habitat, or the most
num erous species in the com m unity. In parts of
the world where th e clim atic clim ax is forest - i.e.
areas with higher rainfall - the plant com m unity
tends to be structured in layers (Figures 11.2 and
12.4). It can take several thousand years to reach a
clim atic clim ax. C om m unities are, however, rela­
tively ephemeral on timescales o f m illennia. Wher.
clim atic change does occur, temperature and/or
precipitation alterations often only affect individ ul
species rather than changing the com m unity as a
whole. This concept, the 'individualistic concept -
plant association', was originated by H.A. Gleason
in 1928. In recent years this has becom e widely
accepted as a result of the analysis of pollen taken
from lake sediments and peats (page 294).

a the monoclimax concept b possible interruptions

pioneer co m m u nity natural interruptions hum an interruptions

l l
prisere
l seral stages (temporary
conditions) w h ich
d evelo p o ver tim e
tecto nic activity,
e.g. vo lcan ic eruptions

(plant succession)

M M
AAAA
!
clim atic climax
tem p o rary climatic
changes,e.g.drought,
colder conditions
e.g.deforestation

plagioclim ax
(natural veg etatio n ) (if perm anent)
 a vegetation structured in layers b light intensity
height (m)

d om inant oak d om inant oak

subdom inant subdom inant

can o p y layer

hazel su bcano p y layer

herb and shrub layer

* ground layer

roots occupy
herbs different soil p ercentag e o f full
layers sunlight (log scale)
dense shade covered bluebeils

re 11.2 There are, however, very few parts o f today’s

-:ation structure world w ith a clim atic clim ax. This is partly because
ght intensity few physical environm ents rem ain stable suffi-
: :al of a temperate ciently long for the clim ax to be reached: m ost are
.uous woodland affected by tecton ic or tem porary clim atic changes
-•O 'H are)
(an area becom es warmer, colder, w etter or drier).
M ore recently, however, instability has resulted
from such h u m an activities as deforestation, the
ploughing of grassland, and acid rain. W here
hu m an activity has perm anently arrested and
altered th e natural succession and th e ensuing veg­
etation is m aintained through m anagem ent, the
resultant com m u n ity is said to be a p la g io clim a x
(Figure 1 1 .1 b ) - exam ples of w h ich include 1 primary succession
heather m oorlands in Britain, and th e tem perate 2 natural v a ria tio n s due to local conditions

grasslands (page 326). 3 retro g ressive succession

W hile it is still accepted th at clim ate exerts due to disturbance {natural or human)

a m ajor influence upon vegetation, the linear 4 secondary succession

m onoclim ax concept has been replaced by the

p o ly clim ax th eory. This theory acknowledges
the im portance n o t only of clim ate, but o f several Figure 11.3
(poly) local factors including drainage, parent rock, The polyclimax theory

relief, m icroclim ate and source of plants. The poly­

non-vegetated surfaces
* {i.e. initially unsuitable E clim ax theory, therefore, relates the clim ax vegeta­
for vegetation)
land w a ter tion to a variety of factors. Figure 11.3 shows how
3 the clim ax vegetation may result from a p rim ary
JC + 4 ♦
or a secon d ary succession. A primary succession
1 lithosere 2 psam m osere 3 halosere 4 hydrosere
(rock) (sand) (salt water) (fresh water) occurs on a new or previously unvegetated land
i i surface, or in water. Figure 11.4 shows how the four
4
: ~ew volcanic island, e.g. sand e.g. salt e.g.infîlling m ore com m only accepted non-vegetated environ­
“ r'ging raised beach, dunes marsh lake, pond m ents in Britain develop until they all reach the
e:reat of a glacier
i
same clim ax vegetation: th e oak woodland. A sec­
i 1 i
T y
ondary succession is m ore likely to occur on land
ncreasing soil increasing decreasing decreasing
depth and stability and influence influence on w hich the previous m anagem ent has been dis-
nutrients humus ofthe sea of open water continued, e.g. abandoned farm land due to shifting
l i . several i
cultivation in th e tropical rainforest (Places 66,
.. stages
(seres) page 480). A su b clim ax occurs when th e vegetation
is prevented from reaching its clim ax due to
mesophytic interruptions by local factors such as soils
(transitional: adapted to neither very dry conditions [xerophytic]
and hum an interference.
nor very wet conditions [hydrophytic]), e.g. oak climax

Biogeography 287
 Figure 11.5
Fieldsketch ofa lithosere on
anewlyemerging
rocky coastline (raised
beach), Arran
Figure 11.6
Primary succession on
a lithosere on the Isleof
Arran: lichens, mossesand
grasses on a rocky coastline
288 Biogeography
pioneer community
blue-green
bacteria
herbs, grasses, _
high-water
small flowering
mark of lichens,__ i s plants
ordinary liverworts
tides
bedrock
F o u r basic seres fo rm in g a p r im a r y
succession
7 Lith o seres
Areas o f bare rock will initially be colonised by
blue-green bacteria and single-celled photo-
synthesisers th a t have n o root system and can
survive where there are few m ineral nutrients.
Blue-green bacteria are autotrophs (page 296),
photosynthesising and producing their ow n food
source. Lichens and mosses also m ake up the
pioneer com m u nity (Figure 11.5). These plants
are capable o f living in areas lacking soil, devoid
of a perm anen t supply of water and experiencing
extrem es of tem perature. Lichen and various
form s o f w eathering help to break up th e rock to
form a veneer o f soil in w h ich m ore advanced
plant life can th en grow. As these plants die, they
are converted by bacteria in to hum us w hich helps
in the d evelopm ent of increasingly richer soils and
aids water retention. Seeds, m ain ly of grasses and
herbs, th en colonise th e area. As these plants are
taller th a n th e pioneer species, th ey will replace
the lich en and mosses as the d om inants, although
th e lichens and mosses will still con tinu e to grow
in th e com m unity. As the plant succession evolves
over a period o f tim e, the grasses will give way as
climax vegetation
oak
w larger trees
(birch.ash
large shrubs, and
small trees
ferns, bracken, (rowan and
small shrubs, alder)
r brambles
dom inants to fast-growing shrubs, w hich in turn
will be replaced by relatively fast-growing trees
(rowan). These will eventually face com petition
from slower-growing trees (ash) and, finally, the
oak w hich forms the clim ax vegetation. It should
be noted th a t although each stage of th e succes­
sion is marked by a new d om inant, m any o f the
earlier species contin u e to grow there, although
som e are shaded out.
Figure 11.5 shows an idealised prim ary succes­
sion across a new ly em erging rocky coastline. It
excludes th e increasing nu m ber o f species found
at each stage o f th e seral succession. The species
are determ ined by local differences in rainfall,
tem perature and sunlight, bedrock and soil type
aspect and relief. Lithoseres can develop on bare
rock exposed by a retreating glacier (page 294),
on ash or lava follow ing a v o lcan ic eruption on
land (Krakatoa, Places 35) or form ing a new islar :
(Surtsey, Places 3, page 16), or, as in Figure 11.5.
on land em erging from th e sea as a result of
isostatic uplift follow ing th e m eltin g of an
icecap (page 163).
Over tim e, th e area show n to have the pioneer
com m u n ity passes th rough several stages until
the clim atic clim ax is reached - assum ing that
the land con tin u es to em erge from the sea, that
Figure 11.7
Primary succession on the same lithosere
in Arran: bracken and deciduous woodlan
behind the rocky coastline
jfewiiHimr/irwM
 there is n o significant change in th e local clim ate,
and th a t there is n o hu m an interference. Figures
11.6 and 11.7 are photos show ing tw o stages in
th e succession, taken on a raised b each on the
east coast o f Arran. Figure 11.6 shows lichen,
favouring a sou th-facing aspect o n gently dipping
rocks, and mosses, growing in darker north -facin g
hollow s. Beyond, where soil has begun to form
and where th e water table is high, grasses and
bog m yrtle have entered the succession. Figure
11.7 was taken where th e soil depth and am ount
of hum us have increased and th e water table is
lower, as indicated by th e presence o f bracken.
To th e right, bu t n o t clearly visible o n th e photo,
reeds are grow ing in a h ollow where th e water
table is nearer to th e surface. In th e m iddle dis­
tan ce are small deciduous trees w ith, behind
them , taller oaks ind icating a clim ax vegetation.

Krakatoa: a lithosere
In August 1883, a series of volcanic eruptions
reduced the island of Krakatoa to one-third of its
previous size and left a layer of ash over 50 m deep.
No vegetation or animal life was left on the island
.-e11.8
or in the surrounding sea. Yet within three years
_ ary succession,
(Figure 11.8), 26 species had reappeared and, in
ito a : ve g e ta tio n
1933, 271 plant and 720 insect species, together
a u tio n accordi ng
g h t above sea- with several reptiles, were recorded. The first
; 1983 recolonisers arrived in three ways. Most were seeds
blown from surrounding islands by the wind, while
others drifted in from the sea or were carried by
birds. However, on Krakatoa the plant succession,
as defined by F.E. Clements in 1916 (page 286),
was influenced by another variable: chance. For
example, a piece of driftwood with a particular seed
type just happened to be washed ashore onto the
new ash, whereas it could just as easily have missed
the island altogether.

Krakatoa
ferns, mosses, Cyrtandra
shrubs and orchids

600
Neonaudeo trees
Casuarina with dense
Neonaucleo trees grass on steepest slopes
400 with fig and
macarandra tree^
beach plants,
Terminaţia trees, Barringtonia,
beach plants, macarandraand |
200 Barnngtonia, coconut
Terminaţia,
Casuarina

Clim ate A/ofe:The rainforest climax vegetation here

Temperatures are high and constant.Most months average 28°C,giving a very does not contain as many species as the
low annual range. Rain is heavy,falling in convectional storms most afternoons rainforests on surrounding islands.
throughout the year.
800 800
Cyrtandra shrubs,
ferns, mosses and orchids, mosses, ferns,
ferns, Cyrtandra
orchids, Cyrtandra small trees ______
shrubs, mosses and
shrubs, woodland in
orchids

600 - increasing number

- 600
of Neonauclea trees

savanna grassland, mixed woodland

grass 3 m high
coarse grassland
-£ 400 - 400
rainforest climax:
ferns, shrubs, increasing number Neonauclea trees Neonauclea with fig,
dense grass, some of macarandra and taking over from macarandra and
ferns growing and macarandra and Neonaucleo trees, macarandra and figs Terminaţia
200 - blue-green bacteria figs figs 200

beach plants, beach plants, coconuts beach plants, coastal woodland Barringtonia, beach
Barringtonia, Barringtonia, tussock
Barringtonia tussock grass________ grass, coconut
climax {types as 1918) plants, Casuarina

Year 1883 1886 1908 1918 1933 1983

Number of 0 26 115 132 271

plant species

Biogeography 289
 older dune ridges climax
(grey dunes)

main ridge large oak

d une heath - gorse, bracken,
m arram grass on trees
som e marram, ragwort, heather,
yello w dunes
fore-dunes red fescue, sea prickly holly, small
sea couch grass, spurge, sand shrubs, buckthorn
marram grass sedge, small
herbs, heather
embryo dunes
(ştrand line):
lym e grass,
sea cou ch grass x
s ea k small trees, pine, birch
likely position o f d om ed w ater table d u n e 'sla ck 'w ith higher w a ter table, creep ing willow , alder and d une
co tto n grass, y e llo w iris, reeds, rushes plantations (pine)

Figure 11.9 2 P s am m o s ere s from th e prevailing w ind. T heir greater hum us

Transect across sand
dunes to show a
psammosere, Morfa
Harlech, north Wales
Figure 11.10
Primary succession on a
psammosere: colonisation
of fore-dunes, Winterton,
Norfolk (compare Figures
6.32 and 6.33)
A psam m osere succession develops on sand and is
best illustrated by taking a transect across coastal
dunes (Figure 11.9). The first plants to colonise,
indeed to in itiate dune form ation, are usually
lym e grass, sea cou ch grass and m arram grass.
Sea cou ch grass grows on berm s around th e tidal
high-w ater m ark and is often responsible for the
fo rm ation of em bryo dunes (Figure 6.3 1 ). O n the
yellow fore-dunes, w hich are arid, being above the
highest o f tides and experien cing rapid percola­
tio n by rainwater, m arram grass becom es equally
im portant.
T h e m a in dune ridge, w h ich is extrem ely
arid and exposed to w ind, is likely to be veg-
etated exclusively by m arram grass. M arram has
adapted to these harsh co n d itio n s by hav ing
leaves th a t can fold to reduce surface area,
w h ich are sh in y and w h ich ca n be aligned to the
w ind d irection : three factors capable o f lim itin g
ev ap otran sp iration. M arram also has lon g roots
to tap underground w ater supplies and is able
to grow upwards as fast as sand d ep osition can
cover it. Grey dunes, b eh in d th e m a in ridge,
have lost th eir supply o f sand and are sheltered
c o n ten t, from th e d eco m p o sitio n o f earlier
m arram grass, enables th e soil to h o ld m ore
m oisture. A lthough m arram is still present, it
faces in creasin g co m p etitio n from sm all flow-
ering plants and herbs such as sea spurge (with
su ccu len t leaves to store w ater) and heather.
The older ridges, further from th e water, h a . -
b o th m ore and taller species. D une slacks mav
form in hollow s betw een th e ridges if th e water
table reaches th e surface. Plants such as creepir _
willow, yellow iris, reeds and rushes and shrubs
are indicators o f a deeper and w etter soil. On the
landw ard side o f th e dunes, perhaps 4 0 0 m froir.
th e b each , are sm all deciduous trees inclu ding
ash and h a w th o rn and, as th e soil is sandy, pine
p lan tatio n s. Furthest in lan d com es th e oak
clim ax. Figure 1 1 .9 show s a psam m osere based
on sand dunes at M orfa H arlech, n o rth Wales.
Figures 1 1 .1 0 and 6 .3 2 show m arram and lynu
grass fo rm in g th e yellow fore-dunes, w ith gorse
and h eath er on th e greyer dunes b eh in d .
Figures 1 1 .1 1 and 6 .3 3 show v eg etation on
th e in lan d ridges.

Primary succession on a psammosere:

vegetation on a grey dune ridge and on
a dune slack, Braunton Burrows, Devon

pioneer com m unity on inter-tidal
mudflats
blue-green bacteria, S a lic o rn ia Spartina
eel grass
gh-water m ark (spring tides)
gh-water mark (ordinary tides)
. v-water mark (ordinary tides)
3 H a lo s e res
"owing In river estuaries, large am ounts o f silt are depos­
succes- ited by th e ebbing tide and inflow ing rivers. The
îosete, earliest plant colonisers are green algae and eel
i Marsh,
grass w hich can tolerate subm ergence by the
■nsula.
tide for m ost o f th e 12-hour cycle and w h ich
trap mud, causing it to accum ulate. Two other
colonisers are Salicornia and Spartina w hich are
h a lo p h y te s - i.e. plants th a t can tolerate saline
cond ition s. They grow on th e inter-tidal m udflats
(Figure 6 .3 4 ), w ith a m axim um of 4 hours' expo-
sure to the air in every 12 hours. Spartina has long
roots enabling it to trap m ore mud th an th e iniţial
colonisers of algae and Salicornia, and so, in m ost
places, it has becom e th e d om in an t vegetation.
The inter-tidal flats receive new sedim ent daily,
are waterlogged to th e exclusion o f oxygen, and
i on in a
have a high pH value.
a n o n lh e
.?redonly The sward zone (page 158), in contrast, is
‘ tides inhabited by plants th a t can only tolerate a
rowan,
ash,
non- alder oak
sward zone halophytic
shrubs
sea lavender,
sea aster, grasses
m axim um o f 4 hours' subm ergence in every 12
hours. Here the d om in an t species are sea lavender,
sea aster and grasses, inclu ding the 'bow ling green
turf' o f th e Solway Firth. However, althou gh th e
vegetation here tends to form a th ick m at, it is
n o t continu ou s. Hollows m ay rem ain w here the
seawater becom es trapped leaving, after evapora­
tion, saltpans in w h ich th e salinity is to o great
for plants (Figure 11 .1 3 ). As th e tide ebbs, water
draining off the land m ay be con cen trated in to
creeks (Figure 6.3 5 ). The upper sward zone is only
covered by spring tides and here Jiincus and other
rushes grow. Further inland , n o n -h alo p h y tic
grasses and shrubs enter the succession, to be fol-
lowed by sm all trees and ultim ately by the clim ax
oak vegetation. Figure 1 1 .1 2 is a transect based on
the saltm arshes on th e n o rth coast o f th e Gower
Peninsula in south Wales. Figure 1 1 .1 4 shows
several stages in th e halosere succession.
Figure 11.14
Primary succession in a halosere:
Blakeney Point, Norfolk
Biogeography 291
 oak w o o dlan d

Figure 11.15

Idealised primary succession in small river with

a hydrosere sedim ent

floating plants, algae

and mosses
rafts of floating plants:
p o n d w e ed and w ater lilies
sed im ent rich in
organic content

■*— land plants-»

fe 'W

Figure 11.16 — marsh plants— ►!

Primary succession in a
water plant:
hydrosere at the head ofa
reservoirinCumbria
4 H yd ro seres
Lakes and ponds originate as clear water w hich
con tain s few plant nu trients. Any sedim ent
carried in to th e lake will enrich its water w ith
nutrients and begin to in fill it. The earliest colo-
nisers will probably be algae and m osses whose
spores have b een blow n on to th e water surface
by th e w ind. These grow to form vegetation raf--
w hich provide a h ab itat for bacteria and in sect'
N ext will be w ater-loving plants w hich m ay eitr.
grow on th e surface, e.g. water lilies and po n d ­
weed, or be totally subm erged (Figure 11.15).
Bacteria recycle th e nutrients from th e pioneer
com m unity, and m arsh plants such as bulrushr'
sedges and reeds begin to en croach in to the
lake. As these m arsh plants grow outwards into
th e lake and further sedim ent builds upwards a:
th e expense of th e water, small shrubs and trees
will take root form ing a m arshy th icket. In time.
the lake is likely to con tract in size, to becom e
deoxygenised by th e decaying vegetation and
eventually to disappear and be replaced by the
oak clim ax vegetation. This prim ary succession
show n in Figure 1 1 .1 5 . Figure 1 1 .1 6 shows land
plants en croach in g at the head o f a reservoir,
w hile Figure 11.17 illustrates the water, m arsh arm
land p lan t succession in and around a sm all lake.
Incidentally, it is n o t necessary to be an
expert b o ta n ist to recognise th e plants nam ed r
these prim ary successions; you ju st need a gooa
p lan t reco g n itio n book!

Figure 11.17

Primary succession in
a small lake, Sussex
S e c o n d a ry succession
A clim a tic clim a x occurs w h en th ere is stab ilitt
in transfers o f m aterial and energy in th e e co ­
system (page 2 9 5 ) betw een th e p lan t cover and
th e physical e n v iro n m en t. However, th ere are
several factors th a t can arrest th e p lan t
succession before it has achieved this d ynam ic
equ ilibrium , or w h ich m ay alter th e clim ax
after it has b een reached. T hese include:
A rran : secondary plant succession
The mudflow shown in Figure 2.16 occurred in
October 1981 and completely covered all the existing
vegetation. Twelve months later it was estimated
that 20 per cent ofthe flow had been recolonised, a
figure that had grown to 40 per cent in 1984 and 70
per cent in 1988. Had this been a primary succession,
lichens and mosses would have formed the pioneer
community and they would probably have covered
only a small area. The pioneer plants would probably
also have been randomly distributed and, even after
seven years, the species would have been few in
numberand small in height.
The e ffe c t o f fire
T h e severity o f a fire and its effect on th e eco ­
system depend largely upon th e clim a tic co n d i­
tio n s at th e tim e. T h e fire is likely to be h o ttest
in dry w eather and, in th e n o rth e rn hem isp h ere,
o n sunn y so u th -facin g slopes w here th e vegeta­
tio n is driest. T h e spread o f a fire is fastest w h en
th e w ind is strong and b low in g up hill and w here
there is a build-up o f com bu stib le m aterial. The
e x te n t o f d isru ption also depends up on th e type
and th e state o f th e v eg etation . The follow ing is a
list of exam p les, in rank order o f severity.
1 Areas w ith a M editerranean clim ate, where the
chaparral o f California and the maquis/ garrigue
of Southern Europe are densest and tinder-dry
in late sum mer after the seasonal drought.
Since 2 0 0 5 , m ajor bush fires, w hich are occur-
ring more often, have threatened Sydney in
Australia, Olym pia (site of the first Olympics)
in Greece, parts o f the south of France and, in
California, Los Angeles (Case Study 15A). In
early 2009, over 2 0 0 people lost their lives in
bushfires, in the Australian state o f Victoria.
2 C oniferous forests w here th e leaf litter
burns readily.
3 Ungrazed grasslands and, especially, th e
savannas, w h ich have a low biom ass but a
th ick litter layer (Figure 1 1 .2 8 ). B io m a ss is
the total m ass o f living organism s present in
a co m m u n ity at an y given tim e, expressed in
term s o f oven -d ry w eight (m ass) per u n it area.
■ a m udflow or landslide (Places 36)
■ d eforestation or afforestation
■ overgrazing by an im als or th e plou ghing-up
o f grasslands
■ b u rn in g grasslands, m oorlan d s, forests
and h eath s
■ d raining w etlands
■ disease (e.g. D u tch elm ), and
■ changes in clim ate (page 2 8 6 ).
Instead, by 1988, much of the flow had already
been recolonised. It could be seen that most ofthe
plants were found near the edges ofthe flow and
were not randomly distributed, and there were
already several species including grasses, heather,
bog myrtle and mosses, some of which exceeded
50 cm in height.
These observations suggest a secondary
succession with plants from the surrounding climax
community having invaded the flow, mainly due to
the dispersai of their seeds by the wind.
4 In ten siv ely grazed grasslands in sem i-arid
areas w h ich have a lower biom ass and a
lim ited litter layer.
5 D eciduous w oodlands w h ich, despite th e
presence o f a th ick litter layer, are o ften slow
to b u m .
Following a fire, th e blackened soil has a lower
albedo and absorbs heat m ore readily and, w ithout
its protective vegetation cover, th e soil is m ore vul-
nerable to erosion. Ash initially increases consider-
ably the quantity of inorganic nutrients in the soil
and bacterial activity is accelerated. Any seedlings
left in the soil will grow rapidly as there is now
p lenty of light, n o sm othering layer of leaf litter,
plenty of nutrients, a warmer soil and, at first, less
com petition from other species. Heaths and moors
th at have been fired are conspicuous by their
greener, m ore vigorous growth. A fire clim ax com ­
m unity, know n as p y ro p h y tic vegetation, contains
plants w ith seeds w hich have a thick protective
coat and w hich m ay germ inate because of the heat
o f th e fire. The com m unity m ay have a high pro­
p ortion of species th at can sprout quickly after the
fire - plants th at are protected by thick, insulating
bark (cork oak in the chaparral (page 324) and
baobab in th e savannas (Figure 12.14)), or w hich
have underground tubers or rhizom es insulated by
the soil. It has been suggested that the grasslands of
the Am erican Prairies and the African savannas are
n o t clim atic clim ax vegetation, but are the result
of firing by indigenous Indian and African tribes
(Case Study 12).
Biogeography 293
 V e g e ta tio n c h a n g e s in th e H o io c e n e
T he H oiocene is th e m ost recent o f th e geological
periods (Figures 1.1 and 11 .1 8 ). T he last glacial
advance in Britain ended about 18 0 0 0 years ago.
A lthough th e extrem e sou th o f England rem ained
covered w ith hardy tundra plants, m ost of
n o rth ern Britain was left as bare rock
or glacial till. Had th e clim ate gradually and
con stan tly am eliorated, a prim ary succession
would have taken place, from sou th to n orth ,
as previously described for a lithosere. It has b een
established th a t there have b een several m ajor
fluctuations in clim ate during those 18 0 0 0 years
w h ich have resulted in significan t changes in th e
Figure 11.19
clim ax vegetation (Figure 11.18).
Changes in the surface
There are several tech n iq u es th a t help to
oflowland England,
d eterm in e v eg etation ch an g e: p o llen analysis,
Wales and Scotland over
the last 12 000 years d en d rochron ology, rad io-carb on dating, and
(ofterWilkinson) h isto rica l evidence (page 2 4 8 ). Fam ilies o f plants
have th e sam e p o llen grain in term s o f its shape
and p attern . W here p o llen is blow n by th e w inc
o n to peat bogs, such as at Tregaron in west
W ales, th e grains are trapped b y th e peat. As
m ore peat accu m ulates over th e years, th e pollen
o f successively later tim es ind icates w h ich were
th e d o m in a n t and su b d om in an t plants o f the
period (Figures 1 1 .1 8 and 1 1 .1 9 ). As each plant
grows best w ith in certain d efined tem perature
and p recip ita tio n lim its, it is possible to deter­
m in e w h en th e clim ate eith er im proved (am eli­
orated) or d eteriorated. D en d roch ro n ology
- d ating by m eans o f th e an n u al grow th-rings
of trees - has show n th a t th e b ristleco n e pine o:
C aliforn ia can be dated b ack som e 5 0 0 0 years,
w hile European d en drochron ology, based o n b ' r
oaks in Ireland and G erm any, extend s back some
10 0 0 0 years. R ad io-carbon d atin g is based on
ch a n g in g am o u n ts o f rad ioactivity in th e atm os­
phere and in plants. N otice in
Figure 1 1 .1 8 , w h ich links
clim atic and vegetation
changes, h ow forests increas-
as th e clim ate am eliorates,
and how h eath lan d and pea:
m oors take over w hen the
clim ate d eteriorates.

Figure 11.18

Climatic and vegetat

change in Britain sinc-
the Hoiocene
(BP = Before Presen:

Phase/period Climate Vegetation Cultures

pre-17000 final glaciation glacial none in northern Britain; tundra in none
Southern England

17000-14000 periglacial cold, 6°C in summer tundra Palaeolithic

14000-12000 Allered warming slowly to 12°C in summer tundra with hardy trees, e.g. willow and birch Palaeolithic

12000-10000 pre-Boreal glacial advance: colder, 4°C in summer Arctic/Alpine plants, tundra Mesolithic

10000-8000 Boreal continental: winters colder and drier, forests: juniper first then pine and birch and Mesolithic
summers warmer than today finally oak, elm and lime

8000-5000 Atlantic maritime: warm summers, 20°C; mild our'optimum'dimate and vegetation: oak, beginning of Neolithic; first
winters, 5°C; wet alder, hazel, elm and lime (too cold for lime deforestation about 3500 BC
today); peat on moors

5000-2500 sub-Boreal continental: warmer and drier elm and lime declined; birch flourished; peat Neolithic period, settled agriculture-
bogsdried out beginning ofBronze Age

2500-2000 sub-Atlantic maritime: cooler, stormy and wet peat bogs re-formed; decline in forests due settled agriculture
to climate and farming

2000-1000 historical times improvement: warmer and drier clearances for farming Roman occupation during early part

1000-450 decline: much cooler and wetter further clearances: little climax
vegetation left; medieval farming

450-300 'little ice age': colder than today

post-300— gradual improvement recently some afforestation: Agrarian and Industrial Revolutions
present coniferous trees
Ecology and ecosystems individuals of a particular species in a habitat.
An ecosystem depends o n tw o basic processes:
The term eco lo g y , w h ich com es from th e Greek en erg y flow s and m a te ria l c y c lin g . As th e flow
word oikos m ean in g 'h o m e', refers to th e study of energy is on ly in on e d irection and because it
of th e interrelationships betw een organism s and crosses th e system boundaries, this aspect o f the
th eir habitats. An organism 's hom e or h a b ita t lies ecosystem behaves as an o p e n system . N utrients,
in th e biosphere, i.e. th e surface zone o f th e Earth w h ich are co n sta n tly recycled for future use, are
and its ad jacent atm osphere in w hich all organic circulated in a series o f clo sed system s.
life exists. T he scale o f each h om e varies from
sm all m ic ro -h a b ita ts , such as under a ston e or a 1 E n e rg y flo w s
leaf, to b io m es, w h ich inclu de tropical rainforests
T he sun is th e prim ary source o f energy for all
and deserts (Figure 1 1 .2 0 ). Fundam ental to the
living things on Earth. As energy is retained only
four ecological units listed in Figure 1 1 .2 0 is the
briefly in th e biosphere before being returned to
co n cep t o f the e n v iro n m e n t. The en v iron m en t is
space, ecosystem s have to rely upon a con tin u al
a collective term to include all the con d ition s in
supply. The sun provides h eat energy w h ich ca n n o t
w h ich an organism lives. It can be divided into:
be captured by plants or anim als but w hich
1 the physical, non -living or a b io tic e n v iro n ­
warms up th e com m u n ities and their non -living
m e n t, w hich includes tem perature, water,
surroundings. The sun is also a source o f light
light, humidity, wind, carbon dioxide, oxygen,
energy w h ich can be captured by green plants
pH, rocks and nutrients in the soil, and
and transform ed in to chem ical energy through
2 th e living or b io t ic e n v iro n m e n t, w h ich
the process o f p h o to sy n th e sis. W ith ou t photo-
com prises all organism s: plants, anim als,
synthesis, there would be no life on Earth. Light,
h u m ans, bacteria and fungi.
chlorophyll, w arm th, water and carbon dioxide
are required for this process to operate. C arbon
The ecosystem dioxide, w h ich is absorbed through stom ata
in th e leaves of high er plants, reacts indirectly
An ecosystem is a natural un it in w hich the life-
w ith water taken up by th e roots w hen tem pera­
cycles o f plants, anim als and other organism s
tures are suitably high, to form carbohydrate.
are linked to each other and to the non -living
T he energy needed for this com es from sunlight
constitu ents of th e en viron m en t to form a natural
w h ich is 'trapped' by chlorop hyll. O xygen is a by-
system (Framework 3, page 45). The c o m m u n ity
product o f th e process. The carbohydrate is th en
consists o f all th e different species w ithin a h abitat
available as food for th e plant.
or ecosystem . The p o p u la tio n com prises all th e

Environment Ecological units Ecological

niche
micro-habitats small specific locations, e.g. under a leaf,
under a stone in a river

the conditions position of

under w hich habitats more specific locations with a particular plants,
plants and set of conditions and an appropriately adapted anim als and
anim als live, community, e.g. freshwater pond, hedgerow other
e.g. light, organism s
tem perature, in the food
water, soil, chain
zones units within biomes, e.g. three layers in the
gases
rainforest: the surface, deep ocean and
inter-tidal zones of the sea

biomes large areas cutling across continents yet

each with its own characteristic type of flora
and fauna, e.g. tundra, rainforest, desert

Figure 11.20

A hierarchical structure
of ecological units

Biogeography 295
 F o o d c h ain s a n d tro p h ic levels T he first tro p h ic level is occu pied b y the
A food ch a in arises w h en energy, trapped in th e p ro d u cers or a u to tro p h s ('self-feeders') w hich
carbon com p ou nd s in itia lly produced by plants inclu de green plants capable o f produ cing their
th rou g h p h o tosy n th esis, is transferred th rou g h ow n food b y p h o tosy n th esis. All oth er levels are
an ecosystem . Each lin k in th e ch a in feeds o n occu pied by co n su m e rs or h e te ro tro p h s ('o th e :
and ob tain s energy from th e one preceding it, feeders'). T hese in clu d e anim als th a t o b tain the.:
and in turn is consu m ed by and provides energy energy eith er b y eatin g green plan ts directly or
for th e follow ing lin k (Figure 1 1 .2 1 ). by eatin g anim als th a t have previously eaten
green plants. T he seco n d tro p h ic level is where
Figure 11.21 h erbivores, th e prim ary consum ers, eat th e pro­
1 Level1 Level2 Level 3 Level4
Three examples of ducers. T h e th ird tro p h ic level is w here smaller
grass w orm blackbird hawk
food chains through ca rn iv o re s (m eat-eaters) act as second ary c o n ­
fourtrophic levels leaf Caterpillar shrew badger sum ers feed ing upon th e herbivores. The fo u rth
phytoplankton zooplankton fish human tro p h ic level is occu pied by th e larger carn i­
vores, th e tertiary consu m ers. Also know n as
There are usually, b u t n o t always, four links o m n iv o re s (or diversivores), th is group - which
in th e ch a in . Each lin k or stage is know n as a includes hu m ans - eat b o th plants and anim als
tro p h ic or e n e rg y level (Figure 1 1 .2 2 ). In order and so have tw o sources o f food. Figure 11.22
for th e first link in th e ch a in to develop, th e n on - shows th e m ain tro p h ic or feeding levels in a
living e n v iro n m en t has to receive b o th energy food ch a in . D etritiv o res, such as b acteria and
from th e sun and th e oth er factors (water, C 0 2, fungi, are consu m ers th a t op erate at all trophic
etc.) needed for p h o tosy n th esis. levels.

Figure 11.22

Trophic levels Trophic level 1 Trophic level 2 Trophic level 3 Trophic level 4
autotrophs herbivores carnivores om nivores
(self-nourishing) (prim ary consum ers) (secondary consum ers) (diversivores)
g reen plants consum ers eating green meat-eaters consum e carnivores eating
plants herbivores that have carnivores that have eaten
consum ed green plants herbivores w h ich have
consum ed green plants
Level I: energ y has o n ly Level 3: energy transferred Level 4: energ y has been
been transferred once, transferred twice, i.e.from three times, i.e.from sun to transferred four tim es
i.e.from sun to plants sun to plants and from plants, from plants to
plants to herbivores herbivores, and from
herbivores to carnivores

Figure 11.23

Energy flows in the

ecosystem

input

sun's energy producers consumers decomposers

non-living autotrophs herbivores, bacteria

enviro nm en t carnivores, and fungi
om nivores,
detritivores

Outputs
( î ) A ,B,C:loss of energy through heat (2 ) X,Y,Z: loss of energy w ithin stages
during transfer b etw e en stages thro u gh respiration and excreta
-► decom position

296 Biogeography
 However, n o tran sfer of energy is 1 0 0 per
ce n t efficie n t and, as Figure 1 1 .2 3 show s, energy
is lost th rou g h respiration, by th e decay o f dead
organism s and in excreta w ith in each u n it of
th e food ch a in , and also as h eat given o ff w hen
energy is passed from on e tro p h ic level to the
n ext. C onsequently, at each h ig h er level, fewer
organism s can be supported th a n at th e previous
level, even th o u g h th e ir individual size gener-
ally increases. Sim ple food ch ain s are rare; there
is usually a variety o f plants and anim als at each
level form ing a m ore com p licated fo o d w eb.
This range o f species is necessary sin ce a sole
species occu p ying a particular tro p h ic level in
a sim ple food ch a in could be 'co n su m ed ' and
th is w ould adversely affect th e organism s in
th e succeeding stages.
The progressive loss o f energy through the food
chain im poses a natural lim it on th e total m ass of
living m atter (the b io m a ss) and o n th e num ber
o f organism s th a t can exist at each level. It is con-
venient to show these changes in the form o f a
pyram id (Figure 11.24). A pyram id o f organism
num bers is o f lim ited value for com paring ecosys­
tem s for two reasons. First, it is difficult to count
1.24
nicpyramid loss of energ y
detritivores
at every
stage
nu m b er of organism s o ra m o u n t o f biomass
(i.e. the total d ry mass)
2 N u tr ie n t c y clin g
C h em icals needed to produce org anic m aterial
are circulated around th e ecosystem and are
co n tin u a lly recycled. Various ch em icals can
be absorbed by plants eith er as gases from th e
atm osp here or as soluble salts from th e soil. Each
cy cle consists, at its sim plest, of plants taking
up ch em ica l n u trien ts w h ich, o n ce th e y have
b een used, are passed on to th e herbivores and
th e n th e carnivores th a t feed upon th em . As
the num bers o f grasses or algae per un it area.
Secondly, it does n o t take into accou nt th e relative
sizes o f organism s - a bacterium would co u n t the
same as a whale! A pyram id o f biom ass takes into
accou n t the difference in size betw een organisms,
but can n o t be used to com pare masses at different
trophic levels in the same ecosystem or at similar
trophic levels in different ecosystem s. This is
because biom ass will have accum ulated over dif­
ferent periods o f tim e.
H um ans are found at th e end o f a food ch ain
and h u m an p o p u la tio n is d ep end en t up on the
len g th o f th e ch a in (and therefore th e am o u n t
o f energy lost). In o th er words, in a shorter food
ch a in , less energy will have b een lost by th e tim e
it reaches hu m ans and so th e land can support
a h ig her d en sity o f po p u latio n . In a longer food
ch a in , m ore energy w ill have b een lost by th e
tim e th e food is con su m ed by h u m an s, w h ich
m eans th a t th e carrying cap acity (page 3 7 8 ) is
low er and fewer people can be supported b y a
given area o f land - as in w estern Europe, w here
m o st o f th e p o p u latio n are accu stom ed to anim al
products as w ell as crops.
fe w e r organisms,
Level 1 tertiary fall in biom ass
(om nivores) consumers
Level 2 secondary
(carnivores) consumers
Level 3 primary
(herbivores) consumers
Level 4 .
producers
(plants) m any organisms,
m uch biom ass
organism s at each o f these tro p h ic levels die,
th e y d ecom pose and n u trien ts are returned to
th e system . Two o f these cycles, th e carb o n and
n itro g en cycles, are illustrated in Figures 1 1 .2 5
and 1 1 .2 6 . In each case, th e m ost basic cycle is
given (diagram a); follow ed by a m ore detailed
exam p le, alth o u g h still n o t in its en tire com -
p lex ity (diagram b).
Biogeography 297
 Figure 11.25

The carbon cycle (after M.B.V. Roberts)

photosynthesis
rem oves CO. r pool o f C 0 2
in atm osphere

respiration photosynthesis
co,

respiration com bustion

respiration and CO.

com bustion release
into atm osphere
co ,

t“
respiration
A decay
organism s

•L
Note: In recent years there has 1 ■death
been an increase in land
atm osp heric C 0 2, resulting
partly from com bustion of fossii carbonification,
fuels in the atm osphere causing d eath gradual production
a slight rise in tem perature (the o f fossii fuels
enh an ced 'greenhouse effect').
This cycle operates o ver land d ecay organism s
and sea,and also involves peat
w eathering. coal
oii a n i gas

pool o f nitrogen in vo:

passed into
atm osp here N ? erA
herbivores
1 J V
artificial nitrogen
fixing

nitrogen-fixing I
nitrogen returned as .
blue-green bacteria protein
am m onia (as excreta or nitrates built up by
following decay of organic plant roots into T
nitrate
matter); bacteria convert protein
reduction
am m onia into nitrate
by plants

d eath
nitrogen-fixing
bacteria in soil
sh allow m arine
nitrates in soil and roots
sedim ent

i •
Note-, This cycle can operate --- N O , by nitrate bacteria
o ver land,over sea, or in the loss to deep
atm osphere. It includes sedim ents
possible inputs (volcanic (output)
eruptions) and outputs (loss
N O , by nitrate bacteria
to deep-sea sedim ents).

Figure 11.26
The nitrogen cycle
(afterM.B.V. Roberts)
R ecent in vestig ations, m ain ly in New Zealand
and th e Andes, have show n th a t n itro g en from
seawater, or released by plants and anim als
as th ey die on th e seabed, can be ch an n elled
upwards, to g eth er w ith m agm a, at subd uction
(destructive) plate m argins. The nitrog en can
later be released back in to th e atm osphere, eithr
as water or as a gas, th rou g h v o lca n ic eruptions
O nce in th e atm osphere, th e n itro g en can retur:-
to Earth and th e sea in rainw ater - so co m p le ţi:.,
a n o th er n itro g en cycle.

298 Biogeography
 Framework 10 Scientific enquiry: hypothesis
Since the 1960s, geographers have feit an
increasing need to adopt a more scientific approach
to their studies. This stemmed from a number of
changes that were taking place in attitudes to the
study of geography and to Science in a broader
sense:
• The increasing scale and complexity ofthe
subject's material and the data available.
• The rapid development of theory, often using
computer modelling, from which predictions
could be made.
D efine the problem
Form ulate a hypothesis
D ecide w h ich data are needed
to test the hypothesis
■y (field) data (e.g. Seco n d ary (published) data
• annaires, soil pits) (e.g. maps, censuses)
D esign data collection procedures (including
sampling methods, if required)
Data collection and recording
D ata analysis (using statistical
techniques to look for order,
patterns and relationships)
Assess the results:draw ing conclusions
QltB A
■esis is accepted Hypothesis is rejected
e on to next Redefine problem ; form ulate
. c em for study a ne w hypothesis
• The realisation that, despite great care, all
human observers have their own, subjective,
opinions which influence an assessment or
conclusion (i.e. scientific objectivity could not
be guaranteed).
The scientific approach to geography involves a series
of logical steps, already practised in the physical
sciences, which enabled conclusions to be drawn
from precise and unbiased data (Framework 8,
page 246).This approach is summarised in the flow
diagram (Figure 11.27).
During a sixth-form field weekon the Isle of Arran,
one day was set aside for hypothesis testing. This
involved seeking possible relationships between
several variables on Goatfell (Figure 11.37).The
hypotheses included:
• Vegetation density decreases as
altitude increases.
Soil acidity increases as altitude increases.
Soil acidity increases as the angle of
slope increases.
Soil moisture increases as the angle of
slope increases.
Depth of soil increases as altitude decreases.
Height of vegetation increases as
altitude decreases.
Number of species increases as
altitude increases.
Soil temperature increases as
altitude decreases.
Data collection required the taking of readings at
a minimum of 15 sites from sea-level to the top of
Goatfell. It is important that the selection of sites is
made without introducing bias (see Framework 6,
page 159).
Data analysis may include drawing a scattergraph
to investigate the possibility of any correlation
between the two variables; calculating the strength
ofthe relationship between the variables by
using the Spearman's rank correlation coefficient
(Framework 19, page 613); and then testing the
result to see how likely it is that the correlation
occurred bychance (page 614).
It should then be possible to determine whether
the original hypothesis is acceptable as an
r 1 explanation ofthe data, or not. If it is rejected, then
a new hypothesis should be formulated.
Biogeography 299
 Fig ure 1 1 .2 8
A model ofthe
mineral nutrient
cycle (after input dissolved in rainfall
Gersmehl) (from atm osphere)
loss in runoff
Model ofthe mineral nutrient cycle
This m odel, developed by P.F. G ersm ehl in 1976,
attem pts to show th e differences betw een
ecosystem s in term s o f n u trien ts stored in,
and transferred betw een, th ree com p artm en ts
(Figure 1 1 .2 8 ):
1 L itte r - th e total am o u n t o f organ ic m atter,
in clu d in g hum us and leaf litter, in th e soil
(it is, therefore, m ore th a n ju st th e L or
litter layer as show n in th e soil profile in
Figure 10 .5 ).
2 B io m ass - th e to tal mass o f living organism s,
m a in ly p la n t tissue, per u n it area.
3 Soil.
Figure 1 1 .2 9 shows th e m in eral n u trien t cycles
for th ree selected biom es: th e con iferou s forest
(taiga), th e tem perate grassland (prairies and
steppes), and th e trop ical rain forest (selvas).
1 T aiga (Figure 11 .2 9 a ) Litter is th e largest store
o f m ineral n u trients in th e taiga. A lthough
forest, th e biom ass is relatively low because
th e coniferous trees form on ly one layer, have
little undergrow th, c o n ta in a lim ited variety
of species, and have needle-like leaves. The
soil co n ta in s few n u trien ts because, follow ing
th eir loss th rou g h leach in g and as surface
ru n off (after snow m elt w hen th e ground is
still frozen), replacem en t is slow: th e low
tem peratures restrict the rate o f ch em ical
300 Biogeography
uptake by plants
input w eath ered
from rock
w eathering o f parent rock. The layer of
needles is o ften thick, bu t their th ick cuticles
and th e low tem peratures discourage the
a ctio n o f th e decom posers (page 2 6 8 ). The
breakdow n o f litter in to hum us is thus very J
slow. These factors a cco u n t for th e low fer-
tility p o ten tial o f th e podsol soils of th e taiga
(pages 3 3 1 -3 3 2 ).
2 S teppes/prairies (Figure 11.29b ) Soil is the
largest store o f m ineral nutrients in th e tem ­
perate grasslands. The biom ass store is small
due to the clim ate, w h ich provides insufficien:
m oisture to support trees and tem peratures
low enough to reduce th e growing season to
approxim ately six m onths. Indeed, m uch of
th e biom ass is found beneath th e surface as rh -
zom es and roots. The grass dies back in winter
and nutrients are returned rapidly to th e soil.
The soil retains m ost o f these nutrients because
the rainfall is insufficient for effective leachins
and the clim ate is conducive to b o th chem icai
and physical w eathering w hich release further
nutrients from the parent rock. The presence c:
bacteria also speeds up th e return of nutrients
from the litter to the soil. These factors help to
accou nt for th e high fertility potential of the
black chernozem soils associated w ith te m ­
perate grasslands (pages 327 and 340).
 a taiga (northern coniferous forest)

Figure 11.29

Mineral nutrient cycles in three different

environments (ffftecGersmehl)

B b io m a ss L litte r S soil

© c o m p a r tm e n ts (circ le size
p ro p o rţio n a l to a m o u n t
s to re d )

n u trie n t tra n sfers (a rro w s

a re p ro p o rţio n a l to
a m o u n t o f flo w )

b steppe and prairie (mid-latitude continental grassland) c selvas (tropical rainforest)

3 Selvas (Figure 1 1.29c) The tropical rainfor-
ests have, of all the m ajor environm ents, the
highest rates of transfer - an annual rate ten
times greater th an that of th e taiga. The biom ass
is the largest store o f m ineral nutrients in the
tropical rainforests. High annual temperatures,
th e heavy, evenly distributed rainfall and the
year-long growing season all contribute to the
tall, dense and rapid growth of vegetation. The
biom ass is com posed of several layers of plants
and countless different species. The m any plant
roots take up vast am ounts of nutrients. In
com parison, the litter store is limited, despite
the continuous fall o f leaves, because the hot,
wet clim ate provides the ideal environm ent for
bacterial action (both in num bers and type) and
the decom position o f dead vegetation. In areas
where the forest is cleared, the heavy rain soon
removes th e nutrients from th e soil by leaching
or surface runoff. The leaf litter con ten t rapidly
decomposes due to th e high temperatures and
heavy rainfall. The rainforests are characterised
by 'tight' biogeochem ical cycling betw een the
litter and the top layers of the soil in w hich
m ost tropical species are rooted, and the
biom ass. This m eans that the soil com ponent,
and by proxy the bedrock that is usually found
at some considerable depth (Figure 12.10), is
only a small com p on ent in the nutrient cycle.
Initially nutrients such as phosphorus may
increase if the forest is burnt, but deforestation
usually leads to a rapid decline in soil fertility
(pages 3 1 7 -3 1 8 ).
Figure 11.30 com pares th e storage and transfer of
nutrients in four m ajor biom es (i.e. ecosystem s on
a large scale). Remem ber that these figures refer to
natural cycles which, in reality, have often been
interrupted or modified by hu m an activity.

Nutrient storage Annual nutrient transfer

ansferof
Ecosystem type Stored in biomass Stored in litter Stored in soil Soil to biomass Biomass to litter Litter to i
m selected
Equatorial rainforest 11081 178 352 2028 1540 4480
Coniferous forest 3 350 2100 142 178 145 86
Tropical savanna 978 300 502 319 312 266
Temperate prairie/steppe 540 370 5000 422 426 290
All measurements in kg/ha

Biogeography 301
 H aller Park, Mombasa, Kenya: creating an ecosystem
Most ofthe eastern coast of Africa is protected by
coral reefs (Places 80, page 526). Coral, which live
in clear, warm, shallow tropical waters, are small
organisms that have a calcareous skeleton. For
centuries, coast-dwellers have hacked out blocks
of dead coral to build their houses and mosques.
In 1954, the Bamburi Portland Cement Company
built a factory 10 km north of Mombasa, Kenya,
to produce cement, and began the open-cast
extraction of coral. Cement was essential to Kenya,
partly to help in the internai development ofthe
countryand partly as a vital export earner. By 1971,
over 25 million tonnes of coral had been quarried,
leaving a sterile wasteland covering 3.5 km2. On
that land there were no plants, no wildlife, no soil:
The Bamburi Quarry it was a degraded ecosystem. The Swiss-owned
Figure 11.32
Casuarina trees planted in
'' coral rubble, Bamburi Quarry
302 Biogeography
transnaţional cement company then appointed Dr
Rene Haller to restore the environment from what
he himself described as'a lunar landscape filled
with saline pools'(Figure 11.31).
After trying 26 different types of tree, Dr Haller
found the key to be the Casuarina tree (Figure
11.32). This pioneer tree grew by 3 m a year,
flourished in the coral rubble, and was able to
withstand both the high salinity and the high
ground temperatures (up to 40°C).The constant
fall ofthe needle-type leaves provided a habitat
for red4egged millipedes which, together with the
Casuarina 's ability to'fix'atmospheric nitrogen,
helped with the formation of the first soil and
provided the base for a new ecosystem. As the
soil began to develop, more trees were planted.
Over the next few years, indigenous herbs, grasses
and tree species, as well as beetles, spiders and
small animals, were introduced into the young
forest, each with its own function (niche) in the
developing ecosystem.The depth ofthe ponds
and lakes was increased until they reached the
groundwater table so that a freshwater habitat
was created for fish (initially the local tilapia
which are tolerant of saline water), crocodiles and
hippopotami. Hippopotami excrement stimulated
the growth of algae which oxygenated the water,
preventing eutrophication. After only 20 years, the
soil depth had reached 20 cm and the rainforest,
with over 220 tree species, had become sufficiently
restored to be home for over 180 recorded species
of bird.The ecosystem was completed with the
introduction of grazing animals (herbivores) such
as the buffalo, oryx, antelope and giraffe.The
re-creation ofthe rainforest (Figure 11.33) had been
completed without the use of artificial fertiliser
and insecticides, as Dr Haller considered these to
be incompatible with his concept ofa complex,
balanced ecosystem.
The project has not only been an environmental
success, it has also become a sustainable
commercial venture with income derived from, for
example, the sale of timber, bananas, vegetables,
crocodiles and honey.The main source ofthe
economy is the integrated aquaculture system
(Figure 11.34) with, at its centre, the tilapia fish
farm. The nutrients in the effluent water are used
as fertiliser in the adjacent fruit plantation and for
biogas to operate the pumps. From here, the water
is led through a rice field into settlement ponds,
where'Nile cabbage'is grown for use in clearing
the fish ponds. A crocodile farm is attached to the
gure 1 1.33
water system, as crocodile waste, which is rich in only are they fed on surplus tilapia, but their eggs
ere-created rain-
■estecosystem, phosphate and nitrogen, is a valuable fertiliser. The are eaten by monitor lizards that help to control the
i ierPark crocodiles are part of a planned food chain. Not snake population which in turn Controls the rodent
population.Tourism has become a recent source
of income. Haller Park, the name ofthe restored
area, is open to school parties each morning and to
other visitors in the afternoon. In 1992 it received
over 100 000 visitors, making it one ofthe largest
attractions in the Mombasa area. In brief, the
once-barren quarry is now an ecologically and
economically sound enterprise (Figure 11.35).

Dr Haller also believesthat his intensive

aquaculture and agroforestry techniques, geared
to maximum yield of food, fuel and income from
minimum land area and inputs, offer significant
hope for small-scale African farmers who may
be short of fertile land in a continent with an
explosive population growth and which is ravaged
by environmental and human-created disasters.
He suggests that these methods could easily be
adapted by Africans since their genesis Nes in tribal
techniques taught to him by local farmers.

.re 11.34

-aller Park integrated

Kulture system 1Ferns \ | Mangrove | |Conocarpus | Duckweed |

uri Quarry
eaflet
ent
j ref^e
to
bot'

"'V ett'bQeovu°^ent nes«a°rd'na'V

ovous
.e a'w'n9 uarvy-1
„rW.Tod3Van
ied, a
(C3pe ident
e\/v
' 3e ad'S£ 'rS v ^ 'abte<
. 4 oţ " ; pd andcofl^e(C'a™„,rto
con"”'-' I t pavt oi
SU w ■«an 'r0P' Wnd «5
. 3cu'w'e and ba<*e,'a
I es«bV^ei „ ees,m ® P ^ ertUebas>s °<e Water
flow
sa\Ni intere^ 's
Nutrients

nst.' ^ 3ba'a U h e B ^ a(''Qr e 2 ^ ® ° Ce''

teavo^
no

,h e g 'ant '
îhabrttt*'0"-

Biogeography 303
 Biomes
A biom e is a large global ecosystem . Each biom e
gets its n am e from the d om in an t type o f veg­
etation found w ithin it (tem perate grassland,
coniferous forest, etc.). Each con tain s clim ax
com m unities o f plants and anim als and can be
closely linked to zonal soil types and anim al co m ­
m unities. Clim ate has usually been the m ajor
controllin g factor in the location and distribution
o f biom es, b u t econ om ic developm ent has trans-
form ed m any o f these natural systems. A biom e
can extend across a large part of a co n tin e n t while
its characteristics m ay be found in several conti-
nen ts (deserts and tropical rainforests). Although
som e authorities suggest th a t it is 'old-fashioned'
to link together clim ate, vegetation and soils in
a 'natural region', th e con cep t is still useful and
con v en ien t as a fram ework of study and as a valid
hypothesis for investigation. Four m ain factors
- clim a tic, to p o g rap h ic, ed ap h ic and b io tic -
interrelate to produce and control each biom e.
1 C lim a tic fa c to rs
■ P re cip ita tio n largely d eterm ines therals
tio n type, e.g. forest, grassland or desert. The
an n u al am o u n t o f p recip itatio n is usually less
im p ortan t th a n its effectiveness for
p lant grow th - for exam ple: How long is any
dry season? Does th e area receive steady,
b en eficial rain or short, heavy and destruc­
tive dow npours? Is rain fall con cen trated in
sum m er w hen evapotranspiration rates are
Figure 11.36 higher? Is th e rainfall reliable? Does m o st rain
Wind-distorted tree, f a l l during th e grow ing season? Is th ere suf-
Mauritius ficie n t m oisture for p h o tosy n th esis? Heavy
304 Biogeography
rainfall th rou g h o u t the year enables forests •
grow. These m ay be tropical rainforests, w h e-■
th e plants need a co n sta n t and heavy supp
of water, or coniferous forests, where trees i
grow due to th e lower rates of evap otransp i::-
tio n . M any oth er parts o f th e world receive
seasonal rainfall. Rainfall is m ore effective.
as in places w ith a M ed iterranean clim ate,
w hen it falls in w inter rath er th a n in su m m ;:
as this coincid es w ith th e tim e o f year w h er
evapotranspiration rates are at th eir lowest.
However, as M ed iterranean areas receive litt c
sum m er rainfall, trees and shrubs growing
there have to be x e ro p h y tic (drought-
resistant) in order to survive. Rain is less
effective w hen it falls in th e sum m er because
m u ch o f th e m oisture is lost through surface
ru n o ff and evapotranspiration. Effective
p recip itatio n is in su fficien t for trees, and so
savanna grasses grow in tropical latitudes ane
prairie grasses in m ore tem perate areas. Places
w here rainfall is lim ited th ro u g h o u t th e year
have eith er a desert b iom e, w here e p h em -
(plants w ith very sh ort life-cycles, Figure
e vegeta­
12 .1 9 ) d om inate th e v eg etation, or a tundra
biom e, where p recip itatio n falling as snow
and th e low tem peratures co m b in e to dis-
courage p lan t growth.
■ T e m p e ra tu re has a m a jo r in flu en ce o n the
flora - i.e. w h eth er th e forest is trop ical or
con ifero u s, or th e grassland is tem perate
(prairie) or trop ical (savan na). W here m ean
m o n th ly tem peratures rem ain above 21°C fo:
th e year and th ere is a co n tin u o u s grow ing
and rainy season, broad-leaved evergreen
trees ten d to d om in ate (tropical rainforests).
Places w here there is a resting period in tree
grow th, eith er in h o t clim ates w ith a dry
season or coo l clim ates w ith a short grow ing
season, are m ore likely to have coniferous
trees as th e ir d o m in a n t v eg etation . Grasses,
w h ich in clu d e m ost cereals, need a m inim um
m ean m o n th ly tem peratu re o f 6°C in order
to grow. M any plants prefer tem peratures
b etw een 10°C, w h ich is th e m in im u m for
effective p h o tosy n th esis, and 35°C . The
h ig h er th e tem peratu re, th e sooner w ilting
p o in t will be reached and th e greater th e need
for w ater to co m b at losses th rou g h evap o­
tran sp iration . The low er th e tem perature, the
fewer th e nu m ber o f soil organism s and th e
slower th e breakdow n o f hu m us and recy ­
clin g o f n u trien ts needed for p lan t grow th
(Figure 12.7).
 ■ A sp ect (the d irection in w h ich a slope faces)
Latitude: 55° 38'N Aspect: south-east
affects sunligh t, tem peratures and m oisture.
Goatfell 874 m Sou th -facin g slopes in th e n o rth e rn h e m i­
sphere are m ore favourable to p lan t grow th
ÎOO
mosses and As altitude increases there is a: th a n those facin g n o rth because th e y are
lichens • decrease in nu m b er of species
brighter, w arm er and drier (Places 28,
• decrease in heig ht o f plants
‘ 30 bilberry, mosses • decrease in d ensity o f plants page 21 3 ).
and lichens • decrease in grow th rate o f plants

beli heather,tussock
and length o f g row ing season 3 E d a p h ic (soil) fa c to rs
• decrease in biomass. In B ritain, there is considerable local variation
MO grass, cushion plants,
lichens and mosses in v egetation due to differences in soil and under­
Note : Based only on altitude: other
local factors which affect vegetation
lying paren t rock, e.g. grass on chalk, con ifers on
300- have been excluded.e.g.geology, sand, and deciduous trees on clay. P lant grow th is
cotton grass
drainage, angle o f slope, aspect, affected by soil texture, structure, acidity, organic
and sedges
d ep th of soil and soil acidity.
co n te n t, depth, w ater and oxy g en co n te n t, and
«o -
bracken on steep slopes; n u trien ts (C hapter 10).
heather and Sphagnum
moss on flatter areas 4 B io tic fa c to rs
MB - small trees and shrubs,alder, B iotic factors include th e elem ent o f com p etition :
birch and m ountain ash; bog
myrtle, bracken_
b etw een plants for lig h t, ro o t space and water,
coniferous and betw een anim als. C o m p etitio n increases
plantation w ith d en sity o f v eg etation . N atural selectio n
is an im p o rtan t b io tic factor. T h e co m p o sitio n
oak,ash, birch of seral co m m u n ities and th e degree o f reli-
deciduous w o o d lan d rhododendrons
in three layers: bram bles,flowers, grass ? r
an ce up on o th er plants and anim als e ith er for
food (parasites) or energy (h eterotrop h s feeding
o n autotrophs) are also b io tic factors. Today,
17
th ere are very few areas o f clim a x v eg etation or
■ L ig h t in te n sity affects th e process o f p h o to ­
biom es left in th e world, as m ost have eith er
/a ltitude on synthesis. Tropical ecosystem s, receiving
been altered by h u m a n activity or even entirely
ooatfell, Arran m o st in co m in g rad iation, have h ig h er energy
replaced by hu m an -created en v iro n m en ts. The
inputs th a n do ecosystem s nearer to th e
landscape has b een altered by subsid ence from
poles. W here th e a m o u n t o f lig h t decreases,
m in in g , u rban isatio n , th e co n stru ctio n o f reser-
as o n th e floo r o f th e tropical rainforests or
voirs and roads, exh a u stio n o f soils, deforesta-
w ith in creasin g d ep th in th e oceans, p la n t life
tio n and afforestation , fires, th e clearin g o f land
decreases. Q uality o f lig h t also affects p lan t
for farm ing, and th e effects o f tourism . The
grow th, e.g. th e increase in u ltra-violet lig h t
ecolog ical balance has b een upset by th e use of
o n m o u n tain s reduces th e n u m ber o f species
fertiliser and pesticides, th e grazing o f d om estic
found there.
anim als, and acid rain.
■ W in d s increase th e rate o f evapotranspiration
and th e w ind -chill factor. Trees are liable to
'b en d ' if exposed to strong, prevailing winds
T h e s p a ţia l p a tte r n o f w o rld b io m e s
(Figure 11 .3 6 ). Figure 1 1 .3 8 shows the distribution of th e world's
m ajor biom es. W h en looking at maps o f biom es
2 T o p o g ra p h ic fa c to rs in an atlas (they usually com e under th e heading
■ As a ltitu d e increases, there are fewer species;
'V egetation'), rem em ber th at all vegetation maps
th e y grow less tall; and th ey provide a less
are very generalised (Framework 11, page 347).
dense cover (Figures 1 1 .3 7 an d 1 6 .4 b ). R elief
V egetation maps do n o t show local variations,
m ay provide p ro te ctio n against heavy rain
tran sition zones or, except in extrem e cases, the
(rainshadow ) and wind.
influence of relief. Nor is there any universal con-
■ Slope an g le in flu en ces soil d epth, acid ity
sensus am ong geographers and biogeographers
(pH) and drainage. Steeper slopes usually
as to th e precise num ber o f biom es. Bradshaw
have th in n e r soils, are less w aterlogged and
has suggested 16 land biom es and 5 m arine;
less acidic th a n g entler slopes (soil caten a,
Sim m ons describes 13 (11 land biom es plus
page 2 7 6 ).
islands and seas); O'Hare accepts 11; while Goudie
(in co m m o n w ith m ost exam in ation syllabuses)
restricts his list, as does this text, to 8 land biom es.

Biogeography 305
 Figure 11.38

World biomes
N
tundra

□ taiga (coniferous forest)

Tropic of
□ temperate deciduous forest Cancer

□
temperate grassland
chaparral and/or evergreen
hardwood (Mediterranean)
Equator
5iw .
tropical rainforest
Tropic of Capricorn 7
□ savarina grassland

□ other biomes (ice, mountains,

monsoon forest, semi-arid)

The eig h t m a jo r biom es, as show n in th e u n d erstan d in g th a t it is clim ate th at

Figure 1 1 .3 8 , can be determ ined using a variety exerts th e m a jo r in flu en ce and co n tro l over
o f criteria; tw o exam p les are discussed below and b o th v eg etatio n and soils. T h e in teractio n s
sum m arised in Figure 1 1 .3 9 . betw een clim ate, soils and v eg etation are
1 T he tra d itio n a l m e th o d This links the described and exp lained in C h ap ter 12.
Figure 11.40 type and global d istrib u tion o f v eg etation T he m o d e rn m e th o d This is based upon
Net primary production (NPP) w ith th a t o f th e m ajor world clim a tic types d ifferen tiatin g betw een relative rates of
ofeight major biomes and zonal soils. This m eth o d was based on p rodu cing organic m atter - i.e. th e speed at
w h ich v eg etation grows. T h e rate at w h ich
2500 org anic m atter is produced is know n as th e
2200
n e t p rim a ry p ro d u ctio n or NPP, expressed
2000
in gram s o f dry organic m atter per square
m etre per year (g/m2/yr). As show n in Figure
Ş 1500
rN 1 1 .4 0 , it is th e tropical rainforests, w ith their
1200
E
large biom ass resultin g from co n sta n t high
— 1000 900
800 tem peratures, heavy rainfall and year-round
700
600
grow ing season, th a t produce o n average the
500
140
greatest a m o u n t o f organic m atter an n u alh
90
T he tu nd ra (too cold) and th e deserts (too
& dry) produce th e least. It m ay be noted th at
th e average NPP for arable land is 6 5 0 , lakes
and rivers 4 0 0 and oceans 125.

1 Traditional method 2 Modern method

(vegetation, climate and soils subjectively linked) (scientifically based on net primary oroduction)
Tropical 1 Rainforests High energy 1 Rainforests
2 Tropical grasslands 2 Deciduous forest
3 Deserts Average energy 3 Tropical grasslands
Warm temperate 4 Mediterranean 4 Coniferous forest
Cool temperate 5 Deciduous forest 5 Mediterranean

Figure 11.39 6 Temperate grasslands 5 Temperate grasslands

Twomethodsofclarifying Cold 7 Coniferous forest Low energy Tundra

the major biomes (after
' Tundra S Deserts
I. Simmonds)

306 Biogeography
 The forests of south-west Australia
Figure 11.41
South-western Australia
The situation before 2000 A g ricu ltu ra l clearin g PRESSURES ON THE FOREST
Up to 500 m to allow
Australia is te n tim e s th e size o fth e sheep rearing;
wheat grown on well-drained
=nd a b o u t 2 pe r c e n t o fth e state was soils to east of forest area;
forest now half extent of 165 Perth
: ::e d before w h ite s e ttle m e n t began
~ 29 .T heforested area s tre tc h e s fro m
years ago.
S e ttle m e n t
r 'in , 75 km n o rth o f Perth, to W alpole,
Small towns expanding;
Ofcfn to t h e s outh (Figure 11.41).The most densely populated area of
state outside Perth;
ng and S tirling ranges fo rm th e ed g e
infrastructure damagesforest.
■ ■s D arling Plateau and consist m a in ly o f
Com m ercial logging
: en igneous and m e ta m o rp h ic rocks. A
280000 m3 p.a.sawn timberfor
" o e r o f river valleys c u t in to th e plateau building; Bunbury
timber for woodchips;
-T h e s e have broad, fla t valley floors. originally used waste offcuts
la s t o fth e plateau th e o ld river valleys and damaged timber;
150000 tonnes jarrah sent to
largely d ry) are very bro a d and flat. A t Kemerton for charcoal in silicon
manufacture;
: .vestern e d g e o fth e scarp, th e dra in a g e
clear fel ling now extensive;
s b e e n re juvena ted and re ca p tu re d by greatest pressures in the south, fJS* F
but jarrah forest ecosystem
? -.e rfa s t-flo w in g streams. under threat.
Tr»e B lackw ood River is an e x ce p tio n .
D e fo re s ta tio n
:3 m a in ta in e d e n o u g h flo w to c o n - Leading to soil erosion, higher
water table and salinisation.
erosion o f its bed as th e plateau was
B te d .T herefore it has an o ld m e a n d e rin g Q u a rry in g
je w ith in w h ic h is a n e w cross- Limestone, sand, gravei.
_• onal V -shaped profile.
The c lim a te o f th is region is
M e d ite rra n e a n in typ e , w ith m o s t rainfall
in w in te r fro m M ay to O c to b e r (700 m m );
rainfall is h ig h e s t (1100 m m ) on th e w e ste rn
e d g e o fth e plateau and decreases ra p id ly
to th e e a st.T em peratures are h ig h in th e
s u m m e r (18-27°C ) and lo w e r in th e w in te r
(7 -1 5°C). S no w has been k n o w n to fall in
th e S tirling Range!
These c o n d itio n s a llo w e d th e d e v e lo p ­
m e n t o f h ig h forests, u n iq u e to W estern
Australia, o f h a rd w o o d trees: varieties o f
eucalyptus kn o w n as karri,jarrah and marri.
Jarrah forest is th e o n ly tall forest in th e w o rld
to g ro w in a tru ly M editerranean type.
The great karri trees, w h ich g ro w to over
80 m in h e ig h t, are fo u n d in th e so u th -w e st
w h e re th e soils have a h ig h e r m o isture
c o n te n t and are m o re fe rtile (Figure 11.17).
The q u a lity o fth e forest d eteriorates to th e
east, w ith a va rie ty o fe u c a ly p ts reflecting
lo w e r rainfall.The jarrah forest is m ore e xte n ­
sive and has a very h ig h species diversity
(Figure 11.42).The forests p ro vid e im p o rta n t
w ild -life habitats fo r birds and anim als - over
50 species live in th e h o llo w s o fth e trees.
% 11
M in in g
Bauxite, gold.tin and tantalite;
800 ha forest lost each year;
Western
little rehabilitation.
Australia
D ie b a ck
□ Soil-borne fungal disease
Phytophthora cinnam omi
affects 14% of forests
spreading because of winter
jarrah logging and other human
disturbance.
karri
P re s crib e d b u rn in g
Collie
Frequent burns in spring reduce
flora species and damage food
supply for breeding birds;
jarrah forest not adapted to
50 km
short intervals between burns.
Bridgetown Pest in fe s ta tio n s
Jarrah leaf miner, gumleaf
Manjimup ^Sond
skeleto ni ser, affects 62000 ha;
thinning forest canopy
{logging and spring burning)
stimulates young foliage,
attracts pests.
Loss o f h a b ita t
Affects flora and fauna;
rainfall decreases 26 species of plants and animals in
Darling Plateau
jarrah forests lost or in need of
protection;
5 fauna species extinct in karri
forests.
Since th e c o m in g o fth e w h ite settlers
in 1829, half th e tall forest cover has been
rem oved (neariy 2 m illio n ha). M uch o fth e
early clearance was fo r a griculture, w ith
pastures o f clover and grasses fo r sheep
and c a ttle replacing th e 500-year-old trees.
A lth o u g h th e tim b e r p ro vid e d a valuable
secondary source o f in c o m e fo r th e farmers,
th e y w e re n e v e ra b le to sell itfo rth e m s e lv e s
at a c o m m e rcia l rate. Instead, th e state sold
it fo r'ro y a lty 'to tim b e r in d u s try firm s as th e
co m m e rcia l value o fth e tall forests was
realised.
The situation in 2000
In 2000, th e W estern Australian g o v e rn ­
m e n t c o n tro lle d 1260 ha o f native trees in
so-called'S tate Forests'.The D e p a rtm e n t
o f E n viro n m e n t and C onservation (DEC)
claim ed th a t th e re was 139 000 ha o f'o ld
g ro w th 'fo re s t left (u n lo g g e d virg in forest)
and 1 120 000 ha o f're g ro w th 'fo re s t (areas
been lo g g e d in th e last 100 years).
th a t h a d
D espite o p p o s itio n fro m conse rva tio n
groups, in c lu d in g th e W estern Australian
Biogeography 307
 The forests of south-west Australia

of forests, with their unique wild species of

small mammals, birds and flora, raised the
question of sustainability. Fears were raised

heritage forests that, at the then present rate of deforesta-

tion, all the'old growth'forest would have

FACE THE AXE

IRREPLACABLE FORESTS TO BE
CLEAR FELLED FOR WOODCHIPS
The Australian H eritage Com mission
(A H C) officially includes 4 0 areas o f
WA’s world-unique native forests on the
interim list o f the Registers o f the
National Estate, the highest naţional
recognition o f the ecological, aesthetic,
scientific or cultural value o f an area.
O nce an area has been interim-listed, it is
considered to be on the Register and
entitled to protection. The
M inister for the environment is legally
bound to prevent logging in these areas
until an exam ination has shown that
there are no ‘prudent and
alternative log sources’.
In spiţe of this protection,
Department of Environment
Conservation (D E C ) plâns to clear-fell
Forest Alliance and the Global Warming
Forest Group, the annual cut had increased
toover 1500 000 m3with the large timber
companies using the timber to produce
woodchips, saw-logs and poles.The residue
was sent in large quantities to be used as
charcoal in a silicon smelter.The timber mills
provided work for 2000 people, an important
disappeared by 2030.
The DEC now has total responsibility for
the logging and regeneration of felled areas
many interim -listed forests, mainly to within State Forests (Figure 11.44). It invites
produce export woodchips. Som e o f the tenders for cutting and hauling and then
listed areas are already being
selling the logs to sawmillers and woodchip-
clear-felled, roaded and burat with the
pers.The chief market for Western Australian
full knowledge o f the AH C and the
Federal govemment. timber isJapan. Since 1976 over 15 million
tonnes of karri have been exported as wood-
In addition, there is supposed to be a
chipthroughthe port ofBunbury.
moratorium on logging in all
high-conservation value forests. Now Themain method ofremoval is by clear
that at least som e o f the best o f WA’s felling (Figure 11.45). An area of land is
rem aining native forests have been given
Federal divided into sections referred to as coupes.
official recognition, each of these
Coupes vary in size from 60 ha in karri forests
agencies must back up their
down to 10 ha in thejarrah. In clear felling,
self-congratulations with action.
everytree in thecoupe is felled and the
feasible T he only action they can reasonably take
is to stop all roading and logging in WA’s logged area is then burnt. Most coupes are
heritage forests immediately. in the'old growth'native forests, areas not
the
and Figure 11.43 previously touched, where the trees have
reached their greatest height. Each of the
By the Western Australian Forest Alliance, Perth (Adapted)
felled giant karri needsa doubletrailerto
take itto Bunbury, and often 12 ofthese can
be seen on the main road to th e portevery
source of employment in a sheep-rearing hour.The DEC regeneration programme
region adversely affected by the low world involvesthe hand-planting of karri seeds
price for wool. At the same time, the state was as they grow morequicklythanjarrah.This
encouraging agroforestry, a form of planta- is leading to a growing concern over what
tion agriculture (page 482). appears to be a deliberate phasing out of
Meanwhile, conservationists were trying thejarrah, especially as in droughtyears,
to stop the rapid increase in logging in the which are increasing in frequency, the karri is
virgin forests (Figure 11.43).The rate of loss the less likely to survive.

a Native forest b Publicly-owned native forest c Unlogged native forest

(old growth)
0.5 m ha
P u b lic ly - o w n e d M u n lo g g e d Figure 11.44
n a tiv e fo re st : , ,o g g c d
1.6m ha The status of native forest in
south-west Australia, 2000

0.48 m ha

J p e r m a n e n tly lo st s in c e 1829

| j o n u n p r o te c te d p riv a te la n d u n lo g g e d in c o n s e rv a tio n

Pu b licly-
ow ned
□ in c o n s e rv a tio n reserv es

in u n p r o te c te d S ta te Fo rests
P u b lic ly - o w n e d
n a tiv e fo re st
re s e rv e s (p ro te c te d )
u n lo g g e d in S ta te Fo re s t
(u n p r o te c te d - w ill b e lo g g e d )
n a tiv e
fo re st

308 Biogeography

.arrah timber is commercially valuablefor
ts dark-red colour, hardness and durability.
- : .vever, it grows far more siowly, and is
ess in demand, than karri - hence thediffi-
ty in maintaining sustainable production
--• /en though the state government has
es:ricted extraction to 500 000 m3 peryear.
I ; the third type of eucalyptusgrowing
■ Vestern Australia, tends to be found
:hin thejarrah forest and, like the karri, its
~,ain use isforwoodchip.
Effects ofdeforestation
• sual and physical degradation of
_ e landscape
s is especially bad in clear-felied areas.
I "ere the land is steep, tree removal
t =hs there is no canopy to intercept
eavier rainfall, nor roots to hold the soil
:e:her.This results in an increase in
-ace runoff and consequent problems
B'£cil erosion.thesedimentation of rivers
■; a greater riskofflooding (page 63).
. nutrients in the soil, including those
i;s e d by burning the cleared forest, will
e rs td u e to leaching.
. : ss of native flora and fauna
"■e south-west of Western Australia is
i :ed for its wildflowers, typical of other
; : ns with a Mediterranean-type climate
b 3;e 324).These are threatened, as are
;s and small animals that at present rely
: 'e groundcover of the forest. In total,
" * 2:ive species are listed as rare, including
11.45
;- ing of karri,
;• dgetown
The forests of south-west Australia
the chuditch, which is a marsupial, and the
Western ring-tailed possum.
Salinisation ofstreams
This, resulting from the loss of the forest
canopy, has become a serious problem
in the region (page 496). Salts, previously
trapped by the laterite soils (page 321),
can be transported relatively easily by
the increase in groundwater which itself
becomes more saline. In time this water
finds its way into streams and, eventually,
the main watercourses.
Eutrophication
As forest land is cleared for agriculture, the
nitrates used in fertilisers are also transferred
by groundwater to rivers (page 281 and Figure
16.50).The nitrates enrich plantlife which uses
up more oxygen.This leaves lessforfish and
other water-inhabiting organisms.
The situation since 2000
In early 2001, the state government ended
logging in all the'old growth'forests in the
care of the Conservation Commission of
Western Australia and began, underthe
DEC, a process of creating the conservation
parks and the 12 National Parks proposed
in its'Protecting our old growth forests'
policy. A major capital works programme
wasestablished to upgrade visitorfacilities,
and to encourage tourism and leisure along
with nature conservation.
The Forest Management Plan 2004-13
came into effect in 2004.This provided
-âtij
forincreased protection of forest values,
improved forest m anagement and, coming
into being later that year, 29 National Parks
and other conservation reserves and forest
areas. At the same time, landowners were
encouraged to practise agroforestry by
planting fast-growing trees on agricultural
land in belts separated by grass pasture
usable for sheep grazing. This was to use up
surplus fertiliser in the soi! and to reduce
nitrates flowing into streams.
Although deforestation in Western Australia
may not be on the scale of that in the Amazon
rainforest or Indonesia, to the people living
in the south-west corner of the state it isjust
as damaging.To some people deforestation
means the destruction of a non-replaceable
ecosystem and a loss for future generations.To
others logging means employment in an area
with relatively fewjob opportunities. It is easy
to become emotive on a topic such as this,
especially ifthe question is oversimplified to
'Which isthe more important -jobs provided
bythe production of pa per or the protection
of trees and wildlife?'lt revives a question long
asked inGeographyofyvhich isthe more
important: economic gain or environmental
loss? At present the answer appears to lie in
the prospect ofsustainable development'
(Framework 16, page 499).
Figure 11.46 describes the viewpoints
given in 2008 by, on one hand, the state gov­
ernment and representatives of the timber
workers and, on the other, conservation
groups.
■£££ ,
" 'î i
a jP
Biogeography 309
(D E 2 2 2 E 3 The forests of south-west Australia

The Global Warming Forest Group Figure 11.47

claimed that the logging of a 62 m tall. A single large karri tree
500-year-old karri tree near Pemberton
showed that the old growth protection policy
was a sham and that they, and other
environmental groups, had been
double-crossed on definitions as, according
to present government policy, a single stump
in a hectare of virgin forest disqualifies it as
'old growth'. To them, forests containing
huge centuries-old trees have a high
conservation value and it is absurd that these
old trees should be logged before they die
and fall naturally. Such trees are more
valuable as wildlife habitats than as
woodchip or sawdust, which is the end
product of most harvested timber.
The Forest Industries Federation stated
that it had ensured that 1.2 million ha of ‘old
growth' forest was now totally protected by
state law in the south-west corner of Western
Australia. However, it also said that there
was never a commitment to protect
individual trees, but rather to conserve areas
as a whole. Admittedly, there were still old
karri trees that had not been logged in
‘regrowth forests’ which might in time might
have to be felled, but these were outside ‘old
growth protection areas’. The federation also
said that over a dozen karri trees, both bigger
in diameter and taller in height than the
felled Pemberton tree, were under
protection, including one growing near
Manjimup (Figure 11.41) which was 61 m
tall and had a diameter of 291 cm - 26 cm
greater than that of the Pemberton tree.
Austwest. the biggest karri milier in the
state, said it was rare to receive timber
from trees the size of the one near
Pemberton. When it did, it was put to the
most valuable use which was usually for
flooring or staircases (Figure 11.47). Adapted from material on the official
Serengeti website (www.serengeti.org)

Further reference
Bradbury, I.K. (1998) The Biosphere,
WileyBlackwell.
Brown, J.H ., Riddle, B.R. and Lom olino,
M.V. (2005) Biogeography, Sinauer
Associates Inc.
Huggett, R J. (2 0 0 4 ) Fundamentals o f
Biogeography, Routledge.
M acDonald, G. (2003) Biogeography:
Introduction to Space, Time and Life,
Wiley.
O'Hare, G. (1988) Soils, Vegetation and the
Ecosystem, Oliver & Boyd.
Biosphere basics:
www.geography4kids.com
Bridgetown-Greenbushes Friends o f the
Forest:
http://members.westnet.com.au/bgff/
Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies:
www.ecostudies.org/
International Biogeography Society:
www.biogeography.org/
N ational Association of Forest
Industries (Australia):
www.nafi.com.au
Radford University Virtual Geography
D epartm ent’s 'Biom e':
www.runet.edu/~swoodwar/CLASSES
GEOG235/biomes/main.html#tabcon:
Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS),
'Understanding biodiversity’:
www.ucsusa.org/ - use search option

310 Biogeography

International boundary
National capital
Serengeti National Park ' k
Maasai Mara National Park
Ngorongoro Conservation Area
: - 'ire starting this exercise, read pages
■ 5-321,Tropical grasslands, and pages
: 5-338,Tropical grasslands in Kenya.
Serengeti National Park's website is at:
.v.serengeti.org
~ "e Serengeti Shall Not Die area is useful
: this exercise.
~he Serengeti grasslands
Serengeti grasslands lie just south of
^Tanzanian/Kenyan border, between
;nd 4° South (Figure 11.48). Mean
- ; <imum tem peratures are 24° to 27°C,
; mean minimum temperatures 15°
1' °C. Mean annual rainfall varies from
5! mm in the north-west to 550 mm
:~e south-east. Rainfall peaks in March
.’ay, and Novem ber to Decem ber
:~"pare Figure 12.49).
” ne soils are formed from volcanic
‘ .The eco-region consists of slightly
ating grassy plains, interrupted by
ered rocky areas (kopjes) which are
:: " s of the Precambrian basement rocks
::'jd in g through the ash layers.
5 odiversity features
- Serengeti grasslands are vital to the
: :al movement of millions of large
rmmals. Populations fluctuate, but about
million blue wildebeest, 200 000 plains
; : '3, and 400 000Thomson's gazelle
ra te between Serengeti and southern
Mt
TANZANIA
K ilim a n ja ro / '■
5895 m
I
Arusha
0 Lake
a e Manyara
Eyasi
Kenya each year. Many associated preda­
tors are also involved in these movements.
By the onset of the dry season (late May),
the grasses on the plains have either dried
out or been eaten down to stubble, and
water is scarce.This triggers the massive
migration from the plains northwards.
Then, at the start of the wet season, the
animals complete the cycle, and return to
the plains.
Fires, usually set by humans, are an
important disturbance in this eco-region.
The burning helps provide accessible
pasture for the herds of cattle that are kept
here but other species, including wilde­
beest, also favour grazing on the green
flush that emerges after burning.
Current status
Much of the eco-region occurs within
protected areas, most of which are joined
into a continuous block. The protected area
includes Serengeti National Park (SNP) and
Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA), both
of which are World Heritage Sites (page
596).This area is probably large enough to
ensure the survival of the habitat and its
biodiversity.There has been little loss of
habitat within the protected areas, except
for small areas used for tourist hotels.
Outside the protected areas, however, there
has been a rapid expansion of human set­
tlement and agriculture in recent years.
Types and severity of threats
While Maasai pastoralists occupy the
NCA, there are no people living within the
SNP. However, the western frontier of this
park has a dense population, growing at
4 per cent a year. Livestock numbers are
increasing, and much ofth e area is being
converted into cropland. Agriculture is the
main source of income, but many people
have been attracted to the area by the wild­
life resources and tourism opportunities
that the park presents.
Many animals within the SNP are killed
by poachers, who may be local people
hunting 'bush meat'for subsistence, organ­
ised commercial hunters taking meat
for sale in the cities, or Big Gam e hunters
taking part in organised illegal safaris.
However, it is hoped that schemes to
give local communities legal rights to
manage the wildlife around their villages
will reduce the worst excesses ofthe
hunting.There are also plans to channel
more money earned from tourist activities
within the park back into the community
as, so far, the contribution from tourism to
the local econom y has been relatively low.
Are the Serengeti grasslands
natural?
The Serengeti changed from a grassland
state to woodland twice in the last century.
The few old, large trees dotting the land­
scape started life about 1900, followed by a
slow decline in numbers due to elephants,
fire, disease, and natural thinning, leaving
the few that we see today.The second group
of smaller trees established themselves
between 1976 and 1983, and these trees
are still growing in abundance. Both groups
were able to grow because for two periods
there were neither elephants nor fires.
Rinderpest, a cattle disease, came to East
Africa in about 1896. Most ofth e Serengeti
wildebeest died in a few years, as did the
cattle herds.There was famine, followed by
Biogeography 311
 Figure 11.49

Management o f the Serengeti Information from

the Serengeti
website

In recent years human population has increased, putting pressure on park
resources. Conflicts arise as wild animals damage property and even
threaten life. Illegal poaching activities create conflict. In some sections
cultivation is right on the park border and this fuels conflict as animals
destroy the crops on one side or are illegally hunted on the other.
The Serengeti is a prime example of how many natural ecosystems
are being eroded by human population effects, irrespective of legal
boundaries. The original Serengeti-Ngorongoro ‘undisturbed’ ecosystem
(which included indigenous hunters with traditional weapons), set aside
in the 1950s, has declined steadily. Some 40% of the natural ecosystem
has been lost to farming and herding. Today, there are signs that this loss
may be accelerating.
The Serengeti is also losing species. Thus, rhinoceros, once
abundant, have been effectively exterminated from the ecosystem, and
elephants were reduced by 80%, both by poaching. Wild dogs went
extinct in the early 90s, due to contact with domestic dogs and infection
with diseases like distemper and rabies. Unregulated hunting of large
predators in areas around Serengeti has had dramatic impacts.
Over-hunting of male lions alters the local adult sex ratio, draws males
out from the park, and thus disrupts populations within in it.
The 1989 worldwide ivory ban almost completely stopped the
poaching of elephants and their numbers are recovering. However, meat
poaching continues. In an average year, local people living around the
park illegally kill about 40,000 animals, mainly wildebeest and zebra,
but also giraffe, buffalo and impala. The populations of these animals
seem to be able to survive this poaching without any long-term decline
but the killing is a manifestation of growing antagonism between the
impoverished villagers and the authorities of the SNP. This conflict did
not exist two decades ago; there was land enough for everyone and
every animal. What we must all face - poachers, tourists, farmers,
conservationists and pastoralists - is the fact that the land does not go on
forever.
In an effort to harmonize the pastoralists with the wildlife in the
Serengeti, locally administered reserves - Wildlife Management Areas -
are now created on the borders of the park, where villagers are given a
far greater degree of control over the land and its resources. In situations
where protection of biodiversity is not seen to be of clear economic
benefit to the community, outside assistance must attempt to bring
change by:
• increasing community pride in their natural environment
• increasing the economic benefits of conservation, e.g. by fostering
ecotourism, hiring community members as resource stewards,
rangers, etc.
• rehabilitating depleted resource systems
• increasing the community's ability to control the use of the resource
by outside interests.

the grasslands did not dry and burn during

the'dry season! During this time there was
an enormous upswing in the illegal ivory
Figurell.50
trade. With fire and elephants removed, the
Scenes in the trees again established themselves in a burst:
Serengeti These trees are now about 30 years old and
range from 2 to 5 m tall, often forming dense

thickets.
There has been a large increase of impala
inside the park.They seem to be much more
successful in the woodlands than in the
grasslands, and have increased as the wooc-
lands have increased. In the past, elephants
and fire have controlled the establishment
of new trees.Today, both elephants and
fire are monitored closely.The Park Ecology
Department burns fire-breaks to stop the
spread of large fires, and conducts'cool'ear.
burns in fire-prone areas. It is also moni­
toring the ecosystem carefully to see how a;

aspects interact.
emigration. W ith no people there was no
National Park Authorities
one to light fires and the Serengeti went The Serengeti
un-burnt. At the same time, the trade in have tw o main aims.
; the natural environmen.
ivory was at its peak. W ith no fires and no to conserve t
elephants, young trees w ere able to grow o fth e SNP
; traditional way of life o-
and flourish in the first big establishment of I to support th e t
the century.Then, gradually, the wildebeest the people who live around the SNP.
and cattle recovered and by the 1930s Draw up a list o f m anagem ent objec­
elephants started to return, and growth of tives fo rth e Park,justifying each ofyour
objectives and explaining how individua
new trees ceased. >form a coherent
Between 1976 and 1984 the weather pat­ objectives combine to f
terns in and around Serengeti changed.The m anagem ent plan for the area.
seasonal rains became more spread out, so
Activities

a W hat are: i herbs ii shrubs iiitrees? (3marks) c W hatisthem eaningoftheterm 'biom ass'? (2marks)
b W hat is plant succession? (3 marks) d W hatisth ero leo fh u m an sin th efo o d chain ? (2marks)
c How do herbs and shrubs help to prepare the ground so e As C 0 2 builds up in the atmosphere, plant growth is
that trees can grow? (6 marks) increased. Suggest two effects of this on the material
d How would you carry out a field survey to discover the cycles. (4 marks)
distribution of plants in the area of a playing field? (5 marks) f Explain the'greenhouse effect'. (4marks)
e W hat kinds of plants would you expect to find on an
3 Study Case Study 11 (pages 307-310).
abandoned urban railway track?
Suggest reasons for your answer. (4 marks) a i W hat is the extent of deforestation in south-west
Australia since white settlement started? (2marks)
f Flowers that grow in deciduous woodland are early spring
flowers such as bluebell and primrose. W hy do these plants ii Identify the proportion of:
flower so early in the year? (4 marks) (i) conserved native forest (ii) public ownership ofthe
forest (iii) forest in danger of being logged. (3 marks)
a Study Figure 11.25 (page 298).
iii Identify and explain three reasons for deforestation
i Explain the roles played by plants in the carbon cycle. in south-west Australia. (6 marks)
(4 marks)
b Explain two impacts of deforestation on areas such as
ii Human activity (combustion) releases C 0 2 into the air. south-west Australia. (6 marks)
W hat is the source of this carbon? (3 marks)
c Describe two advantages ofthe native forest to
b i Study Figure 11.26 (page 298). W hy is nitrogen important south-west Australia and its people. (4 marks)
for plant life? (2marks)
d Explain one way of protecting the forest lands of
ii W hat is the main source of new nitrogen into the south-west Australia. (4 marks)
nitrogen system? (2 marks)
iii W h at is the main cause of loss of nitrogen from the
system? (2 marks)

Exam practice: basic structu red question

a W hat is meant by: c Assume that there has been a landslide on an area of
i serai change non-calcareous rock in lowland Britain. Describe and
explain the sequence of vegetation that would occur
ii climatic climax vegetation cover? (6marks)
so that the area eventually achieved a climatic climax
b W hy is vegetation cover within an urban area different from vegetation cover. (12 marks)
the climatic climax vegetation in a similar rural area? (7marks)

Exam practice: structu red questions

a Explain the meaning of: a Study Figure 11.28 (page 300).

i serai progression (2marks) i Explain the meaning ofthe term'litter! (2marks)
ii dominant species. (2 marks) ii Explain what the arrows show. (2 marks)
b Choose one of a psammosere, a halosere, or a hydrosere. b Figure 11.29 (page 301) shows the nutrient cycles in three
i Draw an annotated diagram only to show the variation different environments.
in vegetation cover across the environment. (6 marks) i W hy are the transfers in the taiga so small? (6 marks)
ii Explain the variation in vegetation cover shown on your ii Explain the differences between the tropical forests
diagram. (15 marks) and the mid-latitude grasslands in terms of their
nutrient stores and flows. (15 marks)

Exam p ractice: essay

Explain w h y th e'polyclim ax'th eory of vegetation the climatic climax theory of F.E. Clem ents as a w ay of
progression is now generally considered to be better than explaining the distribution of vegetation types. (25 marks)

Biogeography 313

' T h e r e wa:.
tln n x
ih. m e n t i t y . G a i n
World climate, soils and
vegetation
. , a n in s ta n t in th e d is ta n t p a s t w h e n th e u v i ig
' cks, tin n il m i . ; nie<
‘
la ? ia s t o \ e lo c k , The Ages o f Ga i a , 1989
A lthough it is possible to study clim a tic
p h e n o m en a in iso la tio n (C hapter 9), an u n d er­
standing of the developm ent o f soils (C hapter
10) and v eg etation (C hapter 11) necessitates an
ap p reciation of th e in terrelatio n sh ip s betw een
all th ree (Figure 12.1a). This ch ap ter attem pts
to show how th e in teg ratio n and in te ra ctio n of
clim ate, soils and v eg etation give th e world its
m a jo r ecosystem s, or b iom es, and how these
have o ften b ee n m odified, in part or alm ost
totally, by h u m a n activity (Figure 12 .1 b ).
Soils can be grouped, at th e sim plest o f levels,
under zonal, azonal and intrazon al (page 2 7 3 )
w ith each group, in turn, b ein g subdivided (zonal
Figure 12.2, azonal page 2 7 3 , and intrazonal
page 2 7 4 ). Likewise, the m a jo r v eg etation and
fauna groupings (biom es) were listed on page 3 0 6
and th eir generalised global lo catio n s and distri­
b u tion s show n in Figure 1 1 .3 8 . In a sim ilar way,
geographers seek - despite th e difficulties and
lim itation s - to classify d ifferent world clim ates
(Fram ew ork 7, page 167).
Classification of climates
By studying th e w eather - th e atm o sp h eric c o n ­
d ition s prevailing at a given tim e or tim es in
a specific place or area - it is possible to m ake
generalisations ab ou t th e clim ate o f th a t place
or area, i.e. th e average, or ‘n o rm a l’ con d itio n s
over a period o f tim e (usually 35 years). Any area
orm
m ay exp erien ce sh ort-term departures from its
‘n o rm a l’ clim ate, especially if th e 35-year m ean
coin cid ed w ith an unusually wet/dry or hot/cold
period, but, at th e sam e tim e, it m ay have lon g­
term sim ilarities w ith regions in oth er parts of
th e world.
In seeking a sense of order, th e geographer
tries to group to g eth er th o se parts o f th e world
th a t have sim ilar m easurable clim a tic ch aracter­
istics (tem perature, rainfall d istrib u tion, winds,
etc.) and to id en tify and to exp lain sim ilarities
and differences in spatial and tem p o ral distribu­
tio n s and pattern s. Areas m ay th e n be com pared
on a global scale - bearin g in m ind th e problem s
resulting from short-term and long -term clim atic
change - to help to id entify and to exp lain
d istributions o f soil, v eg etation and crops.
Bases for classification
T he early G reeks divided th e w orld in to three
zones based up on a sim ple tem peratu re descrip­
tio n : torrid (tropical), tem perate, and frigid
(polar); th e y ignored p recip itatio n .
In 1 9 1 8 , K o p p e n advanced th e first m odern
classificatio n o f clim ate. To support his claim
th a t natu ral v eg etation bound aries were deter­
m in ed by clim ate, h e selected as his basis w hat
he consid ered were appropriate tem perature
and seasonal p recip itatio n values. His resultant
classificatio n is still used today, alth ou g h a
m o d ifica tio n by T r e w a r th a , w ith 23 clim atic
regions, has beco m e m ore w idely accepted.

Figure a

R e la tio n sh ip b e tw e e n
c lim a te , v e g e ta tio n
a n d soils

/ \ / world '
veg etatio n 1 zonal J
V / \ soils /

314 World climate, soils and vegetation

 T h o rn th w aite , in th e 1 9 3 0 s and 1940s, suggested ■ T h ey do n o t allow for m esoscale v ariation
and later m odified a classificatio n w ith a m ore (th e Lake D istrict and L ond on do n ot have
q u an titativ e basis. He introd u ced th e term 'e ffe c­ exactly the sam e clim ate) or m icroscale
tiveness o f p recip ita tio n ' (his P/E in d ex - (local) variation .
page 178) w hich he obtained by dividing th e £ T h ey can be criticised fo r b ein g eith er
m ean m o n th ly p recip ita tio n o f a place b y its to o sim p listic (M iller) or to o com p lex
m ean m o n th ly evap otransp iration, and taking (T h o rn th w aite).
th e sum o f th e 12 m o n th s. T he d ifficu lty was, ■ T h ey ignore h u m a n in flu en ce and clim a tic
and still is, in o b ta in in g accu rate evapotranspira­ chang e, b o th in th e lon g term and the
tio n figures. (How ca n you m easure tran sp iration short term .
loss from a forest?) This classificatio n resulted in ■ M ost ten d to be based u p on tem perature
3 2 clim a tic regions. and p recip itatio n figures, and n eg lect recen t
In B ritain, in th e 1 9 3 0 s, M iller proposed studies in h eat and w ater budgets, air-m ass
a relatively sim ple classificatio n based o n five m o v em en t and th e transfer o f energy.
latitu d in al tem peratu re zones w h ich he deter­ s All suffer from th e fact th a t som e areas still
m in ed b y using ju st th ree tem peratu re figures: lack th e necessary clim a tic data to enable
21°C (th e lim it for grow th o f co co n u t palm s); th e m to be categorised accurately.
10°C (th e m in im u m for tree grow th); and 6°C However, clim atic classifications such as those
(the m in im u m for grasses and cereals). He th e n nam ed above are rarely used today. Instead, as
subdivided these zones lon g itu d in ally according we saw in Chapter 11, th e relationship betw een
to seasonal d istrib u tion s o f p recip itatio n . T he clim ate, vegetation and soils can best be described
advantages o f th is classificatio n in clu d e its ease and understood at this level through th e study
o f use and co n v e n ie n ce ; and its close re la tio n ­ o f ecosystem s, especially the largest o f th e eco­
ship to v eg etation zones and also, as these are system s: the b iom es (Figure 12.1b ). Figure 1 2 .2
a response o n a global scale to clim ate and lists eight o f th e m ore im p ortan t biom es and
v egetation , to zon al soils. shows, sim plistically, th e links betw een clim ate,
All classificatio n s have weaknesses: n on e vegetation and soils. These links are described in
is perfect. m ore detail and explained in th e rem ainder of
■ T h ey do n o t show tra n sitio n zones betw een th is chapter, using know ledge and un derstanding
clim ates, and o ften th e d ivision lines are gained from Chapters 9, 10 and 11.
purely arbitrary.

Text
reference
a n t e type number Climatic characteristics Biome (based on NPP) Soil (zonal type)
B d fic 8 v e ry c o ld a ll year tu n d ra tu n d ra

aw 7 co ld a ll year co n ife ro u s fo re s t (ta ig a ) p odsols

:=m perate w e s te rn m a rg in 6 rain a ll year, w in te r m a x im u m te m p e ra te d e c id u o u s fo re s t b ro w n e a rth s

che rn o ze m s
c o n tin e n ta l 5 s u m m e r ra in fa ll m a x im u m te m p e ra te gra sslan d p ra jrje

c h e s tn u t

w a rn tem perate w e s te rn m a rg in s: M e d ite rra n e a n 4 w in te r rain M e d ite rra n e a n M e d ite rra n e a n

e a ste rn m a rg in s : m o n s o o n 4A so m e ra in all year, s u m m e r m a x im u m tro p ic a l d e c id u o u s fo re s t

nc><al d e s e rt 3 little rain d e s e rt (xe ro p h yte s) d e s e rt

c o n tin e n ta l 2 tro p ic a l gra sslan d (savanna)

s u m m e r rain fe rru g in o u s
m onsoon IB ju n g le

tro p ic a l e a ste rn m a rg in s 1A
ra in a ll ye a r ra in fo re s t fe rra litic
e q u a to ria l 1

tar«12.2

i : : omes: th e re la tio n s h ip
!■' „ r r i c lim a te , v e g e ta tio n and
... ' :ne g lo b a l scale

World climate, soils and vegetation 315

 a Manaus (Brazil) b Belem (Brazil)
3 °S rs
altitude 44 m altitude 24 m and 12 hours o f darkness. The diurnal temperature
annual te m peratu re range 2 °C annual te m p eratu re range 1°C
range is also sm all, about 10°C. Evening tem pera­
annual p recipitation 2104 mm annual precipitation 2732 mm
tures rarely fall below 22°C w hile, due to th e
450
presence o f afternoon cloud, daytim e te m ­
400 peratures rarely rise above 32°C. It is the high
—
OJ
o

350 hum idity, w ith its sticky, u n h ea lth y heat, th at

is least appreciated by Europeans.
300 -g
A nnual rainfall totals usually exceed 2 0 0 0 mrr.
temperature (°C)

£
K>

250 c (Belem , 2 7 3 2 m m ) and m o st aftern o o n s have

o

o
a heavy show er (Belem has 2 4 3 rainy days per
200 3
CL year). T h is is due to th e con v erg en ce o f th e trade
150 <u w inds at th e ITCZ and th e su b seq u ent enforced
Cl
o

100 a scen t o f w arm , m oist, u n stable air in strong

J FMAMJ
Figure 12.3
C lim a te g ra p h s fo r
th e e q u a to ria l b io m e
Figure 12.4
E m erg e nts risin g
a bo ve th e ra in fo re s t
can op y, B orneo
50
0 swamps and trees. M ost storm s are violen t, with
J A S O N D
1 T ro p ical rainforests
T h e rainforest b iom e is located in th e tropics
and p rin cip ally w ith in th e equ atorial clim ate
b elt, 5° eith er side o f th e Equator. It inclu des th e
A m azon and C ongo basins and th e coastal lands
o f Ecuador, W est Africa, and extrem e sou th-east
Asia (Figure 1 1 .3 8 ).
Equatorial c lim a te
Tem peratures are high and con stan t throughout
th e year because th e sun is always h ig h in th e sky.
The annu al tem perature range is under 3°C inland
(M anaus, Figure 12.3a) and 1°C o n the coast
(Belem , Figure 12.3b ). M ean m o n th ly tem pera­
tures, ranging from 26°C to 28°C , reflect th e lack
o f seasonal change. Slightly high er tem peratures
m ay occur during any 'drier' season. In solation is
evenly distributed th rou g h o u t th e year, w ith each
day having approxim ately 12 hours o f daylight
co n v e ctio n currents (Figure 9 .3 4 ). Evapo-
tran sp iration is rapid from th e m an y rivers,
th e heavy rain, accom p an ied b y th u n d er and
lig h tn in g , fallin g from cu m u lo-n im b u s clouds.
Som e areas m ay have a drier season w h en the
ITCZ m oves a few degrees away from th e Equate-
at th e w inter and sum m er solstices (Belem ), and
others have double m ax im a w h en th e sun is
d irectly overhead at th e spring and au tu m n equ.
n ox es. T h e h ig h daytim e h u m id ity needs only a
little n ig h t-tim e rad iatio n to give con d en sation
in th e form o f dew. T h e w inds at ground-level
at th e ITCZ are lig h t and variable (doldrum s)
allow in g land and sea breezes to develop in
coastal areas (page 2 4 0 ).
Rainforest v e g e ta tio n
It is estim ated that the rainforests provide 40 per
cen t of the net primary production of terrestrial
energy (NPP, page 306). This is a result of high sola
radiation, an all-year growing season, heavy rain­
fall, a constan t moisture budget surplus, the rapid
decay of leaf litter and the recycling o f nutrients.

316 World climate, soils and vegetation


In ju st on e h ectare o f rainforest in A m azonian
v e g e ta tio n Ecuador, researchers recorded 4 7 3 species o f tree,
IK . ' ; :a p tt o th e in clu d in g rosew ood, m ahogany, ebony, green-
■ :n m en t: heart, palm and rubber, w h ich is m ore th a n tw ice
r e s , Victoria
th e to tal n u m ber found in all of N orth Am erica.
'iibiiiic v e to th e
T h e trees, w h ich are m ain ly hardw oods,
rtiffllliiii ■ Basin
have an evergreen appearance for, alth ou g h
deciduous, th ey ca n shed th eir leaves at any
tim e during th e co n tin u o u s grow ing season. The
tallest trees, em e rg e n ts, m ay reach up to 5 0 m in
h e ig h t and form th e h a b ita t for nu m erou s birds
and insects. Below th e em ergents are th ree layers,
all co m p etin g for su nlig ht (Figure 12 .4 ).
T he top layer, or c a n o p y , form s an alm ost
co n tin u o u s cover w h ich absorbs over 70 per cen t
o f th e lig h t and in tercep ts 8 0 per c e n t o f th e
rainfall. T he crow ns o f these trees m erge som e
3 0 m above ground-level. T hey shade th e u n d er­
lying species, p ro tect th e soil from erosion, and
provide a h a b ita t for m o st o f th e birds, anim als
and in sects of th e rainforest.
T h e second layer, or u n d e rca n o p y , consists
o f trees grow ing up to 2 0 m (sim ilar in h e ig h t to
-■ :'e st deciduous trees in B ritain). T h e low est, or shrub
ry d e layer, consists o f shrubs and sm all trees w h ich
sunlight for
photosynthesis
evapotranspiration
fungi and bacteria
rapidly breakdown
litter into humus
(humic acid increases
chemical weathering)
more nutrients in vegetation
than in soil; recycling takes
only 6 months
rapid chemical weathering of
parent material releases nutrients
are adapted to liv ing in th e shade o f th eir
taller neighbou rs.
The clim ate is at th e op tim u m for p h o to ­
synthesis. The trees grow tall to try to reach
th e su nlig ht, and th e tallest have buttress roots
w h ich em erge over 3 m above ground-level to
give support (Figure 1 2 .5 ). T h e trunks are usually
slender and b ranchless. Som e, like th e cacao,
have flow ers grow ing o n th e m , and th e ir bark
is th in as th ere is n o need for p ro tectio n against
adverse clim a tic co n d itio n s. Tree trunks also
provide support for lianas, vine-like plants,
w h ich can grow to 2 0 0 m in len g th . Lianas clim b
up th e tru n k and along b ran ch es before plunging
back dow n to th e forest floor. Leaves are dark
green, sm oo th and o ften have d rip tips to shed
excess water.
E piph ytes - plants th a t do n ot have their roots
in the soil - grow o n trunks, branches and even on
th e leaves o f trees and shrubs. Epiphytes sim ply
'h an g o n ' to th e tree: they derive n o n ou rish m ent
from th e h ost and are n ot parasites. Less th an
5 per cen t o f in solation reaches the forest floor,
w ith th e result th a t undergrow th is th in except in
areas where trees m ay have b een felled by shifting
cultivators or where a giant em ergent has fallen,
dragging w ith it several o f th e top canopy trees.
V egetation is also dense along the m any river
banks, again because sunlight can penetrate the
canop y here. Alongside the Amazon, m any trees
spend several m on ths o f th e year growing in water
as the river and its tributaries rise over 15 m in
the rainy season. Huge water lilies w ith leaves
exceeding 2 m in w idth are found in flooded areas
ad jacent to rivers (Figure 12.6). M angrove swamps
occur in coastal areas.
less oxygen
rapid loss of nutrients by leaching:
resultant acid soil releases iron Figure 12.8
and aluminium giving a not very
productive, ferralitic soil The interrupted
nutrient cycle
 tropical
precipitation
rainforest
exceeds
Figure 12.9 evapotranspiration
A ferralitic soil profile thick litter layer

thin humus
layer as litter is
rapid recycling
rapidly
of nutrients
incorporated into
the soil and
decomposes to
give a greyish-red
colour

rapid leaching
of silica and
up to 30 m dissolved
in depth mineral matter

A lthough ground anim als are relatively few

in num ber, th e rainforests o f Brazil a lon e are removal of bases
said to be th e h a b ita t for 2 0 0 0 species o f birds, by throughflow

6 0 0 species o f in sects and m osq u itoes, and 1 5 0 0 Figure 12.10

species o f fish. rapid chemical
A ferralitic ...... weathering v r
The productivity o f this biom e, upon w hich soil (latosol)
produces clays
th e world depends to replace m uch o f its used profile typical '
oxygen, is due largely to th e rapid and un broken ofthe tropical parent rock -

recycling o f nu trients. Figure 12.7 shows the rainforest

natural n u trien t cycle and Figure 12.8 th e con se­
quences o f breaking th e system , e.g. by felling the
forest. In areas where the forest has b een cleared,
th e secondary succession differs from th a t o f the
original clim ax vegetation. T he new d om inants
are less tall;th e trees are less stratified; there are
fewer species and m any are in toleran t o f shade -
even th o u g h there is m ore lig h t at ground-level
w h ich encourages a dense undergrow th.
Ferralitic soils (latosols)
These soils result from th e high annual tem ­
perature and rainfall w hich cause rapid chem ical
w eathering o f bedrock and create th e optim um
cond itions for breaking dow n th e luxuriant veg­
etation. C ontinuous leaf fall w ithin th e forest
gives a th ick litter layer, but the underlying hum us
is th in due to th e rapid decom position and m ixing
o f organic m atter by intensive biota activity, e.g.
ants and term ites. A key feature o f these soils is
a dense root m at in the top 2 0 -3 0 cm o f th e A
horizon. According to research, this intercepts and
can take up as m u ch as 9 9 .9 per cen t o f th e nu tri­
ents released by the decom position o f organic
matter. The root map helps th e rapid recycling of
nutrients in th e hum us cycle (Figure 12.7). Even
so, m any soils have a low nu trien t status (94 per
cen t o f soils in the Am azon Basin have a nu trient
deficiency) and fertility is on ly m aintained by the
rapid and continu ou s replacem ent from th e lush
vegetation. W here the tree canopy is absent, or is
rem oved, th e heavy rainfall causes the release of
iron (giving the soil its characteristic red colour -
Figure 12.9) and alum inium (m ost ferralitic soils
suffer from alum inium toxicity) from the parent
m aterial. Leaching results in th e rem oval o f silica.
T he co n tin u a l lea ch in g and abu nd ance of
m ix in g agents in h ib it th e fo rm atio n o f horizons
(Figure 1 2 .1 0 ). T h e low er parts o f th e profile
m ay have a m ore yellow ish-red tin t due to
th e extrem e h y d ration o f alu m in iu m and iron
oxides. T h e clay-rich soils are also very deep,
o ften up to 2 0 m, due to th e rapid breakdow n of
p arent m aterial. Ferralitic soils have a loose struc­
ture and, if exposed to heavy rainfall, are easily
gullied and eroded. D espite th e ir d epth, th e soils
o f th e rainforest are n o t agriculturally produ c­
tive. O n ce th e source o f n u trien ts (th e trees) has
b een rem oved, th e soil rapidly loses its fertility
and local farm ers, o ften sh iftin g cu ltivators, have
to m ove to clear new plots (Places 66, page 4 8 0 '.
1A T ro p ic a l eastern margins
Located w ith in th e tropics, th e eastern coasts
o f cen tral Am erica, Brazil, M adagascar and
Q ueensland (Australia) receive rain th rou gh o u t
th e year. T h e rain is b rou g h t by th e trade winds
w h ich blow across warm , offshore ocean currents
(Figure 9 .9 ) before b ein g forced to rise by coastal
m o u n ta in s. Tem peratures are generally very
h ig h , a lth ou g h th ere is a slightly coo ler season
w h en th e overhead sun appears to have migrated
in to th e op posite h em isp h ere. The resu ltant veg­
e ta tio n and soil types are, therefore, sim ilar to
th o se found in th e equ atorial belt, i.e. rainforest
and ferralitic.

318 World climate, soils and vegetation

 2 T ro p ica! g rasslan d s Figure 12.11 Kano (Nigeria)
12 °N
These are m a in ly located b etw een latitudes 5° C lim a te g ra p h fo r a
and 15° n o rth and sou th o f th e Equator and a ltitu d e 6 3 0 m
tro p ic a l c o n tin e n ta l
a n n u a l te m p e r a tu r e ra n g e 8 °C
w ith in cen tral parts o f co n tin e n ts, i.e. th e Llanos b io m e
a n n u a l p re c ip ita tio n 920 m m
(V enezuela), th e C am pos (Brazilian H ighlands),
m o st o f cen tral Africa surrounding th e C ongo
B asin, and parts o f M exico and n o rth ern
Australia (Figure 1 1 .3 8 ).

Tropical continental climate

A lthough tem peratures are high through out the
year, there is a short, slightly cooler season (in
com parison w ith th e equatorial) w hen th e sun
is overhead at the tropic in the opposite h em i­
sphere (Figure 12 .1 1 ). The annual range is also
slightly greater (Kano 8°C) due to th e sun's slightly
reduced angle in th e sky for part o f th e year, the
greater distance from th e sea, and th e less co m ­
plete cloud and vegetation cover. Temperatures
sponds with the m oving away of the ITCZ, leaving
m ay drop slightly at th e onset o f the rainy season.
For m ost o f the year, cloud am o u n t is lim ited, the area w ith the strong, steady trade winds. The
allow ing diurnal tem peratures to exceed 25°C. trades are dry because they are warming as they
blow towards the Equator and they will have shed
The m ain characteristic of this clim ate is the
any moisture on distant eastern coasts. Places
alternating wet and dry seasons. The wet season
nearer to the desert margins tend to experience dry,
2.12
occurs w hen the sun moves overhead bringing w ith
stable conditions (the subtropical high pressure)
it the heat equator, the ITCZ, and th e equatorial low
's e a s o n a l caused by the m igration of the descending limb
pressure belt (Figure 12.12). Heavy convectional
■ places w ith of th e Hadley cell (page 226). Humidity is also low
c o n tin e n ta l
storms can give 8 0 per cent of the annual rainfall
during this season.
■ clim a te total in four or five m onths. The dry season corre-

21 M arch 2 21 Ju n e Tropical or savanna grassland

erhead sun overhead sun vegetation
T he tropical grasslands are estim ated to have a
m ean NPP o f 9 0 0 g/m2/yr (page 3 0 6 ). This is
considerably less th a n th e rainforest, partly
because o f th e sm aller nu m ber o f trees, species
ITCZ ITCZ
and layers and partly because, alth ou g h grass­
Kano
lands have th e p o ten tial to return organic m atter
back to th e soil, th e rate o f d eco m p o sition is
dry \ / wet some rain dry \ reduced during th e w inter drought leaving
m ttm i - .... - 7*v’ considerable am ou nts left stored in th e litter.
Equator Tropic of Capricorn Tropic of Cancer Equator Tropic of Capricorn
As show n in Figure 1 2 .1 3 , th e savanna
0° 2 3 ?S 23i°N 0° 23 5 ° S
includes a series o f tran sitio n s b etw een th e rain ­
2 21 S e p tem b er 4 21 D ecem ber forest and th e desert. At o n e extrem e, th e 'closed '
overhead sun overhead sun
savanna is m a in ly trees w ith areas o f grasses;
at th e other, th e 'o p en ' savanna is vegetated
o n ly b y scattered tu fts o f grass. T h e trees are
deciduous and, like th o se in B ritain, lose th eir
leaves to reduce tran sp iration , but, un like in
ITCZ ITCZ
B ritain, th is is due to th e w inter d rou ght rather
Kano
th a n to cold. Trees are xero p h y tic, or drought-
resistan t. Even w h en leaves do appear, th e y are
/ dry some rain wet ’ sm all, w axy and som etim es th o rn -lik e. Roots are
lon g and exten d to tap any underground water.
Equator Tropic of Capricorn Tropic of Cancer Equator Tropic of Capricorn
Trunks are gnarled and th e bark is usually th ick
0° 23i°S 23^°N 0° 23|°S
to reduce m oistu re loss.

World climate, soils and vegetation 319

Figure 12,13 Equator
T ransect across th e
savanna grasslands
ra in fo re s t p a rk la n d o r
'c lo s e d '
savanna
rain all y e a r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ►
2 m o n th s w it h o u t rain
The baobab tree (also know n as th e 'upside-
dow n tree') has a tru n k of up to 10 m in diam eter
in w h ich it stores water. Its root-like branches
hold o n ly a m inim u m nu m ber o f tin y leaves in
order to restrict tran sp iration (Figure 1 2 .1 4 ). Som e
baobabs are estim ated to be several thousand
years old and, like other savanna trees, are pyro-
phytic, i.e. th eir trunks are resistant to th e m any
local fires. Acacias, w ith their crow ns flattened by
th e trade winds (Figure 12 .1 5 ), provide w elcom e
th o u g h lim ited shade - as do th e eucalyptus in
Australia. Savanna trees reach 6 -1 2 m in height.
M any have Y-shaped, b ran ch in g trunks - ideal for
Figure 12,14 th e leopard to rest in after its m eal! The num ber
A b a o b a b tre e , o f trees increases near to rivers and w aterholes.
M a la w i Grasses grow in tufts and tend to have inward-
10°N (or 10°S) 20° N (or 20° S)
s a va n n a sem i- d e se rt d e s e rt
(s cru b ) o r 'o p e n '
savanna
s u m m e r rain;
w in te r an n u al d ro u g h t
d ro u g h t 7 m o n th s w it h o u t rain
curving blades and silvery spikes. After th e onset
o f th e sum m er rains, th ey grow very quickly to
over 3 m in height: elep h an t grass reaches 5 m
(Figure 1 2 .1 5 ). As th e sun dries up th e vegetation
it b ecom es yellow in colou r (Figure 12.46). By
early w inter, th e straw-like grass has died down,
leaving seeds d orm ant o n th e surface u n til the
follow ing season's rain. By th e end o f winter, onhr
the roots rem ain and th e surface is exposed to
w ind and rain.
Over 4 0 different species o f large herbivore
graze on th e grasslands, including wildebeest,
zebra and antelope, and it is th e hom e o f several
carnivores - b o th predators, such as lions, and
scavengers, such as hyenas. Termites and microbes
are the m ajor decom posers. As previously m en ­
tioned (page 29 3 ), fire is possibly the m ajor deter­
m in an t o f th e savanna biom e - either caused
deliberately by farmers or resulting from lightning
associated w ith sum m er electrical storms.
It is th e fringes o f th e savannas, those bor­
dering th e deserts, w h ich are at greatest risk of
desertification (Case Study 7). As m ore trees are
rem oved for fuel and overgrazing reduces the
productivity o f grasslands, th e heavy rain forms
gulleys and wind blows away th e surface soil.
W here th e savanna is n o t farm ed, there are usually
m ore trees, suggesting th a t grass m ay n o t be the
natural clim atic clim ax vegetation.
Figure 12.15
Savanna g ra sslan d d u rin g
th e w e t season in th e
M aasai M a ra , Kenya
- ;io n follow ed savanna grassland
vet season thin, dark-brown litter
layer with organic matter
h ard, c e m e n te d ,
la te ritic la y e r if Fe and Al sesquioxides
e x p o s e d o n s u rfa c e
som e loss o f silica
h o riz o n s m e rg e
in w e t season
•-2 m
redeposition o f silica
rapid chem ical
w eath erin g of
parent m aterial
: re 12.16 Ferruginous soils
- - • jg in o u s soil
As savanna grasses die back during th e dry season,
jn r i e
th e y provide organic m atter w h ich is readily
broken dow n to give a th in , dark-brow n layer o f
hum us (Figure 12 .1 6 ). D uring th e w et season,
rapid leach in g rem oves silica from th e upper
profile, leaving beh in d th e red-coloured oxides o f
iron and alum inium . As these soils co n ta in few
nu trients, th ey tend to be acidic and lacking in
bases. A lthough th e process o f capillary action
m ig h t be expected to operate during th e dry
season, in practice it rarely does as th e w ater table
invariably falls to o low at th is tim e o f year.
Ferruginous soils tend to be soft unless
exposed at th e surface where, being su b ject to
w et and dry seasons, th e y can harden to form a
cem en ted crust know n as la te rite . T he term lat-
erite is derived from th e Latin for 'b rick '. Indeed
th is deposit is used as a build in g m aterial because,
b ein g in itially soft, it can easily be dug from the
soil, shaped in to bricks and left to hard en by
exposure to cycles o f w etting and drying. It is on ly
w hen the laterite crust form s th a t drainage and
p lan t root p en etration is im peded.
As these soils h o ld few n u trien ts and ten d to
dry o u t during th e dry season, th e y are n o t
p articu larly suited to agriculture; to g eth e r w ith
th e grassland th e y support, th e y are b etter suited
to an im al rearing th a n to arable farm ing. W here
a lateritic cru st form s o n th e surface, or w hen
deep p lou g h in g rem oves th e surface v eg etation,
th e upper soil tend s to dry ou t during th e dry
season, b eco m in g h ig h ly vu ln erab le to erosion
by w ind and, w h en th e rains return, by water.
3 Hot d e s e r ts
T h e h o t deserts o f th e A tacam a and Kalahari-
N am ib and th o se in M ex ico and Australia, are all
located in th e trade w ind belt, b etw een 15° and
30° n orth or south o f th e Equator, and on th e west
coasts o f c o n tin e n ts w here th ere are cold , o ff­
shore, ocean currents (Figures 7.2, 9 .9 and 11.38).
T h e e x ce p tio n is th e exten sive Sahara-A rabian-
T har desert w h ich owes its existen ce to th e size
o f th e Afro-Asian landm ass.
C lim a te
D esert tem peratu res are ch aracterised b y th eir
extrem es. T he an n u al range is o ften 2 0 -3 0 ° C
and th e d iu rnal range over 50°C (Figure 1 2 .1 7 ).
D uring th e d aytim e, especially in sum m er, there
are h ig h levels o f in so la tio n from th e overhead
sun, in ten sified b y th e lack o f cloud cov er and
th e bare rock or sand ground surface. In contrast,
n ig h ts m ay be extrem ely cold w ith tem peratures
likely to fall below 0°C . C oastal areas, how ever,
have m u ch low er m o n th ly tem peratu res (Arica
in th e A tacam a has a w arm est m o n th o f on ly
22°C ) due to th e presen ce o f offsh ore, cold,
o cea n currents (Figure 9 .9 ).
A lthough all deserts suffer an acu te w ater
shortage, n o n e is tru ly dry. Aridity and extrem e
aridity have been defined by using Thornthw aite's
P/E ind ex (Figure 7.1), and four o f th e m ain causes
o f deserts are described o n page 1 7 9 . A m ounts
o f m oistu re are usually sm all and p recip itatio n
is extrem ely u n reliable. D eath Valley, C aliforn ia,
averages 4 0 m m a year, y et rain m ay fall o n ly
o n ce every tw o or th ree years. W hereas m ean
a n n u al to tals vary b y less th a n 2 0 per c e n t a year
in n orth -w est Europe, th e eq u iv a len t figure for
th e Sahel is 8 0 - 1 5 0 per ce n t (Figure 9 .2 8 ). Rain,
Ain Salah (Algeria) Figure 12.17
27° N
Climate graph fora
altitude 280 m hot desert biome
annual te m peratu re range 2 4°C
annual p recipitation 40 mm
35 350
30 300
25 250
u
o' 20
\ 200
F
F
3 o
03
S 15
Q.
/ \ V .
150
a:
a
E
o CD
" 10 100 Q.
5 50
0 0
J F M A M J J A S O N D

figure 12.18
Saguaros cacti in th e
A rizo n a d e s e rt, USA
fmwM
Fit w h en it does fall, produces rapid surface ru n off
E phem erals in flo w e r w h ich , to g eth er w ith low in filtra tio n and h ig h
fo llo w in g a d e s e rt evap oration rates, m in im ises its effectiveness
ra in s to rm for v eg etation . T he A tacam a, an alm ost rainless
desert, has som e v eg etation as m oistu re is avail­
able in th e form o f ad vection fog (Places 24,
page 180). The subsiding air, fo rm in g th e
d escend ing lim b o f th e Hadley cell, creates high
pressure and produces th e trade winds w h ich are
strong, persistent and likely to cause localised
dust storm s (Figures 7.9 and 9 .3 4 ).
Desert vegetation
Deserts have th e low est organic produ ctivity
levels o f any biom e (Figure 1 1 .4 0 ). The average
NPP is 9 0 g/m2/yr, m ost o f w h ich occurs u n d er­
ground away from th e direct h eat o f th e sun.
V eg etation has to have a h ig h to lera n ce to
th e m oistu re budget d eficit, in ten se h e a t and,
often , salinity. Few areas are to tally devoid of
veg etation, alth ou g h desert plants are few in
322 World climate, soils and vegetation
species, have sim ple structures, n o stratifica­
tio n by h e ig h t and provide a low -density cover.
However, p lants m ust be x ero p h y tic because
th e lack o f w ater hind ers th e ab ility o f roots to
absorb n u trien ts and o f any green parts o f the
plants to p h o tosy n th esise.
M any plants are s u c c u le n ts , i.e. th ey can
store w ater in th eir tissues. M any succu lents
have flesh y stem s and som e have sw ollen leaves.
C acti (Figure 12 .1 8 ) absorb large am ou nts of
w ater during th e in freq u en t periods o f rain.
T heir stem s swell up, o n ly to co n tract later as
m oistu re is slowly lost th rou g h tran sp iration.
T ranspiration takes place from th e stem s, b u t is
reduced by th e stom ata closin g during th e day
and o p en in g nocturnally. T he stem s also have a
th ick , w axy cu ticle. A ustralian eucalyptids have
th ick , p ro tectiv e bark for th e sam e purpose.
M ost plan ts, for exam p le cactus and thorn-
bush, have sm all, spiky or w axy leaves to reduce
tran sp iration and to deter anim als. Roots are
eith er very lon g to tap groundw ater supplies -
th o se o f th e acacia exceed 15 m - or th e y spread
ou t over wide areas near to th e surface to take
th e m ax im u m advantage o f any rain or dew, like
th o se o f th e creosote bush . Bushes are, therefore
w idely spaced to avoid co m p etitio n for water.
Som e plants have bulbous roots for storing water.
Seeds, w hich usually have a th ick case protecting
a pulpy cen tre, can lie d orm an t for m o n th s or
several years u n til th e n e x t rainfall.
Follow ing a storm , th e desert b loom s
(Figure 1 2 .1 9 ). M any plants are e p h e m e r a ls and
can com p lete th eir life-cycles in tw o or three
weeks. O thers, like th e saltbush, are h a lo p h y tic
and can survive in salty depressions; yet others,
like th e date-palm , survive w here th e w ater table
is near en ou g h to th e surface to form oases. Due
to th e lack o f grass and th e lim ited n u m ber of
green plants, there are very few food chains:
desert biom es have a low cap acity to sustain life.
There is in su fficien t p lant food to support an
abund ance o f anim al life. Food ch ain s (page 2 9 6 '
are sim ple, often ju st a single linear sequ ence (ir.
co n trast to th e in terlo ck in g webs characteristic
of, for exam p le, forests). T his is w hy th e desert
ecosystem is 'fragile': organism s do n o t have the
altern ativ e sources o f food w hich are available
in m ore co m p lex ecosystem s. M any anim als are
sm all and n o ctu rn a l (the cam el is an excep tion
and burrow in to th e sand during th e h eat o f the
day. Reptiles are m ore adaptable, b u t bird life is
lim ited . T h e desert fringes form a delicately
b alan ced ecosystem w h ich is being disturbed
by h u m a n activity and p o p u latio n grow th w hich
are, together, increasing th e risk of
d esertificatio n (Case Study 7).
 Desert soils
In desert areas, th e clim ate is to o dry and the
vegetation to o sparse for any sig n ificant chem ical
w eathering o f bed rock or th e a ccu m u lation of
organic m aterial. In th e relatively few places
w here th e water table is near to th e surface, soil
m oisture is likely to be drawn upwards by capillary
action . This process causes salts and bases, such as
m agnesium , sodium and calciu m , to b e deposited
in th e upper profile to give a slightly alkaline soil.
M any desert soils are grey in colou r as th e lack of
m oistu re o ften restricts hydrolysis and, therefore,
th e release o f red-coloured iron (page 4 2). Soils,
w h ich tend to lack b o th structure and horizons
(Figure 1 2 .2 0 ), are o ften th in , alth ou g h their
depth can vary d epending up on th e origin of
th e parent m aterial, i.e. in situ w eathering or
th e d ep osition o f m aterial by w ind or water
(C hapter 7). A ch aracteristic o f m an y desert soils
is th e presence o f eith er a th in crust, 2 to 3 m m
th ick , caused by th e im p act o f h ig h -in ten sity
rainfall, and/or a 'desert p av em ent' (Figure 7.10)
w h ich consists o f sm all stones, o ften ventifacted
and covered in desert varnish (page 18 2 ), w h ich
help stabilise th e surface.
Desert soils are unproductive m ainly because
of th e lack o f m oisture and hum us, but potentially
th e y are n o t particu larly in fertile. Areas under
irrigation are capable o f p rodu cing h ig h -q u ality
crops, alth ou g h th is farm ing te ch n iq u e is being
th reaten ed b y salin isatio n (Figures 1 0 .2 2
and 1 6 .5 3 ).
4 M e d ite rra n e a n (w a rm
te m p e ra te , w e s te rn m a rg in s )
5pr» 12.20 This type o f b iom e is found o n th e w est coasts o f
hi i r s o i l p ro file c o n tin e n ts b etw een 30° and 40° n o rth and south
la c k o f v e g e ta tio n
!= - th in , s p o ra d ic
litte r layer
m a in ly w e a th e r e d sand:
u sually n o o rg a n ic m atter,
n o o rg a n is m s .n o
m o is tu re
:e oth o fte n
-55 th an 1 m
w e a th e r e d p a re n t ro ck
_
A ft, o c c a s io n a l
c a p illa ry
m ovem ent
o f th e Equator, i.e. in M ed iterranean Europe
(w hich is th e o n ly area w here th e clim ate p e n ­
etrates far in lan d ), C aliforn ia, cen tral C h ile, Cape
Province (Sou th Africa) and parts o f sou thern
Australia (Figure 1 1 .3 8 ).
Climate
T he clim ate is noted for its hot, dry sum m ers and
warm , wet w inters (Figure 1 2 .2 1 ). Sum m ers in
sou thern Europe are h o t. The sun is high in the
sky, th o u g h never d irectly overhead, and there
is little cloud. W inters are m ild, partly because
th e sun's angle is still quite h ig h b u t m ain ly due
to th e m od eratin g in flu en ce o f th e sea. O ther
'M ed iterran ean' areas are less warm in sum m er
and have a sm aller annu al range due to cold,
offshore currents (com pare San Francisco, 8°C in
Jan u ary and 15°C in July, w ith M alta). D iurnal
tem perature ranges are o ften h ig h due to th e fact
th a t m an y days, even in w inter, are cloudless.
As the ITCZ m oves northw ards in the northern
summer, th e subtropical high pressure areas
m igrate w ith it to affect these latitudes. The trade
winds bring arid cond itions, w ith th e length o f the
dry season increasing towards th e desert margins.
In winter, th e ITCZ, and subsequently th e sub­
tropical je t stream (page 22 8 ), m ove southwards
allow ing the westerlies, w hich blow from the
sea, to bring m oisture. M ost areas are backed by
coastal m ountains and so th e com bin ed effects
of orographic and frontal precipitation give high
seasonal totals. Areas w ith ad jacent, cold, offshore
currents experience advection fogs (C alifornia).
The M editerranean Sea region is noted for its local
winds (Figure 12.22). T he s ir o c c o and k h a m s in
are tw o o f th e h o t, dry winds th a t blow from the
Valletta (Malta) Figure 12.21
3 6 °N
C lim a te g ra p h fo r a
a ltitu d e 18 m M e d ite rra n e a n b io m e
a n n u a l te m p e r a tu r e ra n g e 13 °C
a n n u a l p re c ip ita tio n 501 m m
150
125
100
ra 30 75 £
cD
Q.
I 20 50
10 25
World climate, soils and vegetation 323
Figure 12.22

M e d ite rra n e a n w in d s c o ld w in d s

h o t w in d s

0 500 km

Sahara and can raise tem peratu res to over 40°C . know n as ch ap arral in C aliforn ia, m aqu is or
The m is tra l is a cold wind w h ich origin ates over garrigue in Europe, fyn bus in Sou th Africa and
th e Alps and is fu n n elled at con sid erable speed m a llee in Australia. In M ed iterranean Europe,
dow n th e R hone valley. th e type o f scrub depends o n th e underlying
p arent rock. M a q u is (Figure 1 2 .2 3 ), w h ich is
Vegetation taller, denser and m ore tangled, grows in areas of
T he NPP o f M ed iterranean ecosystem s is about im perm eable rock (granite). It consists o f shrubs
7 0 0 g/m2/yr (Figure 1 1 .4 0 ). It is lim ited by the such as h eath ers and b room , w h ich reach a
sum m er d rou ght and has probably b ee n reduced h e ig h t o f 3 m. G a rrig u e (Figure 12.24) grows on
consid erably over th e centuries by h u m an drier and m ore perm eable rocks (lim esto n e). It is
activity. Indeed, h u m a n activity, to g eth er w ith less tall and less dense th a n m aquis. Apart from
freq u en t fires, has left very little of any original gorse, w ith its prickles, th e m ore co m m o n plants
clim a tic clim ax v eg etation . The clim a x vegeta­ inclu d e aro m atic shrubs such as th y m e, lavender
tio n was believed to have been , in Europe at and rosem ary.
least, op en w ood land com p risin g a m ixtu re T he lim ited leaf litter tends to decom pose
o f broad-leaved, evergreen trees (e.g. cork oak slowly during the dry sum m er, even th o u gh
and h o lm oak) and conifers (e.g. aleppo pines, tem peratu res are h ig h enou gh for year-round
cypresses and cedars). The sequoia, or giant bacterial activity. W ild life and clim ax vegetation
redw ood, is native in C aliforn ia. have retreated as h u m a n activity has advanced.
The presen t v eg etation , w h ich is m ain ly A rguably th e M ed iterranean regions o f Europe
x e r o p h y tic (drough t-resistant), is described and C aliforn ia (together w ith th e tem perate
as 'w ood land and scleroph yllou s scrub'. deciduous forests) form th e b iom e m ost altered
S c le ro p h y llo u s m eans 'hard-leaved ' and is used by h u m a n activity.
to describe those evergreen trees or shrubs th a t
have sm all, hard, leathery, w axy or even th o rn ­ figuK 12,23
like leaves and w h ich are e fficien t at reducing
tran sp iration during th e dry sum m er season.
M any o f th e trees are evergreen, m axim isin g
th e p o ten tia l for p h o to sy n th esis. Frees such as
th e cork oak have th ick and o ften gnarled bark
to help reduce tran sp iration . O thers, such as
th e olive and eucalyptus, have long tap roots to
reach groundw ater supplies and, in som e cases,
m ay have bulbous roots in w h ich to store water.
High tem peratures during th e dry sum m er lim it
th e a m o u n t and qu ality o f grass. Citrus fruits,
alth ou g h n o t indigenou s, arc suited to th e
clim ate as th eir th ick skins preserve m oisture.
M ost trees on ly grow from 3 to 5 m in h eight.
They provide little shade, as th ey grow at w idely
spaced intervals, and th e y are p y ro p h y tic
(fire-resistant, page 2 9 3 ).
W here th e natu ral w ood land has b een
replaced, and in areas to o dry for tree grow th,
a scrub veg etation has developed. The scrub is

324 World climate, soils and vegetation

 b y th e red ep osition o f iron and alu m in iu m . The
soils, w h ich are o fte n th in , are less acid th a n the
brow n earths as th ere is less leach in g in th e dry
season and calciu m is o ften released, especially
in lim esto n e areas (Figure 1 2 .2 5 ).
In m an y M ed iterranean areas, p aren t rock is
lo cally a m ore im p o rta n t facto r in soil fo rm atio n
th a n clim ate. This leads to th e d ev elop m en t o f
intrazon al soils such as rend zina and terra rossa
(Figures 1 0 .2 3 and 1 0 .2 4 ).

4A Eastern margin climates in Asia

Soils
pue vegetation M ed iterranean soils are tran sitio n al betw een
brow n earths o n th e w etter m argins and desert
soils at th e drier fringes. Initially form ed under
broad-leaved and conifero u s w ood land, th e soil
is partly a relict feature from a previously fo r­
ested landscape.
There are o ften su fficien t roots and decaying
plan t m aterial to provide a sig n ifican t hum us
layer. W in ter rains cause som e lea ch in g o f bases,
sesquioxides o f iron and alu m in iu m and th e
tra n slo ca tio n o f clays. T h e B h o riz o n is therefore
clay -en rich ed and m ay be colou red a b rig h t red
2.25
broad-leaved and coniferous
: ' ranean trees removed and replaced
by a secondary succession
(monsoon)
Sou th-east and eastern Asia are d om in ated by
th e m o n so o n (page 2 3 9 ). Tem perature figures
and rainfall d istrib u tions are sim ilar to th o se of
places h av in g a tro p ical c o n tin e n ta l clim ate w ith
a very warm and dry season from N ovem ber to
M ay and a h o t and very wet season from Ju n e to
O cto b er (Places 3 2 , page 2 4 0 ). T h e m a jo r d iffer­
ence betw een th e tw o clim ates is th a t m o n so o n
areas receive appreciably h ig her an n u al am ounts
o f rain . T h e natu ral v eg etation is ju n g le (tropical
deciduous forest) and th e d o m in a n t soil type is
ferralitic. B oth v eg etation and soils, therefore,
share m an y sim ilarities w ith th e tro p ical rain ­
forest.
5 T e m p e ra te g rasslan d s
T h e tem perate grassland b iom e lies in th e centre
o f c o n tin e n ts ap p roxim ately b etw een latitudes
40° and 60° n o rth o f th e Equator. T h e tw o m ain
areas are th e N orth A m erican Prairies and the
Russian Steppes (Figure 11 .3 8 ).

litter layer Cool temperate continental climate

T h e an nu al range o f tem peratu re is h ig h as there
plentiful roots giving a
dark-brown humus layer is n o m o d eratin g in flu en ce from th e sea (38°C
at Saskatoon, Figure 1 2 .2 6 ). T he land warms
friable humus layer, loss up rapidly in sum m er to give m ax im u m m ean
of clays and
sesquioxides in winter m o n th ly readings o f around 20°C . However, th e
rapid rad iation o f h eat from m id -co n tin en tal
areas in w inter m ean s th ere are several m o n th s
w hen th e tem peratu re rem ains below freezing
p o in t. T he clear skies also result in a large diurnal
tem peratu re range.
i
redeposition of clays and
In Russia, precipitation decreases rapidly
sesquioxides of Fe and Al towards th e east as distance from th e sea - and
therefore from th e rain-bearing winds - increases;
in N orth America, however, totals are low est to
weathered parent
materials, e.g.CaC03 th e w est w h ich is directly in th e rainshadow of
th e Rockies. A nnual am ounts in b o th areas
on ly average 5 0 0 m m and there is a th reat of
often calcareous drought, as experienced in N orth Am erica in
1988. A lthough, fortuitously, 75 per cen t of

World climate, soils and vegetation 325

 precipitation falls during the sum m er growing
Saskatoon (Saskatchewan,
30 175 season, it can occur in th e form o f harm ful th u n ­
Canada)
52°N
derstorm s and hailshow ers. T he ground can
20 150
be snow -covered for several m o n th s betw een
altitude 145 m
O ctober and April. Overall, there is a close
annual tem peratu re „ 10 125 ?
range 3 8°C u b alance betw een p recip itation and evapotran-
E
annual precipitation 100 co
spiration. In winter, b o th areas are op en to cold
352 mm 3 0
tu
ra blasts o f arctic air, alth ou gh th e ch in o o k m ay
Q.-10 75 O.
E bring tem porary warm er spells to th e Prairies
Ol <u
4
-< (page 24 1 ).
Q.
-20 50

Figure 12.26 -30 25 Temperate grassland vegetation

C lim a te g ra p h fo r a te m p e ra te
T his type o f veg etation lies to th e south o f the
-40 0
c o n tin e n ta l b io m e con ifero u s forest b elt in th e dry interiors of
N orth A m erica and Russia. Tem perate grass­
lands are, how ever, also found sporadically in
Figure 12.27 parts o f th e sou th ern h em isp here, w here they
usually lie b etw een 30° and 40°S. The Pam pas
T u fted grasses on th e N o rth
A m e rica n P rairies, USA (South Am erica) and th e C an terbu ry Plains (New
Zealand) are towards th e eastern coast, w hile the
M u rray -D arlin g b asin (Australia) and th e Veld
(South Africa) are furth er in lan d . The NPP of
P lil 6 0 0 g/m2/yr is consid erably less th a n th a t of
th e tro p ical grasslands because th e vegeta­
tio n grows n e ith er as rapidly n or as tall (Figure
1 1 .4 0 ). W h atever th e original clim ax vegetation
o f th e b io m e m ay have b een , th e ecosystem has
b ee n sig n ifican tly altered by fire and h u m an
ex p lo ita tio n to leave, today, gram a and buffalo
grass as th e d om in an ts. There are tw o m ain
types o f grass. Feather grasses grow to 5 0 cm and
form a relativ ely even coverage, w hereas tufted
(tussock) grasses, reach in g up to 2 m, are found
in m ore co m p act clum ps (Figure 1 2 .2 7 ). The
grass form s a tig h tly k n it sod w h ich m ay have
restricted tree grow th, and certain ly m ade early

Figure 12.28 temperate grasslands

Land uses o fth e te m p e ra te
g ra sslan d , a ch a n g e d b io m e

location d ry co n tin ental interiors eastern coasts

cleared for cereals: altered by altered by altered by altered by sheep

land use
maize and w h e at cattle ranching sheep ranching cattle ranching ranching

Russian Steppes, A m erican Mid-West Sou th African Veld Sou th Am erican C anterbury Plains
examples A m erican Prairies, Pam pas (N e w Zealand)
M urray-D arling (Australia)

326 World climate, soils and vegetation

 p re c ip ita tio n = e v a p o tra n s p ira tio n
g rasse s a n d h e rb a c e o u s p la n ts
d e p th (m )
—
) th ic k sod c o v e r/ o rg a n ic
n e u tra l
p H 7.0
0.5 -
A /B f
1 in d istin ct b o u n d a ry ; p o ssib ly
a /c I ^Ca
1.25-
1.50-
C<
2 —1
plou g h in g difficu lt. T h e deep
:em (bla ck roots, w h ich o ften exten d to a
p ro file dep th o f 2 m in order to reach
th e w ater table, help to b in d
th e soil to g eth er and so reduce erosion. M ost of
th e organic m aterial is in th e grass roots and it is
th e roots and rhizom es th a t provide th e largest
store o f n u trien ts (Case Study 1 2 B ) .
D uring autum n, th e grasses die dow n to form
a tu rf m at in w h ich seeds lie d orm ant u n til the
snow m elt, rains and h ig her tem peratures o f th e
follow ing spring. G row th in early sum m er is
rapid and the grasses produce narrow, inward-
curving blades to lim it tran sp iration . By th e end
of sum m er, th eir blue-green colour m ay have
turned m ore parched. H erbaceous plants and
som e trees (willow) grow along water courses.
In response to th e w indy clim ate, m an y prairie
and steppe farm s are p rotected by trees planted
as w indbreaks. The decay o f grasses in sum m er
causes a rapid a ccu m u lation o f hum us in th e soil,
m aking th e area ideal for cereals or, in drier areas,
for cattle ran ch in g (Figures 1 2 .2 7 and 12 .2 8 ).
The tem perate grasslands are a resilient eco­
system. The grasses provide food for burrowing
anim als such as rabbits and gophers, and for
large herbivores such as antelop es, b ison and
kangaroos. These, in turn, m ay be con su m ed by
carnivores (wolves and coyotes) or b y predatory
birds (hawks and eagles).
Chernozems or black earths
The th ick grass cover and th e im p ortance o f roots
as a source o f organic m atter to g eth er provide
a plen tiful supply o f m ull hum us w h ich form s
a black, cru m bly topsoil (Figure 1 2 .2 9 ). W h ile
th e abu nd an ce o f biota, especially earthw orm s,
causes th e rapid decay and m ixin g o f organic
m a tte r
a c c u m u la tio n o f m ull h u m u s
a n d bases (Ca, M g ,N a , K) a n d
s o m e Fe, A l a n d Si
slig h t le a c h in g a fte r
s p rin g s n o w m e lt a n d
s u m m e r s to rm s
a n a b s e n c e o f a B h o riz o n
c a lc ific a tio n
n o d u le s o f C a C 0 3
d ry su b so il o fte n o f
lo ess o rig in ,o r
w e a th e r e d p a re n t rock Figure 12.30
A c h e rn o ze m (b la c k e a rth ) soil
pro file ty p ica l o fth e co n tin en ta l
grasslands b io m e
p a re n t rock
m atter during th e warm sum mer, d eco m p o sition
is arrested during drier spells and in th e long,
cold w inter. Due to rapid m ixin g , hu m us is spread
th ro u g h o u t the A h orizo n , and as a result of
rapid d ecom p osition there is effective recycling
as th e grasses take up and return n u trients to th e
soil. T h e late spring sn ow m elt and early sum m er
storm s cause som e leach in g (Figure 1 2 .3 0 ), and
bases such as potassium and m agnesium m ay be
slow ly m oved dow nwards. In late sum m er, and in
places w here th e water table is near to th e surface,
capillary water m ay b rin g bases nearer to th e
surface to m a in ta in a neutral or slightly alkaline
soil (pH 7 to 7.5). T he grasses have an extensive
root system w h ich gives a deep (up to 1 m ) dark-
b row n to black A horizon.
T h e a ltern atin g dry and w et seasons im m o b ­
ilise iron and a lu m in iu m sesquioxides and clay
w ith in aggregates (peds) in th e upper h orizo n
and th is, to g eth er w ith th e large n u m ber o f
m ix in g agents, lim its th e fo rm atio n o f a recog­
nisable B h orizo n . The subsoil, o ften o f loess
origin (page 136), is usually porous and this,
to g eth er w ith th e capillary m oistu re m o v em en t
in sum m er, m eans th a t it rem ains dry. This
upward m o v em en t o f m oistu re causes calciu m
c arb o n ate to be deposited, o ften in th e form of
nod u les, in th e upper C horizon.
C h ern ozem s are regarded as th e op tim um soil
for agriculture as th e y are deep, rich in organic
m atter, retain m oisture, and have an ideal crum b
structure w ith w ell-form ed peds. After in ten siv e
p lou ghing, ch ern ozem s m ay require th e ad d ition
o f potassium and n itrates.
World climate, soils and vegetation 327
 Prairie soils
These lie on th e w etter m argins of th e chernozem s
and form a tra n sitio n b etw een th e m and th e
b row n forest earths. As p recip ita tio n exceeds
ev ap otran sp iration , th ere is an absence o f cap il­
lary a ctio n and th e soil lacks th e accu m u latio n
o f calcium carbonate associated w ith chernozem s.
The A/B h orizo n s ten d to m erge, as th ere is
lim ited lea ch in g and strong b io ta activity.
D ecayin g grasses provide m u ch org anic m aterial
and th e soils are ideal for cereal crops.
Chestnut soils
These are found in ju x ta p o sitio n w ith th e ch er­
nozem s, b u t where th e clim ate is drier so th a t
evapotran spiration slightly exceeds p recip itatio n
and th e resultant v egetation is sparser and m ore
xero p h y tic. As th e ro o t system is less dense, b o th
th e a m o u n t and th e d ep th o f organic m atter
decrease, as does th e th ick n ess o f th e A h orizo n ,
and th e colou r b eco m es a lig h ter brow n th a n in
ch ern ozem s. C h estn u t soils are m ore alkaline,
due to increased capillary actio n , and suffer from
m ore freq u en t sum m er droughts. D eposits of
calciu m carb on ate are fo u n d near to th e surface
and th e soil is generally shallow er th an a ch e r­
nozem . C h estn u t soils are agriculturally prod u c­
tive if aided by irrigation, b u t m ism an ag em en t
can quickly lead to th eir exh a u stio n and erosion.
6 Temperate deciduous forests
Tem perate deciduous forests are located on the
west coasts o f co n tin e n ts betw een approxim ately
latitudes 40° and 60° n o rth and south o f the
Equator. Apart from north-w est Europe (w hich
includes th e British Isles), oth er areas covered by
this b iom e include th e north-w est of th e USA,
B ritish C olum bia, sou thern C hile, Tasm ania and
Sou th Island, New Zealand (Figure 1 1 .3 8 ).
Cool temperate western margins
climate
Sum mers are cool (Figure 12.31) w ith th e warm est
m o n th betw een 15°C and 17°C. This is a result of
the relatively low angle o f the sun in th e sky, co m ­
bined w ith frequent cloud cover and th e cooling
influence o f th e sea. W inters, in com parison, are
mild. M ean m o n th ly tem peratures rem ain a few
degrees above freezing due to th e w arm ing effect
of the sea, th e presence o f warm, offshore ocean
currents and th e insulating cloud cover. Diurnal
tem perature ranges are low; autum ns are warmer
than springs; and seasonal tem perature variations
depend on prevailing air masses (Figure 9.4 1 ).
328 World climate, soils and vegetation
Shannon (Republic of Ireland) Figure 12.31
53° N
C lim a te g ra p h fo r
altitude 2 m a cool te m p e ra te
annual tem peratu re range 11°C
w e s te rn -m a rg in
annual precipitation 929 mm
b io m e
This clim a tic zone lies at th e co n flu en ce of
th e Ferrel and Polar cells (Figures 9 .3 4 and 9 .3 5 >
w here tro p ical and polar air converge at th e Polar
Front. W arm er tropical air is forced to rise, creat­
ing an area o f low pressure and fo rm in g depres­
sions w ith th eir associated fro nts. The
prevailing south-w esterlies, laden w ith vapour
after crossing warm , offshore currents, give
heavy orographic and fro n tal rain. P recipitation
o ften exceed in g 2 0 0 0 m m annually, falls
th ro u g h o u t th e year b u t w ith a w inter m axim um
w h en depressions are m ore freq u en t and intense.
A lthough snow is co m m o n in th e m o u n tain s,
it rarely lies for long at sea-level. Fog, m ost
co m m o n in th e autum n , form s under anticy-
clo n ic co n d itio n s (page 2 3 4 ).
Deciduous forests
A lthough h av in g the seco n d -h ig h est NPP o f all
biom es (1 2 0 0 g/m2/yr), th e tem perate deciduous
forest falls w ell short o f th e figure for tropical
rainforests, m a in ly becau se o f th e d orm ant
w inter season w hen th e deciduous trees in te m ­
perate latitudes shed th e ir leaves (Figure 11.40).
Leaf fall has th e effect o f red ucing tran sp iration
w hen cold er w eather reduces th e effectiveness of
p h o to sy n th esis and w hen roots find it harder to
take up w ater and n u trien ts.
In B ritain, oaks, w h ich can reach heights of
3 0 to 4 0 m, becam e th e d o m in a n t species as the
clim ax v eg etation developed th rou g h a series of
several prim ary successions (Figure 11.4). O ther
trees, such as th e elm (co m m o n before its popu­
la tio n was d im inished by D u tch elm disease),
b eech , sycam ore, ash and ch estn u t, grow a little
less tall. They all develop large crow ns and have
broad b u t th in leaves (Figure 1 2 .3 2 ). U nlike
 th e rainforests, th e tem p erate deciduous forests
co n ta in relatively few species. T h e m axim u m
n u m ber o f species per k m 2 in sou th ern B ritain is
■: jrrey. eight, and som e w oodlands, such as b eech , m ay
o n ly have a single d o m in a n t. T he trees have a
grow ing season o f 6 to 8 m o n th s in w h ich to
bud, leaf, flow er and fruit, and m ay o n ly grow by
ab ou t 5 0 cm a year.
M ost w oodlands show som e stra tifica tio n
(Figure 1 1 .2 ). B en ea th th e can op y is a lower
shrub layer varying betw een 5 m (holly, hazel
and h aw th orn ) and 2 0 m (ash and birch ). This
layer ca n be q u ite dense becau se th e op en m osaic
o f bran ch es o f th e taller trees allow s m ore lig ht
to p en etrate th a n in th e rainforests. T h e forest
floor, if th e shrub layer is n o t to o dense, is o ften
p "
covered in a th ick undergrow th o f bram bles,
L h it -r— soil
grass, b rack en and ferns. M any flow ering plan ts
id 3 o f a
fee :uous (bluebells) b lo o m early in th e year before the
r
F :: : •: Tie taller trees have developed th eir full foliage.
E piphytes, w h ich in clu d e m osses, lich e n s and
algae, o ften grow o n tree trunks.
T h e forest flo o r has a reasonably th ick leaf
litter w h ich is readily b rok en dow n by th e
n u m erou s m ixin g agents living in th e relatively
w arm soil. T here is a rapid recy clin g o f n u tri­
ents, a lth ou g h som e are lo st th rou g h leach in g .
T h e lea ch in g o f hu m u s and n u trien ts and th e
m ix in g by b iota produce a b row n-colou red soil.
Soil type con trib u tes to d eterm in e th e d o m in an t
tree: oaks and elm s prefer loam s; b ee ch th e m ore
acid gravels and th e drier chalk; ash th e lim e-rich
soils; and w illow s and alder w etter soils. There
is a w ell-developed food ch a in in th ese forests,
w ith m an y a u totro p h s, herbivores (rabbits, deer
and m ice) and carnivores (foxes).
M ost o f B ritain's natu ral prim ary deciduous
w ood land has b ee n cleared for farm ing, for use as
fuel and in build in g, and for urban developm en t.

d e c id u o u s w o o d la n d w ith u n d e r g r o w th
D eciduous trees give w ay to conifers towards
polar latitudes and w here th ere is an in crease in
e ith er altitude or steepness o f slope.

Brown earths
■E-af litte r—
T h e consid erable leaf litter, w h ich accu m ulates
in au tu m n , d ecom poses relatively q u ickly due to
th e activity o f soil b io ta. O rganic m a tter is in co r­
porated as m ull in to th e A h orizo n b y th e action
:h in g o f o f earthw orm s, giving it a dark-brow n colou r
:nd clays (Figure 1 2 .3 3 ). P recip itation exceeds ev ap o tran ­
sp iration su fficien tly to allow leach in g . Bases,
humus brought in by earthworms, esp ecially calciu m and m agnesiu m , are ab sent
preventing formation of a distinct
horizon 1-2 m ^ e upper h orizo n s and, in som e in stan ces,
th ere m ay be a loss o f clay and sesquioxides
f (Figure 1 2 .3 4 ). Because th ere is greater b io ta
oo ssib le slightly paier, or reddish-brown
activity, th e h orizo n s m erge m ore gradually th a n
. a tio n o f
- -e an d Al translocated days in a podsol (Figure 1 2 .3 9 ), w hile th e colou r m ay
b eco m e in creasin gly reddish-brow n w ith depth
y e e roo ts if iron and alu m in iu m are redeposited.
:^ n e tra te ;weathergjl parent materia!
: r-ent rock,
■- _p bases parent rock

World climate, soils and vegetation 329

 Brow n earths tend to be free-d raining as th ey
do n o t have a hard pan. T here is consid erable
recy clin g as th e deciduous trees take up large
am o u n ts o f n u trien ts from th e soil in sum m er,
on ly to retu rn th e m th ro u g h leaf-fall th e fo llow ­
ing au tu m n . Brow n earths are usually deeper
th a n podsols, partly becau se tree roots can p e n ­
etrate and break up th e b ed rock (Figure 2 .5 ) and
are m ore fertile, m ain ly because o f th e h ig her
co n te n t o f organ ic m atter and clay (alth o u g h
th e y o ften b en efit from lim in g ).

7 C o n ife ro u s fo rests
The con ifero u s forest, or taiga, b iom e occurs in
cold clim ates to th e polew ard side o f 60°N in
Eurasia and N orth A m erica as well as at h ig h
altitud es in m ore tem p erate latitud es and in
sou th ern C h ile (Figure 1 1 .3 8 ). m ost places are a long way from th e sea. The
slig h t sum m er m ax im u m is caused b y isolated
Cold climates co n v e ctio n a l rainstorm s.

W inters are long and cold. M in im u m m ean

m o n th ly tem peratures m ay be as low as -2 5 ° C
(-2 4 °C at Fairbanks, Figure 1 2 .3 5 ) - there is little
m oderating in flu en ce from th e sea and n o in so l­
a tion as, at this tim e o f year, th e sun never rises
in places n o rth o f th e Arctic Circle. Strong winds
m ean there is a high w ind -ch ill factor (frostbite
is a hazard to hu m ans); any m oisture is rapidly
evaporated (or frozen); and snow is freq u ently
b low n about in blizzards. Sum m ers are short, bu t
th e long hours o f daylight and clear skies m ean
th a t th e y are relatively warm . P recip itation is
lig h t th ro u g h o u t th e year becau se th e air can
hold o n ly lim ited am o u n ts o f m oisture, and
Fairbanks (Alaska, USA)
6 5 °N
a ltitu d e 134 m
a n n u a l te m p e r a tu r e ra n g e 4 0 °C
a n n u a l p re c ip ita tio n 29 7 m m
Coniferous forest or taiga
T h e con iferou s forest has an average NPP of
8 0 0 g/m2/yr (Figure 1 1 .4 0 ). T h e con ifero u s trees
have developed d istin ctive ad ap tations w hich
enable th e m to to lerate long, cold w inters; cool
sum m ers w ith a short grow ing season; lim ited
p recip itatio n ; and podsolic soils. The size of
th e d o m in a n t trees and th e fa ct th a t th ey are
evergreen - giving th e m th e p o ten tial for year-
round p h o to sy n th esis - result in th eir relativelv
h ig h NPP. T h e trees, w h ich are softw oods, rarelv
nu m ber m ore th a n tw o or th ree species per km -
O ften th ere m ay be exten sive stands o f a single
species, such as spruce, fir or pine. In colder
areas, like Siberia, th e larch tend s to d om inate.
A lthough larches are cone-bearing, the Europear.
larch is deciduous and sheds its leaves in winter.
All trees in th e taiga, som e o f w h ich attain a
h e ig h t o f 4 0 m, are adapted to liv ing in a harsh
e n v iro n m en t (Figure 1 2 .3 6 ).

a
‘u
cd
a.

Figure 12.35

C lim a te g ra p h fo r a
co ld c lim a te b io m e

330 World climate, soils and vegetation

 towards the Equator poleward

m e rg e s w ith
d e c id u o u s fo re st
c o a stal area s
tre e s b e c o m e tre e l i n e :
coniferous in c re a s in g ly o n ly 1 m o n th tundra
forest s tu n te d o f 1 0 °C
j L'
m e rg e s w ith te m p e r a te
g ra ssla n d s in c o n tin e n ta l d is ta n c e b e tw e e n
n terio rs i tre e s in cre a se s

; 1 2 .3 8 C o n d itio n s for p h o to sy n th esis beco m e
n ife ro u s favourable in spring as in co m in g rad iation
and its increases and w ater b eco m es available th rou g h
:ion zones snow m elt (days in w in ter are lon g and dark and
soil m oistu re is frozen). T he need le-like leaves
are sm all and th e th ick cu ticles h elp to reduce
tran sp iration during tim es o f strong w inds and
during th e w in ter w h en m oistu re is in a form
unavailable for ab so rp tion by tree roots. C ones
shield th e seeds and th ick , resinous bark protects
th e tru nk from th e extrem e cold o f w in ter and
th e th rea t o f sum m er forest fires. T h e con ical
shape o f th e tree and its dow nw ard-sloping,
springy b ran ch es allow th e w inter snow s to slide
o ff w ith o u t breaking th e branches. The co n ical
shape also gives som e stab ility against strong
w inds as th e tree ro ots are usually shallow . T here
is usually o n ly o n e layer o f v eg etatio n in th e
con ifero u s forest. T he a m o u n t o f ground cover is
(Figure 1 2 .3 6 ). Sou th o f th e taiga lie eith er the
deciduous forest or th e tem perate grassland
b iom es (Figure 1 1 .3 8 ), d ep end ing upon w h eth er
th e lo ca tio n is coastal or inland .
Podsois
Podsols develop in areas w here p recip itatio n
exceeds ev ap otransp iration; un der coniferou s
forest, h e a th la n d and oth er v eg etatio n to l­
eran t o f low -nu trien t-statu s soils; and w here
p arent m aterials produce coarse-textured soils.
A lthough podsols usually occu r in places w ith
a co o l clim ate, th e y can be found virtually
anyw here b etw een th e Equator and th e Arctic,
providing th e required co n d itio n s are present.
B S S S WYE 1973
PROFILE

lim ited , due partly to th e lack o f su n lig h t rea ch ­ HOTWIEID SERIES

ing th e forest floo r and partly to th e deep, acidic HUMO-FERRIC P0 DZ0 L

--- -n -
layer o f n o n -d eco m p osed needles (Figure 1 2 .3 7 ).
Plants th a t can survive o n th e forest floo r inclu de
m osses, lich e n s and w ood sorrel. T h e cold
clim a te and acid soil discourage earthw orm s and
bacteria. N eedles decom pose very slow ly to give
an acid m or hu m us (page 2 6 2 ) w ith m o st o f th e
n u trien ts h eld w ith in th e litter (Figure 1 1 .2 9 a ).
Evapotran spiration rates are very low and, as
th e y are usually less th a n p recip itatio n totals,
lea ch in g occurs and th e few n u trien ts th a t are
returned to th e podsol soil are soon lost. C onifers
require few nu trien ts, taking o n ly 2 2 5 kg o f p lant
n u trien t a n n u a lly from each h ectare com pared
w ith th e 4 3 0 kg tak en by deciduous trees. The
lim ited food supply m eans th a t an im al life is
n o t ab u n d an t. T he dark w oods are n o t favoured
b y bird life, a lth o u g h deer, w olves, brow n bears,
m oose, elk and beavers are found in certain areas.
In N orth A m erica and Eurasia, th e c o n if­
erous forest m erges in to th e tu nd ra o n its
n o rth e rn fringes (Figure 1 2 .3 8 ). T h e tree line, Figure 12.39

th e p o in t above w h ich trees are unable to grow, Soil p ro file o f a p odsol

is o fte n clearly m arked in m o u n ta in o u s areas

World climate, soils and vegetation 331

 sesquioxides o f iro n and a lu m in iu m are often
coniferous forests pine needles slow to - th o u g h n o t always - deposited as a th in , rust-
have chelating agents decompose in cold
climate colou red, hard pan. W here it is developed, this
L (thin) pan is rarely m ore th a n 2 or 3 m m in d ep th
and o ften has a con v olu ted shape. It acts as an
(thick, black)
im perm eable layer restrictin g th e dow nward
m o v em en t o f m oistu re and th e p en e tratio n of
very acidic p lan t roots. This ca n cause som e w aterlogging
in th e E h orizo n to give a gleyed podsol. The
ash-grey bleached low er B h orizo n , an area o f diffuse accu m ulation
horizon leaching of
1 organic matter of iro n and alu m iniu m , has an orange-brow n
zone of sandy (silica) 2 bases: Ca, Na, K and Mg colou r and overlies w eathered p aren t m aterial.
eluviation
3 sesquioxides of Fe and Al
no earthworms; few
Any th rou g h flo w from th is h o rizo n is likely to
other biota
c o n ta in bases in so lu tio n . A lthough th ese soils
are n o t n atu rally fertile, th e y can be im proved b y
about 1 m
th e ad d ition o f lim e and fertiliser, or by ripping
th e iro n pan w ith a deep, sin gle-lin e plough.
accumulation of
organic matter
iron 8 T h e tu n d ra
diffuse Fe and Al
zone of
illuviation
some bases remain; T h e tundra, w h ich lies to th e n o rth o f th e
others lost by taiga, inclu des th e extrem e n o rth e rn parts of
throughflow
Alaska, C anada and Russia, to g eth er w ith all of
G reenlan d (Figure 1 1 .3 8 ). T h e ground, apart
from th e top few cen tim etres in sum m er w hen
tem peratu res are h ig h en ou g h for som e p lant
grow th, rem ains p erm a n en tly frozen (the
perm afrost, C h ap ter 5).

Figure 12.40
Soil profile of a
podsol, typical of
coniferous forests
Pine needles, w ith th eir th ick cuticles, provide Barrow (Alaska)
o n ly a th in leaf litter and in h ib it the 71°N
fo rm atio n o f hum us. Any hu m us form ed is very
altitude 7 m
acid (m or) and provides ch ela tin g agents and a n n u a l te m p e r a t u r e ra n g e 3 2 °C
fulvic acid w h ich help to m ake th e iron and a n n u a l p re c ip ita tio n 1 1 0 m m
alu m in iu m m inerals m ore soluble. The cold
150
clim ate discourages organism s and th e soil is
to o acidic for earthw orm s. C onsequently, well-
d efined horizon s develop due to th e slow d eco m ­ 125
p o sitio n o f leaf litter and th e lack o f m ixin g
agents. T h e dow nward p ercolation o f water 100
th rou g h th e soil, especially follow ing snow m elt,
causes th e leach in g o f bases, th e tran slo catio n
o f org anic m atter, and th e elu viatio n o f th e ses­
quioxid es o f iro n and alu m iniu m . This leaves an
ash-grey, b leached A h orizo n (podsol is Russian
for 'ash -lik e') com posed m ain ly o f quartz sand
and silica (Figures 1 2 .3 9 and 1 2 .4 0 ).
Pedologists accep t th a t d ifferen t processes
(physical, ch em ica l an d b io lo g ical) can be
-4 0 ..................
em p loyed in th e tra n slo ca tio n o f m aterials, e.g.
J F M A M J J A S O N D
hu m us and clay in suspension, bases in solu tion ,
sesquioxid es by b io ch em ica l agents in solu tion
and, perhaps m ost significantly, m o v em en t Figure 12.41
caused b y soil fau n a m ix in g th e soil. Climate graph for
T h e dark-coloured h u m us is redeposited a tundra biome
at th e to p o f th e B h o rizo n . B en ea th th is th e

332 World climate, soils and vegetation

 Arctic clim a te Fig u re 1 2 .4 3
Sum mers m ay have lengthy periods o f continuous
W a te rlo g g e d tu n d ra in th e
d aylight b u t, w ith th e angle o f th e sun so low
s u m m e r season, A laska
in th e sky tem peratu res struggle to rise above
freezing -p oint (Barrow 3°C, Figure 1 2 .4 1 ) and
th e grow ing season is e x cep tio n a lly short. N earer
th e poles, th e clim a te is o n e o f perpetual frost.
A lthough w inters are long, dark and severe,
and th e sea freezes, th e w ater has a m o d eratin g
effect on tem peratures, keeping th e m slightly
h ig h er th a n in la n d places fu rther sou th (Siberia).
P recip itation , w h ich falls as snow, is lig h t -
indeed, Barrow w ith 1 1 0 m m w ould be classified
as a desert if tem peratu res were h ig h en ou g h for
p la n t grow th.
iS lJb -
' .. .. .. .
T u n d ra v e g e ta tio n
T h e tu nd ra ecosystem is o n e w ith very low
organic productivity. The NPP o f on ly 1 4 0 g/m2/yr
is th e second -low est o f th e m a jo r land biom es
(Figure 1 1 .4 0 ). In F in n ish , tundra m ean s a 'barren
or treeless lan d ', w h ich accu rately describes its
w inter appearance, and in Russian a 'm arshy
p lain ', w h ich is w h at large areas are in summer. tran sp iration and short roots to avoid th e
Any v egetation m ust have a h ig h degree o f to ler­ perm afrost. L ich en s are p ion eer plants in areas
an ce o f extrem e cold and o f m o istu re-d eficien t w here th e ice is retreatin g, and th e y ca n help
co n d itio n s - th e latter becau se w ater is u n av ail­ date th e ch ro n o lo g y o f an area fo llow in g degla­
able for m o st o f th e year w h en it is stored as ice cia tio n (page 2 8 8 ). M u ch o f th e tu nd ra is w ater­
or snow. There are fewer species o f plants in the logged in sum m er (Figures 5 .1 8 and 1 2 .4 3 ) due to
tu nd ra th a n in any o th er b iom e. M ost are very th e im p erm eable perm afrost p reven tin g in filtra ­
slow- and low -grow ing, co m p a ct and round ed to tio n . W here relief is g en tle and evap o ration rates
gain p ro te ctio n against th e w ind (plants as well are low, m osses, c o tto n grass and sedges thrive.
as people are affected by w in d -ch ill), an d m ost O n sou th -facin g slopes and in better-drained
have to com p lete th eir iife-cycles w ith in 5 0 to 60 soils, cu sh io n plants provide a m ass o f bright
days. There is n o stra tifica tio n o f v eg etatio n by colou r in sum m er (Figure 1 2 .4 4 ). T hese 'b lo o m
2.42 h eig h t. m ats' inclu d e arctic poppies, a n em on es, orchids,
T h e five m a in d om in an ts, each w ith its pin k saxifrages and g en tian s. W here decaying
hip
specialised local h ab itat, are lich en s, m osses, v eg etatio n accu m u lates (th ere is little bacterial
.e g e ta tio n
actors in grasses, cu sh io n plants, and low shrubs actio n to decom pose dead plants), th e resultant
a (Figure 1 2 .4 2 ). M o st h ave sm all leaves to lim it p eat is likely to be covered in h eather, w hereas

South □ p e rm a fro s t □ a c tiv e la y e r in s u m m e r North

high tundra low tundra high tundra

! exposed
w a te r lo g g e d so u th -fa cin g , | th in , d r y 10
s e a s o n a l river
lo llo w s d rie r riv e r w e ll- d ra in e d ; soil
b a re ro c k (s u m m e r o n ly )
a e rm a fro st g ra v e ls s lo p e s
w ith
n o rth - facin g , e v e l lo w e r)
m a x im u m d w a r f b irch b ilb e rry ;
w e ll- d ra in e d lo w
e x p o s u re cro w b e rry
slo p e s phagnum d w a r f w illo w M s hrubs,
lich en s; m o ss; c o tto n b lo o m ' m ats: bell
re in d e e r tu s s o c k y g rasse s grass; s e d g e s p o p p ie s; h e a th e r in
m o ss and sedges sax ifrag es; w e t te r
anem ones h o llo w s
-" “ * “ ~ a «s

V ote: th e m o re e x p o s e d , h ig h e r a re a s h a v e t h e s n o w b lo w n a w a y le a v in g th e m c o ld e r a n d w ith a h ig h e r p e rm a fro s t level.

World climate, soils and vegetation 333


Figure 12.44 o n drier gravels, berried p lants (e.g. bilberry and
'Bloom mats'at crow berry) are th e d o m in a n ts. A d jacent to th e
Prudhoe Bay, Alaska seasonal snow m elt rivers, dw arf willow s, h o ri­
zon tal ju nipers and stu n ted b irch grow, bu t only
to a m ax im u m o f ab ou t 3 0 cm ; even so th eir
crow ns are o ften distorted and m issh ap en by th e
w ind. In w inter, th e w h ole b iom e is covered in
snow, w h ich acts as in su la tio n for th e plants.
T h e lack o f n itro g e n -fix in g plants, o th er th a n
in th e p ion eer co m m u n ity (page 2 8 6 ), lim its
fertility, and th e cold, w et c o n d itio n s in h ib it th e
breakdow n o f p lan t m aterial. P h oto sy n th esis
is h ind ered b y th e lack o f su n lig h t and w ater
fo r m ost o f th e year, th o u g h th e presence o f
au totro p hs, such as lich e n s and m osses, does
provide th e basis for a food ch a in longer th a n
m ig h t b e expected . H erbivores such as reindeer,
caribou and m u sk-ox survive becau se plants
like rein deer m oss have a h ig h sugar c o n te n t.
However, these anim als have to m igrate in
w inter to find pasture th a t is n o t covered by
snow. T h e m a jo r carnivores are w olves and arctic
fox; owls are also found here.
T h e tu nd ra is an extrem ely fragile ecosystem
in a d elicate b alan ce. O n ce it is disturbed by
h u m a n activity, such as tourism or oil exp lora­
tio n and e x tra ctio n , it m ay take m an y years
b efo re it b eco m es re-established .
334 World climate, soils and vegetation
Tundra soils
T h e lim ited p la n t grow th o f th is b io m e on ly
produces a sm all a m o u n t o f litter and, as there
are few soil b io ta in th e cold soil, organic m atter
decom poses o n ly very slow ly to give a th in peatv
layer o f hu m us or mor. There are m an y sites
w here th ere is free drainage. W here th is occurs,
water is able to percolate dow nwards, usually as
m eltw ater in late spring, giving lim ited leaching
and, due to th e fulvic acid w ith in it (the pH
can be under 4 .5 ), allow in g th e release o f iron.
U n derlying th e soil, at a very variable d ep th but
usually under 5 0 cm , is th e perm afrost. This,
a ctin g as an im perm eable layer, severely restrict?
m oistu re p ercolation and causes extrem e w ater­
logging and gleying (Figure 1 2 .4 5 ). Few m ixing
agents can survive in th e cold, wet, tundra soils,
w h ich are th in and have n o developed horizons
(an e x ce p tio n is th e arctic b row n soil w hich
develops o n better-drained sites). W here bedrock
is near to th e surface, th e p arent m aterial is
physically w eathered by freeze-th aw actio n . The
shattered angular fragm ents are raised to th e
surface by frost-heave, p reven tin g th e form ation
o f h orizo n s and creatin g a range o f periglacial
landform s (Figure 5 .2 1 ).
acid m o r h u m u s d u e to fe w rock fragm ents
raised to surface
o rg an ism s a n d m ix ing agents,
b y frost-heave in
a n d slo w d e co m p o s itio n
up to w inter
50 cm
w a te rlo g g e d soils; b lu e g re y limited leaching
g re yed profile b y m eltw ater in
spring
p e rm a fro st
(im p erm e a b le )
a n g u la r m aterial resulting
from frost shattering
i,/
r r -j fV f- 'T -..
r~ r u v
p a re n t rock
Figure 12.45
Soil profile of a typical
tundra soil
 The management of grasslands
% 12
tis

:al savanna gra sslan d on § | |

iita P la in , Kenya

- T ro p ic a l g r a s s la n d s in
* enya
5in expanses of tropical grassland in

i ie within the Rift Valley and on the

t - i t plains ofth e Mara (an extension
7 Serengeti) and Loita (Figure 12.48).
: ;opearance is one of open savanna
. 'es 12.13 and 12.46) with small acacia
~z ergreen trees (Figure 12.15).There is
e"ce, however, that the original climax
t -;: on was forest, but that this has
-■ :ered by fires, started both naturally
humans (page 293), by overgrazing
. e 12.47) and by climatic change.
• : imate is very warm and dry for
~ : ' the year with, usually, a short
- three months) of fairly reliable
jn d an t rainfall and an even
j j k | g § | J Figure 12.47
r ' period known as the 'little rains'
S cattered trees and o ve r-
e '2.49). Both periods of rainfall
■' grazed la n d in th e ce n tra l
i soon after the ITCZ and the associ- R ift Valley, Kenya
: .erhead sun have passed over the

World climate, soils and vegetation 335

 L. B a rin g o
tropical grassland
R iftV a lle y in c re a s in g ly
a rid h ig h la n d

N a tio n a l Parks
12.47
Laikipia a n d re s e rv e s

p h o to
12.46
lo c a tio n
100 km
L. N a k u ru

12.52 H r
▲ Mt Kenya
N a iva sh a ,
A b e rd a re M o u n ta in s
12.53 •
(W h it e H ig h la n d s )

2.51
Nairobi

Lake V icto ria

2.46
A m b o s e li
N a tio n a l Pa rk

Figure 12.48 • 12.54

The major areas of tropical Tsa vo

"7 grassland in Kenya N a tio n a l Park

Equator (Figure 12.12).The annual water

balance shows a deficit (Figure 3.3) so that,
Nairobi (Kenya)
although there is some leaching during the
rs rainy season, for most ofthe year capillary
a ltitu d e 1820 m action occurs.This has resulted in the devel­
a n n u a l te m p e ra tu re ra n g e 3 °C opm ent of ferruginous soils with, in places,
a n n u a l p r e c ip ita tio n 95 8 m m
a lateritic crust (page 321). Water supply is
therefore a major m anagement problem in
H u m a n pressure on the
n a tu ra l resources
Maasai pastoralists
Maasai are defined as'people who speak the
Maa language'.Their ancestors were Nilotic,
coming from southern Sudan during the first
millennium AD.They kept cattle and grew

this part of Kenya. sorghum and millet.The present Maasai

Water is obtained from springs at the may be descendants ofthe last of several

foot of Mount Kilim anjaro-the mountain migration waves. Latest evidence suggests

itself is in Tanzania - which are fed by that they may have only been in Kenya for

melting snow;from several ofthe RiftValley 300 years. Over time, they specialised more

lakes (not all, as some are highly saline); in cattle and came to see themselves, and

from rivers (many of which are seasonal); to be seen by others, historically and ethni­

and from waterholes. Even so, there have cally, as'people of cattle'. Figure 12.50 is a
tem perature (°C )

E been, in the last 100 years alone, several stereotype photo ofthe Maasai, dressed in

§ major droughts when the carrying capacity their red cloaks and with their humped zetu

3 ofthe region was exceeded.The carrying cattle. While all Maasai are Maa speakers, not
Q_
u capacity (page 378) is the maximum all Maa speakers are Maasai - nor, today, are

S- number ofa population (people, animals, all Maasai pastoralistslThe Maasai became

plants, etc.) that can be supported by the semi-nomadic, moving seasonally with the-'

resources o fthe environment in which cattle in search of waterand pasture (two

they live, e.g. the greatest number of cattle wet seasons and two dry seasons meant

that can be fed adequately on the available four moves a year; Figure 12.49). Herds had

amount of grassland. to be large enough to provide sufficient mi *,

a nd meat for thei r owners a nd to reprod uce
Figure 12.49 themselves overtime, including the ability ::
Climate graph and water balance for Nairobi (note that, due to its higher recoverfrom drought and disease.
altitude, Nairobi is cooler and wetter than the surrounding grasslands)

336 World climate, soils and vegetation

 The management of grasslands ^ ^ E E IE E H D

n p p n
Kikuyu (Bantu) farmers
"-e Kikuyu were one of several Bantu tribes
no arrived in Kenya, from the south, some
1100 years ago.They became subsistence
;"ners growing crops on the higher land
" ch bounded the eastern side ofthe Rift
5 ey.The Kikuyu and Maasai often lived a
:mplementary life-style. For the Maasai,
I . •jyu in the highlands were a secure
: ,rce of foodstuffs and a place of refuge
. mg times of drought and cattle disease.
;: :he Kikuyu, Maasai provided a constant
: oly of cattle products and wives. The
ivision between them only appeared in
\y . colonial times when the Maasai were
: oly moved from places like Laikipia
: : , re 12.48) southwards onto the newly
r ;:ed Maasai reservation (the districts of
and Kajiado).The vacuum ieftwas
t ; oy newly arrived European settlers,
:: oy Kikuyu (their rising numbers were
. s ng a land shortage in the highlands).
.'512.51 shows numerous, small,
. .j shambas (smallholdings) on the
:e rn edge ofthe RiftValley to the
« ---west of Nairobi.

: onial (European) settlers

e many Europeans settled in the so­
le : 'White Highlands', others developed
:e estates within the Rift Valley.The most
: js was Lord Delamere from Cheshire.
~:roduced, in turn, Australian sheep
r died, as the local grass was mineral-
: ent); British sheep and clover (the
- td died, as African bees did not pol-
::e British clover); British cattle (wiped
ocal diseases); wheat (which was
r ; jccessful unless trampled by wild
3 s); and, finally and successfully,
gn'-resistant beef cattle. The present
Delamere estate (Figure 12.52) covers
22 600 hectares (divided into 180-hectare
paddocks); it has 10 900 long-horned Boran
cattle (the carrying capacity is 12 000)
crossed with 300 Friesian bulls; and 280
permanent workers. Although the estate
Figure 12.53
F lo w e r-g ro w in g
e sta te n ea r Lake
N aivasha, Kenya
is managed by'whites' the stockmen are
Maasai. More recently, transnational firms
have set up large flower farms (Figure
12.53) and vegetable (especially peas and
beans) farms in and nearthe Rift Valley.The
closeness to Nairobi airport means that
these perishable products can be trans­
ported to and sold in European markets,
out of season, the day after they are picked.

RSSill

if ,vt -*v & t _•u.

^ | 2 2 J j2 0 I The m anagem ent of grasslands

Population growth and urbanisation

Kenya, an economically less developed
country, has one ofthe world's fastest-
growing population rates.This means
increased pressure on the land, especially
the grasslands, to grow more subsistence
crops to feed the growing domestic market
more cash crops to earn needed money
from increased exports; and more land lost
to urban growth.

Figure 12.55
M aasai a n d tro p ic a l
gra sslan d u n d e r th re a t
less land =
less m obility =
less m igration =
overgrazing =
carrying capacity
exceeded
greater risk of d rought
as som e w a ter supplies
are lost and d em and
increases from Kenya
as a w h o le
threat to plough up areas
around Narok to grow
w h e a t for Kenya's grow ing
p opulation
National parks and reserves
The passing ofthe National Parks
Ordinance in 1945 meant that specific
areas were set aside either exclusively
for wildlife (no permanent settlement in
National Parks other than at tourist lodges)
or where other types of land use were per­
mitted only at the discretion of local coun­
Figure 12.54
A m b o s e li N a tio n a l Park,
Kenya, w a te re d by
m e ltin g sn o w fro m M t
I K ilim a n ja ro (Tanzania)
earlier European settlers, n o w
m ultinationals (flow ers,fruit and increase in Kikuyu
veg etables) using Rift Valley for p op ulation = extra
com m ercial produce pressure on land;
expansion into
grasslands
urbanisation due to
high birth rates and
rural-urban
m igration
Maasai
under threat
increase in Maasai
population
Maasai m o ved out of
National Parks and
tourism : the latest threat
Reserves: loss o f land
to th e Maasai's
and w a ter supplies
traditional w a y o f life,
society and culture
cils. W hile wildlife has becom e a major
source of income for Kenya, it has meant
less land being available for crops and, to
the Maasai, denial of access to important
resources of dry-season water and pasture
(Amboseli; Figure 12.54). Maasai herds
were heavily depleted during the droughts
of 1952 and 1972-76.
M a a s a i in the la te 2000s
The traditional Maasai way of life and their
grassland habitat are under constant threat.
Figure 12.55 summarises, but does insuf­
ficient justice to, some ofthe present-day
problems. Change, as in many societies,
is being forced upon the Maasai. While
many values and traditions are still known
and held, the basis of their economy - the
concept of land as territory - has been so
transformed that the survival ofthe herdir::
system is in jeopardy. For some years, mar
Maasai have tried eitherto buy individual
ranches (IRs) or to amalgamate to create
group ranches (GRs), a practice which s e e r s
to fail at times of severe drought. The Maas;
are also having to come to terms with a
sedentary rather than a semi-nomadic life­
style. Practical Action (PA), a British develop­
ment group (Places 90, page 577), has bee-
working with Maasai people to improve the
standard of housing. In response to the ma '
complaint of Maasai women, PA has helpec
to design a watertight cement skin which
can be laid over an old mud roof (it was the
women's job to apply more dung and mua
onto a leaking roof during a wet night), anc
have improved ventilation within the house
(where all the cooking is done).The govern­
ment have laid a pipeline from Kilimanjaro
to Kajaido, to ensure a more reliable water
supply.The quality of Maasai herds has
improved, with some cattle being sold for
meat in Nairobi.The improvement to herds
has been aided by PA which has helped trar
local villagers to become 'vets' (wasaidizi,
Figure 21.5) capable of vaccinating animals
and dealing with common diseases. Some
Maasai have begun to grow crops, while
others have begun to benefit from tourism.
In Amboseli National Park, the Maasai are
allowed to sell artefacts from their own sho::
They can retain all the income which had,
previously, gone to the government.

338 World climate, soils and vegetation

 The management of grasslands

B T h e t e m p e r a t e g r a s s la n d s in N o r t h A m e r ic a : t h e P ra ir ie s
r ly travellers such as the Spaniard could be found. Nineteenth-century settlers The Native Americans, w ho used the
!: 'onado in the 16th century, who rode moving westwards across the Mississippi— ecosystem, did little to alter the grassland,
to Kansas from Mexico, and later French Missouri in their wagons or drawing their which remained in its original state of
copers and explorers in Canada, reported handcarts, must have wondered if they natural balance until the late 19th century.
S5t extents of waist-high, green grasses would ever see woods, forests and moun­ One visitor described it thus:
: "netimes so tall that men on horseback tains again.Today, the extent ofthe interior 'It is a wild garden. Each week from April
■: od in their stirrups to see where they were grasslands of North America is well known through September, about a dozen new
: ng.The plains seemed so vast that no limit (Figure 12.56). kinds of flowers come into bloom. Once the

/
Tall g rass
(u p to 2.5 m ) G re a te s t e x te n t
o f p ra irie
P re s e n t- d a y e x te n t
Sum m er o f o p e n p ra irie
te m p e ra tu re s
a v e r a g e 1 9 - 2 1 °C
/ P re c ip ita tio n o v e r 1000 m m ;
d a rk soils w ith h ig h h u m u s
P re c ip ita tio n c o n te n t; c h e rn o z e m s in b e st
250-500 m m ; h e a vy a rea s. D iv e rs e n a tiv e
v e g e ta tio n , m u c h n o w
w in t e r s n o w ; s tro n g
w in d s c a u s e loss o f c le a re d fo r c e re a ls (s p rin g
m o istu re . L ig h t w h e a t in n o rth ; w in te r- s o w n
b ro w n soils w h e a t in c e n tre ; m a iz e in
so u th w h e r e g ro w in g se a s o n
d e te r io r a te ra p id ly
is lo n g e r)
w h e n c u ltiv a te d

1 ' c
1 1 3
O f / J
P r e c ip ita tio n o v e r S
50 0 m m ;s u m m e r C o lo ra d o
te m p e r a tu re s 2 8 °C ; >*
s u m m e r c o n v e c tio n U 1
rain fall; h e a v y w in te r - __ P /
~y — — _ 1
s n o w . C h e s tn u t soils
e x te n s iv e ly
/ i \ 1
c u ltiv a te d in N o rth
a n d S o u th D a k o ta ,
N e b ra s k a a n d N ew
? |
K an sas; w a te r ta b le M e x ic o
J 1
b e in g lo w e re d
(O g a lla lla a q u ife r) V * 1
■—. - _/ X ~~1** J

Figure 12,56

The N o rth A m e rica n P rairies

World climate, soils and vegetation 339

(B Q Q 0 3 3 2 1 The m anagem ent of grasslands
Figure 12.57
S h o rt-g ra s s p ra irie w ith
d e c id u o u s tre e s
(c o tto n w o o d s and aspen)
a nd som e co n ife rs: w e s t
c e n tra l W y o m in g
Figure 12.58
L on g -gra ss p ra irie (b u ffa lo
g rass): S aska tch e w an
340 World climate, soils and vegetation
layer of dead grass gets too thick, though
it starts to choke off the smaller grasses
and wild flowers. Meantime, w oody plant;
- they like shade and moisture - can gain
a foothold in the sod and spread. If you
go long enough without fire, much of this
countryside will be covered with trees'
Grasses such as blue stem and buffalo
grass have a network of roots which can
extend to considerable depth to absorb
water and obtain nutrients. Root systems
may make up over 80 per cent ofthe vegeta­
tive biomass in the prairie.These, together
with the smaller herbs, have helped to
develop a thick sod close to the surface.
Plants can survive from year to year because
they die back to the ground and lie dormant
during the cold winters (page 327).
Soils grade in colour and fertility from
brown in the western short-grass prairie
(Figure 12.57) through chestnut in the
mixed-grass zone to the fertile black cher­
nozems (millisols) ofth e tall-grass eastern
zone (Figure 12.58).The chernozems have
a high humus content (page 327).
Decaying humus releases minerals slowly
for the grasses.The soils are kept light and
aerated which helps to prevent compac­
tion under heavy rain (summer convection
storms) and the weight of heavy animals
(bison and humans).The presence of
humus also helps to conserve moisture. Due
to frequent droughts, the vegetation has
developed protective mechanisms, such as
leaves that curl up to prevent evaporation
loss, and well-developed root fibres which
can obtain moisture from deep in the soil.
The rapid spring growth and early ma­
turity of grass allows it to produce seeds
early. It then becomes semi-dormant until
autumn and can survive heat and drought.
Late-growing species may not be able to
compete and this has led to an extension
of short grass into the mixed-grass zone
during a succession of long dry periods.
In the 17th century, there were estimated
to be 60-70 million bison roaming the grass­
lands with 50 million antelope, plus grizzly
bears, wolves and prairie dogs, together
with many species of birds - hawks, larks,
buntings, etc.-and insects and reptiles such
as snakes and lizards.Today there are few of
the larger mammals left except in wilderness
refuges such as National Parks.

Figure 12.59
C a ttle fa rm in g in th e Prairies
'* Jtrient cycling within the
: Birie ecosystem
: : „'e 11,29b, the small litter store
: the relatively small amount of
tative matter and low leaf fall. Litter
mposes into humus and nutrients are
:; :ed to the soil, giving it good crumb
:^re. Moderate rainfall reduces loss
■jnoff.The large soil storage is a result
• veathering of rock and the presence
■"3, rich chernozems (in the eastern
entral prairies) which have accumu-
=nigh proportion of humus (organic
n the temperate continental
: ' ons.There is little or no leaching
i-sethe rainfall is exceeded by
: : '=tion in the summer months.
- : -v a n d w h y m a y this
zsystem change?
: ttle tall-grass prairie left, and
r_ re s by governm ent agencies indi-
* -at there is less than 34 per cent
~ <ed-grass prairie and less than 23
^' l true short-grass prairie in exist-
~nis is mainly due to conversion to
:' oduction, damming of major rivers
r ~er with flood control and irriga-
::ems, and in favourable areas the
-i' g of wetlands for crops.
■atural conditions
. ^predictable rainfall and drought
■e been a major factor in change
The m anagem ent of grasslan ds
C a ttle fe e d lo ts in D enver
in the North American Prairies. Low
rainfall in the 1930s allied to bad
farming practices led to the creation
ofthe American Dust Bowl; reduced
the natural fodder for animals; and
permitted an eastward extension ofthe
short-grass prairies into the eastern tall
grass.
• Lightning is a frequent cause of fire
in the grasslands in summer.This
destroys the surface vegetation; kills
small animals; and damages the food
supply. In the years following serious
fires, lower bird numbers have been
recorded, as many nest on the ground.
• Bison herds have been effective in
change.They are heavy grazers and
reduce the coarser medium grasses,
leaving short grasses. In the spring and
early summer when mosquitoes hatch
they plague the bison, causing them
to roll on the ground to reduce the
itching! This forms depressions in the
prairie surface.These bare soils may be
re-colonised later by seeds carried by
birds.
2 Human activity
• Hunting The earliest inhabitants were
the Native Americans w ho hunted
animals for food, using fire and traps to
kill unselectively. With the coming of
the Europeans and the introduction of
the horse and the rifle, they were able
World climate, soils and vegetation
1232223©
to kill large numbers of bison almost
to extinction. It was only in the late
20th century that the number of bison
began to increase, as a result of careful
m anagement in the National Parks,
such as the Houck Ranch in South
Dakota.
• Cereal farming Initially the prairie sod
proved too difficult to remove using only
wooden or iron ploughs, but after the
1840s this became possible following
the development ofthe steel plough.
Cereal crops were successfully introduced
and were soon to be exported in huge
quantities to Western Europe (Places 70,
page 486). Overcultivation by the 1930s,
when there was also a severe drought, led
to extensive soil erosion and, especially in
the southern Prairie states of Kansas and
Oklahoma, the creation ofthetiust bowl!
Despite soil conservation methods on a
large scale, which reduced some ofthe
damaged areas, further droughts during
the late 20th century caused an estimated
loss of up to 1moftopsoil in some
ploughed areas.
• Cattle ranching became the main
farming activity on the western Prairies
(Figure 12.59) on land previously
grazed by bison. Serious problems of
overgrazing occurred in areas with
lower rainfall Although irrigation is
used to grow fodder cops in states such
as Alberta, Montana and the western
341
0 J3 E B S 3 The m anagem ent of grasslands
Dakotas, the extraction of water has
ted to a lowering ofthe watertabie.
Intensive ranching now takes place on
huge feed lots close to railheads such
as Denver (Figure 12.60). Young cattle
are fattened in stockyards on grain
transported from the eastern Prairies
before being moved further eastto the
slaughter yards.
• Mineral extraction has increased
since the 1970s, with extensive strip
mining for coal and the construction
of over 50 wells for the extraction of oil
and natural gas.This, together with the
roads, railways and pipelines needed to
transport both workers and the minerals
across the Prairies, has had an adverse
effect on parts ofthe grasslands.
• Other land uses include areas
set aside for military training and
recreational activities including
camping and bird watching.
Can the grassland ecosystem be
saved?
Many species of grass found only in tem ­
perate grassland ecosystems have declined
substantially in recent years.This has
been blamed on a combination of factors
including poor grazing management, the
effects of fire, the spread of invasive, non­
native plants and, in places, urban develop­
ment. Estimates suggest that the prairie
grasslands decreased by almost 30 million
hectares between 1986 and 2002.The
Grassland Reserve Programme (GRP) came
into effect in 2002 as a result ofth e unlikely
co-operation ofthe Nature Conservancy
and the National Cattlemen's Beef
Association (Figure 12.61). It was designed
to be a buffer against the continuing loss
F u rth e r re fe re n c e
Goudie, A.S. (2001) The Nature o f the
Environment, WileyBlackwell.
Money, D.C. (1978) C lim ate, Soils and
Vegetation, Harper Collins.
342 World climate, soils and vegetation
of grassland areas and to ensure that the
native prairie remained a viable, productive
and important ecosystem for present, and
future, generations.This was necessary if
indigenous plant and animal species were
to survive.The GRP programme imposes no
regulations on grazing and allows private
entities, such as ranching land trusts, to
have rights of w ay over other properties.
Under the GRP, ranchers and other
private grassland owners who enrolled
had to agree to placing 10,15,20 or
30-year contracts on their land, prohibiting
changes in land use, such as the growing
of crops, and other activities incompatible
with conserving the grassland ecosystem.
In return, the landowners receive annual
payments for short-term contracts or a
one-time payment for which they agree
to rights of way over their property. The
GRP also provided additional resources to
assist landowners wishing to restore former
grassland areas.
All w ent well until 2007, when America's
open plains and prairies were threat­
ened by soaring global grain prices that
increased the land's value as cropland.
Grain prices were driven up partly by an
increase in world demand for food,
Cattle ranchers believe th a t...
c o n tro lle d b u rn in g to re n e w p a stu re s h o u ld be a llo w e d
(th is w a s a N a tive A m e rica n cu sto m )
o ve rg ra zin g can be a vo id e d by ca refu l pastu re
m anagem ent
soil a n d w a te r c o n s e rv a tio n are a lre a d y p ra ctise d
to u ris ts , p icn ic site s and m o re roads w ill d a m a g e th e
e n v iro n m e n t
O xfam 's Cool Planet tropical rainforest:
www.oxfam.org.uk/coolplanet/
ontheline/explore/nature/trfindex.htm
W est Tisbury School, M assachusetts
biom e:
especially in the emerging economies of
China and India, and partly by the America^
Congress voting to double the production
of corn-based ethanol, a cleaner-burning
fuel that can reduce greenhouse gas emis­
sions. Both of these factors appear to wor-
contrary to the government's programmes
designed to conserve the grasslands.
Landowners in many parts ofthe Prairies,
especially the Dakotas, began converting: :
cropland some marginally productive are;;
that for decades - in some case centuries
- had remained uncultivated as it would
have been unprofitable to turn them into
arable.
In 2008 a growing number of farmers
chose not to re-enroll w hen their GRP a r -
tracts expired, potentially enabling over
2 million hectares of grassland, 15 percent
ofth e GRP total, to become available for
cropland by 2010. With wheat that earned
$4 or $5 a bushel in 2006 getting $12 a
bushel in 2008, it is a case of short-term
incentives overtaking long-term benefits.
Conservationists warn that the hard wor-
ofthe last few years could easily be undc^;
and can only hope that grain prices will
drop again in the near future - another
example of global uncertainty.
Conservationists believe th a t...
th e re is to o m u ch b u rn in g ; th e p ra irie does n o t recover;
b u m s are to o fre q u e n t
n e w in fo rm a tio n g a in e d fro m research w ill h e lp b oth
g ra zie rs and co n se rv a tio n
th e p ra irie needs re s to ra tio n t o m a in ta in its ecosystem
th e p ra irie has a lre a d y b een d a m a g e d by c a ttle gra zin g
Figure 12.61
C o n flic t b e fo re th e in tro d u c tio n o f GRP in 20 0 2
www.blueplanetbiomes.org/climate.
htm
W orld W ildlife Fund, ecoregions:
www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/
 Questions & Activities

Activities

1 a W hatisthe'clim ate'ofa place? (3marks) 2 a Describe the climate ofthe areas which have natural
b W hat is the reason for wanting to classify climates? (3 marks) temperate deciduous forests. (3 marks)

c W hy do many geographers use the natural vegetation of b Draw a diagram to show the characteristic structure and
a place as an indication ofthe climate? (3 marks) composition ofthe vegetation of temperate deciduous
forests. (6 marks)
d For any one world climatic zone:
c Explain one w ay in which the vegetation ofthe temperate
i Name the climatic zone and identify two places which
deciduous forests is adapted to the climate ofthe area.
experience this climate.
(4 marks)
ii Draw and annotate a graph to show the pattern of
d Describe one zonal soil type ofthe temperate deciduous
temperature and precipitation which is typical ofthe
forests. (4 marks)
climatic zone.
e W h y is there litter on the forest floor in the temperate
iii Name the typical natural vegetation cover ofthe
deciduous forests? (3 marks)
climatic zone and a typical zonal soil type. (10marks)
f Explain what has happened to most ofthe world's temperate
e Explain the causes of one ofthe climatic characteristics
deciduous forests since the settlement of these areas by
(temperature or precipitation) you have identified in d ii.
people. (5 marks)
(6 marks)

Exam practice: basic structured questions

Choose one ofthe world biomes that you have studied, 4 a Describe the climate ofthe tropical rainforest. (5marks)
a i Describe the main characteristics ofthe climate. (5 marks) b Draw a diagram to show the composition and structure
ii Describe and explain the nutrient cycle in your chosen ofthe characteristic vegetation ofthe tropical rainforest.
biome. You should include a diagram ofthe mineral (6 marks)
nutrient cycle in your answer. (6 marks) c Explain how the vegetation ofthe tropical rainforest is
b Describe the zonal soil ofyour chosen biome. (6marks) adapted to the climate ofthe area. (8 marks)
c How is the natural vegetation ofthe biome adapted to the d Describe one zonal soil type of tropical rainforest areas
climatic conditions there? (8marks) and explain how it developed. (6 marks)

Exam practice: structu red questions

>9 ®©0 9 « ®«

a Describe and accountforthe climatic pattern experienced in Choose one biome and answer the following questions
areas with a Mediterranean climate. (8 marks) about it.
b Describe the vegetation and explain two ways in which it is a Describe and explain the relationships within the nutrient
adapted to the climatic conditions ofthe Mediterranean. cycle ofthe biome. (lOmarks)
(9 marks)
b Describe one way the natural vegetation ofthe area is used
c How has the long-term presence of people affected the by people and the effect of this use on the structure and
relationship between climate, soils and vegetation? (8marks) composition ofthe vegetation. (lOmarks)
c How can damage due to past human uses ofthe biome be
reduced? (5 marks)

Exam practice:essays

Choose one grassland biome and discuss the comparative Outline the basic features of one system of climate classification
mportance of climate and human activity in influencing the that you have studied and assess the importance of climate
nature ofthe vegetation cover. (25 marks) classifications in the study of geography. (25 marks)

World climate, soils and vegetation 343

 1
3

'There is a real danger th at in the year 2 0 0 0 a large p a rt D is trib u tio n a n d d e n s ity

o f t h e world's popu lation will still b e living in poverty. The
world m ay becom e overpopulated an d will certainly be
overcrow ded.'
Willy Brandt, North-South: AProgramme forSurvival, 1980
7 / 7 1999, 6 0 0 m illion children in the world lived in poverty -
SO m illion m ore than in 1990.'
United Nations
In d em ography - th e study o f h u m a n p o p u latio n
- it is im p o rta n t to rem em b er th a t th e situ ation
is d ynam ic, n o t static. P opu lation n um bers, dis­
trib u tion s, structures and m o v em en ts co n sta n tly
ch an g e in tim e, in space and at d ifferen t levels
(th e m icro-, m eso- and m acro-scales).
Figure 13.1
W o rld d is trib u tio n
o f p o p u la tio n , 2 00 8
P o p u la tio n d is trib u tio n describes th e way in
w h ich people are spread ou t across th e Earth's
surface. T h e distribution is uneven and there are
o ften considerable changes over periods o f tim e.
Population distributions can be show n by
m eans o f a dot m ap, where each dot represents a
given n um ber of people. For exam ple, in Figure
13.1 this m ethod effectively shows th e co n c en t­
ration o f people in the Nile valley in Egypt,
where 99 per cen t of the country's population
live on 4 per cen t o f the total land area. However,
Figure 13.1 is also m isleading because it sug­
gests, incorrectly, th a t areas away from th e Nile
are totally uninhabited . In fact, parts are popu­
lated, bu t have insufficient num bers to w arrant a
sym bol. W h en drawing a dot m ap, therefore, it is
im p ortan t to select the best possible dot value and
to bear in m ind its lim itations.

344 Population
re 13,2 P o p u la tio n d e n s ity d escribes th e n u m b e r of
: d e n s ity o f p eop le liv in g in a given area, usu ally a square
. ;:io n , 2 008 k ilo m etre (k m 2). P o p u la tio n d en sities are o ften
show n by m ean s o f a c h o ro p le th m ap, o f w h ich
Figures 1 3 .2 and 1 3 .5 are exam p les. D en sities
are o b ta in ed b y d iv id ing th e to ta l p o p u la tio n of
a co u n try (or a d m in istra tiv e area) by th e to ta l
area o f th a t c o u n try (or reg io n ). T h e d en sities
are th e n grouped in to classes, each o f w h ich
is colou red lig h ter or darker to re flect lesser or
greater d ensity. A lth o u g h th e se m aps are easy
to read, th e y h id e c o n c e n tra tio n s o f p o p u la tio n
w ith in ea ch u n it area. Figure 1 3 .2 , for exam p le,
gives th e im p ressio n th a t th e p o p u la tio n o f
Egypt is equ ally d istrib u ted across th e co u n try ;
m in e ra l- lack in g
23%
to o th in
22%
w a te r lo g g e d
10%
p e rm a fro s t
n o s e rio u s lim ita tio n
to c u ltiv a tio n 1 1 %
it also suggests th a t th ere is an abrupt ch a n g e in
p o p u la tio n d en sity at th e n a tio n a l b ou nd ary. A
p o orly d esigned system o f co lo u rin g or shad ing
ca n m ake q u ite sm all spatial d ifferen ces seem
large - or m ake hu ge d ifferen ces lo o k sm aller.
Figures 13.1 and 1 3 .2 b o th show th a t there
are parts o f th e w orld w h ich are sparsely p op u ­
lated and others w h ich are densely populated.
O ne useful g eneralisatio n th a t m ay be m ade
- rem em b erin g th e pitfalls o f g en eralisatio n
(Fram ew ork 11, page 3 4 7 ) - is th a t, at th e global
scale, th is d istrib u tion is affected m a in ly by
physical op p ortu n ities and co n strain ts; whereas,
at regional and local scales, it is m ore likely to
be in flu en ced b y e co n o m ic, p o litical and social
factors.
Land a ccou n ts for ab ou t 3 0 per c e n t o f th e
Earth's surface (7 0 .9 per ce n t is water). O f the
land area, on ly ab ou t 11 per ce n t presents no
serious lim ita tio n s to settle m e n t and agriculture
(Figure 13 .3 ). M u ch o f t h e rem aind er is desert,
snow and ice, h ig h or steep-sided m o u n tain s,
and forest. U sually th ere are several reasons w hy
an area is sparsely or densely populated.
to o d ry
F ig u re 1 3.3
28%
The u n in h a b ita b le E arth:
h o w v a lu a b le are th e
w o rld 's soils fo r fo o d
p ro d u c tio n ?
Population 345
 S p a rs e ly and densely populated areas
Fram ew ork 11 opposite, co m m e n t critically on
Figure 1 3 .4 lists som e o f th e m an y factors th a t
th e accu racy and value o f th e listed factors and
op erate at th e global scale and w h ich m ay lead
suggest, for each factor, an altern ativ e exam p le
to a n area b ein g sparsely 01 densely populated.
(or exam ples).
C om pare these factors w ith th e p attern s show n
Figure 13.4
Sparsely populated areas
M a jo r fa cto rs a ffe c tin g
Physical R ugged m o u n ta in s w h e re te m p e ra tu re and pressure
p o p u la tio n d e n s ity
d ecrease w ith h e ig h t; a ctive v o lca no e s (th e A n d e s); h ig h
p la te a u (T ib e t) a nd w o rn -d o w n sh ie ld la nd s
(th e C anadian S hie ld , Places 4 8 , p age 3 77 ).
Climate Areas receiving ve ry lo w a n n u a l ra in fa ll (th e Sahara Desert,
p age 178); areas h aving a lo n g seasonal d ro u g h t or
u n re lia b le , irre g u la r ra in fa ll (th e Sahel co u n trie s, page 2 23 );
areas su fferin g high h u m id ity (th e A m azon Basin, page 316);
ve ry cold areas, w ith a s h o rt g ro w in g season (n o rth e rn
Canada, p age 3 3 3 ).
Vegetation Areas such as th e co n ife ro u s fo re sts o f n o rth e rn Eurasia and
n o rth e rn Canada (p a g e 3 3 0 ), and th e ra in fo re sts
o fth e tro p ic s (p a g e 3 1 7 ).
Soils The fro ze n soils o fth e A rc tic (th e p e rm a fro s t in S ib e ria, Case
S tu d y 5 ); th e t h in soils o f m o u n ta in s (N e p a l); th e leached
soils o fth e tro p ic a l ra in fo re s t (th e A m azon Basin, Places 66,
p ag e 4 8 0 ); also, in c re a s in g ly la rg e a reas are e xp e rie n c in g
severe s oil e ro sio n re s u ltin g fro m d e fo re s ta tio n a n d o ve r-
g ra z in g (th e S ahel, Case S tu d y 7).
Water supplies M a n y areas la ck a p e rm a n e n t s u p p ly o f d e a n fre sh w a te r:
m a in ly d u e e ith e r to in s u ffic ie n t, irre g u la r ra in fa ll o r t o
a lack o f m o n e y and te c h n o lo g y to b u ild reservo irs and
w e lls o r la y p ip e lin e s (M a la w i, Places 9 7 , p ag e 6 1 1 ).
C o n ta m in a tio n by se w a ge , n itra te s a nd sa lt.
Diseases and pests These m a y lim it th e areas in w h ic h p e o p le can live o r m a y
se rio u sly c u rta il th e lives o f th o s e w h o do p o p u la te such
areas (m a la ria in ce n tra l A frica ; H IV/AID S in so u th e rn A frica,
Places 100 , p age 6 23 ).
Resources Areas d e v o id o f m in e ra ls and e a s ily o b ta in a b le sources o f
e n e rg y ra re ly a ttra c t p e o p le o r in d u s try (T ib e t).
Communications A reas w h e re it is d iffic u lt to c o n s tru c t a n d m a in ta in
tr a n s p o rt syste m s te n d to be sp a rsely p o p u la te d ,
e.g. m o u n ta in s (B o liv ia ), d eserts (th e S ahara) and
fo re sts (th e A m a z o n Basin and n o rth e rn C anada).
Economic Areas w ith less d e v e lo p e d , su b siste n ce e co no m ie s u su a lly
need la rg e areas o f la n d to s u p p o rt re la tiv e ly fe w peo p le
(a lth o u g h th is is n o t a p p lic a b le to S o u th -e a s t A sia). Such
areas te n d to fa ll in to th re e b e lts : tu n d ra (th e Lapps), d e s e rt
frin g e s (th e R end ille,P la ce s 65, p ag e 4 7 9 ) a nd tro p ic a l ra in ­
fo re sts (s h iftin g c u ltiv a to rs , Places 6 6 , p age 4 80 ).
Political Areas w h e re th e s ta te fa ils to in ve st s u ffic ie n t m o n e y o r to
e ncou ra ge d e v e lo p m e n t - e ith e r e c o n o m ic a lly o r so cia lly
(in p a rts o fth e in te rio r o f B razil, Places 3 8).
O ver 5 0 p e r c e n t o fth e w o rld 's p o p u la tio n live in six c o u n trie s : C hina, In d ia , th e USA, In d o n e sia , B razil a n d P akista n.
346 Population
in Figures 13.1 and 1 3 .2 . T h en , h av in g read
Densely populated areas
Flat, lo w la n d p la in s are a ttra c tiv e to s e ttle m e n t (th e N e th e rla n d s
and B a n g la d e sh , Places 4 8 , p ag e 3 7 7 ) as are areas s u rro u n d in g som e
vo lca no e s (M t P in a tu b o , Case S tu d y 1 a n d M t E tna).
Areas w h e re th e ra in fa ll is re lia b le a n d e v e n ly d is trib u te d th ro u g h o u t
th e ye a r; w ith n o te m p e ra tu re e x tre m e s a nd a le n g th y g ro w in g
season ( n o rth -w e s t E urope, p age 2 2 3 ); w h e re s u n sh in e (th e Costa d e !
Sol) o r s n o w (th e A lps) is s u ffic ie n t to a ttra c t to u ris ts (C ha p te r 2 0);
a nd areas w ith a m o n s o o n c lim a te (S o u th -e a s t A sia, p age 2 3 9 ).
Areas o f gra sslan d te n d to have h ig h e r p o p u la tio n
d e n sitie s th a n places w ith dense fo re s t o r d esert.
Deep, h u m u s -fille d soils (th e Paris Basin) a nd , e sp ecia lly, riv e r-
d e p o site d s ilt (th e Ganges d e lta , Places 6 7 , page 4 81 , a nd N ile delta
Places 7 3 , p age 4 90 - b o th fa v o u r fa rm in g ).
P o p u la tio n is m o re lik e ly to increase in areas w ith a re lia b le w a te r
su p p ly. This m a y re s u lt fro m e ith e r a re lia b le , e ve n ly d is trib u te d ra in ­
fa ll (n o rth e rn E ng la nd ) o r w h e re th e re is th e w e a lth a nd te c h n o lo g y
to b u ild reservo irs and to p ro v id e clean w a te r (C a lifo rn ia ). Places w r
h ea vy seasonal ra in fa ll (th e m o n s o o n la nd s o f S o u th -e a s t A sia,
p age 2 3 9 ) also s u p p o rt m a n y p eo p le.
Som e areas w e re in itia lly re la tiv e ly d ise ase - a nd p e s t-fre e ;
o th e rs had th e c a p ita l a nd m e d ic a l e x p e rtis e to e ra d ica te th o se
w h ic h w e re a p ro b le m (th e fo rm e rly m a la ria l P o n tin e M arshes,
n e a r R om e).
Areas h a v in g , o r fo rm e rly h a v in g , la rg e m in e ra l d e p o s its a n d /o r
e n e rg y su p p lie s (th e R uhr) o fte n have m a jo r c o n c e n tra tio n s o f p o p .
la tio n ; th e se resources o fte n led to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f large-scale
in d u s try (S o u th W ales, Places 8 7 , p age 5 70 ).
Areas w h e re it is e asier to c o n s tru c t canals, ra ilw a y s , roads and a ir­
p o rts have a ttra c te d s e ttle m e n ts (th e N o rth European P la in ), as h e • i
la rg e n a tu ra l p o rts w h ic h have been d e v e lo p e d fo r tra d e (S in g a p o -r
Places 104, p age 6 36 ).
R egions w ith in te n s iv e fa rm in g o r in d u s try can s u p p o rt large
n u m b e rs o f p e o p le on a sm a ll area o f la n d (as in th e N e th e rla n ds ,
Places 71, p age 4 87 ).
D ecisions m a y a ffe c t p o p u la tio n d is trib u tio n , e.g. by
c re a tin g n e w c itie s, such as B ra silia ; o r by o p e n in g up
'p io n e e r' lands fo r d e v e lo p m e n t, as in Israel (pa g e 3 91 ).
'V
 F ra m e w o rk 11 S cale a n d g e n e ra lis a tio n
The study of an environm ent, whether natural or
altered by human activity, involves the study of
numerous different and interacting processes.
The relative im portance of each process may vary
according to the scale o fth e study, i.e. global or
macro-scale; interm ediate or meso-scale; and
local or micro-scale. It may also vary according to
the tim escale chosen, i.e. w hether processes are
studied through geological time, historical time,
or recent time.
In the study of soils (Chapters 10 and 12), it is clearly
climate that tends to im pose the greatest influence
upon the formation and distribution o fth e major
global (zonal) types (the podsol and chernozem).
At the regional level, rock type may be the major
influencing factor (M editerranean areas with their
terra rossas and rendzinas). W ithin a small area,
such as a river valley with hom ogeneous climate
and rock type, relief may be dom inant (the catena,
pages 261 and 276).
In the study of erosion, time is a major variable: a
stretch of coastline may be eroded by the sea during
a period of several decades or centuries; footpath
erosion may occur during a single summer.
Brazil: population densities at the national level
Even a quick look at the population density map
of Brazil (Figure 13.5) shows a relatively simple,
generalised pattern. Over 90 per cent of Brazilians
live in a discontinuous strip about 500 km wide,
adjacent to the east coast.This strip accounts for
less than 25 per cent o fth e country's total area.
The density declines very rapidly towards the
s ity in north-west, where several rem ote areas are almost
: nal scale entirely lacking in perm anent settlement.
divisio n b e tw e e n r, / ' \
=reas 1 A a n d I B
d e n se ly
o o p u la te d
- o d e r a te ly
o o p u la te d
;o a rs e ly R io d e Ja n e ir o
c o p u la te d
A common problem with spatial and time scales,
as with models (Framework 12, page 352), is that a
chosen level of detail may becom e inappropriate to
all or part ofthe problem under study: it may become
either too large and generalised, or too small and
complex. For example, population distributions
and densities may be studied at a variety of spatial
and time scales. At the world scale (Figures 13.1
and 13.2), the pattern shown is so general and
deterministic that it may lead the student into an
over-simplified understanding o fthe processes that
produced the apparent distribution and/or density.
Such generalised patterns usually break down into
something more complex when examined at a more
local level or over a period of time.
Although it may often be easier to identify and
account for distributions, densities, anomalies and
changes at the national level, it is more difficult in the
case of a country the size of Brazil (Figure 13.5) than
it is for a smaller country such as Uruguay. It is often
only w hen looking at a smaller region (Figure 13.6) or
an urban area (Figure 13.7), perhaps over a relatively
short tim e period, that the complexities ofthe
various processes can be readily understood.
The area marked 1A on Figure 13.5 is the dry north­
east (the Sertao). Here the long and frequent water
balance deficit (drought), high temperatures and
poor soils combine to make the area unsuitable for
growing high-yield crops or rearing good-quality
animals.The Sertao also lacks known mineral or
energy reserves; communications are poor; and
the basic services of health, education, clean water
and electricity are lacking. Although birth rates are
exceptionally high (many mothers have more than
ten babies), there is a rapid outward migration to the
urban areas (page 366), a high infant mortality rate
(page 354), and a short life expectancy (page 353).
Area I B is the tropical rainforest, drained by the
River Amazon and its tributaries. Here the climate is
hot, w et and humid; rivers flood annually; and there
is a high incidence of disease. In the past, the forest
has proved difficult to clear, but once the protective
trees have gone, soils are rapidly leached and
becom e infertile. Land comm unications are difficult
to build and m aintain.The area has suffered, as has
1A, from a lack of federal investment until recently
when parts have been developed comm ercially for
ranching, logging and growing soya.
Population 347
 There are, however, tw o anomalies in Amazonia.The ideal for ports and this encouraged trade and the
first is a zone along the River Amazon centred on growth of industry. Salvador, the first capital, was
Manaus (2A on Figure 13.5). Originally a Portuguese the centre o fth e slave trade. Rio de Janeiro becam e
trading post, Manaus has had tw o growth periods. the second capital, developing as an economic,
The first was associated with the rubber boom cultural and adm inistrative centre. M ore recently,
at the turn o fth e 19th/20th centuries, w hile the it has received increasing numbers of tourists from
second began in the 1980s with the developm ent overseas and migrants from the north of Brazil.
of tourism and the granting of its free port status
One o fth e world's fastest-growing cities is Sao
(Places 104, page 636).The second anom aly has
Paulo.The cooler climate and terra rossa soils
followed the recent exploitation of several minerals
initially led to the growth of commercial farming
(iron ore at Carajas and bauxite atTrom betas) and
based on coffee. Access to minerals such as iron
energy resources (hydro-electricity atTucuri).
ore and to energy supplies later m ade it a major
The more easterly parts o fth e Brazilian Plateau industrial centre.The Sao Paulo region has had
are m oderately populated (area 2B).The climate high levels of federal investment, leading to the
is cooler and it is considerably healthier than on developm ent of a good com m unications network
the coast and in the rainforest. The soil, in parts, and the provision of modern services.
is a rich terra rossa (page 274) which here is a
Area 3B is another focus of recent growth based
w eathered volcanic soil ideal for the growing of
on the discovery and exploitation of vast deposits
coffee. However, rainfall is irregular w ith a long
of iron ore and bauxite, the construction of hydro­
winter drought; com m unications are still limited;
electric pow er stations and the advantages of
and federal investment has been insufficient to
access along the coastal strip and Amazon corridor.
stim ulate much population growth.
3C is the new federal capital, Brasilia, built in the
Except w here the highland reaches the sea, the early 1960s to try to redress the im balance in
eastern parts o fth e plateau around Sao Paulo population density and wealth betw een the south­
and Belo Horizonte and the east coast have the east o fth e country and the interior. Figures 13.6 and
highest population densities (area 3A). Although 13.7 show population densities at different levels of
the coastal area is often hot and humid, the water scale from that of Brazil.
supply is good. Several natural harbours proved

( • B e rw ic k - u p o n - T w e e d 1 C ity o f L o n d o n N
P o p u la tio n d e n sity p er k m 2
2 Is lin g to n
□ o v e r 40 (d e n se ly p o p u la te d ) 3 H a m m e rs m ith a n d F u lh a m
4 K e n s in g to n a n d C h e lse a
20-40 (m o d e ra te ly p o p u la te d ) 5 C ity o f W e s tm in s te r
• A ln w ic k 6 T o w e r H a m le ts
7 L a m b e th }
u n d e r 20 (sp arse ly p o p u la te d ) C heviots W a lth a m
8 S o u th w a r k / E n fie ld >
9 H ackney . (.F o re s t
10 km
- - - - b o u n d a ry o f n o rth e rn reg ion

H exham N e w c a s tle u p o n T yn e
R e d b r id g e ^ Havering"'-
• S u n d e rla n d
Pe rs o n s p e r h e cta re
H illin g d o n / Ealing“ (2001 cen s u s )
eoy . H a r t le p o o l □ o v e r 90
• N o rth D a rlin g to n
P ennines
,
M id d le s b n □ 60-90
X
□ 30-59

25 km
__ i
up o n - T h a m e s
i S u tto n \
□ u n d e r 30
b o u n d a ry of
K in g sto n - \ \C roydor; G re a te r
u p o n - T h a m ss' London
c rV S
V\_ /
\f\..

Figure 13.6 Figure 13.7

P o p u la tio n d e n s ity in th e 'N o rth 'e c o n o m ic p la n n in g P o p u la tio n d e n s ity in Grea:-

re g io n o f E ng la nd : th e re g io n a l scale L on d o n: th e u rb a n scale

348 Population

Figure 13.8
A Lorenz c u rv e :th e
d is trib u tio n o f w o rld
::p u la tio n in m id -
1308
Lorenz curves
Lorenz curves are used to show in eq u a litie s in
d istrib u tio n s. P o p u la tio n , in d u stry and land use
are th ree to p ics o f in te re st to th e geographer
w h ich show u n eq u a l d istrib u tio n s over a given
area. Figure 1 3 .8 illu strates th e u n ev en n ess of
p o p u la tio n d istrib u tio n over th e w orld. T he
d iag onal lin e represents a p erfectly even dis­
trib u tio n , w h ile th e co n ca v e curve (it m ay be
co n v e x in o th er exam p les) illu strates th e degree
o f c o n c e n tra tio n o f p o p u la tio n w ith in th e
various c o n tin e n ts . T h e greater th e c o n c a v ity o f
th e slope, th e greater th e in e q u a lity o f p o p u la­
tio n d istrib u tio n (or industry, land use, etc.).

Continents
g a p n a rro w s , s h o w in g ranked in
th a t th e s e c o n tin e n ts
h a v e re la tiv e ly fe w
descending
p e o p le fo r th e ir to ta l order of Population Area
area population Population (cumu­ (cumu­
(1998) (% ) lative %) Area(%) lative %)
g a p w id e n s , s h o w in g
th a t th e s e c o n tin e n ts Asia 60.4 60.4 20.3 20.3
h a ve m a n y in h a b ita n ts
Africa 14.4 74.8 22.3 42.6
in c o m p a ris o n w ith
th e ir to ta l a rea Europe/ 11.0 85.8 20.1 62.7
Russian
N ote: A sia has 6 0 .4 % Federation
o f t h e w o rld 's
p o p u la tio n liv in g on Latin America 8.6 94.4 15.2 77.9
2 0 .3 % o f t h e w o rld 's
area
1 1 11 1 1
~i- - - --- - -- - - - --- - -- - - - r
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
North America 5.1 99.5 15.8 93.7

p o p u la tio n (c u m u la tiv e p e rc e n ta g e )
Oceania 0.5 100.0 6.3 100.0

P o p u la tio n ch an g es in tim e people per year. T hroughout history, u n til th e

It has already b ee n stated (page 3 4 4 ) th a t
populations are d ynam ic, i.e. th eir num bers,
d istribu tions, structure and m o v em en t (m igra­
tio n ) co n sta n tly ch an g e over tim e and space.
Pop u lation ch an g e is a n o th er exam p le o f an
op en system (Fram ew ork 3, page 4 5 ) w ith inputs,
processes and ou tpu ts (Figure 13.9).
Birth rates, death rates and natural
increase
T he total population o f an area is th e balance
betw een two forces o f change: n a tu ra l in crease
■13.9 and m ig ra tio n (Figure 13.9). T he natural increase
is th e difference betw een b irth rates and death
; —odel
rates. The cru d e b irth ra te is th e nu m ber o f live
■: copulation
e ;-an births per 1 0 0 0 people per year and th e cru d e
rem d e a th ra te is the nu m ber o f deaths per 10 00
last few years in a sm all nu m ber o f th e e co n o m i­
cally m o st developed cou n tries, b irth rates have
nearly always exceeded d eath rates. E xceptions
have follow ed m a jo r outbreaks o f disease (the
b u b o n ic plague and AIDS, page 622) or wars (as
in Rwanda). Any natu ral chang e in th e p op u la­
tion , eith er an increase or a decrease, is usually
expressed as a percentage and referred to as the
a n n u a l g ro w th rate. Popu lation change is also
affected by m igration. A lthough m ig ration does
n o t affect world p o p u latio n totals, it does affect
th e way people are distributed across th e world.
M igration leads to eith er an increase in th e p opul­
a tio n - w h en th e n u m ber o f im m igrants exceeds
th e nu m ber o f em igrants (as in Spain and C ongo)
- or a decrease in pop u lation - w h en th e nu m ber
o f em igrants exceeds th e nu m ber o f im m igrants
(as in Iraq and Rwanda).

its processes outputs

n a tu ra l c h a n g e
d e a th s
r ]
- / — / •— / —•/
total
i population i
L
i

-ants . / _ / __, e m ig ra n ts
-/ — / — / — / —v m ig ra tio n

——--- V. - --

Population 349

Figure 13.10
The d e m o g ra p h ic
tra n s itio n m o d e l
The demographic transition model
The dem ograph ic tra n sitio n m odel describes a
seq u en ce o f changes over a period o f tim e in the
relatio n sh ip b etw een b irth and d eath rates and
overall p o p u latio n ch an g e. T h e m odel, based
on p o p u latio n ch ang es in several industrialised
cou n tries in w estern Europe and N orth Am erica,
suggests th a t a ll cou n tries pass th rou g h sim ilar
d em ograp hic tra n sitio n stages or p o p u la tio n
c y c le s - or will do, given tim e. Figure 1 3 .1 0
illustrates th e m od el and gives reasons for th e
ch an g es at each tra n sitio n stage. It also gives
exam p les o f cou ntries th a t appear to 'fit' th e
d escriptions o f each stage.

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 5

High fluctuating Early expanding Late expanding Low fluctuating ?7

Stage 1: H e re b o th b irth rates
a n d d e a th rates flu c tu a te a t a
h ig h le ve l (a b o u t 35 p e r 1000)
g iv in g a sm all p o p u la tio n
g ro w th .
B irth ra te s are h ig h b e ca u se :
• n o b irth c o n tro l o r fa m ily
p la n n in g
• so m a n y c h ild re n d ie in in fa n c y
th a t p a re n ts te n d to p ro d u c e
m o re in th e h o p e th a t seve ra l
w ill s u rv iv e
• m a n y c h ild re n a re n e e d e d
to w o r k o n th e lan d
• c h ild re n a re re g a rd e d as a
sig n o f v irility
• S o m e re lig io u s b e lie fs (R o m a n
C ath o lic s , M u slim s a n d H in d u s)
e n c o u r a g e la rg e fa m ilies.
H ig h d e a th ra te s ,e s p e c ia lly
a m o n g c h ild re n , a re d u e to :
• d is e a s e a n d p la g u e (b u b o n ic ,
c h o le ra , k w a s h io rk o r)
• fa m in e , u n c e rta in fo o d su p p lies,
p o o r d ie t
• p o o r h y g ie n e : n o p ip e d ,c le a n
w a te r a n d n o s e w a g e d is p o sa l
• little m e d ic a l s c ie n c e :fe w
d o c to rs , h o sp ita ls, d ru g s.
Stage 2: B irth rates re m a in h ig h ,
b u t d e a th ra te s fall ra p id ly to
a b o u t 20 p e r 1000 p e o p le g iv in g
a ra p id p o p u la tio n g ro w th .
T h e fall in d e a th rates results fro m :
• im p ro v e d m e d ic a l care:
v a c c in a tio n s , h o sp itals, d o cto rs ,
n e w d ru g s a n d scie n tific
in v e n tio n s
• im p ro v e d s a n ita tio n a n d w a te r
s u p p ly
• im p ro v e m e n ts in fo o d p ro d u c tio n ,
b o th q u a lity a n d q u a n tity
• im p ro v e d tr a n s p o r t to m o v e fo o d ,
d o cto rs , e tc
• a d e c re a s e in c h ild m o rta lity .
Stage 3: B irth rate s n o w fall Stage 4: B o th b irth ra te s (16 per
rap id ly, to p e rh a p s 20 p e r 1000 1000) a n d d e a th rates (12 p e r
p e o p le , w h ile d e a th rates 1000) re m a in lo w ,flu c tu a tin g
c o n tin u e to fall s lig h tly (15 p e r s lig h tly to g iv e a s te a d y
1000 p e o p le ) to g iv e a s lo w ly p o p u la tio n .
in cre a sin g p o p u la tio n .
T h e fall in b irth rate s m a y b e d u e
to:
(W ill th e r e b e a Stage 5 w h e r e
• fa m ily p la n n in g :c o n tr a c e p tiv e s , b irth ra te s fall b e lo w d e a th rates
s te rilis a tio n ,a b o rtio n a n d to g iv e a d e c lin in g p o p u la tio n ?
g o v e r n m e n t in c e n tiv e s E v id e n c e s u g g e s ts th a t th is is
o c c u rin g in seve ra l W e s te rn
• a lo w e r in fa n t m o rta lity rate
E u ro p e a n c o u n trie s a lth o u g h
le a d in g to less p re ss u re to
g ro w th rate s h e re a re a u g m e n te d
h a v e so m a n y c h ild re n b y im m ig ra tio n .)
• in c re a s e d in d u stria lisa tio n
a n d m e c h a n is a tio n
m e a n in g f e w e r la b o u re rs
a re n e e d e d
• in cre a se d d e s ire fo r m a te ria l
p o ss e s sio n s (cars, h o lid a ys,
b ig g e r h o m e s ) a n d less d e sire
fo r la rg e fa m ilie s
• an in cre a se d in c e n tiv e fo r
s m a lle r fa m ilie s
• e m a n c ip a tio n o f w o m e n ,
e n a b lin g th e m to fo llo w th e ir
o w n c a re e rs ra th e r th a n b e in g
s o le ly child -b ea re rs.

350 Population
 Like all m odels, th e dem ographic tra n si­
tio n m odel has its lim ita tio n s (Fram ew ork 12,
page 3 5 2 ). It failed to consider, or to predict,
several factors and events:
1 B irth rates in several o f th e m ost e c o n o m i­
cally developed cou n tries have, sin ce the
m od el was put forward, fallen below death
rates (Germ any, Sw eden). This has caused,
for th e first tim e, a p o p u latio n d ecline w h ich
suggests th a t perhaps th e m odel should have
a fifth stage added to it.
2 T h e m odel, b ein g m ore or less E urocentric,
assum ed th a t in tim e all cou n tries w ould pass
th rou g h th e sam e four stages. It n ow seem s
unlikely, how ever, th a t m an y o f th e e c o n o m i­
cally less developed cou ntries, esp ecially in
Africa, will ever b eco m e industrialised.
3 T h e m odel assum ed th a t th e fall in th e death
rate in Stage 2 was th e co n seq u en ce o f in du s­
trialisation . Initially, th e death rate in m an y
B ritish cities rose, due to th e in san itary
co n d itio n s w h ich resulted from rapid
u rban grow th, and it o n ly began to fall
after advances were m ade in m ed icin e. T he
Roire 13.11
delayed fall in th e d eath rate in m an y d evel­
b io g r a p h ic
op in g cou ntries has b een due m a in ly to their
■ :: on cycle:
in ab ility to afford m ed ical facilities. In m an y
-- :es in B ritain 's
: 2 tio n , 1 7 0 0 - cou ntries, th e fall in th e b irth rate in Stage 3
has b ee n less rapid th a n th e m od el suggests
due to religious and/or p o litical op p ositio n
to b irth co n tro l (Brazil), w hereas th e fall was
m u ch m ore rapid, and cam e earlier, in C h in a
fo llow in g th e g o v ern m en t-in tro d u ced 'o n e-
ch ild ' p o licy (Case Study 13).
4 The tim escale o f th e m odel, esp ecially in
several Sou th-east Asian cou n tries such as
H ong Kong and M alaysia, is b ein g squashed
as th e y develop at a m u ch faster rate th a n did
th e early indu strialised cou n tries.
T h e m odel ca n be used:
■ to show how th e p o p u latio n grow th o f a
co u n try ch anges over a period o f tim e (the
UK, in Figure 1 3 .1 1 )
■ to com pare rates o f grow th betw een d if­
feren t cou n tries at a given p o in t in tim e
(Figure 1 3 .1 2 ).
Figure 1 3 .1 1 shows certain changes in B ritain:
■ 1 7 0 0 -1 7 6 0 : h ig h b irth and death rates giving
a slow natu ral increase.
■ 1 7 6 0 -1 8 8 0 : a rapidly fallin g d eath rate and a
h ig h b irth rate giving a fast natu ral increase.
■ 1 8 8 0 -1 9 4 0 : rapidly d eclin in g b irth and death
rates giving a slower natu ral increase.
■ 1 9 4 0 -2 0 0 0 : low, flu ctu atin g b irth and death
rates giving a sm all natu ral increase.
■ Since 2 0 0 0 : a rising b irth rate am ongst new
and first g en eratio n im m ig rants giving a
faster natu ral increase.

A high,fluctuatin g B ea rly expanding C late expandin; D low,fluctuatin 9

j

/
✓
✓
A j\ \ b irth ra te
N s~ \
n a tu ra l d e c re a s e n a tu ra l n c re a s e
MM III ji l l l 'l l l j i i l M l 'i

first c e n s u s

post-w a r
v-....
e s tim a te s bab y be om
p rio r t o (i iy u re >)
d e a th rate
1801
Irth; |i»l|

V
\

First W o rld W a r S e c o n c W o rld W a r

1 i
1740 1820 1860 1900 1940 1980 2000 §
o

Population 351
 Figure 1 3 .1 2 shows how Sweden has lon g since
reached Stage 4 o f th e dem ographic tran sition
m odel - a characteristic of m ost econom ically
m ore developed countries - w hereas Ind ia is still
at Stage 3 - a characteristic o f m any econom ically
less developed cou ntries (rem em ber th a t som e of
th e least econ om ically developed countries are
still at Stage 2).

P o p u la tio n s tru c tu re
The rate of natural increase or decrease, resulting
from the difference betw een the birth and death
rates of a cou n try represents only one aspect of the

Figure 13.12

A co m p a riso n b e tw e e n th e
d e m o g ra p h ic cycles o f S w eden
a n d In d ia , 1 8 0 0 -2 0 0 8
F ra m e w o rk 12 M o d e ls
Models form an integral and accepted part of They stated that a model:
present-day geographical thinking and teaching.
can be a theory or a law, an hypothesis or
Nature is highly complex and, in an attem pt to
structured idea, a role, a relationship, or
understand this complexity, geographers try to
equation, a synthesis of data, a word, a graph,
develop simplified models of it.
or some other type of hardware arranged for
Chorley and Haggett described a model as: experimental purposes.

a simplified structuring of reality which presents A good model will stand up to being tested in the

supposedly significant features or relationships real world and should fall betw een tw o extremes:

in a generalised form ... as such they are valuable

in obscuring incidental detail and in allowing
fundamental aspects of reality to appear.

very simple and easy to very difficult to use,

work, but too generalised ■<------------- model ------------- *• being almost as complex
to be of real value as reality

To achieve this balance, several - though
som etim es only one - critical criteria or variables
are selected as a basis for the model. For example,
J.H. von T h iin en (page471) chose distance from
a market as his critical variable and then tried
to show the relationship betw een this variable
and the intensity of land use. If necessary, other
variables m ay be added which, as in the case of von
Thunen's navigable river and a rival market, may
add both greater reality and greater complexity.
Models can be used in all fields of geography. Som e
applications are shown in the following table.

Physical (landforms) Page Climate, soils and vegetation Page Human and economic Page
beach p ro file 143 a tm o s p h e ric c irc u la tio n 226 citie s (Burgess) 420

slope d e v e lo p m e n t 51 heat budget 209 la n d use (v o n T h iin e n ) 471

co rrie d e v e lo p m e n t 110 seres 286 in d u s tria l lo c a tio n (W eb e r) 557

sand d u n e d e v e lo p m e n t 157 fo o d ch a in s a n d tro p ic levels ~N 96 s e ttle m e n t s iz e /d is trib u tio n (C h rista lle r) 407

g la c ie r system 106 dep re ssio ns 2 30 g ra v ity m o d e ls 4 10

d ra in a g e basins 58 so il p ro file s (e.g. podsols) 332 d e m o g ra p h ic tra n s itio n 3 50

lim e s to n e scenery 198 so il catena 261 e co n o m ic g ro w th (R os to w ) 615

Throughout this book, models and theories are situations are dem onstrated, together w ith
presented; their advantages and limitations are their usefulness and accuracy in explaining
examined; and their applications to real-world that situation.

352 Population
 A g e g ro u p Males Females
90+
85 -89 IP - Number Number
80 - 8 4 Age group (000s) Percentage (000s) Percentage
re 13.13 75 -79
70 - 7 4 0-4 1781 6.13 1696
ding the 5.65
65 -69
;:ion pyramid 60-64 5-9 1691 5.80 1618 5.36
55 -59
iU K , mid-2007 50 - 5 4 10-14 1835 6.31 1746 5.79
45 -4 9
40-44
15-19 2003 6.78 1885 6.25
35 -39
30 - 3 4
20-24 2057 7.08 1952 6.47
25 -29
20 - 2 4
15-19 25-29 1934 6.55 1916 6.35
10-14
5-9 30-34 1888 6.50 1891 6.27
0 -4
35-39 2183 7.51 2223 7.37
i5 §” 6 i 2 2 4 6~ 10
m a le s (% ) fe m a le s (°/i 40-44 2268 7.81 2315 7.68

45-49 2040 7.02 2090 6.93

study of population structure. A second im portant
aspect is population. This is im portant because the 50-54 1790 6.16 1835 6.08
make-up o f the population by its age and gender, 55-59 1798 6.19 1854 6.15
together w ith its life expectancy, has im plications 60-64 1657 5.70 1736 5.76
for the future growth, econom ic developm ent and
65-69 1263 4.35 1364 4.52
social policy of a country. L ife e x p e c ta n c y is the
num ber o f years th a t th e average person born in a 70-74 1074 3.69 1226 4.06

given area m ay expect to live. Differences in lan­ 75-79 841 2.89 1082 3.59
guage, race, religion, fam ily size, etc. can all affect a 80-84 557 1.91 859 2.85
country's socio-econom ic welfare.
85-89 286 0.98 565 1.87

90+ 106 0.36 311 1.03

P o p u la tio n p y ra m id s
Total 29054 Total 30162
The population structure o f a country is best illus­
trated by a p o p u la tio n or a g e-g en d er pyram id .
The technique norm ally divides the population
into 5-year age groups (e.g. 0 -4 , 5 -9 , 1 0 -1 4 ) on the N otice the following:
vertical scale, and into males and females on the ■ a narrow pyramid show ing approxim ately equal
horizontal scale (Figure 13.13). The num ber in each num bers in each age group
age group is given as a percentage of the total popu­ ■ a low birth rate (m eaning fewer school places
lation and is shown by horizontal bars, w ith males will be needed) and a low death rate (suggesting
located to th e left and females to the right of the a need for more elderly people's hom es) w hich
central axis. As well as show ing past changes, the together indicate a steady, alm ost static, popula­
pyramid can predict b o th short-term and long-term tio n growth
future changes in population. ■ th e greater num ber o f boys in the younger age
W hereas the dem ographic transition model groups (a higher birth rate) but m ore females
shows only th e natural increase or decrease th a n males in the older age groups (w omen
resulting from the balance betw een births and having the longer life expectancy)
13.14
deaths, the population pyramid shows th e effects of ■ a relatively large proportion o f the population
: on pyramids
m igration, the age and gender of migrants (Figure in the pre- and post-reproductive age groups,
t ' stic of each
13.45) and the effects of large-scale wars and m ajor and a relatively small num ber in the 1 5 -6 4 age
: ‘ ±edemo-
:ransition epidemics o f disease. Figure 13.13 is the popula­ groups w hich produce m ost o f the national
tio n pyramid for th e U nited Kingdom in m id -2007. wealth (see dependency ratios, page 354).

-ate; ra p id fall in e a c h still a h ig h b irth ra te ;fa ll in d e a th d e c lin in g b irth rate; lo w lo w b irth rate; lo w d e a th rate;
; e g ro u p d u e to h ig h ra te as m o re liv in g in m id d le a g e ; d e a th rate; m o re p e o p le h ig h e r d e p e n d e n c y ratio;
.s h o r t life e x p e c ta n c y s lig h tly lo n g e r life e x p e c ta n c y livin g to a n o ld e r a g e lo n g e r life e x p e c ta n c y

- y le a st d e v e lo p e d c o u n trie s e c o n o m ic a lly m o re d e v e lo p e d c o u n trie s

 active. India has 3 2 per cen t under 15; and 5 per
Age group
Kenya India cen t over 65 (the corresponding figures for 1 9 9 0
were 39 and 3 per cen t respectively).
S tag e 4 A rgentina has probably just reached
this stage as its birth rate is d eclining - as show n
by th e alm ost equal num bers in th e lower age
groups. As th e death rate is m u ch lower, m ore
people are able to live to a greater age, and the
actual growth rate becom es stable. Argentina has
25 per cen t under 15; and 11 per cen t over 65 (the
1 9 9 0 figures were 2 6 and 6).
18161412108 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 1012141618 1816141210 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 1012141618
S tag e 5 Sweden has a sm aller proportion of its
males (%) females (%) males (%) females (%) pop u lation in th e pre-reproductive age groups (16
Age group per cen t under 15) and a larger proportion in the
Argentina Sweden
80+ post-reproductive groups (18 per cen t over 65),
75-79
70-74 ind icating low b irth , in fa n t m ortality and death
65-69 rates and a long life exp ectan cy (the equivalent
60-64
55-59 figures for 1 9 9 0 were 2 2 and 16). As th e num bers
50-54
45-49 en terin g the reproductive age groups decline there
40-44
35-39
will be, in tim e, a fall in th e total population.
30-34
25-29
20-24 Dependency ratios
15-19
10-14 The population of a cou ntry can be divided into
5-9
0^1 two categories according to their contrib u tion to
18161412108 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 1012141618 18161412108 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 1012141618 econ om ic productivity. Those aged 1 5 -6 5 years are
males (%) females (%) males (%) females (%)
know n as th e e c o n o m ic a lly activ e or w o rk in g
p o p u la tio n ; those under 15 (the you th depend­
Figure 13,15 A m odel has also been produced to try to show
ency ratio) and over 65 (the old age dependency
Population pyramids th e characteristics o f four basic types o f pyramid
ratio) are know n as th e n o n -e c o n o m ic a lly active
forfour selected (Figure 13.14). As w ith m ost m odels, m an y co u n ­
p o p u la tio n . (Perhaps in Britain the division
countries, mid-2007 tries show a tran sition al shape w hich does n o t fit
should be made at 16, the school-leaving age; in
precisely in to any p attern. Figure 13.15 shows the
developing countries, however, the cu t-off point is I
pyram ids for selected countries - ch osen because
m u ch lower as m any child ren have to earn m onev
th ey do conform closely to th e m odel! Stage 1
from a very young age.)
on ly occurs in isolated tribal com m unities.
T h e d ep en d ency ratio can be expressed as:
Stage 2 Kenya's pyram id has a concave shape,
show ing th a t th e birth rate is very high. Alm ost ch ild ren (0 -1 6 ) and
h a lf th e in h abitan ts (42 per cent) are under 15 elderly (65 and over)
100
years old (the corresponding figure for 1990 was th o se o f w orking age
51 per cen t); there is a rapid fall upwards in each e.g. UK 1971 (figures in m illion s):
age group show ing a h ig h death rate (including
in fa n t m ortality) and a low life expectancy, with 13 3 8 7 + 7 3 0 7
x 100 = 6 5 .4 5
less th an 3 per cen t w ho can expect to live beyond 31 6 1 6
65. The in fa n t m o rta lity ra te is th e average So for every 100 people o f w orking age there
nu m ber of child ren out of every 1 0 0 0 b orn alive were 6 5 .4 5 people d ep en d en t o n th em .
w ho die under the age o f one year. By 2 0 0 7 the d ependency ratio had changed 1
Stage 3 India appears to have reached Stage 3
11 5 3 7 + 11 3 4 4
(show n by the m ore uniform sides). All pyram ids X 100 = 6 0 .6 8
in this stage have a broad base ind icating a h ig h , 37 707
b irth rate but, as th e in fa n t m ortality and death/ So th e drop in th e n u m ber o f ch ild ren was
rates decline, m ore people reach m iddle age and m ore th an offset by th e larger increase in the
th e life exp ectancy is slightly longer. The result is n u m ber o f th e elderly (the d ep en d en cy ratio
th a t alth ou gh th e actual num bers o f child ren m ay does n o t take in to a cco u n t th o se w ho are unem ­
be th e same, th ey form a sm aller percentage o f the ployed). T he d ep en d en cy ratio for m o st devel­
to tal population (as show n by the narrower base). oped cou n tries is betw een 50 and 70, w hereas fc
The large you thfu l pop u lation will soon enter the less e co n o m ica lly developed cou n tries it is oftei
reproductive period and becom e econ om ically over 100.

354 Population
 Tren d s in p o p u la tio n g ro w th
1 Global trends
In M other Earth's 4 6 years (Places 1, page 9), it
'was only in the last hour th at m an began to live
in settlem ents' and 'the hum an population slowly
started to increase'. In the absence of any census,
the population has been crudely estimated to have
been about 5 0 0 m illion in 1650. It was only after
the Industrial Revolution in W estern Europe, one
m inute ago in the Earth's history, that num bers
began to 'm ultiply prodigiously' in what is now the
developed world while th e so-called 'population
explosion' only extended to developing continents
after the middle of last century (Figure 13.18).
The United Nations Fund for Population
Activities (UNFPA) designated O ctober 1999 as
the date w hen the world's population reached six
billion (6,00 0 m illion). This 'celebration' - and
m any people would disagree w ith that - was ficti­
tious as n o one knew the exact figure, due to either
inaccurate or non-existent census figures and the
often non-recorded m igration o f people. Bearing
in m ind the approxim ation of population figures
(Framework 15, page 448), the world clock suggests
th at num bers are increasing by:
World MEDCs LEDCS
Year 82 m illio n 2 m illio n 80 m illio n
M o n th 570000 7 00 0 563 000
Day 18773 233 18540
M in u te 156 4 152
During 2008, the UN claim ed th at 139 million
babies would be born and that 57 m illion people
ire 1 3 .1 6 would die giving the natural increase o f 82 m illion
al and re g io n a l show n in the table above.
: : in p o p u la tio n Fertility rates in m any econom ically developing
•:h ,2 0 0 8 countries are slowly beginning to decline although
In global terms the major trend has been a decline in the rate
o f population growth from a peak o f 2.1 per cent between
1965 and 1970 to approximately 1.2 per cent in 2008,
although there are still 82 million more people alive at the
end of each year. While the distinction between the low/no
population growth o f most o f the ‘developed’ countries and
the high population growth of the developing countries
continues, a major feature of the last five decades has been
the widening trajectories o f the least developed countries.
Making broad generalisations to a complex world p a t t e r n ,—
low birth rates in Europe have led to the very real prospect
o f a population decrease, despite continuing net immigration.
The U SA and Canada are anomalies for M EDCs as they
have a robust population growth, mainly due to their high
immigration rates. O f the developing countries, those in
Latin America and the Middle East have the lowest (though
still moderately high) growth rates while the least developed
countries, mostly located in sub-Saharan Africa, have by far
the greatest growth. Asia has extremes from low growth rates
in the newly industrialised countries (NICs, page 578) and
China (one-child policy) to the continued rapid growth in
parts of India.
they rem ain considerably higher th an those in
developed countries (Figure 13.16). The fe rtility
rate is the num ber o f children born to w om en of
child-bearing age. The UN claim th a t the annual
growth rate of the world's population, w hich
had been 2.1 per cent betw een 1 9 6 4 and 1970,
had fallen to 1.2 per cen t by 2 0 0 8 - a fall m ainly
credited to China's 'o n e child per fam ily policy'
(Case Study 13). The consequence o f this slowing-
down has led to the present revised prediction
th a t th e world's population will now only pass the
7 billion m ark in 2012, rather th a n in th at same
year reaching the 7.6 billion predicted in 1992, or
the 8.4 billion had th e 1 9 5 0 -8 0 growth rate not
declined. The UNFPA now predicts that the annual
growth rate will fall to 1.0 per cen t in 2 0 2 0 and to
0.5 per cen t in 2 0 5 0 . By th a t later date, the world's
expected population is predicted to be betw een
7.41 billion (lowest) to 10.63 billion (highest), w ith
a m edium variant of 8 .9 2 billion (Figure 13.17).
2 Regional trends
W hat these figures fail to show is the marked vari­
ations betw een different parts of the world, espe­
cially betw een th e econom ically developed and the
econom ically developing continents, bearing in
m ind that it is likely there will also be considerable
i
variations w ithin the continents themselves. At
present, the average population growth rate for all
countries referred to as developing is 1.92 per cent
per year com pared with on ly 0 .5 2 per cent for
those described as developed (Figures 1 3 .1 6 ,1 3 .1 7
and 13.18). In 2 0 0 8 (the 1998 com parable figures
are show n in brackets) the population of Asia was
increasing by over 48 m illion a year (50); Africa
by 23 m illion (17) and Latin America by nearly 9
m illion (nearly 8). Africa had th e highest growth
rate at 2 .4 per cent per year com pared with Europe
w hich actually showed a
decline of 0.01 per cent.
P re d ictio n s on w o rld p o p u ­
la tio n g ro w th , a fte r 2 00 8
 Figure 13.18

World population growth (2008 data)

9000 r
Continental comparisons

Europe
and Russia
North A m erica
Rest of China
Asia

Latin Africa
A m erica India

O ceania

Each square in th e diagram represents 1 %

o fth e w orld total in 2008

1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 2000 2050 2025 est. pop. 2050 est. pop.
8000 million 9352 million
year

1950-90: world total 2010: d evelo ping world's p opulation Rest of

doubled (the developing expected to exceed that o f industrial Asia
world total doubled w orld by five tim es; total projected
between 1960 and 1980) w orld estim ate = 6900 million

2000: w orld p op ulation = 6000

million (com pared w ith 1960
forecast o f 7500 m illion) (figures India
in key are mid-2008 estim ate) i

1850: population o fth e

d evelo ping world is
estim ated to have been China

three tim es that o fth e

industrial world

Africa

778 Latin Ame

480 North Am
by region (in millions)

□ 1579
Europe ar
■ 1149
Russia
□ 1325

□ 967 Oceania

□ 736

□ 338
2008 projection of future world population assumes 2025
□ 577
that existing trends, gathered from past data, will est 800q mj||jon
□ 35 continue at a similar rate

356 Population
 births per woman
llllll fewer than 1.5
1.5-2.1
2.2-2.9
3.0-4.9
5.0 or more

re 13,19 3 Birth rates, total fertility rates (TFR) choice rather th an chance', a goal that can only be

fertility and replacement rates achieved by giving w om en reproductive options.

2008 The causes o f this un m et need for contracep­
The world's crude birth rate in 2 0 0 8 was 21 per
tion include lack of knowledge of contraception
1000. G erm any had the lowest with 8 per 1000 fol­
m ethods and/or sources of supply; lim ited access to
lowed by several other W estern European countries
and low quality o f fam ily p lanning services; lack of
together w ith Taiwan and Japan, w hich had 9 per
education, especially am ong w om en; cost o f co n ­
1000. In contrast, o f 23 countries w ith a birth rate
traception com m odities; disapproval of husbands
exceeding 4 0 per 1000, 21 were located in Africa.
and fam ily mem bers; and opposition by religious
T h e to ta l fe r tility ra te (TFR) is th e average
groups. Im provem ents in health care include safer
nu m ber o f ch ild ren a w om an is likely to have
abortions and a reduction in in fan t m ortality - the
if she lives to th e end o f her ch ild -b earin g age,
latter m eaning that fewer children need to be born
based o n cu rrent b irth rates. T h e present world
as m ore o f th em survive. Improved education raises
average is 2 .6 , varying b etw een 1.6 in developed
th e status o f w om en and postpones the age of m ar­
cou n tries and C h in a to 3 .2 in d eveloping co u n ­
riage. Several governm ents, especially in South-east
tries and 4 .7 in those th a t are th e least d evel­
Asia, have attem pted in recent years to encourage
oped (Figure 1 3 .1 9 ). T h e TFR is one o f th e best
couples to have fewer children unless, as in the
ind icato rs o f future p o p u latio n grow th. In m ost
case o f Singapore, prospective parents belonged
e co n o m ica lly developed cou n tries th e TFR is
to selective groups (Places 39). O ther govern­
low and still d eclin in g and, w h ile it is still m u ch
m ents, notably th at o f C h ina (Case Study 13), have
h ig h er in e co n o m ica lly less developed cou n tries,
attem pted to reduce birth rates through f g ..,
it appears th a t ch a n g in g attitu des there will
coercion, a m ethod th a t has n o t gained
even tu ally lead to low er TFR in th e future. High
international approval. Fa,mily P|annin9as
b irth and fertility rates have b een considered a h u m a n rig h t
ch aracteristic o f 'u n d erd ev elo p m en t'. Indeed
Reaping the rew ards of family planning
alth o u g h th ere does seem to be a close correla­
The freedom to choose how many children to have, and when,
tio n betw een a co u n try ’s birth rate and its GNP
is a fundamental human right. Better access to safe and
(Fram ew ork 19, page 6 1 2 ), th e UN have claim ed affordable contraceptive methods is key to achieving the
th a t 'a h ig h b irth rate is a con seq u en ce, n o t a MDGs [page 6091. Family planning has proven benefits in
cause, o f p overty'. Typically, th e lower th e use terms of gender equality, maternal health, child survival and
o f con tracep tiv es, th e h ig h er th e TFR, and th e preventing HIV [page 622]. It can also reduce poverty and
h ig h er th e level o f fem ale ed u cation , th e lower promote economic growth by improving family well-being,
th e TFR (Figure 1 3 .2 0 ). G o v ern m en t policies can raising female productivity and lowering fertility. It is one of
also have an en orm ou s im p act on th e n u m ber of the most cost-effective investments a country can make
towards a better quality of life. Limited access to contracep­
ch ild ren w om en are likely to have (Places 3 9).
tion. in contrast, constrains women’s opportunities to pull
It is now recognised that the three key factors
themselves and their families out of poverty [page 609J.
influencing fertility decline are im provem ents in Reproductive health, including voluntary family planning,
fam ily planning programmes, in health care, and should be at the centre of initiatives to promote the human
in w om en's education and status (arguably in that rights of women and should replace earlier efforts that focused
order, although they are all interrelated). The m ajor more on curbing rapid population growth, in some cases at the
world m ovem ent is now towards 'children by expense of women's rights. Freedom to make reproductive
decisions is essential for achieving gender equality and
sustainable development.
Source: UNFPA, 2007
 □
Figure 13.21 High birth and fertility rates result in a high
P ercentage o f to ta l
proportion o f th e total pop u lation being aged
p o p u la tio n u n d e r 15 or under (see Kenya's population structure in
15 years, 2 008 Figure 13.15). C ountries where this occurs - m any
of th em in Africa, Latin Am erica and southern
Asia (Figure 13.21) - are likely, in th e future, to:
■ need greater h ealth care and edu cation - two
services m any can ill afford
■ have m ore w om en reaching child-bearing age.
In contrast, m any o f th e m ore econ om ically
developed countries have such low birth and fer­
tility rates th a t there is a grow ing problem o f 'to o
few' rather th an 'to o m any' child ren: is this the
possible Stage 5 in th e d em ographic tran sition
m odel (Figure 13.10)?
The UN stated that, in 2 0 0 8 , there were
71 countries w ith a TFR below 2.1, the figure
needed by a country to replace its population
3 Singapore: fam ily planning
W hen, in 1965, Singapore had a birth rate of 29.5
and aTFR of 4.6, the governm ent introduced a
massive family planning schem e in w hich the main
objectives were:
• to establish family planning clinics and to provide
contraceptives at minimal charge
• to advertise through the media the need for, and
the advantages of, smaller families - a voluntary
'stop at two'policy
• to legislate so that under certain circumstances
both abortions and sterilisation could be allowed
• to introduce social and economic incentives such
as paid maternity leave, income tax relief, housing
priority, cheaper health care and free education, all
of which would cease as the size of a family grew.
By 1995 the policy had been so successful that
the birth rate had fallen to 15.2 and the TFR to 1.7
358 Population
(the re p la c e m e n t rate, said to be 2.1 child ren pe:
w om an, is w h en there are just sufficient children
born to balance the nu m ber o f people w ho die).
Throughout history, except during tim es o f plague
or war, th e replacem ent rate has always been
exceeded - hen ce th e grow th in world p o p u lati: r
At present, m an y African countries have a TFR
o f over 5 .0 (in Liberia, Som alia and Uganda it is
6.8) whereas in m ost European and eastern Asian
countries it is below 1.8 (Taiwan 1.1, Jap an and
Italy 1.3 and Singapore and Spain 1.4). W here the
replacem ent rate is n o t being m et, there are fears
that, in tim e, there will be to o few consum ers and
skilled workers to m ain tain n ational econom ies
and to support an ageing population; a reduction
in any com petitive advantage in science and tech­
nology; and schools and colleges closed for a lack
of students.
so that already there was an insufficient supply of
labour to fill the job vacancies and fewer people to
support an increasingly ageing population - hence
the changed slogan of 'Have three or more children if
you can afford it'.The governm ent became concernec
that it was the middle-class elite that was having
fewest children, partly because wom en were pursui- g
their own careers and either staying single, or marrying
and having children at a later age. As a result, female
graduates were encouraged to have three or more
children through financial benefits and larger tax
exemptions, while low-income non-graduates only
received housing benefits if they stopped at two
children.This seems to have done little to reverse
the trend as, in 2008, the birth rate had fallen to 5.8
and theTFR to 1.4, and the governm ent sent out
Valentine Day messages encouraging people to
'make love not money'.
-igu re 13.23

: ercentage of total
copulation aged 60
r d over in 2005

M l 13.7-26.3
7.1-13.7
1.6-7.1

2025 (estimate) 4 Death rates and life expectancy

Male Female Male Female Male Female D eath rates, w hether it be in fan t m ortality or
am ong children and adults, have, trad ition­
i can (highest) 71 76 79 85 84 88
ally, declined as a cou ntry develops (i.e. Stage 2
U y 69 75 78 83 82 86
onwards in the dem ographic transition model
H 69 75 76 81 78 83 - Figure 13.10). Due to im provem ents in m edical
BA
facilities, hygiene and the increased use o f vac­
68 75 75 80 78 83
cines, th e decline in the death rate has led to a
Q iiiu 63 64 70 74 76 80 sharp increase in life expectancy, initially in the
ra ta 51 49 62 63 68 70 econom ically m ore developed countries but,
m ore recently, also in m any o f the econom ically
r':iadesh 46 44 61 62 66 68
less developed countries (Figure 13.22). Already,
Ikarja 49 53 49 47 52 53 several o f the m ore developed countries have
_ - : a (lowest) 39 42 38 37 41 41 over 2 0 per cen t o f their population aged over 65
(Figures 13.23 and 13.24) and several others have,
■ p re 1 3 .2 2 for th e first tim e in history, m ore people aged over
Figure 13.24
j j^rtancies in selected countries 65 th a n they have child ren aged under 15 (Places
Growth in the percentage of population aged 40). In Europe - the m ajor area to be affected by
65 and over in selected countries, 1950-2020 ageing u n til overtaken recently by eastern Asia,
notably Ja p a n - the proportion o f child ren is pro­
jected to decline from 16 per cen t in 2 0 0 8 to 14
per cen t by 2 0 5 0 , w hile the proportion o f people
aged over 65 is expected to rise from 2 0 per cent
to 35 per cen t in the same period (the m ost rapid
increases being in Spain and Italy). By 2 0 2 5 the
UN predict th at as th e num ber o f old people in the
world increases, this will m ean:
■ a greater d em and for services (e.g. pensions,
m ed ical care and resid ential hom es) w hich
will have to be provided (i.e. paid for) by a
sm aller percentage o f people of w orking age
(i.e. in th e e co n o m ica lly active age group) in
---- Ja p a n th e m ore developed cou ntries, and
G e rm a n y ■ a rapid increase in population size w ith an asso­
UK ciated strain on th e often already overstretched
U SA resources of the less developed countries.
---- Ita ly

Population 359
-50 1960 1970 1980 1990 20 00 2010 2020
year
 T h e UN have, sin ce 1 9 9 8 , provided popu­
la tio n data for w h at th e y call th e 'o ld est-old '
(Figure 1 3 .2 5 ), an age-group th a t was th e n
divided in to o cto g en a ria n (aged 8 0 -8 9 ) , n o n a ­
g enarian (aged 9 0 -9 9 ) and cen te n a ria n (aged
over 10 0 ). U n like Figure 1 3 .1 3 , Figure 1 3 .2 5
does n o t show th e h ig h fem ale p ro p ortio n o f th e
o v er-90s group, w h ich has a fe m a le-m a le ratio
of 5 :1 . An e x ce p tio n to increased life e xp ecta n cy
has occurred in th o se cou n tries w here th e AIDS
epid em ic has had its greatest im p act (page 6 2 2 ).
O f th e te n cou n tries w ith th e w orld's low est life
exp ectan cy , all are in sub-Saharan Africa (Places
100, page 6 2 3 ). From th e o n set o f th e pandem ic,
life exp ecta n cy in these cou n tries fell to an
average o f 4 2 .5 years in 2 0 0 7 - a decrease o f 10
years - w hereas it m ig h t have b een exp ected to
have reached 6 0 years had AIDS n o t occurred
(Figure 1 3 .2 6 ). D espite th e d ecline in life ex p e ct­
ancy, th e to ta l p o p u latio n o f cou n tries in th e
region has n o t decreased as th e nu m ber o f deaths
has b een offset by th e h ig h TFR.

Figure 13.25
1970 1998 2008
Age composition
Age group 2005 2050 2005 2050 Botswana 51 45 34
ofthe world's
'oldest old'
Oldest-old: 80+ 79.4 379.0 100 100 Malawi 41 36 45

Octogenarian: 80-89 71.1 314.4 88.2 83.0 South Africa 54 50 47

Nonagenarian: 90-99 8.1 61.4 11.5 16.2 Zimbabwe 52 41 37

Centenarian: 100+ 0.2 3.2 0.3 0.8 Figure 13.26

UN Population Division Ih e effect of AIDS on life expectancy in selected countries

{Tjll Japan: an ageing population

Figure 13.27
Changes in the
population structure
of Japan, 1950-2040
Japan has developed an om inously top-heavy being -0.1 in 2007. W ith few er births and people
dem ographic profile (Figure 13.27) which by 2040 is living longer, this means an increasingly greater
predicted to be the inverse of that of a developing proportion o fth e population is aged over 65,
country at stage 2 of econom ic developm ent having risen from 5 per cent in 1980 (Figure 13.27)
(Figure 13.15). As Japanese w om en are both to 21.5 per cent in 2007, and to a predicted 30 per
m arrying and having children at a later age, if at all, cent by 2020 and 39.6 per cent in 2040.
so the country's TRF has fallen to 1.3 - one o fth e
The potential to the Japanese econom y in terms
lowest in the world - com pared with over 5 in 1928
o fth e dem and for extra resources to look after the
and 1.7 in 1988. In contrast, the Japanese, who on
elderly, and the reduced revenue from taxes as the
average can expect to live to 83 years of age, have
proportion of people in the working-age group
the world's greatest longevity. By 2050 Jap an is
decreases (Figure 13.27) has led the governm ent
projected to have the world's highest proportion of
to im plem ent major reforms in its elderly care
centenarians - 960 000 or 0.8 per cent o fth e total
program m e and to offer inducem ents to encourage
population. Of these, 91 p ercen t will be wom en.
w om en to have more children.
W ith a birth rate of 8.6 and a death rate of 8.8,
Jap an has a negative natural increase, the figure

1950 2008 2040 (p ro je c tio n )

aged
p o p u la t ic '
(65 an d cv-

p ro d u c ti.T
p o p u la tic -
(15-64)

c h ild h o o d
p o p u la tic -
(0-14)

b irth ra te 24 9 8

d e a th rate 9 9 15
 M ig ra tio n : change in s p a c e Voluntary and forced migration
V oluntary m igration occurs w h en m igrants m ove
a n d t im e
from choice, e.g. because th ey are looking for an
M igration is a m o v em en t and in h u m an term s im proved quality o f life or personal freedom . Such
usually refers to a p erm an en t chang e o f h om e. m ovem ents are usually influenced by ‘push an d
It can also, how ever, be applied m ore w idely to p u ll' fa c to rs (page 36 6 ). Push factors are those
inclu de tem porary ch anges in volvin g seasonal th a t cause people to leave because o f pressures
and daily m o v em en ts. It inclu des m ovem en ts w hich m ake th em dissatisfied w ith their present
b o th b etw een cou ntries and w ith in a country. hom e, while p u ll factors are those perceived quali­
M ig ration affects th e d istrib u tion o f people over ties th a t attract people to a new settlem ent. W h en
a given area as well as th e to ta l p o p u latio n o f a people have virtually n o ch oice b u t to m ove
region and th e p o p u latio n structure o f a cou n try from an area due to natural disasters or because
or city. The various types o f m ig ration are n o t of econom ic, religious or social im positions
easy to classify, b u t o n e m eth o d is given in (Figure 13 .2 9 ), m igration is said to be forced.
Figure 13 .2 8 .
Times and frequency
Interna! and external (international) M ig ration pattern s in clu d e people w ho m ay
migration m ove o n ly o n ce in a lifetim e, people w ho m ove
Internal m igration refers to population m ove­ a n n u a lly or seasonally, and people w ho m ove
m e n t w ithin a country, w hereas external m igra­ daily to w ork or sch oo l. Figure 1 3 .2 8 show s th e
tio n involves a m o vem en t across nation al con sid erab le variations in tim escale over w h ich
boundaries and betw een cou ntries. External m ig ration processes can operate.
m igration, unlike intern al m ovem en t, affects
th e total population o f a country. The m ig ra tio n
Distance
People m ay m ove locally w ith in a city or a
b a la n ce is th e difference betw een th e nu m ber of
co u n try or th e y m ay m ove b etw een cou ntries
em ig ran ts (people w ho leave the country) and
an d c o n tin e n ts : m ig ration takes place at a range
im m ig ran ts (new com ers arriving in th e country).
o f spatial scales.
C ountries w ith a n e t m ig ra tio n loss lose m ore
through em igration th an th ey gain by im m igra­
tio n and, depending up on the balance betw een
Migration laws and a migration model
b irth and d eath rates, m ay have a declining In 1 8 8 5 , E.G. R avenstein put forward seven 'laws
p opulation. C ountries w ith a n e t m ig ra tio n o f m ig ratio n ' based o n his studies o f m igration
gain receive m ore b y im m ig ration th an th ey lose w ith in th e UK. T hese laws stated th at:
through em igration and so are likely to have an 1 M o st m igrants travel short d istances and
overall population increase (assum ing b irth and th eir n u m bers decrease as d istance increases
death rates are evenly balanced). (d istance decay, page 4 1 0 ).
2 M ig ration occurs in waves and th e vacu um
*smanent External (international): between countries left as o n e group o f people m oves ou t will
later be filled by a cou n ter-cu rren t o f people
1 voluntary W est Indians to Britain
m o vin g in.
2 forced (refugees) African slaves to America, Kurds, 3 T h e process o f dispersion (em igration) is th e
Rwandans inverse o f absorption (im m igration).
Internal: within a country 4 M ost m igrations show a two-way m ovem en t as
people m ove in and out: net m igration flows
1 rural depopulation most developing countries
are the balance betw een the tw o m ovem ents.
2 urban depopulation British conurbations 5 T h e longer th e journey, th e m ore likely it is
th a t th e m igrant will end up in a m a jo r centre
3 regional from north-west to south-east of o f indu stry or com m erce.
Britain
6 U rban dwellers are less likely to m ove th a n
Semi permanent for several years migrant workers in France and th e ir rural cou nterparts.
(former West) Germany
7 Fem ales m igrate m ore th a n m ales w ith in
ie a so n a l for several months or several weeks Mexican harvesters in California, th e ir co u n try o f b irth , b u t m ales are m ore
holidaymakers, university students likely to m ove fu rther afield.
K » iy commuters south-east England

H r ? 13.28

Population 361
 Forced migration Prevention of voluntary movement

Religious: Jews; Pilgrim Fathers to New England Government restrictions: immigration quotas, Berlin Wall, work permits
Wars: Muslims and Hindus in India and Pakistan; Rwanda, Chechnya Lack of money: unable to afford transport to and housing in new areas
Political persecution: Ugandan Asians, Kosovar Albanians Lack of skills and education

Slaves or forced labour: Africans to south-east USA Lack of awareness of opportunities

Lack of food and famine: Ethiopians into the Sudan Illness

Natural disasters: floods, earthquakes, volcaniceruptions (Mt Pinatubo, Case Study 1) Threat of family division and heavy family responsibilities

Overpopulation: Chinese in South-east Asia Reasons for return

Redevelopment: British inner-city slum clearance Racial tension in new area

Resettlement: Native Americans (USA) and Amerindians (Brazil) into reservations Earned sufficient money to return

Environmental: Chernobyl (Ukraine), Bhopal (India) To be reunited with family

Dam construction: Three Gorges (China) Foreign culture proved unacceptable

Voluntary migration Causes of initial migration removed (political or religious persecution)

Jobs: Bantus into South Africa, Polish workers to the UK (Places 44), Mexicans into California Retirement

Higher salaries: British doctors to the USA Barriers to return

Tax avoidance: British pop/rock and film stars to the USA Insufficient money to afford transport

Opening up of new areas: American Prairies; Israelis into Negev Desert; Brasilia Standard of living lower in original area
Territorial expansion: Roman and Ottoman Empires, Russians into Eastern Europe Racial, religious or political problems in original area

Trade and economic expansion: former British colonies Loss of family ties

Retirement to a warmer climate: Americans to Florida

Social amenities and services: better schools, hospitals, entertainment

Figure 13 29 M ore recen t global m ig ra tio n studies have
Causes of migration, largely accepted R avenstein's 'law s', bu t have
with examples d em onstrated som e ad d ition al trends:
8 M ost m igrants follow a step m o v em en t
w h ich en tails several sm all m o v em en ts from
th e village level to a m a jo r city, rath er th a n
on e trau m atic jum p.
9 People are leaving rural areas in ever-
increasing num bers, esp ecially in C h in a.
1 0 People m ove m ainly for econ om ic reasons, e.g.
jobs and the opportunity to earn m ore money.
Grow ing num bers of short-term m igrant
. e 1’ 30 workers send rem ittances hom e - a m ajor
A migration model (after factor o f globalisation.
Hornbyand Jones) 11 M ost m igrants fall in to th e 2 0 - 3 4 age range.
12 W ith th e e xcep tio n o f sh ort journ eys in
developed cou ntries, m ales are th e m ore
m o bile. (In m an y societies, fem ales are still
expected to rem ain at h o m e.)
1 3 There are increasing num bers of m igrants who
are unable to find accom m od ation in the place
to w h ich they m ove; this forces them to live
on the streets, in shanties (Places 57, page 443
and in refugee camps (page 367).
14 There are increasing num bers of refugees, dis­
placed persons and eco n o m ic and illegal im m i­
grants (page 367).
T he exam p les in Figure 1 3 .2 9 help to explain the
m ig ration m odel show n in Figure 13 .3 0 .
Migration within developed c o u n tr ie s

forced m igration C ertain p atterns o f in tern a l m igration are more

ch aracteristic o f developed cou n tries th a n
e co n o m ica lly less developed cou ntries. Three
exam p les have been ch osen to illustrate this:
barriers ru ra l-u rb a n m o vem en t; regional m o vem en t; arc
country/area voluntary country/area m o v em en ts w ith in and ou t o f large urban areas.
is
o f origin m igration o f destination
Rural-urban movement
A lthough rural d ep op u lation is now a worldwide
p h e n o m en o n , it has b een taking place for m uch
barriers longer in th e m ore developed, industrialised
cou n tries. Figure 1 3 .3 1 and Places 41 describe
return m igration
and exp lain th e ch a n g in g b alance b etw een rural
and u rban dwellers in C h in a since 1980.

362 Population
 C h in a: ru ra l-u rb a n m igration
Since about 1980, rural-urban migration has
become not only a major socio-economic
phenomenon in China, but probably the world's
greatest ever internal movement of people.
The 1940s and 1950s were a time when rural
labourers were encouraged to participate in urban
development. Although 40 million were recruited,
onlyjust over 10 percent ofthe country's total
population then lived in urban areas. Between
1958 and 1983, under the system of h u k o u , rural
labourers were forbidden to leave their home
villages to seekjobs or to run businesses without
official permission. Rural poverty increased.
In 1984, an official document was issued which
allowed rural workers to enter cities to seek work.
This complete change in policy was closely related
to other socio-economic and institutional changes,
such as the replacement ofthe commune system
and the creation ofthe Responsibility Scheme
(Places 63, page 468); the reform ofthe system of
purchase and sale of food products; the beginnings
of mechanisation of agriculture; and the setting-up
of 5 Special Economic Zones (SEZs) and 15 Open
Cities in coastal areas (Case Study 19). Although
policies at central level now encouraged a regulated
movement of people to urban areas, some coastal
areas and larger cities tried, at a local level, to
impose restrictions limiting a totally free movement
of workers. Even so, the urban population had
increased to 36 per cent by 2000, and with between
another 13 to 16 million workers now moving each
R e g io n a l m o v e m e n t in B rita in
For over a cen tu ry th ere has b een a drift o f
people from th e n o rth and west o f B ritain to th e
sou th-east o f England. The early 1 9 th cen tu ry
was th e period o f th e Industrial R evolution
w h en large n u m bers o f people m oved in to large
u rban settlem en ts on th e coalfield s o f n o rth ern
E ngland, cen tral S cotlan d and Sou th W ales, and
to w ork in th e textile, steel, heavy en g in eerin g
and ship bu ild ing industries. However, since the
1920s th ere has b een m ore th an a steady drift o f
p o p u latio n away from th e n o rth o f B ritain to th e
sou th (Figures 1 3 .3 2 , 1 3 .3 3 and 1 3 .3 4 ). Som e of
th e m a jo r reasons for th is m o v em en t are listed
here.
■ A decline in th e farm ing workforce and rural
population, for reasons sim ilar to those quoted
in Places 41 on rural-urban m ovem ents.
8 T h e exh a u stio n o f supplies o f raw m aterials
(coal and iro n ore).
year to cities, to 44 per cent by 2008. To keep pace
with China's industrial growth, the government
now hopes that between 300 and 500 million
people will leave their rural homes and settle in
coastal provinces and cities by 2020, by which time
the urban population could be almost 60 per cent
ofthe total.
Seventy per cent of migrant labourers are between
16 and 35 years of age; most have received up
to nine years of education and about one-third
are female (Case Study 21). They contribute
significantly to the development of China's
industries, especially those
producing cheap goods
in t e n d e d fo r g lo b a l m a rk e ts . Migration within China
m ajor receiving areas
m ajor sending areas
River
0___ 1000 km
Estuary
■ T he decline o f th e basic heavy industries such
as steel, textiles and shipbuilding. M any indus­
trial tow ns had relied n o t only o n on e form of
industry but, in som e cases, on one individual
firm. W ith no alternative em ploym ent, those
w ishing to work had to m ove south.
■ H igher b irth rates in th e indu strial cities
m ea n t m ore p o ten tia l job-seekers.
■ New post-war industries, w h ich included car
m anufacturing, electrical engineering, food
processing and, since the 1980s, m icro­
electron ics and hig h -tech industries, have
tended to be m arket-oriented. They are said to
be footloose, in th e sense th a t th ey have a free
ch oice o f location - unlike the older industries
w h ich had to locate near to sources o f raw
m aterials and/or energy supplies.
■ The ageing p o p u latio n is attracted to th e
south coast for retirem en t.
Population 363
Percentage change
over th e d ecad e
1961-71
+15.0 and over
] ] +10.0 t o +14.9
+5.0 to +9.9
0.0 to +4.9
-0.1 to -5.0
-5.1 t o -10.0
Average: 5.1%
0 100 km
Figure 13.32 ■ T h e grow th o f service industries has b een
m ain ly in th e sou th-east. This has resulted
Population changes
in the UK, 1961-71 from th e m an y office firm s w an tin g a pres­
(boundaries adjusted tigious L on d on address, th e grow th o f gov­
tothe 1974changes) e rn m e n t offices, th e dem and for hospitals,
sch oo ls and shops in a region w here o n e in
five British people live, and tourism taking
advantage o f B ritain's w arm er sou th coast.
■ Jo in in g th e EU m ea n t increased jo b o p p ortu ­
nities in th e sou th and east, w hile trad itio n al
industrial areas and ports such as Glasgow,
Liverpool and Bristol, w h ich had links w ith
th e Am ericas, have d eclined.
■ Salaries were h ig h er in th e south.
■ W ith so m u ch older hou sing, derelict land
and waste tips, th e qu ality o f life is o ften
perceived as b ein g low er in th e n o rth , despite
th e beauty o f its natu ral scenery and slower
pace o f life.
■ There are m ore social, sporting and cultural
am enities in th e south.
■ C o m m u n ica tio n s were easier to co n stru ct
in th e flatter sou th. M otorw ays, railways,
in te rn a tio n a l airports, cro ss-C h an n el ports
and th e C h a n n el T u n nel were b u ilt an d /
or im proved as th is region had th e greatest
w ealth and p o p u latio n size.
M o v e m e n ts w ith in u rb a n a re a s
Since th e 1 9 3 0 s there has been, in B ritain, a
m o v em en t away from th e in n er cities to th e
suburbs - a m o v em en t accelerated first by
im proved pu blic tran sp ort provision and th e n by
th e increase in private car ow nership. T h e form er
364 Population
Average: 2.3%
Figure 13.33
Population
changes
in the UK,
1981-91
0 100 km
___________
1 1
included m ore bus services, th e e xten sio n o f the
L ond on U nderground and th e co n stru ctio n of
th e Tyne and W ear M etro. Som e o f th e m any
stereotyped reasons for this outward m ovem ent
are sum m arised in Figure 1 3 .3 5 . The result, in
hu m an terms, has been a polarisation o f groups
o f people w ith in society and th e accen tu atio n
o f in eq u alities (w ealth and skills) b etw een them .
(Beware, however, of th e dangers o f stereotyping
w hen discussing these inequalities; Framework 14
page 4 3 7 .)
■ T h e in n er cities tend ed to be left w ith a
h ig h er p ro p ortio n o f low -in co m e fam ilies,
hand icap p ed people, th e elderly, sin gle­
p aren t fam ilies, p eople w ith few skills and
lim ited q u alification s, first-tim e hom e-
buyers, th e un em ployed , recen t im m igrants
and e th n ic m in orities.
■ The suburbs tended to attract people m oving
tow ards m iddle age, m arried w ith a grow ing
fam ily, possessing h ig h er skills and q u alifica­
tio n s, earning h ig h er salaries, in secure jobs
and capable o f bu y ing th eir ow n hom es and
car. R ecently th ere has b een , in part at least, a
reversal of th is m o v em en t and parts o f some
in n er cities have b eco m e regenerated and
‘fa sh io n a b le'. This re-u rbanisation is partly
due to energy con serv atio n , partly to changes
in h ou sin g m arkets, partly to p lan n in g
in itiatives such as refurbished w aterfronts
(L ond on, Places 5 6 , page 4 4 0 ; B altim ore) and
p artly to new e m p lo y m en t grow th (leisure,
fin a n cia l services).
 Percentage change
|____ ]+15.0 and over
___ ,+10.0 t o +14.9
M o v e m e n ts away from conurbations
After th e m id -1950s, large num bers o f people
]+5.0 t o +9.9
m oved out of London altogether (Figure 13.36).
___ j 0.0 to +4.9 Initially these were people w ho were virtually
H-0.1 to -5.0 forced to m ove as large areas o f 19th-century
I 5.1 t o -10.0 inner-city housing were dem olished. M any of
Average: 4.0% these people were rehoused in one o f the several
planned new tow ns th a t were created around
London. More recently, even the outer suburbs
have lost population (Figure 13.35) as people
m oved, often voluntarily, to smaller tow ns, or
in to com m uter and suburbanised villages, w ith a
m ore rural environ m ent. This process o f cou n ter­
urbanisation becam e characteristic o f all Britain's
conu rbations (Figure 13.37) until a reverse m ove­
m ent began, initially in the 1990s m ainly due to
th e regeneration o f inn er-city areas (especially
those w ith a quayside location) and in the 2000s
as an increasing num ber o f m igrants moved in.

Figure 13.34
Figure 13.35
Population changes in
the UK, 2001-2006 Some causes of migration from
the inner cities to the suburbs

Inner city Suburbs

-:using Poor quality; lacking basic amenities; high density; overcrowding Modern; high quality; with amenities; low density
'-affic Congestion; noise and air pollution; narrow, unplanned streets; Less congestion and pollution; wider, well-planned road system; close to motorways
parking problems and ring roads
idustry Decline in oldersecondary industries; cramped sites with poor Growth of modern industrial estates; footloose and service industries; hypermarkets
access on expensive land and regional shopping centres; new office blocks and hotels on spacious sites
High unemployment; lesser-skilled jobs in traditional industries Lower unemployment; cleaner environment; often more skilled jobs in newer high-
tech industries
:-rn space Limited parks and gardens Individual gardens; more, larger parks; nearer countryside
:-'i ronment Noise and air pollution from traffic and industry; Cleaner; less noise and air pollution; lower crime rate; less vandalism
derelict land and buildings; higher crime rate; vandalism
::al factors Fewer, older services, e.g. schools and hospitals; ethnic and racial Newer and more services; fewer ethnic and racial problems
problems
: - ning and investment Often wholesale redevelopment/clearance; limited planning Planned, controlled development; public and private
and investment investment
:y status/wealth Low incomes; often elderly and young; large family or none Improved wealth and family/professional status

Conurbation 1961-71 1971-81 1981-91 1991-96 2001-06

Greater London -6 .8 -11.3 -4 .9 +5.9 +2.6

Inner London -1 3 .2 -2 0 .0 -6 .6 +8.1 +4.0

Outer London -1 .8 -5 .0 -4.1 +7.7 +1.7

Greater Manchester +0.3 -5 .6 -5 .5 +3.0 +0.1

Merseyside -3 .6 -9 .3 -9.1 +1.2 -3 .0

South Yorkshire +1.5 -2 .3 -4 .1 +3.3 +0.1

Tyne and Wear -2 .6 -6 .3 -5 .4 +2.9 -2 .6

West Midlands +17.8 -5 .9 ljj- 5 . 5 +3.6 +2.2

West Yorkshire +3.1 -2 .2 -2 .7 +4.8 +2.2

Glasgow City -1 3 .8 -23.1 -1 5 .5 +2.6 -5 .5

Figure 13.37
:1 1841 1861 1881 1901 1921 1941 1961 1981 2001
census year Population change in UK conurbations
(percentage change per decade)
P o p u la tio n 365
 Internal migration in economically less
d e v e lo p e d countries
T here is usually a m u ch greater degree o f m igra­
tio n w ith in d eveloping cou n tries th a n th ere is
in m ore developed cou ntries. Two exam p les have
b een ch o sen to illustrate this: ru ral-u rb an m o v e ­
m e n t and p o litical resettling.
R u r a l-u r b a n m o v e m e n t
M an y large cities in d eveloping cou n tries are
grow ing at a rate o f m ore th a n 2 0 per ce n t every
decade. This grow th is partly accou n ted for by
rural 'p u sh ' and partly by urban 'p u ll' factors.
Push fa c to rs are those th a t force or encourage
people to m ove - in th is case, to leave th e c o u n ­
tryside. M an y fam ilies do n o t ow n th e ir ow n
land or, w here th e y do, it m ay have b een repeat­
edly divided by in h erita n ce laws u n til th e plots
have b eco m e to o sm all to support a fam ily. Food
shortages develop if th e agricultural ou tpu t is too
low to support th e p o p u latio n o f an area, or if
crops fail. Crop failure m ay be th e result o f over­
Figure 13.38 crop p in g and overgrazing (Case Studies 7 and
Migration patterns 10), or natu ral disasters such as d rou ght
-*• 500 - 900 persons
1000 - 1999 persons
mm 2000 - 3999 persons
4000 - 7999 persons
( J ) i capital city
provincial boundaries
---- national boundaries
366 Population
(th e Sahel cou n tries), floods (Bangladesh), h u r­
ricanes (th e C aribbean) and earth m o vem en ts
(in A ndean cou n tries). Elsew here, farm ers are
encou raged to produce cash crops for exp ort to
h elp th eir cou n try 's n a tio n a l e co n o m y instead
o f grow ing su fficien t food crops for them selves.
M ech a n isa tio n reduces th e n u m ber o f farm ers
needed, w hile h ig h rates o f natu ral increase m ay
lead to ov erp op u lation (page 3 7 6 ). Som e people
m ay m o ve because o f a lack o f services (schools,
hospitals, w ater supply) or be forced to m ove
b y g ov ernm ents or th e activities o f tran s­
n a tio n a l com panies.
P u ll fa cto rs are th ose th a t encourage people to
m ove - in this case, to the cities. People in m any
rural com m unities m ay have a perception o f the
city w hich in reality does n o t exist. People migrate
to cities hop ing for better housing, better job
prospects, im proved lifestyle (aspirational), more
reliable sources of food, and b etter services in
h ealth and education. W hile it is usually true
th a t in m ost countries m ore m oney is spent on the
urban areas - where th e people w ho allocate the
m o n ey them selves live - th e present rate o f urban
grow th far exceeds th e a m o u n t o f m o n ey avail­
able to provide accom m od ation for all th e new
arrivals. R ecent studies seem to confirm th a t m any
m igrants m ake a stepped m o vem ent from their
rural village first to sm all towns, th en to larger
cities and finally to a m ajor city.
Tunisia: m igration
patterns
Figure 13.38 shows migration patterns inTunisia.
There are several points to notice:
• There is a greater movement of rural than of
urban dwellers.
• Most migrants move toTunis, the capital city.
• Most migrants tend to travel short distances:
relatively few make long journeys (distance
decay factor, page 410).
• Most move from rural, inland, desert areas to
urban, coastal areas.
• A few move from Tunis to coastal towns, such as
the holiday resorts of Sousse and Monastir.
• Very few migrants return to rural districts.
• There is evidence of a twofold movement into
and out ofTunis and Sfax.
 Political re s e ttlin g his or her ow n co u n try becau se o f a well-
N ational governm ents may, for political reasons, found ed fear o f p ersecu tion for reasons o f
direct, con trol or enforce m ovem en t as a result o f race, religion, n ation ality , p o litica l associa­
decisions w hich they believe to be in th e country's tio n or p o litical o p in io n '. T h e term is often
(or their own) best interests. Som e governm ents expan ded to in clu d e people forced to leave
have actively encouraged th e developm en t of new th eir h o m e co u n try due to in tern al strife
com m u n ity settlem ents, especially in areas w hich (civil wars) or e n v iro n m en ta l disasters (e.g.
were, at th e tim e, sparsely populated, e.g. the earthquakes, fam ine) in order to seek security
creation o f kibbu tzim in Israel and o f u jam aa in or help.
Tanzania. O ther governm ents have founded E A sylum seek ers are people w ho have left
new capital cities in an attem pt to develop new th eir co u n try o f origin, have applied for
grow th regions, e.g. Brasilia, D odom a (Tanzania) re co g n itio n as a refugee, and are aw aiting a
and Abuja (Nigeria); w hile others have built set­ d ecisio n on th e ir ap p licatio n . In te rn a tio n al
tlem ents to try to strengthen their claim s to an law recognises th e right o f individuals to seek
area (e.g. Israeli settlem ents in th e W est Bank) or asylum bu t does n o t force states to provide it.
to rehouse people m oved for flood control and ■ E c o n o m ic m ig ra n ts m ake a con sciou s ch o ice
th e production o f energy (Three Gorges P roject in to leave th eir co u n try o f origin know in g th a t
C h in a - Places 82, page 544). th e y will be able to retu rn to it w ith o u t any
In Brazil and th e USA, m in ority groups of p roblem s at a future date. This group in cludes
indigenous people - th e A m erindians and N ative m ig ra n t w o rk ers (page 3 6 9 ).
A m ericans respectively - have b een forced off ■ Illegal im m ig ra n ts en ter a co u n try w ith o u t
th eir tribal lands and o n to reservations. In South m eetin g th e legal requ irem en ts for en try or
Africa, under ap arth eid , th e black p o p u latio n resid ence. T h ey o fte n arrive w ith o n ly th e
was forced to live eith er in sh an ty settlem en ts in barest necessities an d w ith o u t personal d ocu ­
urban tow nships or o n h om eland s in rural areas, m en ts or passports. M an y b eco m e part o f th e
w h ich lacked resources (Places 45, page 3 7 2 ). In 'h id d en e co n o m y ', h av in g to rely o n people
th e last few years, a n in creasin g nu m ber o f people for sh elter and w ork w h ich leaves th em vu l­
have b een forced to m ove due to so-called 'e th n ic nerable to e xp lo ita tio n .
clean sin g ' policies enforced by several govern­ ■ In te rn a lly D isplaced Persons (IDPs) are
m ents, as in th e form er Yugoslavia. included here for alth ou gh th ey have n o t left
their cou n try o f origin, th e y m ay have been
E x te rn a l m ig ra tio n forced to flee th eir h o m e for sim ilar reasons to
those o f refugees. M any IDPs exist in th e same
■ R efugees T h e U nited N ations High
= displacement con d itio n s and face th e sam e problem s as do
: Nyaconqa, C o m m ission for Refugees (UNHCR) defines
refugees. Globally, IDPs ou tn u m ber refugees.
a refugee as 'a person w h o c a n n o t return to
B efore th e Second W orld War, th e m a jo rity o f ref­
ugees tend ed to b eco m e assim ilated in th e ir new
h o st co u n try but sin ce th e n , an d b eg in n in g w ith
th e settin g-up o f P alestin ian Arab cam ps fo l­
low ing th e creation o f th e state o f Israel in 1 9 48,
th e n u m ber o f p erm a n en t refugees has risen
rapidly. A ccording to UNHCR, th e n u m ber of
global refugees reached a peak o f 1 7 .6 m illio n in
1 9 9 2 b efore falling to a tro u g h o f 1 3 .2 m illio n in
1 9 9 9 b efore rising o n ce again. The UNHCR claim
th a t as m o st refugees are illegal im m igrants,
accu rate figures are im p ossible to give b u t they
b elieved th a t in 2 0 0 8 th ere were 16 m illio n refu­
gees and 51 m illio n IDPs, o f w h om 2 6 m illion
were co n flict-g en erated IDPs an d 2 5 m illio n were
natu ral disaster IDPs (Figure 1 3 .4 0 ). T h e refugee
and IDP problem has in ten sified due to co n flicts
in cou n tries such as Iraq and A fghanistan, and
food shortages and p o litical u n rest in m u ch o f
sub-Saharan Africa in clu d in g Darfur, Som alia
and Zim babw e (Figure 1 3 .3 9 ).

Population 367
 T h e world: refugees

The UNHCR have, in previous years, pointed out that
half of the world's refugees are children of school
age; most adult refugees are female; and four-fifths of
the total are in developing countries which have the
fewest resources to deal with the problem. Refugees
usually live in extreme poverty and lack food, shelter,
a b
Figure 13.40
Region Total refugees at end 2007
World refugees at
the end of 2007 UNHCR regions
clothing, education and medical care - the basic
Millennium Development Goals (page 609).They rarely
have citizenship and few (if any) civil, legal or human
rights.There is little prospect of their returning home
and the long periods spent in camps means that they
often losetheirsenseofidentityand purpose.
Pakistan |M B jfl 2033100

a World total Central Africa and Great Lakes 1100100

Syria 1503800
b Major refugee
East and Horn of Africa 815200
hosting countries
Iran 963500
Southern Africa 181200

West Africa 174700 G erm any 578900

TotalAfrica (excluding NorthAfrica) 2271200 Jo rd an 500300

Americas 987500
Tanzania 435600
Asia and Pacific 3825000
China U p 301100
Europe 1585300

Middle East and North Africa 2721 600 UK 299700

Total UNHCR regions 11 390600 Chad : 294000

UNRWA regions (Palestinians) 4622000

U SA i f 281200
Totalall refugees 16012600

A 2008 analysis of refugee data by UNHCR re country of origin. At the end of 2007 (Figure 13.41),
major patterns: there were almost 3.1 million Afghan refugees, of

1 The vast majority of refugees are hosted by whom 96 percent were to be found in neighbouring

neighbouring countries, with over 80 per cent Pakistan and Iran, and 2.3 million Iraqis, most of whom

remaining in their region of origin i.e. within have sought refuge in Syria or Jordan. Afghans and

Africa or the M iddle East. This conflicts w ith the Iraqis together account for almost half of the world's

perception that m any seek protection in North total refugees under UNHCR responsibility, followed

America orW estern Europe. by half a million Colombians. Other main source
countries were the Sudan, Somalia, Burundi and the
2 The number of refugees living in urban areas
Democratic Republic ofthe Congo. At that same time,
continues to grow and now exceeds 50 per cent
about 60 per cent of all refugees were residing in Asia,
o fth e total.
particularly Pakistan, Syria and Iran (Figure 13.40b).
Apart from 4.6million Palestinian refugees w ho come
O fthe remainder, Africa, Europe and North America
under UNRWA which is a different UN department
respectively hosted 20,14 and 9 per cent.
from UNHCR, Afghanistan continues to be the leading

Figure 13.41 “*00

Major source countries
of refugees, 2007
S H

j >500 000
| 250 000-500 000

368 Population
100 000-250 000
10 00 0 -1 0 0 000
< 10 000
M ig r a n t w o rk e rs
As e co n o m ic d ev elop m en t has tak en place at
d ifferen t rates in d ifferen t cou n tries, supplies of
and dem and for labou r are un ev en , and due to
im p ro vem en ts in tran sp ort there has b een an
increase in th e n u m ber o f people w h o m ove from
o n e co u n try to a n o th er in search o f work. Such
cross-border m o v em en ts in search o f work can
operate at d ifferent tim escales. For exam p le:
■ P e rm a n e n t For a cen tu ry and a half, th e
UK has received Irish workers and, sin ce th e
1950 s, W est Ind ians and citizen s from th e
In d ian su b co n tin e n t. M ost o f these m igrants
have m ade B ritain th eir p erm an en t h om e.
■ S e m i-p e rm a n e n t After th e Secon d W orld
War, several European cou n tries experien ced
a severe labour shortage. In order to h elp
rebuild th eir econ om ies, cou n tries such as
U K : Polish m igrant workers
In 2004, Poland and seven other former Eastern
European countries gained entry into the EU. O fth e
existing members, only the UK and the Republic
of Ireland allowed unlimited immigration from the
new members.This led, in the UK, to the largest
influx for centuries with, by early 2008, the arrival
of over 800 000 migrant workers - an average in
excess of 200 000 a year. O f these an estim ated
500 000 had com e from Poland (Figure 13.42).
Migrants from Poland w ere largely w elcom ed
as they cam e with a w ide range of skills, many
of which were currently lacking in the British
workforce. At one end w ere people w ho gained
senior jobs in administration, business and
m anagem ent such as computing, IT support,
teaching and the National Health Service. At the
other w ere those prepared to work for long hours
either as health care workers, as shop assistants,
or as manual labour in either factories or on farms.
Som ew here in the middle were people such as
plumbers, electricians, bricklayers and decorators -
four other professions in which Britain had a severe
skills shortage.
W hereas earlier migrants into Britain tended to
concentrate in certain urban areas, and then within
specific districts in those areas, it was claimed that
by M ay 2008 Polish workers were living in every
local authority area of Britain. As a group, they
set up their own radio stations, printed their own
newspapers, celebrated church Mass in their own
language, produced Polish bread and processed
other food products which they then sold in their
own shops (Figure 13.43).
France accepted cheap sem i-skilled labou r
m a in ly from N orth Africa w hile th e th e n
W est G erm any did th e sam e for workers
from Turkey, Yugoslavia and th e M iddle
East. Recently, sim ilar types o f workers from
Eastern Europe, particu larly P oland, have
b een attracted to th e UK (Places 4 4 ).
S h o r t-te rm a n d se a s o n a l T h e Sou th African
eco n o m y depends largely o n m ig ran t b lack
labou r from a d ja ce n t n a tio n states. In N orth
A m erica, large nu m bers o f M exican s find sea­
son al em p lo y m en t p ick in g fruit and
vegetables in C aliforn ia (Case Study 15A).
D a ily W ith th e in tro d u ctio n o f free m o ve­
m e n t for EU n a tio n a ls w ith in th e EU, an
in creasin g n u m ber o f workers co m m u te daily
in to ad jacen t cou ntries.
Why did they come to the UK?
Most cam e to find better-paid jobs as, w hen they
arrived, the average w age in the UK was several
times higherthan that in Poland. To some the idea
was to work hard, earn as much m oney as they
could and then return home, hopefully with the
finance needed to set up their ow n business. To
others it was a case of earning sufficient m oney to
live on them selves and to send the rem ainder back
to Poland to help their families there im prove their
standard of living. The m ajority of immigrants were
men, of w hom over 80 p ercen t were aged betw een
18 and 34 years.
Figure
500 13.42
Nationality
400 of foreign
workers,
May 2004
300 - February
2008
200
100
VO vO
(f
Population 369

Figure 13.43 Peterborough is one of several British towns where
One ofthe many Poles now comprise over 10 per cent ofthe total
Polish shops to be population. Many have concentrated in the Lincoln
found in the UK Road area where houses were less expensive. Whereas
in 2004 the local primary school had had to make
provision for children of Pakistani origin, now it has to
provide for Polish speakers who, in the four years after
2004, grew from 0 per cent ofthe school population to
over 30 per cent. Although many migrant workers in
Peterborough find jobs on building sites or in factories
and superstores, the majority seek work on farms in the
nearby Fens picking and packing fruit and vegetables
(Figure 13.44). Farm labourers are likely to work from
7 am to 5 pm, six days a week. Even with overtime they
may only earn between £300 and £500 a week.
The Poles are generally well accepted by local
com m unities in Britain. Perhaps this is because
they are European, or is an acknow ledgem ent of
just how hard th ey work and how valuable they
are at filling vacancies in the British skills market.
However, that is not to say that their presence
does not create problems. In large numbers they
can 'swamp'schools, hospitals and other services;
by buying property at the lower price range they
com pete with local first-time buyers; those with
fewer skills com pete with local job-seekers, because
they are prepared to accept lower w ages and
longer hours; and m oney they earn is sent out of
the country and so is lost to the British economy.
Figure 13.45
Advantages
Advantages and
Homecountry • Reduces pressure on jobs and local
disadvantages of
resources
migrant workers
• Birth rate may be lowered as people of child-bearing
age leave
• Money may be received as remittances from abroad
• Migrants may develop new skills which they can bring
back home
Host country • May receive highly skilled migrants to fill specialised
vacancies in the job market
• Labour shortage overcome, especially in dirty, poorly paid,
unskilled jobs
• Provides cheaper labour who work for longer hours
• Cultural advantages of discovering new foods, music,
pastimes, etc.
370 Population
Figure 13.44
Polish workers picking
vegetables from the
fields of East Anglia
In contrast, while families in Poland benefit from
remittances sent back to them, the country as a whole
may lose its most skilled and educated workers; has
to train wom en to fill job vacancies; and sees families
divided with so many males working abroad.
Why are they returning home?
By 2008, the migration pattern began to alter.
Since the first arrivals in 2004, prices in the UK have
increased far more than they have in Poland. Also,
as the pound has becom e weaker in comparison
with the Polish zloty, the UK is less attractive as
a place to live and work. M eanw hile the Eastern
European econom y has grown and both investment
and w ages within Poland have increased. The
result is that many Poles are now beginning to
return hom e to build their own houses, set up their
own businesses and to start families. They are also
needed to provide facilities, including stadiums for
the 2012 UEFA football tournam ent which is to be
held in Poland. Som e predictions suggest that half
the Polish workers will have returned hom e by 2010
leaving Britain, once again, with a shortage of skills.
Figure 13.45 lists some o fth e advantages and
disadvantages to both the hom e and the host
country with respect to m igrant workers.The same
can be applied to m igrant workers from North
Africa into France,Turkey into Germany, and Mexico
into California, as from Poland into the UK.
Disadvantages
• People of working age migrate
• Those with skills and education are most likely to leave
• It is mainly males who migrate and this divides families
• An elderly population is left with fewer people to look
after them
• Can create a dependency on money being sent back as
remittances
■Migrants can put a strain on local services and resources
• Resentment towards migrants if they take the best jobs
• Some migrant groups do not mix and try to retain their own
culture
• Mainly young males which can create social problems
• Migrants may feel discriminated against which can cause
racial tension
 Multicultural societies preferred to be kn ow n collectively as 'b lack'.
This is o ften a sen sitive and em otive issue. The 1971 UK census divided im m igrants born
A ttem pts here to exp lain term s are n o t intend ed in C om m o n w ealth cou ntries in to th e Old
to cause in su lt or resen tm en t. (w hite) and New (black) C o m m o n w ealth . (It
The latest scientific research suggests that m ade n o allow ance for child ren b orn in the
hum ans evolved in central Africa about 2 0 0 0 0 0 UK o f New C o m m o n w ealth parentage.)
years ago and began, 100 0 0 0 years later, to migrate ■ P la ce o f b irth (n a tio n a lity ) T he Animal
to other parts of the world. This com m on origin, A bstract o f Statistics for th e UK lists im m igrants
identified by the study o f genes, shows that under th e heading 'co u n try of last residence'
hum ans are genetically hom ogeneous to a degree - thus avoiding a reference to colour. M ost
unparalleled in the anim al kingdom. groups o f people, in th e USA for exam ple,
Previous scien tific o p in io n suggested th a t have b een identified by their place o f birth,
th e m an y peoples o f th e m odern w orld had or th a t o f their ancestors, and are know n as
descended from th ree m ain races. T hese were C hinese, Puerto Rican, etc. There is currently
th e Negroid, M o ng oloid and Caucasoid. The a m ajor m o vem en t in th e USA (and to a lesser
d iction ary d efin itio n o f race is 'a group o f people e x te n t in th e UK) by blacks, also w ishing to be
h av in g th eir ow n in h erited characteristics d istin ­ identified by place of origin, to be referred to
guishing th e m from people o f o th er races', e.g. as African-Am ericans. W ill black people in the
co lo u r o f skin and physical features. In reality, UK eventually prefer to be know n as African-
o ften because o f interm arriage, th e d istin ctio n Caribbean, A frican-British, or an oth er term
betw een races is now so blurred th a t th e word n o t yet invented?
'race' has little sig n ifican t scien tific value. Tod ay ■ L an g u ag e At present, th e largest group
w hile colou r still rem ains th e m o st obvious o f m igrants m oving in to th e USA is th e
visible ch aracteristic, groups o f people differ H ispanics, i.e. Span ish speakers. T hese
from on e a n o th er in religion, language, n a tio n ­ m igrants, m ain ly from M exico, C entral
ality and cu lture. T hese differences have led to A m erica and th e W est Indies, have b een id e n ­
th e id en tifica tio n o f m an y e th n ic groups. tified and grouped to g eth er by th eir co m m o n
W h at criteria do m em bers o f various eth n ic language and h ig h er fertility.
groups prefer to use w hen identifying them selves? ■ R eligion O ther e th n ic groups prefer to be
■ C o lo u r o f skin W hereas people o f 'European' linked w ith, and are easily recognised by, their
stock have lon g accepted being called 'w hite', religion, e.g. Jews, Sikhs, Hindus and M uslims.
it is only in m ore recen t years th at, in Britain, The 1991 UK census asked respond ents, for
people from Africa and th e C aribbean have th e first tim e, to id en tify them selves by e th n ic
group. Figure 1 3 .4 6 lists these groups, and gives
re 13.46 th e results o f th is q u estio n , w h ich was repeated
Percentage in
in th e 2 0 0 1 census. T h e increase in Asian or
z'oups in Britain Ethnic groups each group
- '".-91 and 2001 Asian B ritish was due to th eir h ig h b irth rates,
1991 2001 n o t to new im m igrants.
White 94.5 92.1 The m igrations o f d ifferent e th n ic groups
Mixed* - 1.1 have led to th e creation o f m u lticu ltu ral societies
in m an y parts o f th e world. In m ost cou ntries
Asian or Asian British
there is at least on e m in o rity group. W h ile such a
Indian 1.5 1.8
group m ay be able to live in peace and h arm on y
Pakistani 0.9 1.3 w ith th e m ajo rity group, u n fortu n ately it is m ore
Bangladeshi 0.3 0.5 likely th a t there will be prejudice and discrim i­
n a tio n leading to ten sio n s and co n flict. Four
Other Asian 0.4 0.4
m u lticu ltu ral cou ntries w ith differing levels o f
Black or black British
in teg ratio n and e th n ic ten sio n are: Sou th Africa
Black-Caribbean 0.9 1.0 (Places 4 5), th e USA and Brazil (Places 4 6 ),and
Black-African 0.4 0.8 Singapore (Places 4 7). Rem em ber, th o u g h , th at
Black Other 0.3 0.2
w hen we look at these cou n tries from a distance
we can rarely appreciate th e feelings generated
Chinese 0.3 0.4
by, or th e successes/failures of, d ifferent state or
Other 0.5 0.4 gov ern m en t policies.
Total non-white 5.5 7.9
* New category for 2001 census for people considering themselves to
belong to more than one group

Population 371
 South A frica: a m u ltic u ltu ra l society
Asians others 0 .8 % Asians Statutory apartheid regulated the lives of all groups,
. , 2 .5 % — \ but particularly of blacks, coloureds and Indians.
coloureds ^ ^ \ i coloureds \
8 .8 % 8 .9 % \ The Population Registration Act categorised the
nation into White, Black, Indian, Malay and Coloured
whites citizens. Further Acts made mixed marriages illegal,
whites 9 .1 % and prescribed segregation in restaurants, transport,
1970 17.5% b |acks 2008 schools, places of entertainment and political parties.
70.2% Africans The Group Areas Act stipulated where and with
79.5%
whom people could live; and the Black Authorities Act
total total
established black homelands.
22.46 47.85
million million
The outcom e of all this legislation was the unequal
division of rights and resources. This included the
Figure 13.47 As shown in Figure 13.47, the population of South
disproportionate division of land; the unequal
Ethnic groups in Africa doubled betw een 1970 and 2008 and the
distribution of funding for education; and the
South Africa, 1970 proportion of Africans (referred to as blacks in 1970)
and 2008 general denial of constitutional rights forth e
had increased considerably.
majority of South Africans.
The first inhabitants in this region were the San
Legalised racial discrimination was abolished in
(Bushmen) and Khoi-Khoin.Today's African majority
the early 1990s and the first free all-party elections,
originated as Bantu speakers who migrated into the
held in 1994, established a multi-party Governm ent
area many centuries ago, while the white population
of National Unity. This ended the existence o fth e
is descended from Dutch, German, French and British
hom elands and set out to im prove standards and
immigrants who arrived after the 1650s. Asians,
to reduce inequality in human rights, housing,
mainly from India, Malaysia and Indonesia, began
health care, education and land ownership. It
arriving after 1860.The coloured ethnic group result
was expected that the legacy of apartheid, some
from mixed relations between European settlers,
aspects of which are described below, would take
Asian migrants and indigenous peoples.
many years to eradicate.
A policy of segregation between black and white
originated in the first Dutch settlement, the Cape,
Housing
in 1652.This practice became customary, and was
The Group Areas Act (1950) ensured that white,
established legally as apartheid by the first National
coloured and Asian com m unities lived in different
Party government in 1948 when some members of
parts o fth e city (Figure 13.48) with the whites
the Party united to protect their language, culture
having the best residential areas (Figure 13.49).
and heritage from a perceived threat by the black
Buffer zones at least 100 m wide, often along main
majority and to assert their economic and political
roads or railway lines, were created to try to prevent
independence from British colonial domination.
contact betw een the three groups. Blacks were

Figure 13.48
b Johannesburg
Segregated residential
areas in two South
African cities

- main roads 0______ 10 km

commerce and industry blacks

372 Population high land Asian and coloured

whites some o fth e main shanty areas


l!* l!
gure 13.49
treated differently.Those w ho had lived in the city
•'ite residential area
since birth, or had worked for the same em ployer for
lapeTown
10 years, w ere m oved to new ly created townships
gure 13.50 (centre) on the urban fringes. The rem ainder were forced
aw ay from the cities to live on one o ften designated
: _5ing in the Soweto
.'.iship, Johannesburg reserves or homelands, where the environm ental
advantages were minimal (drought, poor soils and
a lack of raw m aterials).The hom elands took up
13 p ercen t of South Africa's land; held 72 p ercen t
of its total population; and produced 3 per cent
o fth e country's wealth. Most blacks living in the
hom elands were em ployed on one-year contracts,
to prevent them gaining urban residential rights.
Life in the townships was no less difficult. These
were built far away from white residential areas,
which meant that those blacks who found jobs
in the cities had long and expensive journeys to
work. Many ofth e original shanty towns have been
bulldozed and replaced by rows of identical, single­
storey houses (Figure 13.50).These have four rooms
and a backyard toilet, but only 20 per cent have
electricity. Corrugated-iron roofs make the buildings
hot in summer and cold in winter.The settlements
lack infrastructure and services and, due to rapid
population growth (high birth rates and in-migration),
are surrounded by vast shanty settlements (Figure
13.51).Two ofthe better-known townships are Soweto
in Johannesburg (an estimated 4 million inhabitants)
and Cape Flats in Cape Town.
Although the African National Congress (ANC) had
managed to build 700 000 new houses by 2000,
thousands of Africans were still living either in the
squalid poverty-stricken squatter cam ps which had
developed during the apartheid era, or in new, but
mainly one-roomed, low-cost housing which, their
owners claimed, were often poorly constructed and
too small for their large families.
Guguletu is part of Cape Flats (Figure 13.48). In the late
1990s, a typical shack was small, 3 m square, and built
from discarded wood and corrugated iron (compare
Figure 13.51). Doors and windows were held together
by nails or string while bricks and rope held down the
flat roof. Up to six people might live in a shack which
may have contained, as furniture, only a bed, some
seating and a table. Although electricity was often
available, most shacks lacked running water and
sewerage and up to six families were obliged to share
Figure 13.51
Shanty settlement,
Khayelitsha, Cape
Town
an outdoor toilet and had to queue each morning for
their daily water supply. Roads were rarely maintained.
However, since then several self-help schemes, most
run by women, have developed skills, created jobs and
improved the quality of some ofthe housing.
In 2004 people in Soweto celebrated the centenary
o fthe township. They were also celebrating its
transformation from a hopeless ghetto to both a
tourist attraction and a desirable suburb. Most ofthe
residents lived in new homes, although they were still
small. The relatively few remaining old shacks housed
the newest arrivals w ho tended to be migrants who
had fled the poverty of rural South Africa. Local
people have, in the last decade or so, developed a
sense of optimism for the future despite the fact that
unemploym ent in Soweto is about 40 per cent and
violent crime and AIDS are still major problems.
Employment
Under apartheid, blacks were severely restricted
in mobility and type of job. Male workers had to
return to their homeland in order to apply for a job.
If successful, they were given contracts to work in
'w hite'South Africa for 11 months, after which they
had to return to their homeland - a policy that
prevented migrant workers becoming perm anent
city residents. Throughout the 1990s unem ploym ent
remained the core cause of poverty and social
division. In 2007, unem ploym ent was still high
although since 1998 it had fallen for Africans from 38
to 27 per cent and for Asians from 11 to 9 per cent (it
had remained the same for coloureds and whites at
11 per cent and 4 per cent respectively). It was much
higher for wom en than it was for men.
Education
Under apartheid, schooling was free and
com pulsory for whites and Asians, but not for
coloureds or blacks - the 1996 census showed over
one-quarter of black children did not receive any
formal education. Despite attem pts by the ANC to
im prove school buildings and to encourage school
attendance, in 2007 most w hites attended private
schools, coloured children w ent to schools in the
suburbs and Africans to those in the townships.
W hite schools still have a better teacher: pupil ratio
and a higher proportion of qualified teachers.
Population 373
 31 The U SA and Brazil: m u ltic u ltu ra l societies
The USA
According to the US Census Bureau, the proportion
of'racial and ethnic minority groups'increased from
24 per cent in 1996 to 33 percent in 2006 (Figure
13.52). Since 45 per cent of under-5-year-olds in
the USA belong to this group, as these children
reach child-bearing age, together with the half to
one million immigrants peryearfrom Mexico, it is
predicted that by 2050 over half of the country's
population will be from racial and ethnic groups.
Already in more than 10 per cent of America's 3140
counties this sector o fth e population exceeds 50 per
cent o fth e population, especially with blacks in the
south-eastern states and Hispanics in the south-west.
Although Americans have long prided themselves
that their country is a'm elting pot'in which people of
all ethnic groups can be assimilated into one nation,
problems have, and do, exist.The indigenous Native
American population has been granted reservations
w here they can maintain their culture, but as these
are usually in areas lacking resources, many have
drifted to urban areas. Likewise many black African-
Americans, released from slavery after the Civil War,
could not find jobs on the land and so moved to
large urban areas where they congregated in inner-
city'ghettos'(Chicago Places 52, page 421; and Los
Angeles Case Study 15B). Hispanics are the largest
growing group, most arriving from Mexico and other
Spanish-speaking countries in Latin America.
Despite the US claim that it has an 'open-door'
policy, strong restrictive laws have frequently been
imposed as a barrier to immigration (Figure 13.30),
e.g. against Chinese in the 1920s, the Japanese
Native Americans 1.5%
Figure 13.52
Ethnic groups ip
Hispanics
the USA, 2006
14.0%
Source: US Bureau ofthe Census
374 Population
during the Second World War, Mexicans since the
1980s and, currently, illegal immigrants. Meanwhile
many immigrant groups still identify themselves
with their'ho m ecou ntry'and its culture, living and
marrying within their own ethnic or national group
(Puerto Ricans in New York) or congregating to form
ethnic areas (Chinatown, Japantown, Koreatown and
Filipinotown in Los Angeles).
Brazil
Most o fth e inhabitants of Brazil, having almost
every colour of skin conceivable, regard them selves
as Brazilians, and the country rightly claims that
it has little racial discrimination or prejudice.The
Census D epartm ent does, however, recognise the
following divisions based on colour:
1 W hites (Branco): anyone w ith a lighter-coloured
skin.This group includes m any o fth e European
migrants who cam e from Portugal (the original
colonists), Italy, Germ any and Spain.
2 M ulatto (Pardo): darker skins but with a discern­
ible trace of European ancestry. They are the
result of mixed marriages or'liaisons'betw een
the early Portuguese male settlers and either
fem ale Indians or African slaves.There is pride
rather than prejudice in coming from tw o
racial backgrounds.
3 Blacks (Preto ): those of pure African descent.
4 Orientals (Am arelo ): recent emigrants from
south and east Asia.
5 Amerindians: a continually declining, yet still
distinctive, indigenous group.
All these groups mix freely, especially at football
matches, in carnivals and on the beach. Yet
despite the lack of racial tension there tends to
be a correlation betw een colour and social status
and em ploym ent. Walking into a hotel on arrival
in Rio, it is apparent that the baggage-carriers are
black, hotel porters a slightly lighter colour and
the receptionists and cashiers white. In the army,
officers are usually w hite and the ranks black or
mulatto. Similarly, the lighter the colour of skin, the
more likely it is that a person will becom e a doctor,
bank manager, solicitor or airline pilot.
 Singapore: racial and religious harm ony
The three main races of Singapore have separate concentrations had been broken up and now almost
religions, yet each is completely tolerant ofthe 90 percent of Singaporeans live in modern high-rise
others, with most people even celebrating all three flats either within the city itself or in surrounding
'New Years'(Figure 13.53), Although by 1994 there new towns (Places 60, page 450). Posters promote
was still a Chinatown (restricted to ten streets - racial harmony (Figure 13.54) and all races, religions
Figure 15.48), Arab Street (four streets) and Little and income groups live together in what appears
India (six streets), the government had pulled to be a most successful attempt to create a national
down most ofthe old houses in those areas. Ethnic unity-a unity best seen on National Day.

1
1
------- To„ I (2 0 0 8 ) i
Figure 13.54
t
75.0% Chinese 13.6% Malay 8.7% Indian 0.2% European 2.5% others Racial harmony
f t poster, Singapore
from several indigenous originally brought early 19th century mixed

1
different population in by British as from north-west ancestry
orovinces in China

t
-nainly Buddhists
▼
mainly Muslims
labourers

f
mainly Hindus
Europe

*
mainly Christians
f
I
mixed
SEMANGa,

* f f f
dominate trade. service dominate trade, trade and semi-skilled
small businesses industries small businesses professional jobs
v d banks; involved and banks; involved jobs
■small family craft in small family craft
industries, also industries, also
- a n y low-skilled, many low-skilled,
ow-paid jobs low-paid jobs

ire 13.53

: and religious Daily migration: commuting
inSingapore
A co m m u ter is a p erson w h o lives in o n e c o m ­
m u n ity and works in an other. There are tw o
types o f com m u tin g ;
1 R u ra l-u rb a n , where th e com m uter lives in a
sm all tow n or village and travels to work in a
larger tow n or city. There is rarely m u ch m ove­
m en t in the reverse direction. The c o m m u te r
villag e is som etim es also referred to as a
d o rm ito ry v illag e or a su b u rb an ised
villag e (page 398).
2 In tra -u rb a n , w here people w ho live in the
suburbs travel in to th e city cen tre for work.
This category now inclu d es in h a b ita n ts o f
in n er-city areas w ho have to m ake th e reverse
jo u rn ey to edge-of-city indu strial estates and
regional shop p ing centres.
A c o m m u te r h in te rla n d , or u rb a n field, is th e
area surrounding a large tow n or city w here th e
w ork-force lives. Patterns o f co m m u tin g are
likely to develop where:
■ hinterlands are large, com m u nications are
fast and reliable (the London Underground),
public transport is highly developed and
private car ow nership is high (sou th­
east England)
■ m odern h ou sin g is a lon g way from eith er
th e older in n er-city indu strial areas or from
th e CBD (as in th e New Towns in central
Scotland )
■ th ere is a nearby city or con u rbation w ith
plenty o f jobs, especially in service indust­
ries (London)
a th ere is no rival u rban cen tre w ith in easy
reach (Plym outh)
■ salaries are h ig h so th a t com m u ters can afford
trav elling costs
■ p eople feel th a t th e ir need to live in a cleaner
en v iro n m en t outw eighs th e disadvantages of
tim e and cost o f travel to work (people living
in th e Peak D istrict and w orking in Sheffield
or M anchester)
■ h o u sin g costs are h ig h so th a t you nger
people are forced to look for cheaper h ou sin g
fu rther away from th eir work (as in sou th-east
England)
■ flexible w orking hou rs allow people to travel
during n o n -ru sh -h o u r tim es
■ th e m ore elderly m em bers o f th e w orkforce
bu y hom es in th e co u n try or near to th e
coast and com m u te u n til th ey retire (the
Sussex coast)
■ th ere have b een severe jo b losses w h ich force
people to look for w ork in oth er areas/towns
(som e o f the in h a b ita n ts o f Cleveland w ork
in sou th-east England).

Population 375
 Optimum, over- and under­
population
Optimum population
The o p tim u m p o p u latio n of an area is a
theoretical state in w hich th e n um ber o f people,
w hen working w ith all th e available resources,
will produce the high est per capita econ om ic
return, i.e. th e highest standard o f living and
quality o f life. If th e size o f th e population
increases or decreases from th e optim um , th e
output per capita and standard o f living will fall.
This con cep t is o f a dynam ic situation changing
w ith tim e as tech n olog y im proves, as population
totals and structure change (age and sex ratios),
trade opportunities alter, and as new raw m ater­
ials are discovered to replace old ones w h ich are
exhausted or w hose values change over a period
o f tim e.
T h e s ta n d a rd o f liv in g o f an individual or
p o p u latio n is determ ined by th e in te ra ctio n
b etw een physical and h u m a n resources and can
be expressed in th e fo llow in g form ula:
Natural minerals,
energy, x Technology
resources
Standard soils, etc.
of living Population
O v e r p o p u la tio n
O verpopulation occurs w h en th ere are to o m an y
people relative to th e resources and te ch n o lo g y
locally available to m a in ta in an 'ad equ ate'
standard o f living. Bangladesh, E th iop ia and
parts o f C h ina, Brazil and Ind ia are o fte n said
to be overpopulated as th e y have in su fficien t
food, m inerals and energy resources to sustain
th eir p o p u latio ns. T h ey suffer from localised
natural disasters such as d rou ght and fam in e;
and are characterised b y low in com es, poverty,
poor living co n d itio n s and o ften a h ig h level of
em ig ratio n. In th e case o f B angladesh (Places 48),
w here th e p o p u latio n den sity increased from
2 8 2 people per km 2 in 1 9 5 0 , to 7 0 4 in 1 9 8 5 , and
to 1 0 6 2 in 2 0 0 8 , it is easier to appreciate th e
problem o f 'to o m an y p eop le' th a n in th e case of
th e n orth -east o f Brazil w here th e d en sity is less
th a n 2 persons per k m 2 (Places 38, page 3 4 7 ).
Underpopulation
U n d erp o p u lation occurs w h en there are far m ore
resources in an area, e.g. o f food, energy and
m inerals, th a n can be used b y th e n u m ber of
376 Population
people living there. C anada, w ith a to tal
po p u latio n o f 33 m illio n in 2 0 0 8 , could th eo reti­
cally double its p o p u latio n and still m ain tain
its standard o f living (Places 4 8 ). C o u n tries like
C anada and Australia can exp ort th e ir surplus
food, energy and m in eral resources, have high
in com es, good living co n d itio n s, and h ig h levels
o f te ch n o lo g y and im m ig ratio n . It is probable
th a t standards o f liv in g w ould rise, th rou gh
increased p ro d u ction and exp lo ita tio n of
resources, if p o p u latio n were to increase.
However, care is needed w h en m aking co m ­
parisons o n a global scale.
1 T h ere d oes n o t seem to be a n y d irect c o r ­
re la tio n b etw ee n p o p u la tio n d e n sity and
ov er-/ u n d erp o p u latio n :
• n o rth -ea st Brazil is consid ered to be 'over-
populated' w ith 2 people per km 2
• C alifornia, despite water problem s and pol­
lu tion , is perceived to be 'u nd erp opu lated ’
w ith over 6 0 0 persons per km 2.
2 Sim ilarly, p o p u latio n d en sity is n o t n e ces­
sarily related to gross d om estic product (G D r
per capita:
• th e N etherland s and G erm an y b o th have
a h ig h GDP per capita and a high popu­
la tio n density
• C anada and Australia have a h ig h GDP
per capita and a low p o p u latio n density
• B angladesh and Puerto Rico have a low
GDP per cap ita and a h ig h p o p u latio n
density
• Sudan and B olivia have a low GDP per
capita and low p o p u latio n density.
T he b a la n ce o f p o p u latio n and resources w ithin
a co u n try m ay also be un ev en . For exam p le:
■ a cou ntry m ay have a population th at is too
great for one resource such as energy, yet too
small to use fully a second, such as food supply,
e.g. Saudi Arabia
■ som e parts of a cou ntry m ay be well off, e.g.
south-east Brazil, w hile others m ay be rela­
tively poor, e.g. north-east Brazil.
T h e relatio n sh ip s b etw een p o p u latio n and
resources are h ig h ly com p lex and th e term s
'o v erp o p u latio n ' and 'u n d erp o p u latio n ' m ust
th erefore be used w ith extrem e care.
T h e latest term to be introd u ced to try to
illustrate th e relatio n sh ip b etw een th e increase
in th e w orld's p o p u latio n and its effect o n the
Earth's resources is th e e c o lo g ic a l fo o tp r in t.
T his is exp lain ed on page 3 7 9.
 Bangladesh and C anada: overpopulation and
underpopulation
Is Bangladesh overpopulated?
Bangladesh, with 153.5 million inhabitants (2008), has
one ofthe world's highest population densities with
1062 person per km2 (Figure 13.55). It has a high, but
falling, birth rate (49 per 1000 in 1970,29 per 1000
in 2008) and fertility rate (7 per wom an in 1970,3 in
2008) together with a falling death rate (28 per 1000
in 1970,8 per 1000 in 2008).This led to a high and
accelerating natural increase from 1.6 percent in 1950
to 2.7 percent in 1990 but this fell back to 2.0 percent
in 2008 (page 349). Infant mortality is also falling, but
is still very high (140 per 1000 in 1970,57 in 2008),
and life expectancy is increasing (45 years in 1970,63
in 2008). In 2008,37 per cent ofthe population was
under 15 years of age but only 3.5 per cent were over
65.The GDP of US$ 1300 is very low, and an estimated
-cure 13.55
45 per cent are living in poverty (defined by the UN as
- : i Dopulation
living on under US$1 a day).
:yin Bangladesh
Figure 13.56
Low population density
in Canada
Is Canada underpopulated?
Canada, with 33.2 million inhabitants (2008), has
one o fth e world's lowest population densities with
just over 3 persons per km2 (Figure 13.56). It has
a low birth rate (16 per 1000 in 1970,10 in 2008),
a low fertility rate (2.2 per wom an in 1970,1.6 in
2008), a low death rate (7 per 1000 in both 1970
and 2008) and a low infant m ortality rate (16 per
1000 in 1970, 5 in 2008) although life expectancy
continues to increase (74 years in 1970,81 years in
2008).Together, these give an extremely low natural
increase (1.0 per cent in 1970,0.8 per cent in 2008).
In 2008, only 18 per cent o fth e population was
under 15 years of age but 15 per cent were over 65.
The GDP of US$ 38400 is very high, and less than
As most o fth e country is a flat delta, it is prone to
frequent and severe flooding.This results from
eitherflooding by the Ganges and Brahmaputra
rivers, mainly due to the monsoon rains and to
deforestation in the Himalayas, or from tropical
cyclones moving up the Bay of Bengal (Places 19,
page 148; Places 31, page 238). Most Bangladeshis
are farmers (63 per cent) who live in rural
communities (76 per cent urban dwellers).There is
a shortage of industry, services and raw materials (it
has no energy or mineral resources of note) and the
transport network is lim ited.The low level of literacy
(54 per cent male, 32 per cent female) has restricted
internal innovation and a lack of capital has meant
that the country can ill afford to buy overseas
technical skills (its trade is valued at US$ 177 per
person per year). In 2007 Bangladesh received
US$ 9.31 per person in international aid.
10 per cent are said to be living in poverty (that is by
Canada's standard, not that o fth e UN which would
be negligible).
Natural disasters, apart from those associated with
extreme cold, are rare. Relatively few Canadians are
farmers (2 per cent - Places 70, page 486) or live in
rural areas: 80 per cent are urban dwellers. Canada
has developed industries, services and an efficient
transport network, and has utilised its vast energy
supplies and mineral resources.The high level of
literacy (99 per cent) and national wealth have
enabled the country to develop its own technology
and to im port modern innovations (its trade is
valued at US$ 24954 per person per year). In 2007
Canada gave US$ 93 per person in international aid.
Population 377
 80 80

_c 70 70

b eyond this point

M althus dem onstrated th a t any rise in popula­
o 60 60
cn u- a tim e of fam in e? tion, however small, would m ean th at eventually
a food supply
o 50 50 population would exceed increases in food supply.
a3 (arithm etic
=3 40 40 This is show n in Figure 13.57, where the exp onen­
growth)
O tial curve intersects th e arithm etic curve. Malthus
U. V ' 1
30 population increase 30
o therefore suggested th a t after five years, the ratio of
co
20
L (geometric or i 20
CU
population to food supply would increase to 16:5,
QJ I exponential growth)
10 10 and after six years to 32:6. He suggested that once a
0 0 ceiling had been reached, further growth in popula­
3 4 5 tion would be curbed by negative (preventive) or by
tim e periods
positive checks.
P rev en tiv e (or n eg ativ e) ch eck s were
Figure 13.57
Theories relating to world m ethods o f lim itin g p opulation grow th and
Relationships
between population
population and food supply included ab stinence from , or a p o stp onem ent
of, m arriage w h ich would lower th e fertility rate.
growth and food Malthus M althus noted a correlation betw een w heat prices
supply (after Malthus)
Thom as M althus was a British dem ographer who and m arriage rates (rem em ber th a t this was the
believed that there was a finite optim um popula­ late 1 8 th century): as food becam e m ore exp en ­
tion size in relation to food supply and th at an sive, fewer people got married.
increase in population beyond that p oint would Positive checks were ways in w hich the
lead to a decline in living standards and to 'war, population would be reduced in size by such events
fam ine and disease'. He published his views in 1798 as a fam ine, disease, war and natural disasters, all of
and although, fortunately, m any o f his pessimistic w hich would increase th e m ortality rate and reduce
predictions have n o t com e to pass, they form an life expectancy.
interesting theory and provide a possible warning
for the future. Indeed, his doom sday theory was T h e c a rry in g c a p acity o fth e e n v iro n m e n t
resurrected in 2 0 0 7 , bu t due to rising global food The concept o f a population ceiling, first sug­
prices rather than to food shortages. His theory was gested by Malthus, is of a saturation level where
based on two principles. the population equals the carrying capacity of the
Figure 13.58 1 Hum an population, if unchecked, grows at a local environm ent. The carry in g cap acity is the
Three models
g eom etric or exp o n en tial rate, i.e. largest population o f humans/animals/plants tha:
illustrating the 1 -> 2 -> 4 -> 8 -> 16 - » 3 2 , etc. a particular area/environment/ecosystem can carrv
relationships 2 Food supply, at best, only increases at an or support.
between an a rith m e tic rate, i.e. 1 —> 2 —> 3 —>4 -> 5 -> 6, Three models portray w hat m ight happen as a
exponentially
etc. Malthus considered th at this m ust be so population, growing exponentially, approaches the
growing population
and an environment
because yields from a given field could n ot go carrying capacity o f the land (Figure 13.58).
with a limited on increasing for ever, and the am ount of land
carrying capacity available is finite.

a instantaneous adjustment b gradual adjustment: the'S'curve c fluctuating, gradual adjustment:

the 'J'curve
t k overshoot fluctuations
\
\ 'n
p opulation
a; carrying capacity /
rt3 (saturation level) /
<D 1 f\ r\
U
c
\
c
o
sudden
13 population
CL
O
Q. check

/ exponential
g ro w th curve

tim e -----►

The rate of increase may be unchanged until the ceiling
is reached, at which point the increase drops to zero.
This highly unlikely situation is unsupported by evi­
dence from either human or animal populations.
More realistically, the population increase begins
to taper off as the carrying capacity is approached,
and then to level off when the ceiling is reached. It
is claimed that populations which are large in size,
have long lives and low fertility rates, conform to
this'S'curve pattern.
Here the rapid rise in population overshoots the carrying
capacity, resulting in a sudden check - e.g. famine and
reduced birth rates. After an initial dramatic fall, the popula­
tion recovers and fluctuates, then settles down at the carryir*
capacity.This'J'curve is more applicable to populations th e :;
small in number, and have short lives and high fertility leve i
 Links between population
growth, use of resources and
economic development
An in te rn a tio n a l team , know n collectiv ely as the
C lu b o f R o m e, p red icted in 1 9 7 2 , th rou g h th e
use o f com puters, th a t if th e th e n rapid trend
in p o p u latio n grow th and resource u tilisation
con tin u ed , th e n a sudden d eclin e in e co n o m ic
grow th w ould occu r in th e n e x t century. Their
suggested plans for global equ ilibrium , few of
w h ich have been im p lem en ted , included:
■ th e stab ilisation o f p o p u latio n grow th
and th e use o f resources
■ an em phasis o n food produ ction and
con serv atio n .
At th e W orld P op u lation C o n feren ce in M exico
C ity in 1 9 8 4 , th e em phasis was put o n taking
positive steps to reduce p o p u latio n grow th,
largely th rou g h fam ily p la n n in g program m es.
The general consensus view articulated th e need
for p o p u latio n strategies in in teg ratio n w ith
o th er d ev elop m en t strategies. By 2 0 0 5 , in te rn a ­
tio n al org an isations were suggesting th a t h ig h
p o p u latio n grow th rates were a sym ptom o f
poverty, n o t th e cause o f it. Th ey claim ed th a t
all th e spending on b irth co n tro l m easures and
fam ily p la n n in g program m es were h av in g little
effect in places w here poverty rem ained th e key
in flu en ce o n people's everyday lives.
Ecological footprint
hfure 13.59
” h -.orld's ecological T he ecolog ical fo o tp rin t is a resource m an ag e­
c corint m e n t to o l th a t aim s to m easure th e im p act of
: -.n a n demand and
people's lifestyles up on p lan et Earth. It calculates
r s isrth's biocapacity
how m u ch productive land and sea a h u m an
: 1: _ntries with
:-eatest global p o p u latio n needs to generate th e resources
• : gical deficit and it consu m es in order to provide all th e food,
I T ' US energy, w ater and raw m aterials required in
people's everyday lives. It also calculates how
lo n g it takes to absorb and render harm less th e
w aste th a t h u m a n ity creates or for th e ecological
b alan ce to renew itself.
Figure 1 3 .5 9 a show s how th e ratio betw een
th e w orld's d em and and th e world's b io ca p a city
has chan ged over tim e. Expressed in term s of
'n u m b e r o f p la n e t E a rth s ', th e b io cap acity is
always 1 (th e h o rizo n tal lin e). The graph shows
th a t w hereas in n e t term s h u m a n ity o n ly used
ab ou t h a lf th e planet's b iocap acity in 1961,
b y 2 0 0 3 th is had increased to 1.25 tim es. The
presen t global ecolog ical d eficit o f 0 .2 5 repre­
sents th e world's e c o lo g ic a l o v e rsh o o t. This
m eans th a t as h u m an ity 's ecolog ical fo o tp rin t is
2 5 per ce n t m ore th a n th e p lan et can regenerate,
it now takes one year and th ree m o n th s for th e
E arth to replace w h at people use and th e waste
th ey create in a single year. By m easuring th e
ecolog ical fo o tp rin t o f a p o p u latio n (a person, a
city, a country, and even all h u m an ity ) we can
assess our ov ersh oot and should, therefore, be
able to m anage th e E a rth ’s ecolog ical resources
m ore carefully.
W h ile th e term 'eco lo g ical fo o tp rin t' is
now b ein g m ore w idely used and understood ,
m eth o d s o f m easuring it still vary, alth ou g h
som e ca lcu la tio n standards are now em erging.
Figure 1 3 .5 9 b lists th e cou n tries w ith th e greatest
global ecolog ical surplus and th e greatest eco ­
logical d eficit. In 2 0 0 3 , th e m o st recen t year for
data to be available, th e to ta l b io ca p a city for
th e world was 2 .2 6 global ha/person. This figure
was reached by adding to g eth er th e global ha/
person for ea ch o f th e follow ing fo otp rin ts: crop ­
land 0 .4 9 , grazing land 0 .1 5 , forest 0 .2 3 , fish in g
grounds 0 .1 5 , carbon 1 .0 7 (page 6 3 8 ), nu clear
0 .0 9 and built-up land 0 .0 8 .

Global ecological footprint

Gabon 17.8 UAE - 11.0

Bolivia 13.7 Kuwait -7.0

New Zealand 9.0 USA -4.8
Mongolia 8.7 Belgium -4.4
Brazil 7.8 Israel -4.2
Congo 7.2 UK -4.0
Canada 6.9 Saudi Arabia -3.7
Australia 5.9 Japan -3.6
Other selected countries: Germany -2.4, China -0.9, India -0.4, Kenya
and Bangladesh -0.2, Ghana +0.3, Malaysia +1.5, Korea, Sweden and
Spain each +3.5

Population 379
 Population in China

China had, in mid-2008, an estimated popu­
lation of 1.33 billion, which was 20 percent
ofthe world's total. As in other countries, this
population was far from evenly distributed
(Figure 13.1), with 95 per cent living on only
40 per cent ofthe total land area (Figure
13.60). A population density map (Figure
13.61) shows that the highest densities are
either in coastal provinces or in the middle
and lowerYangtze Basin and the lowest in
the mountains and deserts ofthe north and
west. Despite China's large population, the
country does not have a particularly high
density - only 138 per km2 (half that ofthe
UK's 273 per km2).

population d ensity per km 2

0 1000 km
under 20 j [ 200-299
_ 20-99 p~~l 300-399

] ] 100-199 | I over 399

Figure 13.61

Population density by
province, 2008

Figure 13.62 shows the demographic

cycle for China since the formation ofthe
People's Republic in 1950; and Figure 13.63
China's age structure based on estimates
for mid-2007.
The high birth rate ofth e 1950s was a
response to the state philosophy that'a
large population gives a strong nation',
and people were encouraged to have as
many children as possible. At the same
time, death rates were falling, mainly due to O
improved food supplies and medical care.
The period between 1959 and 1961 coin­
cided with the'Great Leap Forward'. It was a
time when industrial production had to be
increased at all costs, and little attention was
paid to farming (Places 63, page 468).The
result was a catastrophic famine in which
an estimated 20 million people died; infant
mortality rates rose and birth rates fell.
During the 1960s, attempts to control
population growth were thwarted by the
Cultural Revolution. Every three years, China's
population increased by 55 million - equal to
year
the UK's total population at that time.

380 Population
 Population in China

State family planning programmes were Figure 13.63

ag e group total population (2007): 1321 million
ntroduced in the 1970s and by 1975 the 90+ Age structure
average family size had fallen to three chil­ 85-89 males 51 .4 6% fem ales 48.54% of Chinese
dren.The state, considering this to be still
80-84 population,
75-79 mid-2007
:d o hig h , began an advertising campaign 70-74
65-69
■"or wan-xi-shao - 'later, longer, fewer' (iater
60-64
carriages, longer gaps and fewer children), 55-59
loncern grew with the realisation that 50-54
'Great Leap Forw ard'
45-49
.ith millions of couples about to enter 40-44
Cultural Revolution
■~e child-bearing a g e group, the country's 35-39
30-34
aopulation could double within 50 years. A one-chNd policy
25-29
nese demographer, on little supportive 20-24
15-19
e . "dence, calculated that China's optimum
10-14:
: roulation was 700 million (at that time it 5-9
a as already almost 1000 million) and rec- 0-4

: -m ended that the state aimed to reduce

10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
percentag e of total population
oopulation to that figure by 2080.To
:~ieve this, theTFR (page 357) would have
:: oe reduced to a maximum of 1.5.
Figure 13.64
n 1979 the state decided to 'play safe'and
■ voduced a rigorous carrot-and-stick'one- One-child family,
Kunming,Yunnan
- d policy'(i.e.toachieveaTFRof 1.0).The
::-"ot'for having only one child included
ee education, priority housing and family
e -efits, while the 'stick'imposed after the
: ~h of a second child included the loss of
-ase benefits, heavy fines and even forced
:: "ions and threats of sterilisation. The
b ■' ageable age was raised and couples
• : :o apply for permission to marry and,
to have a child.The state did, however,
- z n to give education on family plan-

■ z and in a relatively short time over 80

ler cent of married wom en had access to
:: -yaception - no mean achievement in
: v of China's then lack of economic devel-
~ent, its huge size and its mainly rural
■: j ation. Even so, reports coming out of
t iDuntry did refertofemale infanticide.
~ -r apparently rigid state controlled
rvld policy, which has proved suc-
:r j l if the sole aim was to limit popula-
th e expanding urban areas, were th e Those Han w ho lived, often in large
a 'o w th , did, h o w e v e r, have many
most severely restricted to one child numbers, in rural areas where boys
I :a:tions and loopholes. During 1999, the
(Figure 13.64) unless their firstborn was were allegedly needed to help work on
— e n t author was told, duringa month in
mentally or physically handicapped, or the farm (the author saw as many girls
■ a 'esearching for the previous edition
died when young. working in the fields as he did boys)
— s book, that the'one-child policy was
• Minority groups, of whom there are 56 were allowed a second child if the
r zomplicated'and a more recent jo in t
recognised 'minority nationalities'and firstborn was a girl (if the second was
nr ase-American report has claimed that
whose combined population is now also a girl, then that was that!).
iv aoout 63 per cent ofthe total popula-
104 million or 8 percent of China's total, The Han w ho lived in rural areas and
,ere ever subject to its regulations.The
live mainly in the outlying provinces. who had a second child were often
: cations, exceptions and loopholes
They were allowed two children allowed to keep it on payment of a fine.
■ e . :e d fr o m particular circumstances:
(Figure 13.66) or, if they lived in very The scale of these fines varied between
I• ~~e Han, w ho form the ethnic majority
remote areas where officials were few provinces and often depended on the
per cent ofth e total population)
in number, possibly up to four children. degree of honesty of local officials.
and were the more likely to live in

Population 381
 Population in China

• People w o rk in g fo r state firm s could tw o 'o n ly 'c h ild re n m arried th e y w ere

be m ade re d u n d a n t o n th e b irth o f a
second child, un like th o se w h o w'ere
e m p lo ye d by tra n sn a tio n a l (overseas)
co rp oration s.
• In th e e v e n t o f tw in s , th e state paid th e
extra costs.
O ve r a p erio d o f tim e :
• as m o re m arried couples received a
b e tte r ed u catio n, fe w e r began to apply
even fo r a sing le child
• w h e n th e first ch ild re n o f o n e -c h ild
fa m ilie s reached m arriag eab le age
(w o m e n in 2000, m en in 2002) th e n if
a llo w e d tw o child ren.
In th e au tho r's experience, m o st people,
especially th o se living in urban areas, seem
to have accepted th e necessity o fth e
p olicy.Those in th e ir early tw e n tie s, w h o
w e re th e first g e n e ra tio n to b e 'o n ly 'c h il­
dren, a d m itte d th a t w h ile th e y w o u ld have
iked to have had a b ro th e r o r sister, th e y
a c kno w le d g e d th a t th e p olicy had helped
th e ir fa m ily and th e local c o m m u n ity raise
th e ir standard o f living. Figure 13.65 gives
som e o fth e pros and cons o fth e o n e -c h ild
p olicy view ed fro m a 2008 perspective.

Benefits Problems

• The birth rate fell from 44 per 1000 in 1950 to 14 in •The birth rate is now lower than the replacement rate
2008, and the TFR from 6 to 1.5 in the same period (page 358).
(Figure 13.68). • There is a rapidly ageing population with an increasing
• In the first 20 years, only 70 million children, instead of number of over 60s (page 383) who are dependent Even so, th e state announced in 2008 th a tt'e
300 million, were born. on fewer people in the working/productive age group one-child policy w ould be likely to rem ain
• It was claimed in 2008 that China's population was 400 (page 354). in place for at least an oth er decade (Figure
million less than it would have been without the policy • China's rapid industrialisation is threatened by a 13.67).
(the present population of North America is only 338 shortage of workers for its factories. W hereas China's m ajor dem ographic
million). • There is a gender imbalance (page 383) due to, in the concern in th e 1970s and 1980s was popula­
• There is far less pressure on land, water, energy and early days ofthe policy, female infanticide; abortion tio n g row th, by th e beginning o fth e 21st
other resources. of female foetuses is now illegal. In 2005 the male to century it had becom e th a t o f an ageing
• There has been a greater increase in people's standard female ratio was 118:100. population (Figure 13.69) resulting from an
of living and, according to the UN, an estimated 120 • There is international criticism on grounds of human increase in life expectancy. Figure 13.70 she .vs
million people have been lifted out of absolute poverty. rights. th a t a person born in 2008 can expect to live j
33 years longer than one born in 1950 (men
Figure 13.65 71.4 years, w o m e n 75.2 years). W hile the
Conseguences by 2008
ofthe one-child policy China sticking with ‘one-child’ policy problem o f ageing is increasingly affecting
m any developed countries, it is m ore acute i
China than elsew here.This is partly due t o r -
Although China’s ‘one-child’ policy and family planning policies
distortions created by th e baby b oom e n c o j
have softened over the years, the Minister for the National
aged under C hairm an M ao in the 1950s a^ :
Population and Family Planning Commission announced that the
country’s 'one-child-per-couple policy’ would not change for at
1960s (notice the 3 5 -5 4 age groups in C hv
least another decade until the present surge in birth rate subsides. age structure in Figure 13.63) and partly to
This refuted speculation that officials were contemplating th e recent im p rovem ents in health care.
adjustments to compensate for mounting uneven demographic Predictions fo r th e p rop ortion o f those a g e :
distributions in age and gender. The Minister said that 200 million over 60 are:
people would still be entering child-bearing age in the next ten 1990 4 per cent (of total population
years and that prematurely abandoning the one-child policy could 2008 11 per cent (total o f 143 m illion)
add unwanted volatility to birth rates. With such a large population
Figure 13.67 2020 16 p ercent
base [Figure 13.63], this could lead to serious problems and extra
Adapted from China 2050 30 p ercen t (a b o u t430 m illion,.
pressure on social and economic development.
Daily, March 2008 This m eans th a t th e ratio o f workers to e lc e '7
dependants w ill fall considerably fro m 10:'
As show n in Figure 13.65, China is faced p lanning p rogram m es th a t allo w a w id e in 2008 to 3:1 by 2030 (Figure 13.68). A lso,ir
w ith an im balance o f people in the w orking choice o f co ntrace p tion types tim e, m ore single children w ill h a vetosup c : 1
age and ageing groups, as w ell as betw een • relaxed penalties on those having larger up to tw o parents and four grandparents - : ~e
th e tw o genders. In th e last fe w years, som e fam ilies so-called 4-2-1 pattern.This pattern is m ore |
provincial authorities, notably Beijing w here • allow ed m ore exceptions to th e on e- c o m m o n in rural areas, w here grandparent;
th e replacem ent rate is no t being m et, have: child rule, e.g to Sichuan fam ilies w h o still tend to live, as th e y always have d on e,’.1', cr
• abolished quotas fo r child births and lost th e ir children in th e earthquake the fam ily - a situation th a t is less c o m m o r
replaced th e m w ith vo lu n ta ry fa m ily (Places 2, page 11). large urban areas.

382 Population
 Figure 13.68
Population in China jjH s H S S H D
Predicted population growth based
on different total fertility rates

ACTUAL PRED ICTED

YEA R PO PULA TIO N YEAR PO PULA TIO N YEAR PO PULA TIO N

1980 1000 million 2040 1510 million 2040- 1060 million

male female

female female

a TFR = 3.0 bTFR = 2.0 cTFR= 1.0

Figure 13.70

Increase in life
expectancy,
1950-2008

Figure 13.69

Ageing Naxi women,

Lijiang,Yunnan

~ne World Bankclaims that China will have
;ld-age burden of a high-income country
:h as Japan with only the financial resources
=middle-income economy to shoulder it.
~hese changes will, according to the
■ Business Handbook (2008), 'have a
Bssive impact on Chinese society and
'equire urgent reform ofthe provision
:ensions, healthcare and benefits. At
present, there is no pension scheme at all
for the majority ofthe population, espe­
cially in rural areas, although several pilot
schemes have been introduced into cities
across the country'. As those same words
were expressed in the 1999 edition, it would
appear that little progress has been made.
The imbalance between gender, resulting
from the traditional preference for boys, is
another concern. A recent survey suggests
that there are up to 118 newborn Chinese
boys to every 100 girls. Statistics, which prob­
ably underestimate the ratio, suggest that
99 cities across China have a ratio even in
excess of 125:100.These ratios compare with a
world average of 105 male births to every 100
female births and a UN recommended ratio
of 107:100.

Further reference
k
3 ...e y , A. (2005) M aking Population ' 2001 Census UK: U nited N ations (UN):
eography, Hodder Arnold. www.statistics.gov.uk/Census2001 / www.un.org/Pubs/CyberSchoolBus/
■vning, K. (2002) 'Shanty towns: A population_data.asp index.htm l
: :>uth African case study', Geography Ageing population: www.unfpa.org/
: M ew Vol 15 No 5 (May). www.un.org/esa/population/ UN High Com m issioner for Refugees:
_:k, J. and Craven, A. (2006) 'Growing publications/W PA2007/wpp2007.htm www.unhcr.ch/
;:ev ', Geography Review Vol 20 No 2 C hina Population In form ation and UN Population Division, pop ulation
November). Research Center: reports:
[ '.nelly, M. (2008) Fatal M isconception: www.cpirc.org.cn/en/eindex.htm http://esa.un.org/unpp/index.asp
~ ie struggle to control world population, CIA W orld Fact Book: UN Population Division, searchable
-arvard University Press. www.cia.gov/library/publications/ database:
I i - 1, T. et al. (2006) 'Rural-urban migra- the-world-factbook/
www.un.org/esa/population/unpop.
r. Dn in China', Geography Review Vol 19 Population: htm
No 5 (May). www.popact.org US Census Bureau, In tern ation al
'.nston, R. and Poulsen, M. (2007) www.populationconcern.org.uk Program s Center:
-on d on ’s changing ethnic Geography', Population Reference Bureau: www.census.gov/ipc/www/
ography Review Vol 21 No 1 www.prb.org/Datafinder.aspx W orld Bank:
:eptem ber). www.worldbank.org/data&Statistics
U nion of C oncerned Scientists (UCS),
: rev, D. (2006) 'People on the move: p o p u latio n /en v iron m en t:
tfugees and asylum seekers', Geography www.ucsusa.org/
view Vol 19 No 5 (May).

Population 383
 Questions & Activities

Activities
W hat do the following terms mean:
a Average number of children per Moroccan women according to Figure13 72
total fertility rate (2 marks) age and educational level, 1994
natural increase of population (2 marks) Age group No education Primary Secondary Higher
ill annual growth rate of population? (2 marks) 2 0 -24 1.6 1.1 0.7 0.5
b Study Figure 13.11 on page 351. W h at statistical 2 5 -29 2.7 1.7 1.3 0.9
change marks the m ove from:
3 0 -3 4 3.9 2.6 1.9 1.3
Stage A (high, fluctuating) to Stage B (early expanding)
Stage B to Stage C (late expanding) 3 5-39 5.1 3.4 2.4 2.2

iii Stage C to Stage D (low, fluctuating)? (3 marks) 4 0 -4 4 6.1 4.2 3.2 2.7
c Explain how social and/or economic changes could have 4 5 -4 9 6.7 4.9 3.4 2.5
brought about each ofthe moves described in b. (lOmarks)
b Fertility indices (average number of children born to each woman) of Maghreb
d Suggest how the total population o fth e UK might change women in country of origin and country of residence*
over the next 50 years.
Algerian women in Moroccan women in Tunisian women in
Give reasons for your suggestions. (6 marks)
Year Algeria France Morocco France Tunisia France
Study the two population pyramids in Figure 13.71.
1977 7.47 4.73 5.93 5.75 5.84 5.05
a i W hat do you understand by the term'dependency ratio'?
(2 marks) 1981 6.39 4.35 5.92 5.84 5.19 -
ii Suggest, with reasons, w hat stage o fth e dem ographic 1985 6.24 4.24 - 4.47 4.53 4.67
transition is represented by each o fth e pyramids.
1987 5.29 3.95 4.46 4.09 4.10 4.49
(4 marks)
b Choose one country that has a population structure 1989 4.72 3.66 3.95 3.71 3.40 4.30
similar to the one shown in pyramid A. 1991 3.35 - 3.25 3.34 3.88
i Suggest tw o problem s that are likely to arise in that 1992 3.27 3.28 2.99 3.36 3.56
country as a consequence o fth e large proportion
o fth e population in the 0-15 age group. (4 marks) * 'The Maghreb1is the western part of North Africa. It was colonised by France,
ii How is the country attem pting to m anage these gaining independence in the 1950s and 1960s. These countries still have close ties
problem s? (7 marks) with France, and there has been much migration from Maghreb to France.
c Choose one country that has a population structure b i Describe the changes to the fertility indices of women
sim ilarto that shown in pyramid B.
from the Maghreb who have migrated to France.
Describe tw o problems that might arise in future as a (3 mar>z
consequence ofthe ageing population structure, and
ii Suggest reasons for these changes. (4mar<z
suggest how these problems might be managed. (8 marks)
iii Suggest how the em igration from the M aghreb may
Studythe two tables of data in Figure 13.72. have affected the fertility rate of w om en w ho have
remained in those countries. (5 m arts'
a i Describe how the education of wom en has affected
fertility rates in Morocco. (3 marks) c W h at lessons can be learned from these figures by
developm ent workers in countries suffering from
ii Suggest reasons for the changes you have described.
pressure caused by rapidly increasing population?
(4 marks)
(6 m ar-jf
male female male female
4 a W hat do you understand by:
i birth rate (1 m art f
Figure 13.71
ii life expectancy (1 man$
65 years
Population iii overpopulation? ( 2 martof
pyramids
b Figure 13.73 illustrates Malthus's vie w o fth e relationsh :
betw een population and food supply in a typical co u n ts
or region.
i Describe w h at the diagram shows. (2m ar>s'

13 years ii Explain w hat Malthus thought w ould be the

consequences o fth e changes shown in the model.
(2m ar‘ . i
6 4 2 2 4 6 6 4 2 2 4 6
percentage of total population percentage of total population

384 Population
 Figure 13.73
Malthus's view of
population and
food supply
Suggest w h y Malthus's predictions did not come true
in England following publication of his ideas in the
early 18th century. (4marks)
Describe the views of Boserup on the balance between
population and resources, and explain how these are
different from the views of Malthus. (5 marks)
Exam practice: basic structured questions
•#®«®@®®@«®®®@®®®®®®@#®®®®»®@®®®»@®®®®#®®®®®®@®®®®®®®@®®®®®@®@@®@®#®( i s»®®®®®®®®®®®®®@®@
5 a Study the map of Brazil's population distribution (Figure 13.5
on page 347).
i Describe the distribution of areas of dense population.
(2 marks)
ii The area marked 1B is the tropical rainforest. Suggest
w hy this area, or any other area of tropical rainforest that
you have studied, has a very sparse population. (6 marks)
b Study the map of population density in London (Figure 13.7
on page 348).
i Describe the distribution of population shown on this map,
and explain w hy this pattern has developed. (7 marks)
ii During the 20th century there was a large m ovem ent of
people out from central London into the suburbs and
beyond. Explain w h y people wished to move, and how
changing technology allowed them to make the move.
(lOm arks)
Exam practice: structured questions
Study Figure 13.73 above.
a Outline the theory developed by Malthus to explain
the relationship betw een population increase and the
increase in food supply. (5 marks)
b Malthus w rote in the early 18th century. He predicted that
population growth could soon cause widespread famine
and other disasters in England. His predictions have not
com e true. Explain why. (lOmarks)
c In recentyears views described as neo-Malthusian have
become common. Explain w hy these ideas have developed.
Contrast the neo-Malthusian view with the more optimistic
view of population growth developed by Boserup. ( 10 marks)
'■ a Study Figure 13.22 on page 359.
i Describe the range of life expectancy figures shown
by this table and com m ent on the changes shown
overtim e. (6 marks)
ii Choose one country in the table with an increasing
life expectancy and account for the changes that
have been observed and that are predicted. (7marks)
b Name a country that you have studied, where life
expectancy has fallen in the last 10-20 years. Explain
the causes and the consequences of this fall. (12 marks)
a At what stage ofthe demographic transition model is
population growth most rapid? Give the reasons for this
rapid growth. (5marks)
c Choose one country that has attem pted to m anage its
population by introducing laws that it hopes will affect
birth rate.
i Explain how the population policy was intended to
operate.
ii Discuss the consequences o fth e policy, m entioning
both its successes and its failures. (8marks)
6 The period following the Second World War saw some ofthe
biggest international migrations that the world has ever known,
a Name one major international migration that took
place during this period. Refer to the source and the
destination o fth e migrants. (1 mark)
b Explain the causes o fth e migration. Refer to pushes from
the source and pulls to the destination. (6 marks)
c Discuss the consequences o fth e migration for:
i the source country
ii the host country
iii the migrants themselves. (12 marks)
d Suggest w h y large international migrations have been
so com m on in the period since the Second W orld War.
(6 marks)
b M any dem ographers say that the key to reducing the
birth rate in less econom ically developed countries lies
in changing the educational and econom ic status of
wom en. Discuss this view, with reference to one or more
countries that you have studied. (lOmarks)
c Name one country that has adopted policies designed
to deal with a rapidly growing population.
Describe the policies and evaluate their success.
(lOm arks)
10 Studythetwopopulationpyram idsinFigure13.71 on
page 384.
a i Compare and contrast the shapes of the two pyramids.
(3 marks)
ii Account for the differences betw een the two
pyramids. (4 marks)
iii Suggest w hat population problems are likely to be
m et in these tw o countries during the next 20 years
or so. (8 marks)
b i Name a country that has adopted policies to help it to
manage its total population and its rate of population
change.
ii Describe its population policies and assess how
successful these policies have been. (lOmarks)
Population 385
11 a i Name a country w here immigration has led to the iii O utline the pattern of distribution of one group
developm ent of a'm ulticultural society'. Name the main or people w ho recently migrated into the country.
cultural groups that make up that country's population. (5 m arks)
(2 marks) b Discuss some of the geographical issues caused by the
ii Explain the causes o fth e im m igration into the country. developm ent of a multicultural society in the country
(5 marks) named in a i. (13 marks

Exam practice: essays

12 Many countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America have experienced
very rapid population growth since 1950, but now rates of
population growth are slowing down in many of these countries.
Discuss the factors affecting the rate of population change in a
range of countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America. (25 marks)
13 The term'ecological footprint'is in wide use as a w ay of
assessing the sustainability ofthe lifestyle of a person, a family,
a region or a country.
Explain the meaning ofthe term, and evaluate the usefulness
ofthe concept ofthe ecological footprint. (25 marks

Across the world and over time countries
have adopted a wide range of differing
policies to limit their population growth.The
characteristics of such policies vary according
to the urgency ofthe situation, the politics of
the country and the approach taken. Policies
can be compulsory-they tell people what
they can and cannot do and use'sticks'(pen­
alties) to enforce this. Equally, they can lead
by example, encouraging people towards
certain behaviour with'carrots'(rewards).
China
With over 1.3 billion people (2005) - one-
fifth of global population - China will soon
overtake the UK as the world's fourth richest
nation. In the early 21 st century its economy
has grown three times faster than that of
Massive famine was forecast by the end ofthe
end ofthe 20th century if population growth
was notstemmed.This was the reason for the
unprecedented'one-child'policy. Few other
countries could have, or ever will have, such a
radical policy. Communist governments, such
as China's, have great control over people.
Democracies vote for their governments, so
people have a say in what they do.
In te rp re ta tio n o fth e Chinese
'o n e -c h ild 'p o lic y
Read about China's'one-child'policy above
and on pages 381-383 in this chapter.
1 a W rite dow n your initial reactions
to, and opinions of, this
population policy.
b W hich future direction do you
consider to be the most practical
for China as a country, and w hy?
c W hich future direction do you
consider to be the best for
individual Chinese people, and
why?
India
'Each year India adds m ore people to
the world's population than any other
country.'
Geofile 521, April 2006, byTim Bayliss
and Lawrence Collins, NelsonThornes
By 2025 India's population (1.1 billion in 2006)
will probably overtake that of China.To a
limited extent, India has followed similar poli­

the USA (before the'credit crunch'of 2008, cies to China to curb its rapid growth, but more
b List the ways in which this policy
which affects both nations). China has used free will and persuasion have been employed
has been a success.
vast quantities of global raw materials to fuel Total fertility rate (TFR) has decreased to 3.5 per

this unprecedented economic growth and is
likely to continue to do so.
People are China's asset and its problem.
Without them its labour-intensive industrial
c W h at problems have arisen from
the policy, in your opinion?
d Discuss your ideas with others
in your class. Revise any aspects
woman from over 5.0 in thel 970s, suggesting
success, but changes are far from even across
this large nation. India's growth represents
a very different set of challenges from those

growth would not have taken off. Most
industry is labour intensive and labour is
cheap. However, the government ofthe 1970s
realised that continued rapid growth would
create a demographic and economic crisis.
of your answers to (b) and (c),
based on these discussions.
2 a Summarise the possible future
directions of the'one-child'policy.
before the Chinese government.
India's first national family programme
began as early as 1952. It has not always
been popular; Prime Minister Indira Gandhi's
method of encouraging young men to be

386 Population
 P o p u la tio n p o lic ie s - th e p ro s a n d cons o f tr y in g to lim it p o p u la tio n g ro w th

sterilised in return for something as small as

5 radio became part of a huge backlash, con-
r 'buting to the fall of her government. India
"as great cultural, religious, socio-economic
snd geographical variations. It might be a
:aseofone policy does not fit all.
Interpretation of India's policies
3 Figure 13.74a shows varying birth
rates across India in 2007, while
Figure 13.74b shows adult literacy
data by region.
a Describe the patterns shown in
the two maps.
b Is there any correlation between
the data in the two maps?
c Based on the data provided in
Figure 13.74a only, summarise
the ways Kerala stands out from
other regions of India.
4 a Research different aspects of
India's population control policy.
The websites suggested (right)
will give you a start.
b How does Kerala's population
policy differ from those followed
elsewhere in the country?
Decision-making exercise
5 The population policies of China and
India, in particular of Kerala state
(Figure 13.75), show very different
approaches to the need to limit rapid
Kerala state in south-west lnc:s has one ofthe lowest birth rates in the country at less than
-I per cent per annum. Women have higher status here than in much of the rest ofthe
country and are encouraged tc .vork outside the home. Education is valued by govern­
ment and families are encouraged to see that fewer children and better education lead to
greater life chances and a better standard of living.The state policy aims to encourage:
•later marriage
Figure 13.75
•wider spacing of births
Population policy in
•contraception use by married wom en - the majority do so
the state of Kerala
•sterilisation once the desired family size is reached
•value placed on education, which can be achieved better in a smaller family.
Spacing of births has not been successful. Parents have tended to have their desired
number of children close together and then opted for sterilisation to prevent further births.
Abortion is sometimes used, but this is often to achieve the desired gender balance in the
family. Between 40 and 75 per cent of abortions are thought to be for this reason. While less
than ideal, this does show that people are trying to produce smaller families.
Some 91 per cent of adults are literate - much higher than the national 65 per cent
average.This shows that education initiatives are working and perhaps also influences
people's reproductive behaviour.
population growth. Discuss the electorate) that this national policy
differing approaches, considering will benefit them as individuals and
the ways in which people are forced/ the country as a whole.
encouraged to limit family size.
6 Put yourselves in the place of Further reference
the government of a relatively
poor African country with rapid http://en/wikipedia.org/wiki/
population growth. Assume that Demographics_of_India
this country is a democracy. Devise
http://news.bbc.co.Uk/l/hi/programmes/
a population policy suitable for
from_our_own_correspondent/3602862.
the needs ofthe country which
stm
will not damage its slowly growing
economy, yet will also not be too BNET.com: 'India's Population Reality:
unpopular with the electorate. Reconciling Change and Tradition'
Consider the best ways to convince
your people (who are also your Geofile numbers 454 (September 2003); 507
(September 2005); 521 (April 2006)

Figure 13.74

Indian population growth

and literacy rates by state
a Population growth rates
b Literacy rates

of literates to
total population
% population growth i.01 and above
more than 2.2 72.01-80.00
1.9-2.2 64.01-72.00
Kerala
1.7-1.8 56.01-64.00
1.5-1.67 56.00 and below
1.2-1.4 national average 65.38
^ 0 0 km 500 km

Population 387
 imam
Mr Settlement

'The largest sit igle step in the ascent o f man is the change h ills surrou nding th e basins provided pasture
for d om estic anim als
from nomad tc village agriculture.'
J. B ro n o w s k i, The Ascent ofMan, 1973
flat flood plain s n e x t to large rivers
rich , fertile silt deposited by th e rivers during
Origins of settlement tim es o f flood
a relatively dry - bu t n o t to o dry - clim ate
A bout 8 0 0 0 BC, at th e end o f th e last ice age,
w h ich m a in tain ed soil fertility (i.e. lim ited
th e world's p o p u latio n consisted o f small bands
leach in g ) and enabled m ud from th e rivers
o f h u nters and collecto rs living m ainly in sub­
to be used to build houses (clim atically, these
tro p ical lands and at a subsistence level (page
areas were m ore m o ist th a n th e y are today)
4 7 8 ). T hese groups o f people, w ho were usually
a warm subtropical clim ate, and
m igratory, could o n ly support them selves if th e
a p erm a n en t water supply from th e rivers for
w hole co m m u n ity was involved in th e search
d om estic use and, as farm in g developed, for
for food. At this tim e tw o m a jo r te ch n o lo g ica l
irrigation.
changes, know n as th e 'N e o lith ic rev o lu tio n ',
By 1 5 0 0 BC, larger tow ns and urban centres had
turned th e m igratory h u n te r-co llecto r in to a sed­
developed w ith an in creasin g ly wider range of
en tary farmer. The first was th e d om estication of
fu n ctio n s. A dm inistrators w ere needed to organ­
anim als (sheep, goats and cattle) and th e second
ise th e co lle ctio n o f crops and th e distribution
th e cu ltiv a tio n o f cereals (w heat, rice and m aize).
o f food supplies; traders exch an ged surplus
Slow im p rovem en ts in early farm ing gradually
goods w ith oth er u rban centres; early engineers
led to food surpluses and enabled an increasing
introd u ced irrigation system s; and a ruling elite
p ro p ortio n o f th e co m m u n ity to specialise in
appropriated taxes from th e agricultural and
n on -fa rm in g tasks.
trad ing p o p u latio n to support th e m ilitary, the
T h e ev olu tio n in farm ing appears to have
priesthood , and 'n o n -p ro d u ctiv e' m em bers of
taken place independ en tly, bu t at ab ou t th e
society, such as artists, p h ilo sop h ers and astrono­
sam e tim e, in three river basins: th e T ig ris-
mers. C raftsm en were required to m ake farm ing
Euphrates (in M esop otam ia), th e Nile, and th e
eq u ip m en t and h ou seh old articles - th e oldest-
Indus (Figure 14 .1 ). T hese areas had sim ilar
know n p o ttery and w oven textiles were found at
natu ral advantages:
Catal Huyuk in present-d ay Turkey - and cop pe:

Figure 14.1
Eastern Mediterranean
Civilisations and cities
JV Iy c e n a e Troy Catal
before 1500BC (M y ceo a^ n ^ <• Huyu^
$ Knossos
(M in oan) Jerich o

M e m p h is *
Thebes
Luxor •

Nile Valley

the three earliest civilisations

'later' early civilisations

• early cities

388 Settlement
 and bron ze were b ein g worked by 3 0 0 0 B C . As A lthough th ere is divergence o f o p in io n over
tow ns co n tin u ed to grow, it becam e necessary th e exact dates, Figure 1 4 .2 gives a ch ro n o lo g ical
to have a legal system and an arm y for d efence. seq u en ce o f early settlem en ts.

Tigris-Euphrates
A chronology of early Near East Nile
settlement Approximate date BC Indus Rest of world
9000 Hunters and collectors
8000 8500 First domesticated animals and cereals Northern Europe recovering from
the last ice age
8300 Jericho: first walled city
7000
6000 6250 Catal Huyuk: first pottery and woven
textiles; became largest
city in world
5000 5500 Growth of villages in Mesopotamia
Growth of many villages in Nile
and Indus valleys
5000 Early methods of irrigation Rice cultivation in South-east Asia
4000 Bronze casting
3000 3500 Invention ofthe wheel and plough in First Chinese city
Mesopotamia, and the sail in Egypt
3000 Cities in Mesopotamia First crops grown in central Africa;
bronze worked in Thailand
2000 2600 Pyramids
2000 Minoan civilisation in Crete Metal-working in the Andes
i~ ement 1000 1600 Mycenaean civilisation in Greece
: :r:ion factors

S ite a n d s itu a tio n o f e a riy s e ttle m e n ts

building arable land S ite describes th e ch aracteristics o f th e actual
w a ter supply
m aterials for crops p o in t at w h ich a settle m e n t is located, and was
o f m a jo r im p ortan ce in th e in itia l establish ­
m e n t an d grow th o f a village or tow n. S itu a tio n
describes th e lo ca tio n o f a place relative to its
surroundings (n eig h bo u rin g settlem en ts, rivers
and upland s). S itu ation, along w ith h u m a n and
grazing land
fuel supply p o litica l factors, d eterm in ed w h eth er or n o t a
for anim als
p articu lar settle m e n t rem ained sm all or grew
in to a larger tow n or city (Figure 14.9).
settlement Early settlem ents developed in a rural
econ om y w hich aim ed at self-sufficiency, largely
because transport systems were lim ited. W hile the
ease of m ost significant factors in d eterm ining the site of
d efence
com m unication a village include those show n in Figure 14.3 and
described below, rem em ber th a t several factors
would usually operate together w hen a ch oice in
th e location o f a settlem en t was being made.
A m ong th e m o st im p o rta n t factors are:
W a ter su p p ly A nearby, guaranteed supply
avo idance o f natural was essential as water is needed daily
hazards (aw ay from
flooding, shelter from throughout th e year and is heavy to carry any
gales, etc.) distance. In earlier tim es, rivers were suffi­
ciently clean to give a safe, perm anent supply.
In low land Britain, m any early villages were
located along th e spring line at the fo ot o f a

Settlement 389
 south facing north facing

village
marshy, flat floodplain:
dry, thin soils; coarse grass ideal for sheep
useful for cattle grazing
pasture; sum m its provided easy routeways
and good van tag e points
Parish B route
spring
& f'4
trees provided -Parish b,
'Zund<'ary
fuel and t im b e r ,
for houses * ' ** spring

V *%. » porous chalk

Parish A drier, relatively flat land;

early tracks (routes) with
b ridging-points;good soil
im p erm eab le clay for fruit and crops saturated rock

chalk or lim estone escarpm ent (Figures 8 .1 0 B ritain , th e tw o b est types o f defensive site
A spring-line village at and 14.4). In regions where rainfall is lim ited were th o se surrounded o n th ree sides by
the foot of the North or unreliable, people settled where th e water w ater (D urham , Figure 14 .6) or b u ilt upon
Downs, south-east
table was near to th e surface (a desert oasis, h ig h ground w ith co m m an d in g views over
England
Figure 14.5) enabling shallow wells to be dug. th e surrounding cou n tryside (Edinburgh).
Such settlem ent sites are know n as w et-p o in t Hilltop sites may, however, have had problems
or w ater-seek in g sites. w ith w ater supply (Figure 1 4 .7 ).
Flood a v o id a n ce Elsew here, th e problem N od al p o in ts Sites w here several valleys
m ay have b een to o m u ch water. In the m eet were o ften occu p ied b y settlem en ts
E nglish Fenlands, and o n coastal m arshes, w h ich becam e ro u te c e n tre s (C arlisle - Places
villages were b u ilt on m ound s w h ich form ed 4 9 , page 3 9 6 - and Paris). C o n flu e n c e tow ns
natu ral islands (Ely). O th er settlem en ts were are fo u n d w here tw o rivers jo in (K hartoum
built on river terraces (page 82) w h ich were at th e ju n c tio n o f th e W h ite Nile and th e
above th e flood level and, in som e cases, Blue N ile, St Louis at th e ju n ctio n o f the
avoided th o se diseases associated w ith stag­ Mississippi and th e M issouri (Figure 3.59)).
n a n t water. Such sites are know n as d ry -p o in t Settlem en ts on sites th a t com m an d routes
or w a te r-a v o id in g sites. th ro u g h th e hills or m o u n tain s are know n as
B u ild in g m a te ria ls M aterials were heavy g ap to w n s (D orking and C arcassonne).
and bulky to m ove and, as tran sp ort was
p oorly developed, it was im p o rta n t to build
settlem en ts close to a supply o f ston e, wood
and/or clay.
F ood supply T h e ideal lo ca tio n was in an
area th a t was suitable for b o th th e rearing of
an im als and th e grow ing o f crops - such as
th e scarps and vales o f sou th -east England
(page 199). The quality, q u a n tity and range of
farm produce o ften depended upon clim ate
and soil fertility and type.
R elief Flat, low -lying land such as th e N orth
G erm an Plain was easier to build o n th a n
steeper, hig h er ground such as th e Alps.
However, th e n eed for d efence som etim es
overruled this con sid eratio n .
D efence P ro tectio n against surrounding
tribes was o ften essential. Je ric h o , b u ilt
over 10 0 0 0 years ago (abou t 8 3 5 0 BC), is
th e oldest city know n to have had walls. In
................................................................................. Figure 14.5

390 Settlem ent An oasis: Morocco

 Fuel su pp ly Even trop ical areas need fuel
■settlement within a for co o k in g purposes as well as for w arm th
“ sanderloop: Durham during cold er n ig h ts. In m ost early settle­
m en ts, firew ood was th e m ain source - and
still is in m an y o f th e least e co n o m ica lly
developed areas, such as th e Sahel.
B rid g in g -p o in ts Settlem en ts have tended
to grow w here routes had to cross rivers, in i­
tially w here th e river was shallow enou gh to
be forded (O xford) and later w here th e site
was suitable for a bridge to be built. O f great
sig n ifican ce for trade and tran sp ort was th e
low est b rid g in g -p oin t before a river entered
th e sea (N ew castle u p on Tyne).
Village site analysis
(offer Roberts)
H arbours Sheltered sea inlets and river estu­
aries provided suitable sites for the establish­
m en t o f coastal fishing ports, such as Newquay
in Cornw all; later, deep-water harbours were
required as ships becam e larger (Southam pton
and Singapore, Places 104, page 636). Port sites
were also im p ortant on m any m ajor navigable
rivers (M ontreal on the St Lawrence) and large
lakes (the Great Lakes in N orth America).
S h elter an d a sp e ct In B ritain, sou th-facing
slopes offer favoured settlem en t sites because
th ey are protected from cold, n orth erly winds
and receive m axim u m in so latio n (Torquay).
R esources Settlem en ts also grew in places
w ith access to specific local resources such as
salt (N antw ich, C h eshire), iron ore, coal, etc.
W hereas m o st o f th e factors listed above were
natu ral, today th e ch o ice o f a site for a new
settlem en t is m ore likely to be p o litica l (Israeli
settlem en ts on th e W est Bank; Brasilia), so cial
(som e o f Britain's new tow ns) or e co n o m ic
(B laenau Ffestiniog for its slate - Places 78,
page 5 2 3 - or, in Brazil, Carajas for its iron ore,
and Iguafu for its h y d ro-electricity).
Roberts has produced a m odel (Figure 14.8)
w h ich draws to g eth er n o t o n ly site and situa­
tio n factors, bu t also th e perceptions o f different
settler groups as to th e relative im p ortan ce
o f th e specific factors - e.g. in a desert, water
m ay be perceived to be th e m o st im p ortan t;
in parts o f M ed iterranean Europe, it m ay have
b ee n d efen ce. T h e in n er circle in Figure 1 4 .8
is co n cern ed w ith desirable site ch aracteristics
(in trin sic qualities) and th e ou ter circle w ith th e
general situ a tio n factors (extrin sic qualities).
Roberts stresses th a t each settlem en t lo catio n
represents a com p lex b a la n cin g act o f all these
factors (L ond on, Figure 1 4 .9 ), w ith few sites and
situ ation s b ein g ideal. You should be aware th at
'e x trin sic' factors ch an g e over tim e, and th a t set­
tlem en ts are d y n am ic in nature.
Settlement 391
 The site and situation Walbrook
of early London
w ells w^re sunk for later walls
w a te r Supply . o ft h e city

Tow er o f London

initially a ford, later the ;'fp resen t- day

low est bridging-point T ow er Bridge e arly ships
and head o f navigation
b erthed in
T h e Pool'
London clays:
d ensely forested

m arshy land

drier gravels o f river

terraces form ed after
ice age

Figure 1 4 .9 show s som e o f th e early site and
situ ation factors th a t help ed d eterm ine th e
origin al lo ca tio n and early grow th o f Lond on.
As w ith o th er settlem en ts, som e o f th ese early
factors are n o lon g er im p o rta n t, e.g. L ond on
now has piped water, has nu m erou s shops to
provide food, has bridges and tu n n els to cross
th e river, and no longer needs a castle or city
walls for d efence.
Functions of settlements
As early settle m e n ts grew in size, ea ch on e
ten d ed to d evelop a sp ecific fu n c tio n or fu n c ­
tio n s. T h e f u n c tio n o f a to w n relates to its
e c o n o m ic and social d ev elo p m en t and refers
to its m a in a ctiv ities. T here are p ro blem s in
d efin in g and d eterm in in g a to w n 's m a in fu n c ­
tio n an d o ften , due to a lack o f data such as
em p lo y m e n t and/or in c o m e figures, su b jectiv e
d ecisio n s have to b e m ade. As settle m e n ts are
Classification of very diverse, it help s to try to group to g eth e r
settlement based th o se w ith a sim ilar fu n c tio n (Fram ew ork 7,
on function
Developed countries Developing countries
Market and agricultural Mining Administration
Route centre/transport Manufacturing/industrial Marketing/agricultural
Small service town Route centre/transport Route centre/port
page 1 6 7 ). O ver th e years, nu m erou s attem p ts
have b e e n m ade to classify settle m e n ts based on
fu n ctio n , b u t th ese tend ed to refer to places in
in d u strialised co u n trie s and are o fte n n o longer
a p p licab le to p o st-in d u stria l societies. Further
p roblem s arose w h en th e grow th o f som e set­
tle m e n ts was based o n an a ctiv ity th a t no
lo n g er exists (th e fo rm er co a lm in in g villages of
n o rth -e a st E ngland and S o u th W ales), or where
th e orig in al fu n c tio n has ch an g ed over tim e (a
C o rn ish fish in g village m ay now be a holid ay
resort). As fu n c tio n s ch a n g e in tim e, th is has a
d irect b ea rin g on se ttle m e n t m o rp h o lo g y (page
3 9 4 ) and p attern s o f lan d use (C h ap ter 15).
F u n ctio n s m ay also differ b etw een c o n tin e n ts -
i.e. th e re is also a d ifferen ce over sp a ce . Finally
it shou ld b e realised th a t today, and esp ecially
in th e m ore developed co u n trie s, tow ns and
c ities are m u ltifu n c tio n a l - even if o n e or tw o
fu n c tio n s ten d to be p red o m in an t.
It m ay be w orth referring, at th is stage, to
th e term e c o n o m ic b a se . E co n o m ic base theory
is found ed on th e idea th a t settlem en ts (towns,
cities or regions) perform tw o broad categories
o f e co n o m ic activity: basic and n o n -b asic. Basic
is an e co n o m ic activity (or fu n ctio n ) th a t either
produces a good or m arkets a service outside the
settle m e n t w here it is located , and is likely to
g enerate settlem en t and e co n o m ic grow th. Non-
b a sic is w h en an e co n o m ic activity (or fu n c­

Defensive
Dormitory/overspill/satellite
Retail/wholesale Mining
tio n ) o n ly produces a good or m arkets a service
w ith in th e settle m e n t in w h ich it is located and.
Religious/cultural Commercial
th erefore, m akes little c o n trib u tio n to settlem ent
Trade/commerce/financial Religious or e co n o m ic grow th. Bearing in m in d th a t the
Administration Residential value to geographers o f classifying settlem en ts
Resort/recreation based o n fu n ctio n has declined , Figure 1 4 .1 0 ha:
b een inclu ded , as m u ch as an y th in g , as a ch eck ­
Residential
list shou ld you wish to co n d u ct personal field ­
New towns w ork or m ake an individ ual study o f th is topic.

392 Settlement
Differences between urban and
rural settlement
Figure 1 4 .1 1 show s th e co m m o n ly accepted
types o f settlem en t, b u t hides th e divergence of
o p in io n as to how an d w here to draw th e borders
b etw een each type. Several m etho d s have b een
suggested in try in g to d efin e th e differen ce
b etw een a village, or rural settlem en t, and a
tow n, or u rban settlem en t.
P o p u la tio n size Th ere is a wide d iscrepancy
of views over th e m in im u m size o f population
required to enable a settle m e n t to be term ed
a tow n, e.g. in D en m ark it is consid ered to be
2 5 0 people, in Ireland 5 0 0 , in France 2 0 0 0 , in
th e USA 2 5 0 0 , in Spain 10 0 0 0 and in Ja p a n
3 0 0 0 0 . In India, w here m an y villages are
larger th a n B ritish tow ns, a figure o f less th an
25 per ce n t engaged in agriculture is tak en to
be th e dividing p o in t.
E co n o m ic Rural settlem ents have trad ition­
ally b een d efined as places w here m o st o f th e
w orkforce are farm ers or are engaged in other
prim ary activities (m in in g and forestry). In
con trast, m ost o f th e w orkforce in urban
areas are em ployed in second ary and service
industries. However, m an y rural areas have'
now b eco m e com m uter/ d orm itory settle­
m en ts for people w orking in a d jacen t urban
areas or, even m ore recently, a lo ca tio n for
sm aller, fo o tlo o se industries, such as high-
tech industries.
■ Services T h e provision o f services, such as
schools, hospitals, shops, p u blic tran sp ort
and banks, is usually lim ited , at tim es absent,
in rural areas (Figure 1 4 .2 1 ).
L an d use In rural areas, settlem ents are
widely spaced w ith open land betw een ad ja­
cen t villages. W ith in each village th ere m ay
be individual farm s as well as resid ential areas
and possibly sm all-scale industry. In urban
areas, settlem en ts are o ften packed closely
Figure 14.11
Type of settlement
r rural
(pertaining to the countryside)
i
isolated
r^
ham let village
i
small
market
to w n
m ajority of inhabitants in develo ping
countries live in rural areas (although
the percentag e is declining)
to g eth er and w ith in tow ns th ere is a greater
m ixtu re o f land use w ith resid ential, ind u s­
trial, services and op en-sp ace provision .
S o c ia l Rural settlem en ts, especially th o se in
m ore rem ote areas, ten d to have m ore in h a b ­
ita n ts in th e over-65 age group, w hereas th e
hig h est p ro p ortio n in urban areas lies w ithin
th e e co n o m ica lly active age group (page 3 5 4 )
or th o se under second ary sch oo l age.
It has b eco m in g in creasin g ly m ore d ifficu lt to
d ifferen tiate b etw een villages and tow ns, espe­
cially w here u rban areas have spread outw ards
in to th e ru ral frin ge. T he term ru ra l-u rb a n
co n tin u u m (page 5 1 6 ) is used to express th e fact
th a t in m an y h ig h ly urbanised cou n tries such
as Ja p a n and th e UK, th ere is n o lon g er eith er
phy sically or socially a sim ple, clear-cu t divi­
sion betw een tow n and cou ntry. Instead th ere is
a grad ation b etw een th e tw o, w ith n o obvious
p o in t w here it can be said th a t th e urban w ay o f
life ends and th e rural way o f life b egins (Figure
1 7 .1 ). It is, th erefore, m ore realistic to talk
ab ou t a tra n sitio n zone from 'stro n g ly rural' to
'stro n g ly u rban '. C loke (1 9 7 7 ) devised an in d e x
o f ru ra lity based u p on 16 variables tak en largely
from census data for E ngland and W ales (Figure
1 7 .2 ). T hese variables inclu d ed people aged
over 65; p ro p ortio n em ployed in prim ary, sec­
ond ary and tertiary sectors; p o p u latio n d ensity;
p o p u latio n m o b ility (th ose m oving h o m e in the
previous 5 years); p ro p ortio n co m m u tin g ; and
d istance from a large to w n (Figure 1 4 .2 0 ). C loke
th e n id entified four categories (Figure 17 .3 ):
extrem e rural (parts o f sou th-w est England,
cen tral W ales, East Anglia and th e n o rth ern
P enn ines)
in term ed iate rural
in term ed iate non -ru ral, and
extrem e non -ru ral (m ain ly suburbanised
villages (page 3 9 8 ) around L ond on in Surrey,
C am bridgeshire, H ertfordshire and Essex).
settlement
--------------- I
urban
(pertaining to the to w n )
larger city
i
conurbation
to w n (m egalopolis)
m ajority o f inhabitants in
d eve lo p e d countries live in
urban areas
Settlement 393
 HHi..______________________________ _
..
Isolated settlement: Rural settlement
in the Amazon
rainforest P a tte rn a n d m o r p h o lo g y
G eographers have beco m e increasingly interested
in th e m o rp h o lo g y , i.e. th e p attern (num bers
1 and 2 below ) and shape (num bers 3 - 7 below )
of settlem en ts. A lthough village shapes vary
spatially in B ritain and across th e world, it has
b een - again tra d itio n a lly - possible to id en tify
seven types (rem em ber th at, as in oth er classifi­
cation s, som e geographers m ay id en tify m ore
or fewer categories).
1 Iso lated This refers to an individual
building, usually found in an area o f
extrem e physical d ifficu lty w here th e natu ral
resources are in su fficien t to m a in ta in m ore
th a n a few in h a b ita n ts, e.g. th e A m azon
rainforests w here tribes live in a co m m u n al
h o m e called a m a lo c a (Figure 1 4 .1 2 ). Isolated
houses m ay also be found in planned p ion eer
areas such as o n th e C an ad ian Prairies where
th e land was divided in to sm all squares, each
Nucleated settlement:
in Sumatra, Indonesia w ith its ow n farm build ings.
Y ' *
sp&ss*.
D ispersed S e ttlem e n t
Dispersed settlement
is d escribed as dispersed in North Yorkshire
w h en th e re is a scatter
o f in d ivid u al farm s and
h ou ses across an area; th e re are e ith e r no
n u c le a tio n s p resen t, or th e y are so sm all that
th e y co n sist o n ly o f tw o or th ree build in gs
fo rm in g a h a m le t (Figure 1 4 .1 3 ). E ach farm
or h a m le t m ay be sep arated from th e n e x t
by 2 or 3 km o f op en space or farm lan d . In
th e S co ttish H igh lan d s and Island s, som e
co m m u n ities co n sist o f cro fts spaced out
along sid e a road or raised b ea ch . H am lets are
c o m m o n in rural areas o f n o rth e rn B ritain,
o n th e N orth G erm an P lain (w here th e ir
n a m e u rw eiler m ean s 'p rim ev al h a m le t') and
in sub-Saharan Africa.
N u cleated N ucleated settlem ent is com m on
in m an y rural parts o f th e world where build­
ings have been grouped closely together
for econom ic, social or defensive purposes
(Figure 14.14). In Britain, where recent evi­
dence suggests th a t nu cleation only took place ;
after the year 1000, villages were surrounded
by their farm land, where th e in h abitan ts grew
crops and grazed anim als in order to be self-
sufficient; this led to an unplanned and vari­
able spacing o f villages, usually 3 -5 km apart.
Som e villages grew up around crossroads and
at T-junctions, as is the case o f m any villages in
India. M any border villages in Britain, hilltop
settlem ents around th e M editerranean Sea, and
kam pongs in M alaysia becam e nucleated for
defensive reasons.
L o o se -k n it T hese are sim ilar to nucleated
settlem en ts excep t th a t th e buildings are
m ore spread out, possibly due to space taken
up by in dividual farm s w h ich are still found
w ith in th e village itself.
 5 L in ear, or rib b o n W here th e buildings are
strung ou t alon g a m ain lin e o f co m m u n i­
catio n or alon g a co n fin e d river valley
(Figure 1 4 .1 5 ), th e settle m e n t is described as
linear. S treet v illages - p lan n ed lin ear v il­
lages - were co m m o n in m edieval England.
U n p lan n ed lin ear settlem en ts also developed
o n long, narrow, flood -avoid ance sites, e.g.
along th e raised beach es o f w estern Scotland
and on river terraces, as in L ond on . Later,
u n p lan n ed lin ear settlem en t grew up alon g
th e floors o f th e narrow co a lm in in g valleys o f
Sou th W ales and o n m ain roads lead ing out
o f B ritain's u rban areas follow ing th e increase
in private car ow nership and th e d evelop­
m e n t o f p u blic tran sp ort. In th e N etherland s,
M alaysia and T h ailan d , houses have been
b u ilt alon g canals and w aterw ays. 7 P la n n e d A lthough m an y early settlem en ts
6 R in g a n d 'g re e n ' v illages Ring villages are were planned (Pom peii, York), th e appar­
found in m an y parts o f sub-Saharan Africa en tly ran d om shape o f m an y B ritish v il­
and th e A m azon rain fo rest (Figure 1 4 .1 6 ). lages appears to suggest th a t th ey were n ot.
Houses were b u ilt around a central area M ore recently, villages surrou nding large
w h ich was left op en for tribal m eetin g s and u rban areas in , for exam p le, B ritain an d th e
co m m u n al life. In Kenya, th e M aasai b u ilt N etherland s, have expanded and becom e
th e ir houses around an area in to w h ich th eir suburbanised, h av in g sm all and o ften
cattle were driven for p ro tectio n during m ost crescen t-sh aped estates (Places 49).
-q village: Kraito, in the n igh ts. In England, m an y villages have b een If you study m aps o f village plans, it is very
razon rainforest b u ilt around a cen tral green. likely th a t y ou will find m an y settlem en ts w ith
a m ixtu re o f th e above shapes, e.g. a village
m ay have a n u cleated cen tre, a planned estate
o n its edges and a lin ear p attern exten d in g
along th e road lead ing to th e nearest large tow n
(Figure 1 4 .1 7 ).
R oberts (1 9 8 7 ) suggested a different basis for
classification (Figure 14 .1 8 ). Even so, he concedes
th ere are d ifficu lties in try ing to fit a particu lar
village in to a specific category, as w hen deter­
m in in g if a strip o f grass is large en ou g h to be
called a green, and con clu d es th a t m a n y villages
are co m p o site (or p o ly fo ca l), in corp o ratin g
t e ic shape Plan and morphology Village green several plans and phases o f d ev elopm en t.

..rja r(in a r o w ) regular with

without
Model showing growth
irregular with
and development of an
without English village

■: ; omerated (more nucleated) regular grid with

without
regular radial with _____ roads
original
* without village core

irregular grid with early ribbon

■ 1 j development
without along roads
: i-7-
- ~i:hod of classifying [— — infill on vacant
m ; retypes in Britain irregular agglomerated with 1— ...-I land within village

“ --Roberts) • without
more recent additions -
mainly private/council
housing
isolated farms and
country houses

Figure 14.19 is a map of Carlisle in 1810. It shows
Carlisle: site, morphology
some o fth e original site factors (some of w hich still
and functions, as shown
on a map of 1810 applied), the developing m orphology (pattern)
Site for castle: on small
m ound at end of interfluve;
rivers and low-lying ground on
three sides; m oat to south
Lowes-density
housing: with
gardens, especially
between cathedral
and castle
Nodal point: route
from Ireland (Irish
Gate)
R oute centre: road I
from Ireland (Irish
Gate)
/ A
D efensive: city walls
396 Settlement
C a r l i s le : s it e , m o r p h o l o g y a n d f u n c t io n s
Wet-point site:
early w a ter supply
from river; w ater
supply for industry
/ /
S C A L E O F YARDS
V /
/
7/
in d u s tria l: various
m ills including textiles
(bleach and cotton
mills); brewing (Old
and New Breweries)
o fth e city, and some of its initial and subsequent
functions.
D efensive: city walls Dry-point site: R. Eden C om m ercia!: cattle
and castle; on flooded annually, but m arket on The Sands
interfluve between settlem en t site is ab o ve
R, Eden and R. Caldew floodplain
Bridging points:
R. Eden m ade
easier to cross th e "
by the existence o~
an island
Ribbon
developm ent:
outside city walls
on main roads
Nodal point: route
from Scotland
(Scotch Gate;
Scotch Street)
R oute centre: roa
from Scotland
(Scotch Gate;
Scotch Street)
Densely
nucleated:
especially east of
the Market Place
C om m ercial: large
m arket piace w ithi
the to w n walls
C om m ercial:
Drovers Lane from
cattle m arket to
southern markets
(outside the walls
Nodal point: rout
from England
(English Gate;
English Street)
Ribbon
// A
/
developm ent:
\ --~--
outside city walls
/
on main roads
A d m in is tra tiv e : court house; ?oute centre:
size o f castle and place names ■Dad from England
(Scotch/English/Irish Gates) English Gate;
suggest form er political Lnglish Street)
im portance
D is p e rs e d a n d n u c le a te d rural
settlement
W h e th e r settle m e n t is dispersed or nu cleated
depends u p on local physical co n d itio n s; e co ­
n o m ic factors such as th e tim e and d istance
b etw een places; and social factors w h ich inclu de
w ho ow ns th e land and how th e people o f th e
area live and w ork o n it.
Causes o f d is p e rs io n
The m ore extrem e th e physical cond itions and
possible hardship o f an area, th e m ore probable it
is th at th e settlem ent will be dispersed. Similarly,
dispersed settlem ent develops in areas where
natural resources are lim ited and in su fficient to
support m an y people (Figure 13.4). This lack of
resources could include a lim ited water supply
(the C arboniferous lim eston e outcrops o f th e
P ennines); forested areas (th e C an adian Shield
and th e Amazon Basin); and m arginal farm land
(the Scottish Highlands and th e Sahel countries),
w here pastoral farm ing is lim ited by th e quality
and q u an tity o f available grass. Areas w ith
physical difficulties are also less likely to have
good transport networks.
Form s o f land tenure can also result in dis­
persed dw ellings, esp ecially in th o se parts o f th e
w orld w here in h erita n ce laws have m e a n t th a t
th e farm is successively divided b etw een several
sons. Sim ilar pattern s, th o u g h w ith larger farm
un its, can be found in p ion eer areas such as th e
C an ad ian Prairies and th e D u tch polders.
The 'agrarian revolu tion' in Britain in th e 18 th
century ended th e open-field system , in w h ich
strips were ow ned individually but th e crops and
anim als were controlled by the com m unity. It was
replaced b y en clo sin g several fields w h ich were
ow ned b y a farm er w ho becam e responsible for all
th e d ecisions affecting th a t farm ; new farm houses
were som etim es b u ilt outside th e village.
Two other changes at about th e same tim e
increased th e incid ence o f dispersed settlem ent.
The first was th e growth o f large estates belonging
to w ealthy landow ners. T he second was th e e xten ­
sion of farm ing in hilly areas, in the 18th and
again in the 19th century, to produce the extra
food needed to feed th e rapidly growing urban
areas. M uch m oorland in the Pennines was walled;
w hile fenland areas, previously o f lim ited value,
were drained and farmed. Areas o f dow nland were
also put under the plough. Increased m echan isa­
tio n reduced labour needs, resulting in overpopu­
lation and, eventually, out-m igration.
Finally, settle m e n t was m ore likely to develop
a dispersed p attern w here th ere was less risk of
war or civil u n rest as th ere was th e n less need for
people to group to g eth er for p ro tectio n .
Causes o fn u c le a tio n
The m ajority o f hum ans have always preferred to
live togeth er in groups, as witnessed by th e cities
o f a n cien t M esopotam ia and Egypt (Figure 14.1),
and the present-day conu rb ation s and cities w ith
m ore th a n 5 m illion in h ab itan ts (Figure 15.3).
Two m ajor reasons for people to group together
have been eith er a lim ited or an excess water
supply. Settlem ents have grown up around
springs, as at th e fo ot o f chalk escarpm ents in
sou thern England (Figures 1 4 .4 and 8.1 0 ), and at
w aterholes and oases in th e desert (Figure 14.5).
Settlem ents have also been b u ilt on m ounds in
m arshy fen land regions and o n river terraces
above th e level of flooding (Figures 14.9).
A fu rther cause was th e need to group
to g eth er for d efence and p ro tectio n . Exam ples
o f defensive settlem en ts in clu d e living in walled
cities o n relatively flat plains (Jerich o and York);
beh in d stockades (African kraals); in h illto p vil­
lages in southern Italy and G reece (Figure 14.7); or
in m ean d er loops, tak in g advantage o f a natu ral
w ater barrier (D urham , Figure 14.6).
In A nglo-Saxon England, w hen m any villages
had th e ir origin, th e feudal op en-field system of
farm in g encou raged n u cle a tio n : th e local lord
could b etter supervise his serfs if th ey were
clustered around h im ; w hile th e serf, liv ing in
th e village, was probably equ id istan t from his
fragm en ted strips o f farm land (Places 5 1 , page
4 0 0 ). Today, th e m ore in ten siv e th e n atu re o f
farm ing, th e m ore n u cleated th e settlem en t
tend s to be. People like to be as near as possible
to services so th a t th e larger and m ore nu cleated
th e village, th e m ore likely it is to have a wide
range o f services such as a prim ary sch oo l, shops
and a pu blic hou se (Figure 1 4 .2 1 ).
T ran sp o rt and routew ays hav e always had
a m a jo r in flu e n c e o n th e clu ste rin g o f d w ell­
ings. B u ild ing s tend to be grouped to g eth e r
at crossroad s an d T -ju n c tio n s; c o n tro llin g a
gap th ro u g h h ills; at b rid g in g -p o in ts (Places
4 9 ); and a lo n g m a in roads, w aterw ays and
railw ays. C o m p a ct s e ttle m e n t p a ttern s are
also fo u n d in areas w ith an im p o rta n t local
resou rce (a D u rham c o a lm in in g to w n or a
N o rth W ales slate qu arry villag e - Places 78,
page 5 2 3 ), or w here th e re was an a b u n d a n ce
o f b u ild in g m aterials. M ore recen tly , m a n y
g o v ern m e n ts have en co u rag ed new, n u cle a te d
se ttle m e n ts in an a tte m p t to a ch iev e larg e-scale
self-su fficien cy . E xam p les m ay be fo u n d as far
afield as th e Sov iet c o lle c tiv e farm , th e C h in ese
c o m m u n e (Places 6 3 , page 4 6 8 ), th e T a n z a n ia n
u ja m a a and th e Israeli k ib b u tz .
Settlement 397
 Changes in rural settlement in Britain
W ithin th e British Isles, there are areas, especially
those nearer to urban centres, where th e rural pop­
ulation is increasing and others, usually in m ore
rem ote locations, where the rural population is
decreasing (rural depopulation). These population
changes affect the size, m orphology and functions
o f villages. Figure 14.20 shows that there is some
relationship betw een the type and rate o f change in
a rural settlem ent and its distance from, and acces­
sibility to, a large urban area.
Accessibility to urban centres
As public and private transport improved during
the inter-war period (1 9 1 9 -3 9 ), British cities
expanded into the surrounding countryside at
a rapid and uncontrolled rate. In an attem pt to
prevent this urban sprawl, a green b elt was created
around London follow ing th e 1947 Town and
Country Planning Act. The concept of a green belt,
later applied to m ost of Britain's conurbations, was
to restrict the erection of houses and other build­
ings and to preserve and conserve areas of country­
side for farm ing and recreational purposes.
B eyond th e green b elt, n e w to w n s and
o v e rsp ill to w n s were b u ilt, in itia lly to a c c o m ­
m o d ate new arrivals seek ing w ork in th e n earby
c ity and, later, th o se forced to leave it due to
various re d ev elo p m en t sch em es. T hese new se t­
tle m e n ts, d esigned to b eco m e self-su p p o rtin g
b o th e c o n o m ic a lly an d socially, d eveloped
u rban ch a ra cteristics and fu n ctio n s. N ew tow ns,
ov ersp ill and green b elts w ere part o f a w ider
land-use p la n n in g process w h ich aim ed to
Rural settlements m an ag e urban grow th (co m p are Figure 1 4 .2 2 ).
and distance from M eanw hile, despite th e 1 9 68 Tow n and
large urban areas
C ountry P lanning Act, un con tro lled grow th also
(offer Cloke, 1977;
see page 393)
urban extreme non-rural
^otonway 30 m insfrom
city by car^
small villag e turned into 'A ' road
urban
a n e w or overspill to w n
sprawl
green belt (farming
large city or and recreation;
conurbation d eve lo p m e n t
strictly controlled)
suburbanised village
w ith old core
linear (ribbon)
d evelo p m en t
'A ' road
urban sprawl with
car-based suburbs
398 Settlement
con tin u ed in m an y sm all villages beyond the
green belt. Referred to during th e inter-w ar period
as d o rm ito ry or c o m m u te r v illag es (page 375),
these settlem ents have increasingly adopted some
of th e characteristics of nearby urban areas and
have been term ed su burbanised villages. Figure
14.21 lists som e of th e changes w h ich occur as a
village becom es increasingly suburbanised.
Less accessible settlements
These villages are further in distance from, or have
poorer transport links to, the nearest city, i.e. they
are beyond com m uting range. This makes the
journey longer in tim e, m ore expensive and less
convenient. Though these villages m ay be relatively
stable in size, their social and econom ic make-up is
changing. M any in th e younger age groups move
out, pushed by a shortage o f jobs and social life.
They are replaced by retired people seeking quiet­
ness and a pleasant environm ent but who often do
n o t realise that rural areas lack m any of the services
required by th e elderly such as shops, buses, doctors
and libraries.
Villages in N ational Parks and other areas
o f attractive scenery in upland or coastal areas
are being changed by th e increased popularity
o f secon d or h olid ay h o m es (Figure 14.20 and
Places 50). W ealthy urban dwellers, seeking relaxa­
tio n away from the stress o f their own working and
living environm ent, have bought vacant properties
at prices that local people can n o t afford. W hile
this m ay improve trade at the village shop and pub
during holiday periods, and im prove the quality
o f som e buildings, it often m eans local people
can n o t afford the inflated house prices, properties
standing em pty for m u ch o f th e year, m any jobs
being seasonal, and an end o f public transport.
extreme rural
1 hour from 90 m insfrom
city by car city by car
small suburbanised
villag e w ith old core
2 hours fro
city by Cc
declining
village
ab an d o ned farm s
m ore rem ote village
w ith little change
N ational Pai
'B ' road
villag e w ith mainl;.
second hom es
 Extreme non-rural (increasingly
Social, economic and Characteristic suburbanised)
environmental change Housing Many new detached houses, semi­
in British villages
detached houses and bungalows;
renovated bams and cottages;
expensive estates
Population structure Young/middle-aged married couples
with children; very few born in
village; professional/executive groups;
some wealthy retired people
Employment New light industry (high-tech and food
processing); good salaries; many
commuters (well-paid); tourist shops
Transport Good bus service (unless reduced by
private car); most families have one
or two cars; improved roads
Services More shops; enlarged school; modern
public houses/restaurants; garage
Community/social Local community swamped; division
between local people and newcomers;
may be deserted during day (commuters
absent)
Environment Increase in noise and pollution,
especially from traffic; loss of
farmland/open space
Original village
Detached, stone-built houses/
cottages with slate/thatch roofs; some
farms, many over 200 years old; barns
An ageing population; most born in
village; labouring/manual groups
Farming and other primary activities
(forestry, mining); low-paid local jobs
Bus service (limited); some cars;
narrow/winding roads
Village shop; small junior school;
public house; village hall
Close-knit community (many are
related)
Quiet, relatively pollution-free
Extreme rural (increasingly
depopulated)
Poor housing lacking basic amenities;
old stone houses, some derelict, some
converted into holiday/second homes
Mainly elderly/retired; born and lived
all life locally; labouring/manual
groups; younger people have moved
away
Low-paid; unemployment; farming
jobs (declining if in marginal areas)
and other primary activities; some
tourist-related jobs
No public transport; poor roads
Shop and school closed; perhaps a
public house
A small community; more isolated
Quiet; increase in conserved areas
(National Parks/forestry)

Remote areas
These areas suffer from a p o p u latio n loss w h ich ,
by leaving houses em pty and villages decreasing
in size, adds to th e problem s o f rural deprivation
(Figure 1 4 .2 1 and Places 5 0 ). R esu ltant problem s
inclu de a lack o f jo b op portu nities, fewer serv-
ices and poor transport facilities. E m ploym ent is
often lim ited to th e shrin k in g prim ary industries
w h ich are low -paid and lack future prospects,
The co st o f providing services to rem ote areas is
h ig h , and th ere is o ften in su fficien t dem and to
keep th e local shop or village sch oo l op en. W ith
fewer in h a b ita n ts to use p u blic tran sp ort, bus
services m ay d eclin e or stop altogether, forcin g
people to m ove to m ore accessible areas.

y| Bickington, Devon: a village

Bickington is a village of some 270 residents set on the
edge of Dartmoor National Park. Now by-passed by the
busy A38 road, it encapsulates most ofthe problems
faced by many small rural settlements. Until recently it
was a thriving farming community with its own post
office, pub, garage, two churches, a children's nursery
and a police house. Today, apart from an ailing village
hall and the one remaining church, which has had to
advertise for more worshippers, all have gone.
church hall, was forced to close after government
inspectors demanded improvements to the building
that the church could not afford. The positive sign in
2008 is that the local community realises the need
for radical action and is about to ask for exceptional
permission to build affordable homes in the village,
covenanted and price-capped so that they can only be
sold to local workers, and to group together with five
other nearby villages to share facilities.

Bickington's location in such an attractive area has
meant that property prices have been driven up
far beyond the reach of local people and planning
restrictions have meant no new affordable housing
has been built. W ithout public transport, inhabitants
have become increasingly reliant on the car and, by
travelling to supermarkets and other public amenities
in nearby Newton Abbot or further afield in Exeter,
have caused the closure ofthe village shop, pub and
post office. Meanwhile the nursery group, run in the
Bickington's problems are shared by villages across the
country.The Commission for Rural Communities claims
that in villages each year 800 shops, 400 garages, over
100 churches and 7 primary schools close, while 27
village pubs close each week. Added to this, 95 per
cent of village halls are struggling and most ofthe few
remaining village hospitals are under threat.To many
villages the death-knell may be the government's
decision, in 2008, to close most village post offices,
many of which had doubled up as the local shop.

Settlement 399
Planned *eco-towns’
The government has unveiled 15 potential sites for the first 10 o f England’s
‘eco-towns’ , low-energy, carbon neutral settlements each with between 5000
and 15 0 0 0 homes. O f these five will be built by 2016 and the remaining five by
2020. The advantages will be the provision o f many new homes to fill the
housing shortage with 30 per cent being affordable housing. There will be good
(5) planned population
transport links with surrounding towns and cities for jo b s and services, each (size in thousands)
settlement will have its own shops, secondary school, business space and leisure • alternative site
facilities and, by being carbon neutral, it will take no more energy from the being investigated
National Grid than it replaces through renewable power. Opponents point out
the likely increase in petrol costs and pressure on existing roads and schools, the Rossington
location o f most being in the south and east and many being on greenbelt sites. South Yorkshire (15;

Abridged from The Guardian, 3 April 2008 Manby &Strubby

Lincolnshire (5)

__ _ IUJ
The government plans to force local councils to allow development on
previously protected land in order to achieve their aim o f providing 3 million
new homes by 2028. Ministers want 33 000 new houses to be built each year,
almost 100 every day, in the South East alone for the next 20 years. O f these a
high proportion should be either affordable or social homes. Released
documents reveal that the green belts around Oxford, Guildford and Woking are
to be reviewed and that expansion into London’s green belt may also be
required. Sim ilar strategies for other areas in the south and east will be released
later. Despite growing opposition to their recently announced 10 ‘eco-towns’, Marston Vale 6
Ford New Marston
the government is set to push ahead with its large house-building programme
West Sussex (5) Bedfordshire (15)
regardless o f the global credit crises and the fact that several o f the country’s
leading house-builders are in difficulty.

Abridged from the Daily Telegraph, 17 July 2008 Pressure on green belts

B r ita in : e v o lu tio n o f s e t t le m e n t
W hen Britain's first census was taken in 1801, almost
80 per cent o fth e population still lived in hamlets
and villages. (The corresponding figure in the 1991
census was 7 per cent, rising to an estimated 10 per
cent in 1998.) Most people have their own mental
image of a'traditional'ham let, village, or market
town. However, in reality, the developm ent of rural
settlem ent has been so dynam ic and complex that,
due to differences in site, form (m orphology) and
function (Places 49), there is no such thing as a
'typical' rural settlem ent (Figure 14.23) - nor is there
a'typical'urban settlement.
Iron Age settlements
Palaeolithic man left behind flint tools, but few
marks on the landscape.The first people to alter
their natural surroundings were those o fth e
Neolithic period, the Bronze Age and the Iron
Age (Figure 11.18).They began, despite limited
technology, to clear w oodlands and to leave a
legacy of stone circles, tumuli, barrows, hillforts
(Figure 14.24) and settlem ent sites.The hillfort built
on the volcanic sill at Drum adoon (Figure 1.37)
had a fine panoram a of an enem y approaching
from the sea, while the steep cliffs prevented
any frontal attack. Hillforts may, however, have
only been settled during times of attack, as few
Villages in
the British
landscape
There is tendency to think of country life as stable, conservative and unchang­
ing but this is far from the truth. Settlements, like the people who live in them,
are mortal. There is, however, no recognisable expected life-span, and a
village can survive for twenty or two thousand years depending on its ability
to adapt to changing economic and social conditions. In addition to extant
village communities there are in Britain thousands of former occupation sites
which have been abandoned.
Rural settlement in the past reflected the ever-changing relationship
between man and his environment. Human society is never completely static
and the settlements which serve it can never remain absolutely still for very
long; and before a well-balanced form of settlement becomes generally
established, new forces will be at work altering that form. The forces which
created our hamlets and villages have involved factors as varied as the pace of
technological change, the nature of local authority, inheritance customs, the
presence of arable or pasture, and the availability of building materials. Village
history tells a story of fluctuating expansion, decline and movement,
sometimes reflecting national factors such as pestilence, economic changes
and social development, and sometimes purely local events, such as the
silting up of a river estuary or the bankruptcy of a local entrepreneur. Such
factors have combined to give each village a unique history and plan.
T. Rowley, 1978
had a guaranteed w ater supply. Not all Iron Age
settlements w ere hillforts; some forts were located
in lowland areas, while other settlements may have
had a religious or market function as opposed to a
military one.

400 Settlement

Romano-British settlements
■lastle hillfort,
W hile the Romans preferred to live in well-planned
England
towns or in large rural villas, it is clear that at the
same time many nucleated villages existed in
lowland Britain, many of which showed evidence
of Roman influence by having well-planned streets.
One characteristic feature of Romano-British villages
was the presence of small-scale industrial activity -
usually pottery production and iron-working.
Anglo-Saxon settlements
Although many English village and town names
have Anglo-Saxon origins, it does not prove that
they existed during those times. Most Anglo-Saxon
settlements were sited in clearings in the natural
forest, on 'islands'in marshy areas or near to the
coast. Archaeological evidence suggests that most
settlements w ere likely to have consisted of several
farms grouped together to form self-contained
hamlets.The houses, or rather huts, were rectangular
in shapeand built from local m aterials-w ood for the
frame from the forest, mud and wattle (interlaced
twigs and branches) for the walls from the river and
Ridge and furrow, south­
east Leicestershire
forest, and thatch for the roof from local reeds or
straw left over after the harvest. The huts, which were
shared with the animals in winter, may have been
protected by a stone or wooden wind-break. It was
only by late Anglo-Saxon times that larger nucleated
villages, with their open fields worked in strips
by a heavy plough drawn by oxen, becam e more
commonplace.
Medieval settlements
By m edieval times, each village was dom inated by
a large farm, or manor, house in which the lord of
the m anor lived.The village would have contained
several peasant cottages, built with materials
similar to those of Anglo-Saxon homes, a church,
a house for the priest, a blacksmith's forge and a
mill. Surrounding the village were (usually) three
large open fields - open because they had neither
hedges norfences as boundaries. Each field was
divided into numerous, long, narrow strips, shared
betw een the peasants.Two o fth e fields were
likely to be growing cereals such as w heat, barley
and rye (m ainly for bread), while the third was left
fallow (allowed to rest).The crops were rotated so
that each field was left fallow every third year -
the three-field system of crop rotation. W hen the
fields w ere ploughed, a ridge was formed about
0.3 m above an adjacent furrow. Over m any years
of ploughing, the ridges built up so that they can
still be recognised in our present-day landscape
(Figure 4.25).
In the scarp-and-vale areas of south-east England
(page 199), the villages were often close together
along the spring lines.The parish boundaries were
laid out between each village and parallel to each
other, so that each individual parish had a long,
narrow strip of land extending across the clay vale
and over the chalk escarpment (Figure 14.4). This
allowed each parish to be self-contained by having
a perm anen tw atersu p p lytogeth erw ith land
suitable for both rearing animals and growing crops.
Although individual parishes no longer need to be
self-supporting, the old boundaries still remain.
 Measuring settlement patterns m easures th e e x te n t to w h ich a particu lar pattern
is clustered (nu cleated ), rand om , or regular
Several th eories and statistical tests have been
(u niform ) (Figure 1 4 .2 6 ).
put forward to exp lain and to allow o b jectiv e
C lu s te rin g occurs w hen all th e dots are very
com parisons to be m ade b etw een settlem ents
close to th e sam e p o in t. An exam p le o f this in
in d ifferent parts o f th e w orld, e.g. w ith in a
B ritain is 011 coalfield s w here m in in g villages
co u n try or betw een cou ntries.
tend ed to coalesce. In an extrem e case, Rn
N ea rest n e ig h b o u r a n a ly sis is a statistical
w ould be 0.
test to describe th e settle m e n t pattern .
R a n d o m d istributions occu r w here there
T h e r a n k -s iz e ru le seeks to find a n u m erical is n o p attern at all. Rn th e n equals 1.0. The
relatio n sh ip betw een th e p o p u latio n size
usual p attern for settle m e n t is one th a t is pre­
o f settlem en ts. d o m in a n tly rand om w ith a ten d en cy eith er
C e n tra l p la ce th e o r y is con cern ed w ith th e towards clusterin g or regularity.
fu n ctio n a l im p o rta n ce o f places. R egular patterns are perfectly uniform . If ever
■ G ra v ity m o d e ls seek to d eterm ine th e found in reality, they would have an Rn value
in te ra ctio n (i.e. m o vem en t) b etw een places.
of 2.15 w hich would m ean th at each dot (settle­
m ent) was equidistant from all its neighbours.
Nearest neighbour analysis The closest exam ple of this in Britain is the dis­
Settlem en ts o ften appear on m aps as dots. Dot tribution of market towns in East Anglia.
distributions are co m m o n ly used in geography,
y et th eir p atterns are o ften d ifficu lt to describe.
Using nearest neighbour analysis
Figure 1 4 .2 7 show s settlem en ts in part o f n o rth ­
Som etim es pattern s are obvious, such as w h en
east W arw ickshire and sou th-w est Leicestershire,
settlem en ts are extrem ely n u cleated or dispersed
an area o f th e English M idlands w here it m ight
(Figure 1 4 .2 6 ). As, in reality, th e p attern is likely
be exp ected th a t th ere w ould be evidence of
to lie b etw een these tw o extrem es, th e n any
regularity in th e d istrib u tion.
d escrip tion will be su bjective. O ne way in w h ich
1 The settlem ents in th e study area were located.
a p attern can be m easured o b je ctiv e ly is by using
(The m inim u m n um ber recom m ended for a
nearest n eig h b ou r analysis.
nearest neighbour analysis is 30.) Each settle­
T his te ch n iq u e was devised by a b o tan ist
m e n t was given a num ber.
w ho w ished to describe p attern s o f p lan t distri­
2 The nearest n eig h b ou r form ula was applied.
b u tio n s. It can be used to id en tify a te n d en cy
This form ula is:
towards n u cle a tio n (clustering) or d ispersion
for settlem en ts, shops, industry, etc., as well as Rn = 2 r f y ®
plants. N earest n eig h b o u r analysis gives a
w here:
precision th a t enables one region to be com pared
w ith a n o th er and allow s changes in d istribu­ Rn th e d escrip tion o f th e d istrib u tion
tio n to be com pared over a period o f tim e. It is, d th e m ean d istance betw een th e nearest
how ever, on ly a te ch n iq u e and th erefore does not neighbou rs (km)
offer any e x p la n a tio n o f patterns. th e n u m ber o f p o in ts (settlem ents) in
T h e form ula used in nearest n eig h b ou r a n a l­ th e study area
ysis produces a figure (expressed as Rn) w h ich A = th e area un der study (km 2).

Figure 14.26

Nearest neighbour
values (Rn)

Rn value 0 0.23 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.15

linear clustering

te n d e n cy to w ard s clustering te n d e n c y tow ards regularity

clustered < ' J \ regular
1 random
(nucleated) “ 1/ (uniform )
402
 :: neighbouranalysis:
ed example for part of
east Warwickshire and
.vest Leicestershire

e- Nearest
neigh- Distance
bour (km)
2 1.0
11 1I.Un

4 0.6

3 0.6

6 1.6

5 1.6

8 1.8

9 1.3

8 1.3

9 2.1

10 2.2
3 To find d , m easure th e straig ht-lin e distance 7 However, there is a p ossibility th a t this
13 2.2 b etw een each settle m e n t and its nearest p attern has occurred by ch a n ce. R eferring to
15 3.3 n eighbou r, e.g. settle m e n t 1 to 2, settlem en t Figure 1 4 .2 8 , it is ap p aren t th a t th e values of
2 to 1, settle m e n t 3 to 4, and so on. O ne Rn m u st lie outside th e shaded area before a
18 1.7
p o in t m ay have m ore th a n o n e nearest n e ig h ­ d istrib u tion o f clu sterin g or regularity can be
17 1.3
b ou r (settlem en t 8) and two p o in ts m ay be accepted as sig n ifican t. Values lying in th e
18 1.0 each other's nearest neighbou r (settlem ents shaded area at th e 95 per ce n t p ro bab ility
17 1.0 1 and 2). In th is exam p le, th e m ean distance level show a ran d om d istrib u tion . (N ote: w ith
16 3.0 b etw een all th e pairs o f nearest n eigh bou rs fewer th a n 3 0 settlem en ts, it b eco m es in creas­
was 1 .7 2 km - i.e. th e to tal d istance betw een ing ly d ifficu lt to say w ith an y co n fid en ce th a t
19 3.2
each pair (5 1 .7 km ) divided by th e n u m ber of th e d istrib u tion is clustered or regular.) The
22 1.6 p o in ts (30). graph confirm s th a t our Rn value o f 1.41 has
21 1.6 4 Find th e to ta l area o f th e m ap: a sig n ifica n t ele m e n t o f regularity.
24 2.1 i.e. 15 km x 12 km = 1 8 0 k m 2. How can th e nearest neighbour statistic be used to
5 C alcu late th e nearest n eig h b ou r statistic, Rn, com pare two or m ore distributions? Figure 14.28
25 1.1
by su b stitu ting th e form ula. This has already shows th e Rn value for three areas in England,
24 1.1
been d one in Figure 1 4 .2 7 and gives an Rn including th a t for our worked exam ple, the
25 1.5 value o f 1 .4 1 . English M idlands. The Rn statistic o f 1.57 for part
26 1.8 6 U sing th is Rn value, refer back to Figure 1 4 .2 6 o f East Anglia shows th a t th e area has a m ore pro­
to d eterm ine how clustered or regular is the nou nced pattern o f regularity th an th e M idlands.
27 2.5
p attern . A value o f 1.41 show s th a t th ere is An Rn value of 0 .6 1 for part o f th e D urham coal­
30 2.2
a fairly strong te n d en cy tow ards a regular field indicates th a t it has a significant ten d ency
29 2.2 p attern o f settlem en t. towards a clustered distribution.
Z51.7

|---- 1 range o f random m atching ,

I---- 1 (at the 9 5 % probability level) 1V Interpretation of Rn statistic:
. . i „ , significant values
significant elem en t o f 3
—1 | Y [ Rn for East Anglia regularity
J Rn in our exam ple ^
/

low est recom m ended \

number o f settlem ents significant elem en t of
[~Z~| Rn for Durham clustering

i i
\ 7
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
nu m b er o f points per pattern (n)
Settlement 403
 L im ita tio n s and p ro b le m s
As n o ted earlier, nearest n eig h b ou r analysis is a
useful statistical te ch n iq u e bu t it has to be used
w ith care. In particular, th e follow ing p o in ts
should be considered:
1 T h e size o f th e area ch o sen is critical.
C om parisons will be valid on ly if th e selected
areas are a sim ilar size.
2 T h e area ch o sen should n o t be to o large, as
th is lowers th e Rn value (i.e. it exaggerates
th e degree o f clusterin g), or to o sm all, as this
increases th e Rn value (i.e. it exaggerates th e
level o f regularity).
3 D isto rtion is likely to occu r in valleys, w here
nearest neigh bou rs m ay be separated by a
river, or w here spring-line settlem en ts are
found in a linear p attern as at th e fo o t o f a
scarp slope (Figures 8 .1 0 and 14.4).
4 W h ic h settle m e n t sizes are to be inclu ded ?
Are h am lets accep tab le, or is th e village to be
th e sm allest size? If so, w h en is a h a m let large
en ou g h to be called a village (page 3 9 3 )?
5 T here m ay be d ifficu lty in d eterm in in g th e
cen tre o f a settle m e n t for m easurem en t
purposes, esp ecially if it has a lin ear or a
loose-k n it m orphology.
6 T he b ou nd ary o f an area is sig n ifican t. If the
area is a sm all island or lies on an ou tcrop
o f a particu lar rock, th ere is little problem ;
The rank-size rule
1000 1000
900-
900 800-
700-
800 1 600-
700 1 3 500
_o
(thousands)
b u t if, as in Figure 1 4 .2 7 , th e area is part of
a larger region, th e bou nd aries m ust have
b ee n c h o se n arbitrarily (in th is in sta n ce by
pred eterm ined grid lines). In such a case, it
is likely th a t th e nearest n eig h b o u r o f some
o f th e p o in ts (e.g. n u m ber 20) will be o ff the
m ap. There is d isagreem en t as to w h eth er
th o se p o in ts nearest to th e b ou nd ary o f the
m ap should be inclu ded , but perhaps o f m ore
im p o rta n ce is th e need to be co n siste n t in
approach and to be aware o f th e problem s
and lim ita tio n s.
D espite these problem s, n earest n eig h b ou r an al­
ysis form s a useful basis for fu rther investigation
in to w hy an y clusterin g or regularity o f settle­
m e n t has taken place.
The rank-size rule
This is an attem pt to find a num erical relationship
betw een the population size of settlem ents withir.
an area such as a cou ntry or county. The rule states
th a t th e size o f settlem en ts is inversely p ro ­
p o rtio n a l to th e ir ran k . Settlem ents are ranked
in descending order o f population size, w ith the
largest city placed first. The assum ption is that
the second-ranked city will have a population
on e-h alf th a t o f th e first-ranked, the third-ranked
city a population one-third o f the first-ranked, the
fourth-ranked one-quarter o f the largest city,
and so on.
The rank-size rule is expressed by th e formula:
Pn
w here:
Pn = th e p o p u latio n o f th e city
PI = th e p o p u latio n o f th e largest
(prim ate) city
n (or R) = th e ran k -size o f th e city.
For exam p le, if th e largest city has a population
o f 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 , th e n :

th e second -largest city will be 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 + 2.

600 ■3 400 i.e. 500 000
1 th e third -largest city w ill be 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 -s- 3,
500 II
I 300 i.e. 333 333
population

\ th e fourth-largest city w ill be 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 -r 4,

400
\
Y: i.e. 2 5 0 0 0 0 .
If such a perfect negative relationship actually
300 200 occurred (Framework 19, page 612), it would
produce a steeply downward-sloping, sm ooth,
200
concave curve on an arithm etic graph (Figure
100 14.29a). However, it is m ore usual to plot the
rank-size distribution on a logarithm ic scale,
0 100 in w hich case the perfect negative relationship
2 3 4 5 6 7 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 would appear as a straight line sloping downwards
rank of city rank o f city (log) at an angle of 45° (Figure 14 .2 9 b ). Figure 14.30
shows the rank-size rule applied to Brazil.

404 Settlement
 Variations from the rank-size ru le
In reality, it is rare to find a close correlation
b etw een th e city size o f a co u n try and th e ra n k -
size rule. There are, how ever, tw o m a jo r varia­
tio n s from th e ran k -size rule.
1 P rim a te d is tr ib u tio n (urban prim acy)
is found w here th e largest city, o ften the
capital, com p letely d om in ates a co u n try or
region (in term s o f p o p u latio n size, eco n o m ic
d ev elop m en t, w ealth, services and cultural
activities). In such a case, th e p rim ate city will
have a p o p u latio n size m an y tim es greater
th a n th a t o f th e second -largest city (Lim a in
Figure 1 4 .3 1 ). M o n tevid eo in Uruguay is 17
tim es larger th a n th e second-largest c ity and
Lim a in Peru is 11 tim es larger th a n Arequipa.
2 B in a r y d is tr ib u tio n occurs w here th ere are
tw o very large cities o f alm ost equal size
w ith in th e sam e cou ntry : o n e m ay be the
capital and th e oth er th e c h ie f port or m ajor
indu strial cen tre. Exam ples o f b in ary d istribu­
tio n inclu d e M adrid and B arcelon a in Spain,
and Q uito and G uayaquil in Ecuador.
It has b een suggested (th ough there are m any
exceptions) th a t th e rank-size rule is m ore likely
Estimated population
Rank City Actual population according to rank-size rul
2007 R M B 1 (000s)
SaoPaulo 10239 -
to operate if th e co u n try is developed; has been
urbanised for a long tim e; is large in size; and
has a com plex and stable eco n o m ic and p olitical
organisation. In contrast, prim ate d istribution
is m ore likely to be found (also w ith exceptions,
in clu d in g France and Austria) in cou ntries w h ich
are sm all in size; less developed; form er colonies
of European cou ntries; on ly recently urbanised;
and w h ich have experienced recen t changes in
p olitical organisation and/or boundaries.
Two schools o f th o u g h t exist co n cern in g the
causes of variation in urban prim acy. O ne sug­
gests th a t as a city begins to d om inate a cou ntry it
attracts people, trade, industry and services at an
increasingly rapid rate and at the expense o f rival
cities (arguably this is m ore applicable to e co n o ­
m ically less developed countries). The oth er
claim s th a t as a cou n try becom es m ore urbanised
and industrialised, th e grow th o f several cities
tends to be stim ulated, thus reducing th e im p ort­
ance o f the prim ate city (arguably m ore applicable
to econ om ically m ore developed countries where
som e o f the largest cities are now experiencing
urban depopulation, page 365).
The rank-size rule applied
to Brazil. Population refers to

2 Rio de Janeiro 6094 5120

3 Salvador 2891 3413
4 Fortaleza 2431 2560
Belo Horizonte 2413 2048
i Brasilia 2349 1707
7 Curitiba 1797 1463
I Manaus 1602 1280
Recife 1534 1138
"8 rank o f city
Belem 1400 1024

USA 2007 Italy 2007 Peru 2007 Japan 2007

actual population (000s) actual population (000s) actual population (000s) actual population (000s)
New York 8275 Roma 2706 Lima 8473 Tokyo 8536
Los Angeles 3834 Milano 1303 Arequipa 749 Yokohama 3603
Chicago 2837 Napoli 975 Trujillo 683 Osaka 2635
Houston 2208 Torino 901 Chiclayo 524 Nagoya 2223

Phoenix 1552 Palermo 667 Piura 377 Sapporo 1889

Philadelphia 1450 Genova 616 Iquitos 371 Kobe 1529
San Antonio 1329 Bologna 373 Cusco 349 Kyoto 1473
San Diego 1267 Firenze 366 Chimbote 335 Fukuoka 1414
Dallas 1241 Bari 325 Huancayo 323 Kawasaki 1183
Detroit 917 Catania 302 Tacna 242 Hiroshima 1158

Est cities in four selected countries.

Settlement 405
. rio n refers to city, not metropolitan area
 Distance Sphere of
Size, spacing and Central place Population apart (km) influence (km2) Functions (services)
functions of
settlements
Village 1000 7 45 church, post office, shop, junior school

Smalltown 20000 21 415 shops, churches, senior school, bank, doctor

Large town 100000 35 1200 shopping centre, small hospital, banks, senior schoc ;

City 500000 100 12000 shopping complex, cathedral, large hospital, footba
team, large bus and rail station, cinemas, theatre

Conurbation 1 million 200 35 000 shopping complexes, several CBDs

Capital or primate city several million - whole country government offices, all other functions
Notes: The distances and service areas have been taken from Christaller's work in southern Germany (1933) with, in some cases, a rounding-off of figures fc
simplicity. The population figures and functions are more applicable to the UK and the present time. Populations, distances and service areas vary betwee"
and within countries and should be taken as comparative and approximate rather than absolute. All places in the hierarchy have all the services ofthe set­
tlements below them.

Central place theory

A c e n tr a l p la c e is a settlem en t th a t provides
goods and services. It m ay vary in size from a
sm all village to a co n u rb a tio n or prim ate city
(Figures 1 4 .3 2 and 1 4 .3 3 ) and form s a lin k in
a hierarchy. T he area around each settlem en t
w h ich com es under its e co n o m ic, social and
p o litical in flu en ce is referred to as its sp h ere
o f in flu e n c e , u r b a n fie ld or h in te r la n d . The
e x te n t of th e sphere o f in flu e n ce will depend
u p on th e spacing, size and fu n ctio n s o f th e
surrou nding cen tral places.
Functional hierarchies
Four g eneralisations m ay be m ade regarding the
spacing, size and fu n ctio n s o f settlem en ts:
1 The larger th e settlem ents are in size, the fewei
in num ber they will be, i.e. there are m any
small villages, but relatively few large cities.
2 The larger th e settlem ents grow' in size, the
greater th e distance betw een them , i.e. village:
are usually found close together, w hile cities
are spaced m u ch fu rther apart.
3 As a settle m e n t increases in size, th e range
and n u m ber of its fu n ctio n s will increase
(Figure 14 .3 3 ).
4 As a settlem en t increases in size, th e num ber
o f higher-ord er services will also increase,
i.e. a greater degree o f sp ecialisation occurs
in th e services (Figure 14 .3 2).

Settlement hierarchy: the

relationship between size
and function
capital/prim ate high-order
settlem ents
anom aly, w ith m ore
T3 functions than average
> (seaside resort)
cities
X

•• •
large towns middle-order

•• settlem ents
••
••
• • small to w n s
X
•• anom aly, w ith few er
functions than average
(dorm itory to w n )
C
low-order
ham lets settlem ents

settlement population size

406 Settlement

u
c Changes in population size and number
i/i
C
o Figure 1 4 .3 4 show s th a t over th e last 5 0 years in
u
c th e UK th ere has b ee n a decrease in th e nu m ber
D
o o f services available in sm all settlem en ts and an
cu
jQ
E by large settlem en ts. This m ay be due to m an y
D
C
settlem en t size (increases) -------►
lure 14.34
ationship between The range a n d threshold of c e n tra l place
e number of functions functions
dsettlement size in C e n tra l p la ce fu n c tio n s are activities, m ain ly
; JK, 1940and 2008 wjth in th e tertiary sector, th a t m arket goods and
services from cen tral places for th e b en e fit of
local cu stom ers and clien ts drawn from a wider
h in terla n d . T h e ra n g e o f a good or service is th e
m axim u m distance th a t people are prepared
to travel to o b ta in it. It is d ep end en t u p on the
value o f th e good, th e len g th of th e journey,
and th e frequen cy th a t th e service is needed.
People are n o t prepared to travel as far to bu y a
new spaper (a low -order item ), w h ich th e y need
daily, as th e y are to bu y fu rniture (a high -ord er
item ), w h ich th e y m ig h t purchase o n ly o n ce
every several years. Low -order fu n ctio n s, such
as corn er shops and prim ary schools, need to be
spaced closely to g eth er as people are less w illing
and less able to travel far to use th em . H igh-order
fu n ctio n s, such as regional shopp ing centres
and hospitals, are likely to be w idely spaced as
people are m ore prepared to travel consid erable
d istances to th e m (page 4 3 2 ).
T h e th r e s h o ld o f a good or service is th e
m in im u m n u m ber o f people required to support
it. It is assum ed, in co rrectly in practice, th a t
people will always use th e service located nearest
to th e m (th e nearest superstore). As a rule, th e
m ore specialised th e service, th e greater th e
n u m ber o f people needed to m ake it profitable
or viable. It has b ee n suggested th at, in th e UK,
ab ou t 3 0 0 people are necessary for a village shop,
5 0 0 for a prim ary sch oo l, 2 5 0 0 for a doctor,
10 0 0 0 for a sen ior sch oo l or a sm all chem ist's
shop, 25 0 0 0 for a shoe shop, 5 0 0 0 0 for a sm all
d ep artm en t store, 6 0 0 0 0 for a large superm arket,
100 0 0 0 for a large d ep artm en t store, an d over
1 m illio n for a university. Services locate w here
th ey can m axim ise th e nu m ber o f people in their
c a tch m e n t area and m axim ise th e d istan ce from
th e ir nearest rival. T h resh old analysis was used
by plann ers o f B ritish new tow ns w h o equated,
for exam p le, 2 0 0 0 0 people w ith a cin em a,
10 0 0 0 people w ith a sw im m ing pool and
1 0 0 0 0 0 people w ith a th eatre.
of functions
increase in th e n u m ber o f fu n ctio n s provided
factors, for exam ple:
Sm all villages are n o lon g er able to support
th eir form er fu n ctio n s (village shop) as th e
greater w ealth and m o b ility (car ow nership)
o f som e rural p op u lations enable th e m to
travel further to larger cen tres w here th e y can
o b ta in , in a single visit, b o th h ig h - and low-
order goods (Places 50, page 3 9 9 ).
D om estic changes (deep freezers, con v enience
foods) m ean th a t rural hou seh old ers need no
lon g er m ake use o f daily, low -order services
previously available in th e ir village.
■ As larger settlem en ts attract an in creas­
ingly larger th resh o ld p op u lation, th e y can
increase th e variety and nu m ber o f fu n ctio n s
and, b y reducing costs (superm arkets), are
likely to attract even m ore custom ers.
In areas e x p e rie n cin g rural d ep o p u latio n ,
v illag es m ay n o lo n g er have a p o p u la tio n
large en o u g h to m a in ta in ex istin g services.
C h ris ta lle r's m o d e l o f c e n tra l p laces
W alter C h ristaller was a G erm an w h o, in 1933,
published a b ook in w h ich he attem p ted to d em ­
on strate a sense o f order in th e spacing and fu n c­
tio n o f settlem en ts. He suggested th a t th ere was a
p attern in th e d istrib u tion and lo ca tio n
o f settlem en ts o f d ifferen t sizes and also in the
ways in w h ich th e y provided services to th e
in h a b ita n ts living w ith in th eir sphere o f in flu ­
en ce. Regardless o f th e level o f service provided,
h e term ed each settle m e n t a c e n tra l p lace.
A lthough C h ristaller's c e n tra l p lace th e o ry was
based upon inv estig ation s in sou thern G erm any,
and it was n o t tran slated in to E nglish u n til 1966,
his w ork has co n trib u ted a great deal to the
search for order in th e study o f settlem en ts.
T he tw o principles underlying C h ristaller's
th e o ry were th e ran g e and th e th re sh o ld of
goods and services. He m ade a set o f assum p­
tion s w h ich were sim ilar to th o se o f tw o earlier
G erm an eco n o m ists, vo n T h iin en (agricultural
land use m odel, page 4 7 1 ) and W eber (industrial
lo ca tio n theory, page 5 5 7 ).
Settlement 407
 Som e cen tral places offered on ly low -order
central places
goods, for w h ich p eople were n o t prepared
b o u n d ary of
to travel far, and so had a sm all sphere of
trad e areas
in flu en ce. O ther cen tral places offered
areas unserved
by any central
higher-ord er goods, for w h ich people would
place travel further, and so th e y had m u ch larger
areas served by spheres o f in flu en ce. T h e higher-ord er centr
b overlapping circles m ore than one places provided b o th higher-ord er and lowei
central place
order goods.
No excess p ro fit w ould be m ade b y any one
cen tral place, and each w ould locate as far
first-order away as possible from a rival to m axim ise
(low est) profits.
settlem ent,
T h e ideal shape for th e sphere o f in flu en ce of
e.g. village
a cen tral place is circular, as th e n th e distances
second-order from it to all p o in ts o n th e b ou n d ary are equal.
settlem ent,
If th e circles to u ch at th eir circum ferences, they
e.g. to w n
c the construction of leave gaps w h ich are unserved by any central
hexagonal trading
d the resultant hexagonal areas
place (Figure 1 4 .3 5 a ); if th e circles are drawn so
areas
th a t th ere are n o gaps, th e y necessarily overlap
Figure 14.35 T hese assum p tions were: (Figure 1 4 .3 5 b ) - w h ich also violates th e basic
T here was u n b o u n d ed fla t land so th a t assum p tions o f th e m odel. To overcom e this
Constructing spheres
of influence around tra n sp o rt was eq u a lly easy and ch ea p in all problem , th e overlapping circles are m odified :
settlements (after d irectio n s. T ran sp o rt costs were p ro p o rtio n a l b eco m e to u ch in g h exag o n s (Figure 1 4 .3 5 c ). A
Christaller) to d istan ce fro m th e ce n tra l place and th ere h exa g o n is alm ost as efficie n t as a circle in tern;
was o n ly o n e fo rm o f tran sp ort. o f accessibility from all p o in ts o f th e plain and
P opu lation was evenly distributed across th e is consid erably m ore e fficie n t th a n a square or
plain. triangle (Figure 1 4 .3 5 d ). A h exag o n al pattern
Resources were evenly distributed across the also produces th e ideal shape for superim posin,
plain. th e trad ing areas o f central places w ith different
Goods and services were always obtained from levels o f fu n ctio n - th e village, tow n and city
th e nearest central place so as to m inim ise o f C h ristaller's hierarchy. Figure 1 4 .3 6 shows a
distance travelled, i.e. th e assumed rational large trade area for a third -order cen tral place, a
behaviour th a t all consum ers will m inim ise sm aller trade area for th e six second -order centr,
their travel in th e pursuit o f goods and services. places, and even sm aller trade areas for th e 24
All custom ers had th e sam e pu rchasin g pow er first-order cen tral places.
(in com e) and m ade sim ilar dem ands for By arranging th e h exag o n s in d ifferent ways,
goods. C h ristaller was able to produce th ree different
p attern s o f service or trad ing areas. He called
14.36
these k = 3, k = 4 and k = 7, w here k is th e nu m b
Christaller's central of places d ep end en t u p on th e n ext-h igh est-
places and spheres
order cen tral place.
of influence
T h e follow ing should be n o ted at th is point
W h ere k = 3, th e trade area o f th e th ird -ord e
(i.e. hig h est) cen tral place is th ree tim es the
area o f th e second-order cen tral place, whic.
in tu rn is th ree tim es larger th a n th e trade
area o f th e first-order (low est) cen tral place.
W here k = A, th e trade area o f th e third -orde
cen tral place is four tim es th e area o f the
second -order cen tral place, w h ich is four
central place sphere of influence tim es larger th a n th e trade area o f th e first-
order cen tral place.
(D ______third-order
settlem ents = 1 • W here k = 7, th e trade area of each order is
( 2) ______ second-order seven tim es greater th a n th e order b eneath
settlem ents = 6

.'j ______ first-order

settlem en t = 24

408

Christaller's k = 3
T h e arran gem ent o f th e h exag o n s in th is case
is th e sam e as given in Figure 1 4 .3 6 and th e
exp lan a tio n o f how k = 3 is reached is show n in
Figure 1 4 .3 7 , w here:
A is th e central place or third-order settlem ent
B, C, D, E, F and G are 6 second-order settle­
m ents surrounding A
U, V, W ,X , Y and Z are som e o f th e 2 4 first-
order settlem en ts w h ich lie b etw een A and
th e second -order settlem ents.
It is assumed th a t one-third o f th e in h ab itan ts of
Y w ill go to A to shop, on e-th ird to D and on e-
th ird to E. Sim ilarly, o n e-th ird o f people liv in g at
X will shop at A, one-third at D and one-third at C.
This m eans th a t A will take on e-th ird o f th e
cu stom ers from each o f U, V, W, X , Y and Z
(6 x j = 2) plus all o f its ow n cu stom ers (1). In
to tal, A th erefore serves th e equ iv alen t o f th ree
cen tral places (2 + 1).
C h ristaller based th e k = 3 p attern o n a
m a r k e tin g p r in c ip le w h ich m ax im ises th e
re 14.38 n u m b er o f cen tral places and th u s brings th e
~aller's/f=4
supply o f h ig h er-o rd er goods an d services as
close as possible to all th e d ep en d en t s e ttle ­
m e n ts and th erefo re to th e in h a b ita n ts o f th e
trad e area.
k=4
In th is case, th e size o f th e h e x a g o n is slig h tly
larger and it has b een re-o rien ted (Figure 1 4 .3 8 ).
T h e first-ord er settle m e n ts, again labelled U,
V, W, X, Y and Z, are n ow located at th e m id ­
p o in ts o f th e sides o f th e h e x a g o n in stea d o f at
th e apexes as in k = 3. C u stom ers fro m Y n ow
h av e a c h o ic e o f o n ly tw o m arkets, A and N, and
it is assum ed th a t h a lf o f th o se cu stom ers w ill
go to A and h a lf to N. Sim ilarly, h a lf o f th e cu s­
to m ers from X w ill go to A and th e o th er h a lf
to M. A will th erefo re take h a lf o f th e cu stom ers
from each o f th e six se ttle m e n ts at U, V, W, X,
Y an d Z (6 x j = 3) plus all o f its ow n cu stom ers
(1) to serve th e eq u iv a le n t o f four ce n tra l places
(3 + 1). T h is p a ttern is based on a tra ffic p rin ­
cip le , w h ereby travel b etw een tw o ce n tres is
m ade as easy and as ch ea p as p ossible. T h e
ce n tra l places are lo ca ted so th a t th e m ax im u m
n u m b er m ay lie o n routes b etw een th e larger
settle m e n ts.
k =7
Here th e p attern show s th e sam e h igh-order
cen tral place, A, b u t all th e low er-order set­
tlem en ts, U, V, W, X, Y and Z, lie w ith in th e
h exa g o n or trade area (Figure 1 4 .3 9 ). In th is case,
all o f th e custom ers from th e six sm aller settle­
m en ts will go to A (6 x 1 = 6), to g eth er w ith all
o f t h e in h a b ita n ts o f A (1). This m eans th a t A
serves seven cen tral places (6 + 1). As th is system
m akes it efficie n t to organise or co n tro l several
places, and as th e loyalties o f th e in h a b ita n ts of
th e low er-order settlem en ts to a h ig h er o n e are
n o t divided, it is referred to as the a d m in istrativ e
p rin cip le.
Settlement 409
 W hy, w ith th e possible excep tion o f th e
reclaim ed D utch polders, can n o perfect exam p le
of C h ristaller's m odel be found in the real w orld?
The answ er lies m ain ly in th e basic assum p tions
of th e m odel.
Large areas of flat land rarely exist and th e
presence o f relief barriers or routes along
valleys m eans th a t tran sport is ch ann elled
in certain directions. There is m ore th an one
form o f transport; costs are n o t proportional to
distance; and b o th systems and types of tran s­
port have changed since Christaller's day.
People and w ealth are n o t evenly distributed.
People do n o t always go to th e nearest central
place - for exam ple, th e y m ay ch oo se to
travel m u ch fu rther to a new edge-of-city
hyperm arket.
People do n o t all have th e sam e p u rchasin g
power, or needs.
G ov ern m en ts often have co n tro l over th e
lo ca tio n o f indu stry and o f new tow ns.
Perfect co m p etitio n is unreal and som e firm s
m ake greater profits th a n others.
C hristaller saw each central place as h av in g a
particu lar fu n ctio n w hereas, in reality, places
m ay have several fu n ctio n s w h ich can change
over tim e.
T he m odel does n o t seem to fit industrial
areas, alth ou g h th ere is som e correlation
w ith flat farm ing areas in East Anglia, the
N eth erlan d s and th e C an ad ian Prairies.
C h ristaller has, how ever, provided us w ith an
o b jectiv e m odel w ith w h ich we can test th e real
world. His th eories have helped geographers and
p lanners to locate new services such as retail
ou tlets and roads.
Interaction or gravity models
T hese m odels, derived from N ew ton's law of
gravity, seek to predict th e degree o f in te ra ctio n
b etw een tw'o places. N ew ton's law states th a t:
'Any two bodies attract one another w'ith a
force th at is proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square
of the distance betw een them .'
W h e n used geographically, th e words 'b od ies'
and 'm asses' are replaced b y 'to w n s' and 'p o p u la­
tio n ' respectively.
T he in te ra ctio n m odel in geography is th e re ­
fore based up on th e idea th a t as th e size o f one
or b o th o f th e tow7ns increases, there will also
be an increase in m o v e m e n t b etw een th e m . The
fu rther apart th e tw o tow7ns are, how ever, th e less
will be th e m o v em en t b etw een th em . This p h e­
n o m en o n is know n as d is ta n c e d eca y .
410 Settlement
This m odel can be used to estim ate:
1 traffic flows (page 4 f 1)
2 m igration b etw een tw o areas
3 th e n u m ber o f people likely to use one centr;
place, e.g. a shopp ing area, in preference to a
rival cen tral place.
It can also be used to determ ine the sphere of influ
ence of each central place by estim ating where the
b rea k in g p o in t betw een two settlem ents will be,
i.e. the point at w hich customers find it preferable
because of distance, tim e and expense considera­
tions, to travel to one centre rather th an the other.
Reilly's law of retail gravitat on (1 93 7)
Reilly's in te ra ctio n b reak in g -p o in t is a m ethod
used to draw b ou n d ary lines show ing th e limit?
o f th e trad ing areas o f tw o a d jacen t tow ns or
shop p ing centres. His law states that:
'Two cen tres attract trade from interm ediate
places in d irect p ro p ortio n to the size o f the
cen tres and in inverse p ro p ortio n to the
square o f th e d istances from th e tw o centre?
to th e in term ed iate place.'
U nlike Christaller, Reilly suggested th at there wer
no fixed trade areas, th a t these areas could varv is
size and shape, and th a t they could overlap.
This can be expressed b y th e form ula:
D ab
Db =
or sim ilarly
dij
djk = -
1 +■
w here:
D b (or djk) = th e break in g-p o in t betw een
tow ns A and B
D a b (or d ij) = th e distance (or tim e) betwet
tow ns A and B
P a (or Pi) = th e p o p u latio n o f tow n A (th
larger tow n)
Pb (or Pj) = th e p o p u latio n o f tow n B (th
sm aller tow n).
Taking as an exam p le G rim sby-C leeth o rp es
w h ich has a p o p u latio n o f 131 0 0 0 and LincoL
71 km away, w ith a p o p u latio n o f 75 0 0 0 , the
form u la can be w ritten as:
71
Db =
1 + 131000
75 0 0 0
w h ich m eans th a t
 total distance 71 km
y's breaking-point
ween settlements of
erent sizes, applied to
:h Lincolnshire to w n A
131 OOO
-40.42 km-
(G rim sby-Cleethorpes)
Peo ple this side of
X Y w ill shop at Town A
(G rim sby-C leethorpes)
71
Db =
f + 1 .3 2
D b = 3 0 .5 8
Thus th e breaking-point is 3 0 .5 8 km from Lincoln
(tow n B) and 4 0 .4 2 km from Grim sby-Cleethorpes
(tow n A). This is show n in Figure 14.40.
Limitations o f R eilly's model
As w ith o th er m odels, Reilly's m odel is based on
assum p tions w h ich are n o t always applicable to
th e real world. In th is case, th e assum p tions are
th at:
th e larger th e tow n, th e stronger its attractio n
people shop in a logical way, seeking th e
cen tre w h ich is nearest to th em in term s of
tim e and d istance.
T hese assum p tions m ay n o t always be true. For
exam p le:
th ere m ay be traffic co n g estio n o n th e w ay to
th e larger tow n and, on ce there, car parking
m ay be m ore d ifficu lt and expensive
■ th e sm aller tow n m ay have fewer b u t b etter-
q u ality shops
th e sm aller cen tre m ay be cleaner, m ore
m od ern , safer and less congested, and
th e sm aller tow n m ay advertise its services
m ore effectively.
A variation o n R eilly's law of retail
gravitation
Like cen tral place theory, Reilly's law seem s to
fit rural areas b etter th an closely packed, densely
populated urban areas. O n e o f several v ariations
on Reilly's law o f retail g rav itation is based on
th e draw ing pow er o f shop p ing cen tres (i.e. th e
nu m ber and type o f shops in each) rath er th an
distance betw een th e two tow ns. (O ther variations
in clu d e retail floorspace and retail sales.)
T h e version based o n th e draw ing pow er of
shop p in g centres has th e form ula:
D ab
Db =
breaking-point
town 6
75 000
-30.58 km-
(Lincoln)
Peo ple this side of
X Y will shop at Tow n I
0
(Lincoln)
w here:
Sa = th e nu m ber o f shops in tow n A
Sb = th e nu m ber o f shops in tow n B.
Referring to our original exam ple, suppose
G rim sby-C leethorpes has 8 0 0 shops and Lincoln
has 3 0 0 shops. The form ula could th e n be w ritten:
71
Db =
Db = 27
This m eans th a t ou t o f every 71 shoppers, 4 4
w ould go to G rim sby -C leeth o rp es and 2 7
to L incoln .
In reality, the com petitive com m ercial rela­
tionships betw een urban centres can change over
a period o f tim e. On Humberside, for exam ple,
there have been the effects o f th e op ening o f the
Humber Bridge on places either side o f th e estuary,
the construction o f the M 62 and M l 8 0 m o to r­
ways, and th e d evelopm ent of new out-of-tow n
shopping centres (pages 4 3 3 and 45 8 ).
Measuring settlement patterns:
conclusion
N earest n eig h b ou r analysis, th e rank-size rule,
C h ristaller's cen tral place th eo ry and th e in te r­
actio n m odels are all d ifficu lt to observe in th e
real w orld. Their value lies in th e fact th a t th ey
form h y p otheses against w h ich reality ca n be
tested - provided you do n o t seek to m a k e reality
fit th e m (Fram ew ork 10, page 2 9 9 )! Also, th ey
offer o b je ctiv e m eth o d s o f m easuring differences
b etw een real-w orld places. W h e n th e o ry and
reality diverge, th e geographer ca n search for an
exp la n a tio n for th e differences. An im p o rta n t
shared ch aracteristic o f these approaches is th a t
th ey aim to find order in spatial distributions.
Settlement 411

A Cam bourne-a new
village in England
1998: the plan
W ork began in late 1998 on a ne w village
in S outh C am bridgeshire to be called
C am b ourne (Figure 14.41). Eventually
8000 people w ill live here, in 3300 houses
(up to 900 o f w hich w ill be'affordable
homes'), w hich are to be b uilt over 12 years.
C am bourne, w hich covers 400 hectares, w ill
be laid o u t as thre e distinct villages (Figure
14.43), each w ith its o w n central green (Figure
14.42) and separated by tw o small valleys th a t
w ill provide open space and leisure am eni­
ties. There w ill also be a church, tw o prim ary
schools, a library, 18 hectares o f playing fields,
a m ulti-p u rp ose sports centre, a health centre,
police and fire stations.The developers have
agreed to provide funds fo r a park and ride
schem e, cycle tracks and a bus service.The
d e ve lo p m e n t aim s to enhance the en viron­
m e n t by including 69 hectares o f planted
w ood land , 56 hectares fo r a ne w C oun try
Park, and th e construction o f a series o f lakes.
It is hoped th a t a new 20 hectare business
park w ill eventually create up to 3000 new
jobs, m any o f w hich, as th e village is so close
to Cam bridge, are likely to be high-tech
(Places 86, page 566). In tim e, th e A428 arterial
route linking C am b ourne to C am bridge w ill
becom e a dual-carriageway.
| Figure 14.41
Lower Cambourne: houses
412 Settlement
Settlement change
2008: the reality
C am b ourne has, in som e ways, becom e a
unique typ e o f se ttle m e n t in th a t th e plan­
ners have m anaged to create a village envi­
ro n m e n t w ith th e facilities o f a small to w n .
An evaluation by C am bridge Architectural
Research ktd (2007) concluded th a t th e se ttle­
m e n t had th e advantages o f being less co n­
gested, polluted and noisy than Cam bridge;
had cheaper, new er and a w id er choice o f
houses; had easy access to th e countryside,
a dual-carriagew ay and m ainline stations;
and had, despite a bad press, less crim e and
antisocial behaviour. Residents appreciate
th e green space and lakes th a t have been
incorporated in to th e schem e and perceive it
to be a safe place to raise a fam ily. In contrast,
there is less choice in shops and few er public
tran sp ort op tions th a n in C am bridge; som e
residents, especially those w ith o u t children
or a reason to mix, feel isolated; there is less
civic pride and an obvious lack of history or
a sense o f belonging; is n o t large enoug h for
a secondary school (needs a pop ulation o f
6000) and - a key issue - there is a lack o f loca
jo b opportunities.
By early 2008,2600 houses had been
built, o f w hich alm ost 30 p e rc e n t were
'affordable! By th a t date, house-building
in Great C am bourne should have been
com p leted and th e first house in Upper
C am b ourne should be occupied. C am bourne
(Figure 14.43) has prim ary schools in Lower
and Great C am bourne and a
clay nursery. M orrisons super­
m arket and several o th e r retai
outlets, including a pharmacy,
occupy sites in th e FHigh Street (w hich is in
Great C am bourne), along w ith an estate
agent's, a petrol station and the M onkfield
Arm s pub.The m edical practice and public
library share Sackville House, and th e village
also has a dental practice and a new c h urc'
The landscaped business park, in th e n o rth ­
w est corner near to th e interchange w ith T
A428 dual-carriageway, em ploys over 1001
people and includes th e new offices fo r Sc j
C am bridgeshire District Council. C a m b o u "
has a 4-star hotel w ith 120 bedroom s and a
leisure com plex, as w ell as a fully equippec
sports centre and c o m m u n ity centre, b o t1"
recently opened. An eco-park has segregase
areas for th e under 4s and 4 - 1 0-year-olds as
w ell as a'teenage h a n g out'.Th ere is also a
large sports field, skateboard park and g olf
course.The co u n try park has lakes, w hich
provide o p p o rtu n itie s fo r fishing, a w e tla r e
habitat fo r w ildlife, and large w ood e d area;
The future
It was planned, before th e recent slum p
h o use-b uild ing , to co m p le te th e last house
by 2010. H ow ever, an o u tlin e p lanning a ; ::
cation fo r 950 ad d itional hom es in LJpper
C am b ourne has been lodged, 40 p e rc e r:
w h ic h w o u ld be affordable. If successful.':
w o u ld increase th e final n u m b e r o f hom es
in C am b ourne to 4 2 50.The ap p lication fc -
low ed a g o v e rn m e n t d irective a llow in g
housing densities to increase fro m 25 to 3 1
per hectare in an a tte m p t to provide m ore
hom es in so uth -ea st England (p a g e 400). :
also hoped th a t a w id e r range o f hig h sree
shops w ill be available by 2010.
Upper Cambourne:
village green 2008
 fifHtl t nI- |Hlm,U y >I imii I

^ 2 ) Vines Inter church prim ary school

(V ) D ay nursery

(7 ) M orrisons and High Street

( j f ) Sackville House (m edical practice

and public library)

( 7 ) Dental practice

( 7 ) Church

( 7 ) Business park

( 7 ) Sou th C am bridgeshire DC offices

(T o ) Hotel

( n ) Sports centre and playing fields

(T 2) C o m m u n ity centre

(T 3) Eco-park

( 14) Sports field

( T i ) Skatebo ard park

(T S ) G o lf course

(T 7 ) C o un try park

(T ? ) W o o d la n d

(T ? ) Cricket ground

( 20) & ( 2 ? ) Allotm ents

Bourne
Brook
WMBMi Settlement change

the cou'tyard

B H u a L o n g - a v illa g e
in C h in a
Hua Long is situated in the province of
Sichuan, 280 krn from Chengdu and 180
km from the Yangtze port of Chongqing.
Like many other villages in the area it dates
from the later Ming period (1550-1644).
Between that time and the 1990s, little
changed.Today, some 2000 people
ive in the village, which is fairly
small by Chinese standards. Hua
Long is linear in shape with most
of its buildings strung out along
the wide, but poorly maintained,
'main'road which passes through
it (Figure 14.47).
Most families in Hua Long are
lack of running water and sewerage, and storing crops, or as a social meeting-place.
the presence of several pigs, there is no The houses are soon to be pulled down
smell.The wooden or mud-bricked houses (the families visited by the author in 1999
have tiled roofs and shutters, or iron bars, wanted copies ofthe photos shown here
across openings that served as windows. as mementoes), and although many oft^e
There are no chimneys. Central to the occupants will be sad to iose their an cesr;
courtyard is an area for collecting house- home, they are looking forward to living
holB/vaste that can be fed to the pigs.The modern, brick-built houses with water ar :
remainder ofthe area is used for drying and electricity.
Each house has an M ost houses have w o o d e n walls and a sloping
outside line used for tiled roof; no chimneys; w in do w s have no glass, individu
drying clothes or crops. but have shutters or iron bars. houses
Each adult has
w ash area;
18 m 2 of
grain storage
farm land.
M rsTaihua Long s

farmers (Sichuan is known as the concrete yard w ith 1 or 2 steps up into fam ily has 3 adu ~
houses; used for drying and storing food (land = 54 m 2);t‘
'rice bowl of China'), working long
also have 3 pigs a
hours at little more than a subsist­ several chickens
ence level (page 477). Many live and ducks.
food w aste
in farmhouses which are usually collected here
grouped together, in typica for th e pigs

Chinese fashion, around a central

courtyard. Around the courtyard
inside wall built of
shown in Figure 14.44 are 13 doors, concrete blocks
signifying 13 families (Figure 14.45).
The address of this group of families pig sties - pigs eat food waste and

- a legacy ofthe commune clays provide slurry for th e fields wash area

ofthe 1960 and 1970s (Places 63,

page 468), is Group 4Team 1. Most
w ater
to Dazu 20 km front wall m ade
ofthe families (Figure 14.46) have from the river 0.25 km away centre of
o f m ud blocks
lived in these one-roomed houses r o a d village

for several generations. Despite the

Courtyard plan

414 Settlement
 Settlement change

■and behind village

Figures 14.44, pre-1980 buildings
prim ary bank village m eeting hal.
: •'armhouses built 14.45,14.46 school (1980s) (Party m eetings)
; Dund a central post-1980 buildings
/ / old farm house old-style shops:
courtyard area
—a / w o o d e n w alls,tiled roofs old farm house
not draw n to scale

no drains, no pavem ents

: gure 14.49 old farm house 2 storeys 3 storeys
main road - wide, but poorly maintained
: Dazu

n e w p ave m e n t w ith ne w
step up from road
shops m odern house:
w ooden , 2 storeys,
Figure 14.48
upstairs verandah,
n e w ly built shops w ith sloping tiled roof
hom es ab o ve;co n cre te
□
older shops: w o o d en sm aller
blocks lined w ith tiles,flat
roofs; sell furniture,fruit
w ith tiled roofs;sell
hardw are and local
□ farm houses
river: w a ter used for washing,
and vegetables; also an irrigation and, often,for drinking
farm produce
animal d octor
farm land behind village

(Figure 14.48) where newly rehoused people
live above shops and small workshops,
and several new detached houses (signs
of Increasing wealth among a few ofthe
inhabitants).
In contrast, the Yangs live, with their
two children, in a large, two-year-old brick
farmhouse built on the outskirts ofthe
village (Figure 14.49). Mr Yang is a farmer,
but he also operates a trishaw 'taxi' in
New shops and houses
the nearby town Dazu.
Plan of Hua Long
The family saved enough
money, and borrowed the
rest from Mr Yang's cousin, to replace their
old wooden farm with a seven-roomed,
double-storeyed house (though some
rooms are only used for storing crops, and
furniture is sparse).The Yangs claim that
most people in the village are better off and
much happier than they were 20 years ago
(Figure 16.8).
Even so, some are likely to have joined
China's 150 million migrant workers who
have left villages such as Hua Long to seek
better-paid jobs in the coastal cities (Case
Study 19).

mg » B |
A new farmhouse *'

Settlement 415
F u rth e r re fe re n c e
Bradford, M.G. and Kent, W.A. (1977) Cam bourne: Future o f rural England:
Human Geography: Theories and Their
'■'0 www.cambourne-uk.com/ http://rurainet.org.uk/
Applications, Oxford University Press. C ountryside Agency, UK N ational Parks G retton: a N ortham ptonsh ire village:
Roberts, B. (1987) The Making o f the and regional sites: www.grettonvillage.org.uk/
English Village, Longman. www.naturalengland.co.uk M ilton Keynes:
W ilson, J.G . (1984) Statistics in Geography Early civilisation in Crete: www.mkweb.co.uk/
for A Level Students, Schofield and Sims. www.dilos.com/region/crete/kn_01.
htm l

Questions & Activities

Activities
W h a t is th e m e a n in g of: M a n y t o w n s a n d c itie s in t h e U K h a v e c h a n g e d
t h e ir f u n c t io n s m a n y t im e s s in c e t h e y w e r e first
i t h e 's i t e 'o f a s e t t le m e n t (I mark)
b u ilt. T h is h a s o ft e n c a u s e d s e rio u s p la n n in g
ii t h e 's i t u a t i o n 'o f a s e t t le m e n t ? (1 mark) p r o b le m s b e c a u s e t h e o r ig in a l s ite s a re n o t s u it a b le
In t h e p a s t v a r io u s fa c t o r s h a d to b e c o n s id e r e d fo r t h e m o d e r n fu n c t io n s o f t h e s e t t le m e n t . N a m e
b y p e o p le s e e k in g a s e t t le m e n t site. E x p la in w h a t o n e t o w n o r c it y in t h e U K t h a t h a s p r o b le m s c a u s e d
e a c h o f t h e f o llo w in g te r m s m e a n s , a n d w h y e a c h b y its o r ig in a l site.
t y p e o f site w a s s o m e t im e s c h o s e n fo r s e t t le m e n t s :
i D e s c r ib e t h e site, a n d e x p la in w h y it w a s
i a w e t p o in t site (2 marks) o r ig in a lly c h o s e n . (4 marks
ii a 'd r y p o in t site ' (2 marks) ii E x p la in w h y t h a t site c a u s e s p r o b le m s n o w . (4 marks
iii a 'n o d a l p o in t'. (2 marks) iii D e s c r ib e h o w t h e p la n n e r s a re a t t e m p t in g
t o t a c k le t h e p r o b le m s c a u s e d b y t h e site. (6marksi
iv T o w h a t e x t e n t h a v e t h e p la n n e r s b e e n
s u c c e s s fu l in t a c k lin g t h e p r o b le m s ? (3 marks)
| | 30 and over Q 15-19.9
W h a t is m e a n t by:
□ 25-29.9 □ under 15
i t h e m o r p h o lo g y o f a s e t t le m e n t (1 mark,
I— | 20-24.9 -— - parish boundaries
ii a n u c le a t e d s e t t le m e n t (1 marie
Sno w d o nia iii d is p e r s e d s e t t le m e n t ? (1 marr.
N a m e a n e x a m p le o f e a c h o f t h e s e t t le m e n t
t y p e s lis te d b e lo w . D e s c r ib e t h e m a in fe a t u r e s o f
e a c h o f t h e s e t t le m e n t s t h a t y o u n a m e . E x p la in
w h y e a c h o f t h e n a m e d s e t t le m e n t s d e v e lo p e d
a t t h a t lo c a tio n .

i lin e a r s e t t le m e n t (4 maria
ii rin g o r g r e e n v illa g e (4 marts
iii c o m m u t e r v illa g e (4marrs
S t u d y F ig u re 14.50. It s h o w s t h e d e v e lo p m e n t
o f s e c o n d h o m e s in a r e m o t e a re a o f ru ral N o r t h
Figure 14.50 W a le s .

Second
i S u g g e s t w h y s u c h a h ig h p r o p o r t io n o f h o u s e s
h a v e b e c o m e s e c o n d h o m e s fo r p e o p le w h o
homes as a
percentage
h a v e t h e ir m a in h o m e s e ls e w h e r e . (5 ma
of all houses ii E x p la in w h y t h e g r o w t h o f s e c o n d h o m e
in part of o w n e r s h ip c a n c r e a t e p r o b le m s in a re a s s u c h
North Wales as t h a t s h o w n o n t h e m a p . (5marts

416 Settlement
Exam practice: basic structured questions
MetroCentre, Gateshead
3 a S t u d y F ig u r e 14.51 s h o w in g t h e M e tro C e n tre o n T y n e sid e .

i W h a t e v i d e n c e s u p p o r ts t h e v i e w t h a t th is site
w a s c h o s e n b e c a u s e it w a s :

(i) a c c e s s ib le to a la r g e n u m b e r o f p e o p le (5 marks)
(ii) b u ilt o n c o m p a r a t iv e ly c h e a p la n d ? (5 marks)
ii W h a t e v id e n c e s h o w s th a t th e M e tro C e n tre
h a s b e e n c a r e fu lly d e s ig n e d t o a llo w c u s t o m e r s
to h a v e t h e e a s ie s t p o s s ib le a c c e s s t o all p a rts
o f t h e c o m p le x ? (5 marks)
b S o m e m o d e r n o ffic e s a re b u ilt as c lo s e as p o s s ib le
t o c it y c e n tre s , w h ils t o t h e r s a r e lo c a t e d o n t h e
r u r a l- u r b a n fr in g e . C o m p a r e t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f
t h e s e t w o t y p e s o f lo c a t io n fo r o ffice s.
R e fe r to s p e c ific e x a m p le s . (lOm arks)

Exam practice: structured questions

a W h a t d o t h e fo llo w in g p h rases m e a n ?
b D is c u s s t h e p r o b le m s a n d b e n e fits w h ic h t h e
i t h e 'r a n g e 'o f a g o o d o r s e r v ic e (1 mark) h is to ric a l d e v e l o p m e n t p r e s e n t s fo r t o d a y 's

ii th e 't h r e s h o ld p o p u l a t i o n 'f o r a g o o d o r s e r v i c e (1 mark) in h a b it a n t s o f t h e t o w n . (13 marks)

b W h e n g e o g r a p h e r s d e v e lo p m o d e ls t h e y a lw a y s
a S t u d y t h e m a p o f C a m b o u r n e o n p a g e 413.
m a k e a s e t o f a s s u m p t io n s b e f o r e t h e y s ta rt to
R e fe rrin g to m a p e v id e n c e :
d e s c r ib e t h e m o d e l. E x p la in t h r e e o f t h e a s s u m p t io n s
t h a t C h r is t a lle r m a d e b e f o r e h e d e v e lo p e d h is c e n tra l
i D e s c r ib e h o w t h e p la n n e r s o f C a m b o u r n e h a v e
trie d to m a k e C a m b o u r n e a n id e a l p la c e fo r
p la c e m o d e l. (6 marks)
p e o p le o f all a g e s to live . (7 marks)
c E x p la in h o w first, s e c o n d a n d t h ird o r d e r s e t t le m e n t s
a re d is t r ib u t e d in t h e k = 3 v e r s io n o f t h e C h r is t a lle r
ii D is c u s s w h e t h e r t h e y h a v e b e e n s u c c e s s fu l. (8 marks)
m o d e l. (7 marks) b W it h r e f e r e n c e t o e x a m p le s o f s e t t le m e n t s in less
d e v e lo p e d c o u n trie s , d is c u s s w h y s e t t le m e n t
d H o w u s e fu l is C h ris ta lle r's c e n tra l p la c e m o d e l fo r
s t r u c t u r e s h a v e to b e a d a p t e d as t h e f u n c t io n s
m o d e rn g e o g ra p h e rs ? (lO m arks)
o f t h e s e t t le m e n t s c h a n g e . (lO m arks)
S t u d y F ig u re 14.20 o n p a g e 398.
a i O u t lin e h o w y o u w o u ld c a r r y o u t a n e a r e s t
a Six s e t t le m e n t s a re s h o w n o u t s id e t h e m a in c o n u r b a t io n .
n e ig h b o u r a n a ly s is f o r a n a r e a o f 10 0 0 k m 2. Y ou
E x p la in w h y t h e s e s e t t le m e n t s h a v e d e v e lo p e d in h a v e b e e n p r o v id e d w it h a n O r d n a n c e S u r v e y
d iffe r e n t w a y s . (12 marks) m a p (o r t h e lo c a l e q u iv a le n t ) a t a s c a le o f 1:50 0 0 0

b C h o o s e a r e g io n in w h ic h ru ral s e t t le m e n t c h a n g e s (o r 2 c m = 1 k m ). (7 marks)
in n a t u r e w i t h d is t a n c e a w a y fro m a la rg e u r b a n a re a . ii If, h a v in g c o m p le t e d t h e n e a r e s t n e ig h b o u r
D is c u s s t h e e x t e n t to w h ic h th is m o d e l h e lp s e x p la in c a lc u la t io n , y o u o b t a in e d a fig u r e o f Rn = 1,
v a r ia t io n s in t h e fo r m o f s e t t le m e n t s in y o u r c h o s e n w h a t c o n c lu s io n s c o u ld y o u d r a w ? (3 marks)
re g io n . (13 marks) b i W h a t is t h e 'r a n k - s iz e r u le 'o f s e t t le m e n t s in
a co u n try ? (5 marks)
C h o o s e a to w n in a m o re d e v e lo p e d c o u n try t h a t s h o w s
e v id e n c e o f its e v o lu tio n t h ro u g h d iffe re n t p e rio d s o f ii H o w c a n t h e ra n k - s iz e r u le b e h e lp fu l to

history. g e o g r a p h e r s w h o a r e s t u d y in g u r b a n p a t t e r n s in
d iffe r e n t c o u n t r ie s ? (lO m arks)
a D e s c rib e h o w t h e p re s e n t s e t t le m e n t s h o w s e v id e n c e
o f t h e fo rm o f t h e s e t t le m e n t in p re v io u s p e rio d s . (12 marks)

Exam practice: essays

S t u d y t h e d e s c rip tio n o f B ic k in g to n , D e v o n o n p a g e 399. 11 'S e t t le m e n t m o r p h o lo g y is u s u a lly a re su lt o f an
To w h a t e x t e n t d o e s B ic k in g t o n illu s tra te is s u e s t h a t in te ra c tio n b e t w e e n p h y sical g e o g ra p h y , e c o n o m ic
a ff e c t all ru ral v illa g e s in t h e U K a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e ? ^ marks) g e o g r a p h y a n d cu ltu ra l d e v e lo p m e n t.'

D is c u s s th is s t a t e m e n t w it h r e f e r e n c e t o a r a n g e o f
10 N am e one t o w n o r c it y t h a t y o u h a v e s tu d ie d . E x p la in s e t t le m e n t s t h a t y o u h a v e s tu d ie d . (25 marks)
h o w th e g ro w th a n d d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e t o w n h a ve
b e e n in f lu e n c e d b y t h e p h y s ic a l g e o g r a p h y o f its site.
(25 marks)

Settlement 417
 !
Urbanisation
'The invasion from the countryside .,. is overwhelming the
ability o f city planners and governments to provide affordable
land, water, sanitation, transport, building m aterials and food
for the urban poor. Cities such as Bangkok, Bogota, Bombay,
Cairo, Delhi, Lagos and M anila each have over one m illion
people living in illegally developed squatter settlements or
shanty towns . '
L.Tim berlake, Only One Earth, 1987
Urban growth ~ trends
and distribution
U rbanisation is defined as the process by which
an increasing proportion of the total population,
usually that of a country, lives in towns and cities.
Although the process began at least as far back
as the fourth m illennium BC (Figure 14.2), the
number of people living in urban areas formed,
until fairly recently, only a small proportion of a
country's population. One estimate suggests that
in 1800 only 3 per cent of the world's popula­
tion were urban dwellers, a figure that has risen,
according to latest U N estimates, to 50 per cent
(2008) and w hich is predicted to rise to 60 per
cent (Figure 15.2) before 2025.
Rapid urbanisation has occurred twice in time
and space.
1 data,
D uring the 19th cen tu ry in w hat arealthough
referred to as the econom ically more devel­
oped countries, industrialisation led to a
huge demand for labour in m ining and
Figure 15.1 m anufacturing centres. Urbanisation was,
Urban population i n these parts of the world, a consequence of
growth (UN) econom ic development.
(% )
urban population
world total m ore d evelo ped less develo ped
countries countries
2 Since the 1950s, in the econom ically less
developed countries, the tw in processes of
migration from rural areas (page 366) and the
high rate of natural increase in population
(resulting from high birth rates and falling
death rates, Figure 13.10) have resulted in
the uncontrolled growth of m any cities.
Urbanisation is, in the developing countries
a consequence of population movement anc
growth and is not, as was previously believed,
an integral part of development.
In 2008, the U N claimed that 74 per cent of the
total population lived in urban areas of the devel­
oped countries, and 45 per cent in developing
countries (the prediction for 2050 is 86 and 67
percent respectively) (Figure 15.1).
Simultaneous w ith urbanisation has been
the growth of very large cities. Whereas the only
cities in the world with a population exceeding
1 million in 1900 were London and Paris, there
were, again according to the UN, 70 in 1950 anc
410 in 2005. Of these cities, most of which are in
developing countries and including China, 4S
had a population of over 5 m illion with 18 - the
so-called m e g a citie s - exceeding 10 million.
Although the largest cities are named and listed
rank-order of size in Figure 15.3, their population
is not given due to problems in collecting accur;
now figures are available from the UN
W orld Urbanisation Prospects. These problems
include:
■ the use of different criteria by countries to
define the size of an urban area, e.g Sao Pa-
city is quoted as 10.239 m illion, its urban
agglomeration as 18.333 m illion (2007),
w hile other countries give data for conurba
J:ions, e.g. Osaka-Kobe
■ problems in collecting accurate census da:i
(e.g. w ith in shanty towns) or accurately
estimating natural changes made annually
between each 10-year census
■ difficulties in obtaining accurate migration
figures, especially where refugees and ille ;ii!
immigrants are involved (page 367).
 Figure 15.2
There have been several noticeable trends in
National levels of
the growth of the so-called 'm illion cities' since
urbanisation
the mid-1980s.
■ Most of the largest cities are in South-east
Asia and Latin America. O f 410 global cities
w ith a population in excess of 1 m illion in
2005, 117 were in China, 40 in India and 17
in Brazil (the USA had 39).
■ Most of the fastest-growing cities are in
South-east Asia although in-migration
: re 15.3 is usually more significant than natural
:-ibution of world increase.
;s with populations ■ Although the rate of growth slowed in m any
- 5 million, with rank developed countries in the second half of the
e-2005
20th century, it has increased again, m ainly
due to immigration, in this century.
■ In China, w ith the most large cities, it is
those nearest the coast that have grown
most rapidly due to rural-urban migration
(Places 41, page 363 and Places 98, page 618).
W h a t affects most people w ho live in large urban
areas is not the actual population size of the
city but rather its density. O f the world's 100
largest cities, the 10 with the lowest population
density are in developed countries (m ainly North
America) and the 15 w ith the highest density are
in developing countries.

■ Over A 10-15 m iiiio n

"3 million 8 Kolkata
' “ okyo 9 Dhaka
1 'exico City 10 Buenos Aires
*ew York- 11 Los Angeles
\ew ark 12 Karachi
- Sao Paulo 13 Cairo
5 M um bai 14 Rio de Janeiro
a 5-.enghai 15 Osaka-Kobe
16 Manila
17 Beijing
18 Moscow

• 5-10 m iiiio n
19 -aris 35 Bangkok
D Seoul 36 Bangalore
Zr .a<arta 37 Chongqing
E2 I~ :ca g o 38 Lahore
ZE _3ndon 39 Hyderabad
I - _=gos 40 Santiago
25 I-_angzhou 41 Miami
la Ire n z h e n 42 Madrid
ZT _~ ia 43 Philadelphia
M "r"ra n 44 Baghdad
—anjin 45 Toronto
Si Eogota 46 Belo Horizonte
I v 's h a s a 47 Ahmadabad
SZ A _ h a n 48 Ho Chi Minh City
E - : "ig Kong
3* 1‘ ennai

Urbanisation 419
 M o d e ls o f u r b a n s t r u c t u r e
20th century
As cities grew in area and population in the 20th
century, geographers and sociologists tried to
identify and to explain variations in spatial pat­
terns. These patterns, w hich may show differ­
ences and similarities in land use and/or social
groupings w ith in a city, reflect how various
urban areas evolved econom ically and socially
(culturally) in response to changing conditions
over a period of time. W h ile each city had its
own distinctive pattern, or patterns, studies of
other urban areas showed that they too often
exhibited similar patterns. As a result several
models w hich tried to describe and explain the
then urban structure were put forward.
21st century
Before looking at the basic assumptions of four
such models, together w ith the theory behind
them, their value at the time and their lim ita­
tions, it should be pointed out that, to m any
present-day geographers, urban models belong
to the realm of 'historic geography'. Urban
models, like all models (Framework 12, page 352),
have limitations and have always been open to
criticism. It is, therefore, understandable w h y
models put forward at a particular time (early
to mid-20th century and before the advent of
the post-industrial city), for a particular place
(Western Europe and N orth America), and using
criteria and referring to processes that m ay have
changed (increased m obility and migration)
should be, to some, ready for the 'recycling bin'.
Yet perhaps it is on ly by understanding the early
structure, both physical and social, of an urban
Figure 15.4
area that we can appreciate the changing proc­
esses that are shaping our cities of today.
The Burgess
concentric model
1 central business
district (CBD)
2 w h o lesale light
m anufacturing
(transitional)
3 low-class
residential
4 medium-class
residential
5 high-class
residential
420 Urbanisation
1 Burgess, 1 9 2 4
Burgess attempted to identify areas w ith in
Chicago based on the outward expansion of the
city and the socio-economic groupings of its
inhabitants (Places 52).
Basic assumptions
Although his m ain aim was to describe residen­
tial structures and to show processes at work in
a city, geographers subsequently made further
assumptions:
■ The city was built on flat land w h ich there­
fore gave equal advantages in all directions,
i.e. morphological features such as river
valleys were removed.
■ Transport systems were of limited signifi­
cance being equally easy, rapid and cheap in
every direction.
■ Land values were highest in the centre of the
city and declined rapidly outwards to give a
zoning of urban functions and land use.
■ The oldest buildings were in, or close to, the
city centre. Buildings became progressivelv
newer towards the city boundary.
■ Cities contained a variety of well-defined
socio-economic and ethnic areas.
■ The poorer classes had to live near to the cit]
centre and places of work as they could not
afford transport or expensive housing.
■ There were no concentrations of heavy indusr
Burgess's concentric zones
The resultant model (Figure 15.4) shows five
concentric zones:
1 The central business district (C BD ) contair
the major shops and offices; it is the centre
for commerce and entertainment, and the
focus for transport routes.
2 The transition or tw ilig h t zone is where the
oldest housing is either deteriorating into ski
property or being 'invaded' by light industry.
The inhabitants tend to be of poorer social
groups and first-generation immigrants.
3 Areas of low-class housing are occupied by
those w ho have 'escaped' from zone 2, or by
second-generation immigrants w ho work ir.
nearby factories. They are compelled to live
near to their place of work to reduce travel­
ling costs and rent. In modern Britain, these
zones are equated w ith the inner cities.
4 Medium-class housing of higher quality
which, in present-day Britain, would includ
inter-war private semi-detached houses anc
council estates.
5 High-class housing occupied by people wh
can afford the expensive properties and the
high cost of commuting.
The model's limitations are listed in Figure 15.:
 Chicago: a concentric urban structure
B u r g e s s , in p r o d u c in g his m o d e l, w a s in flu e n c e d
b y t h e e m e r g in g s c ie n c e o f p la n t e c o lo g y a t t h e
U n iv e r s it y o f C h ic a g o . H e m a d e a n a lo g ie s w it h s u c h
invasion o f a n a re a
e c o lo g ic a l p ro c e s s e s as t h e
b y c o m p e t in g g ro u p s , competition b e t w e e n t h e
in v a d e r s a n d t h e n a t u r a l g ro u p s , a n d t h e e v e n t u a l
dom inance o f t h e a re a b y t h e in v a d e r s w h ic h
a llo w e d t h e m t o succeed t h e n a tu ra l g ro u p s .
R e la t in g th is to u r b a n g e o g r a p h y , B u r g e s s
s u g g e s t e d t h a t p e o p le liv in g in t h e in n e r z o n e
w e re invaded b y n e w c o m e r s a n d , in fa c e o f
th is competition b y im m ig r a n t s w h o b e c a m e
dominant th e re , succeeded to t h e n e x t o u t e r
z o n e - a p ro c e s s a ls o re fe rre d to as centrifugal
movement.T h e e n e r g y to m a in t a in th is d y n a m ic
s y s te m c a m e fro m a c o n t in u a l s u p p ly o f im m ig r a n t s
to t h e c e n tre , a n d e x is tin g g r o u p s b e in g fo r c e d (or
c h o o s in g ) to m o v e t o w a r d s t h e p e rip h e ry .
C h ic a g o lies o n t h e s h o re s o f L a k e M ic h ig a n ,
w it h its C B D , k n o w n as t h e 'L o o p ', fa c in g t h e lake.
S u r r o u n d in g t h e C B D , t h e c ity 's h o u s in g d e v e lo p e d
c jre 15.5 a d is t in c t iv e p a t t e r n (F ig u r e 1 5 .5 ).T h e in itia l
n e w e r im m ig r a n t s fr o m s o u t h e r n E u r o p e (e s p e c ia lly
Ita ly ) a n d b y J e w s w h o w e r e , in t u rn , r e p la c e d b y
b la c k s fro m t h e A m e r ic a n s o u t h (F ig u r e 1 5 .6 ).T h is
le d t o t h e c r e a t io n o f a s e rie s o f in c o m e , s o c ia l a n d
e t h n ic z o n e s ra d ia t in g o u t w a r d s fro m t h e c e n tre .
T hese zones show ed:
1 T h a t w e a lt h , as s e e n b y t h e q u a lit y o f h o u s in g ,
in c r e a s e d t o w a r d s t h e o u t s k ir t s o f t h e city.
P e o p le w it h t h e h ig h e s t in c o m e s liv e d in t h e
n e w e s t p r o p e r t y (o n t h e n o rth - w e s t fr in g e )
w h i le t h o s e w it h t h e lo w e s t in c o m e s o c c u p ie d
t h e p o o r e s t h o u s in g n e x t to t h e C B D .
2 T h a t p e o p le in t h e ir e a r ly t w e n t ie s o r o v e r 60
t e n d e d to liv e c lo s e t o t h e C B D , w h i le m id d le -
a g e d p e o p le a n d f a m ilie s w i t h y o u n g c h ild r e n
t e n d e d to liv e n e a r e r to t h e c it y b o u n d a r y .
3 T h a t a re a s o f e t h n ic s e g r e g a t io n e x is te d , w it h
t h e e a r ly w h it e im m ig r a n t s - w h o s e w e a lt h h a d
t e n d e d t o in c r e a s e in re la t io n to t h e le n g t h o f
t im e t h e y h a d liv e d in t h e c it y - liv in g t o w a r d s
t h e o u ts k irts , a n d n o n - w h it e g r o u p s liv in g
n e a r e r t o t h e c it y c e n tre , e .g . in C h in a T o w n

ran areas of Chicago m ig r a n t s ,f r o m n o r t h - w e s te r n E u r o p e , s e t t le d a n d t h e b la c k b e lt.

~erBurgess) a r o u n d t h e C B D . In tim e , t h e y w e r e r e p la c e d b y

Figure 15.6

Centrifugal movement
Lake Michigan in Chicago

central business
□ district (CBD)

m igrants/descendants

□
of m igrants from north­
w estern Europe (British,
nedium- £ D eutsch ghetto Germ ans, F re n c h )
class % land
nousing China later m igrants from
Town — p oorer southern
European countries
'Two-flat' area (Italians) and
Je w s w h o replaced the
V original im m igrants
Com m uter
zone blacks from the
south-east o fth e
USA and other n o n­
w h ite ethnic groups
oerfect circles °°s/ng ,stffc t
w estern shore of (Chinese)
-eality due to 'bunga\o^
Lake M ichigan
: resses of section'
high-class h o u s e s

Urbanisation 421
 ^ CBD (central
Hoyt's sector modei
business district) H oyt suggested that areas of highest rent tended
wholesale light to be alongside m ain lines of com m unication
2 manufacturing 2 3 and that the city grew in a series of wedges
(transitional)
(Figure 15.7). He also claimed that once an area
2 low-class
residential had developed a distinctive land use, or func­
tion, it tended to retain that land use as the citv
medium-class
residential extended outwards, e.g. if an area north of the
C BD was one of low-class housing in the 19th
high-class
residential
century, then the northern suburbs of the late
20th century would also be likely to consist
2 3
of low-class estates. Calgary, in Canada, is the
standard example of this model. The model's
lim itations are listed in Figure 15.15.

3 Mann, 1965
Figure 15.7 2 Hoyt, 1939
M ann tried to apply the Burgess and Hoyt
The Hoyt sector model Hoyt's model was based on the mapping of eight models to three industrial towns in England:
housing variables for 142 cities in the USA. He Huddersfield, Nottingham and Sheffield
tried to account for changes in, and the distribu­ (Figure 15.8). His compromise model (Figure 15.S
tion of, residential patterns. combined the ideas of Burgess's concentric zones
Basic assumptions and Hoyt's sectors. M ann assumed that because
H oyt made the same im plicit assumptions as had the prevailing winds blow from the south-west
Burgess, w ith the addition of three new factors: the high-class housing would be in the south­
■ W ealthy people, w ho could afford the highest western part of the city and industry, w ith its
rates, chose the best sites, i.e. competition smoke (this was before Clean Air Acts), would be
based on 'ability to pay' resolved land use located to the north-east of the CBD. His conclu­
conflicts. sions can be summarised as follows.
■ W ealth y residents could afford private cars m The twilight zone was not concentric to the
or public transport and so lived further from C BD but lay to one side of the city which
industry and nearer to m ain roads. allowed, elsewhere, more wealthy residential
■ Sim ilar land uses attracted other similar land areas.
uses, concentrating a function in a particular ■ H eavy industry was found in sectors along
Figure 15.8 area and repelling others. This process led to a m ain lines of com munication.
■ Low-class housing should be called the 'zon
Growth of Sheffield 'sector' development.
of older housing' (age-based classification,
R. Don/ rather than social).
R. Don canal
£ Higher-class or, in Hoyt's terms, 'modern'
housing was usually found away from
industry and smoke.
R. Loxley ■ Local government (politics) played a role Ir.
slum clearance and gentrification. This le d : :
R. Rivelin large council estates w hich took the workir.;
class/low incomes to the city edge (opposite
of the Burgess model).
Robson (1975) applied M ann's model to a non
eastern industrial town, Sunderland (Figure 15.1
and to Belfast. M ann's model does show, despiti
its small sample, that a variety of approaches ai
CBD
possible to the study of urban structures. Its Iii
industry
good-quality tations are listed in Figure 15.15.
housing
R. Sheaf
poor-quality
1 Early mills and iron forges in valleys using water power housing
2 Workers lived on flat valley floors near to places of work medium-quality
housing
3 Trams and early 20th-century public transport limited to valleys sssssssse main road
These three factors created wedge shapes from the CBD ---- river

422 Urbanisation
 B C high-class residential
North Sea
5
medium-class residential

low-class residential

industry room ing

houses'

city centre
transitional zone: zone of small terraced houses in sectors C and D;
larger bye-law houses in sector B, large old houses in sector A
pre-1918 housing
post-1918 residential areas, with post-1945 development mainly on
the periphery
commuting-distance 'villages'
the middle-class sector
the lower middle-class sector
the working-class sector and main municipal housing areas
industry and lowest working-class sector

: gure 15.9
4 Ullman and Harris, 1945 Urban structure models: conclusions
Gann's model of
U llm an and Harris set out to produce a more The four models described were put forward to try
/ran structure
realistic model than those of Burgess and H oyt to explain differences in structure w ithin cities in
but consequently ended w ith one that was more the developed world. It must be remembered that:
complex (Figure 15.11) - and more complex ■ each model w ill have its limitations
models m ay become descriptive rather than (Figure 15.15)
predictive if they match reality too closely in a ■ if you make a study of your local town or city,
specific example (Framework 12, page 352). you must avoid the temptation of saying that
it fits one of the models - at best it w ill show
Basic assumptions
characteristics of one or possibly two; each city
■ M odern cities have a more complex structure
is unique and w ill have its own structure - a
than that suggested by Burgess and Hoyt.
pattern not necessarily derived according to
■ Cities do not grow from one CBD , but from
any existing model (Framework 12, page 352).
several independent nuclei.
■ Each nucleus acts as a growth point, and
9 Figure 15.11
probably has a function different from other
4 The Ullman—
nuclei w ith in that city. (In London, the C ity
Harris multiple-
is financial; Westminster is government and 2 1 nuclei model
administration; the West End is retailing and
entertainment; and Dockland was industrial.)
■ In time, there w ill be an outward growth from
each nucleus until they merge as one large
urban centre (Barnet and Croydon now form
part of Greater London; Figure 13.7).
■ If the city becomes too large and congested,
some functions m ay be dispersed to new
nuclei. (In Greater London, edge-of-city
1 (CBD) central g heavy
retailing takes place at Brent Cross and new business district m anufacturing
industry has developed close to Heathrow
Airport/M25/M4.) ^ w holesale light outlying business
m anufacturing district
M ultiple nuclei developed as a response to the
need for maximum accessibility to a centre, low-class
8 residential suburb
to keep certain types of land use apart, for dif­ residential

ferences in land values and, more recently, to

medium-class
decentralise (Places 53). The model's limitations residential
9 industrial suburb

are listed in Figure 15.15.

high-class
residential
 Tokyo: a m ultiple-nuclei urban stru ctu re

T o k y o b e g a n t o g r o w in t h e la te 16 th c e n t u r y

a r o u n d t h e c a s t le o f t h e E d o S h o g u n a t e (n e a r
early centres
t h e p r e s e n t Im p e r ia l P a la c e , F ig u r e 15.12). L a te r
present-day nuclei
r e lig io u s , c u ltu ra l a n d fin a n c ia l d is tric ts d e v e lo p e d
(shopping and offices)
t o t h e n o rth - e a s t. O v e r t h e c e n t u r ie s , t h e m a in ly

w o o d e n - b u ilt c it y w a s d e s t r o y e d s e v e ra l tim e s ,
in c lu d in g d u r in g t h e 1923 K a n t o e a r t h q u a k e

(1 4 0 0 0 0 d e a t h s ) a n d b y U S a ir c r a ft in 1 9 4 5 .T h e
(g o vernm ent offices, m o d e r n c it y h a s n o s in g le C B D b u t, ra th e r, h a s
shopping and
s e v e ra l n u c le i e a c h w it h its o w n s p e c ia lis t la n d u se
e ntertainm en t)
(old com m ercial and a n d f u n c t io n s - g o v e r n m e n t o ffic e s (F ig u r e 15.13),
(original site of Edo Castle, entertainm ent'centre)
s h o p p in g (F ig u r e 15.14), f in a n c e , e n t e r t a in m e n t ,
n o w the Imperial Palace)
e d u c a t io n a n d t r a n s p o r t . M o s t o f t h e s e n u c le i

a re lin k e d b y o n e o f T o k yo 's m a n y ra ilw a y s , t h e

Y a m a n o t e lin e , w h ic h fo r m s a c irc le w it h a d ia m e t e r
Y am anote
(business and financial o f 7 km .
railway line
? centre)
io p p o n g ,

(Parliam ent, education

Figure 15.14
and entertainm en t) (shopping and
entertainm en t) The Ginza shopping district
(sh op pin g,yo un g
people's
entertainm ent)

Figure 15.13

The Shinjuko
business district

Figure 15.15

Limitations/criticisms of
the four urban models

Burgess Mann Ullman-Harris

based on 1 U S A city b ased on 142 U S A cities based on 3 English cities (in based on cities in e co n o m ica >
no rth and M id la n d s) m o re d e v e lo p e d w o rld

re develo pm en t schem es and m odern edge-of-city d evelo p m en ts are not included (m ost of the m odels pre-date these developm ents

in d u stry n o t alw a ys to
based m ain ly on housing: o th e r ty p e s o f land use n e g le cte d
north-east o f British cities

te n d e d to ig no re tran sp o rt

424 Urbanisation
 A - A rent that co m m erce
is willing to pay
upwards and by using the land intensively). The
B-B rent that industry is
willing to pay most valuable site w ith in the C B D is called the
peak land value intersection or PLVI - a site
C- C rent th a t residential
users are willing to pay often occupied by a Marks and Spencer store!
Competing w ith retailers are offices w hich also
rely upon good transport systems and, tradition­
ally, proxim ity to other commercial buildings
CBD
distance from CBD
(this concept does not have the same relevance
in centrally planned economies).
city centre
co m m erce Away from the CBD, land rapidly becomes less
attractive for commercial activities - as indicated
industry by the steep angle of the bid-rent curve (A-A) in
Figure 15.16. Industry, partly because it takes up
residential more space and uses it less intensively, bids for
land that is less valuable than that prized by shops
and offices. Residential land, w hich has the flat­
re 15.16 test of the three bid-rent curves (C-C), is found
The land vaiue model or bid-rent further out from the city centre where the land
ent curves theory values have decreased due to less competition.
This model is the urban equivalent of von Individual householders cannot afford to pay the
Thiinen's rural land use model (page 471) in that same rents as shopkeepers and industrialists.
both are based upon locational rent. The main The model helps to explain housing (and
assumption is that in a free market the highest population) density. People who cannot afford
bidder w ill obtain the use of the land. The to commute have to live near to the C BD where,
highest bidder is likely to be the one w ho can due to higher land values, they can o n ly obtain
obtain the m axim um profit from that site and so small plots w hich results in high housing densi­
can pay the highest rent. Com petition for land ties. People w ho can afford to commute are
is keenest in the city centre. Figure 15.16 shows able to live nearer the city boundary where, due
the locational rent that three different land users to lower land values, they can buy much larger
are prepared to pay for land at various distances plots of land, w hich creates areas of low housing
from the city centre. density. Figure 15.17 shows the predicted land
The most expensive or 'prime' sites in most use pattern when land values decrease rapidly
cities are in the CBD, m ainly because of its acces­ and at a constant rate from the city centre. The
sibility and the shortage of space there. Shops, resultant pattern is similar to that suggested by
especially department stores, conduct their busi­ Burgess (Figure 15.4).
rs 15.17 ness using a relatively small am ount of ground- One basis of this model is 'the more acces­
space, and due to their high rate of sales and sible the site, the higher its land value'. Rents w ill
r and use
e^ is based on turnover they can bid a high price for the land therefore be greater along main routes leading out
i3 ues (for w hich they try to compensate by building of the city and along outer ring roads. W here two
of these routes cross, there may be a secondary or
city centre peak land value
subsidiary land value peak (Figure 15.18). Here the
intersection (PLVI)
land use is likely to be a small suburban shopping
shops
com m ercial parade or a small industrial estate. The 'retail revo­
offices
lution' of the 1980s (page 432), w hich led to the
ndustrial
lo lesale light development of large edge-of-city shopping com­
anufacturing
plexes (MetroCentre in Gateshead, Places 55, page
oldest, residential
low-class
433, Bluewater in Kent and Brent Cross in north
medium- London), has altered this pattern. Similarly, large
class industrial estates and science parks (Places 86,
page 566) have been located near to motorway
interchanges.

Urbanisation 425
 Figure 15.18
Secondary land
value peaks (peak land valu e intersection)
secondary (subsidiary)
land value peak
main road
into city
Functional zones within a city
Different parts of a city usually have their own
specific functions (Figure 15.12). These functions
m ay depend upon:
■ the age of the area: buildings usually get older
towards the city centre except that most
CBDs and m any old inner-city areas have
been redeveloped and modernised
■ land values: these increase rapidly from
the city boundary in towards the C BD
(Figure 15.16)
■ accessibility: some functions are more
dependent on transport than others.
W h ile each urban area w ill have its own unique
pattern of functional zones and land use, most
British cities exhibit similar characteristics.
These characteristics have been summarised and
simplified in Figure 15.19 where:
Zone A = the C BD (shops and offices)
Zone B = old inner city (including, before
redevelopment, 19th-century/
low-cost/low-class housing, industry
and warehousing and, after redevelop­
ment/regeneration, modern low-cost
housing and small industrial units
Zone C = inter-war (medium-class housing)
Zone D = suburbs (modern/high-cost/high-class
housing, open space, new industrial
estates/science and business parks,
shopping complexes and office
blocks).
426 Urbanisation
CBD
main roads leading to
suburbs (arterial roads)
intersection of
arterial road and
o uter ring road
city
b ou nd ary
m ain road
into city
The central business district (CBD)
The C BD is regarded as the centre for retailing,
office location and service activities (banking
and finance). It contains the principal commer­
cial streets and m ain public buildings and forms
the core of a city's business and commercial
activities. Some large cities, such as London and
Tokyo (Figure 15.12) m ay have more than one
CBD. Other types of city-centre land use, such as
government and public buildings, churches and
educational establishments, are classed as
non-CBD functional elements.
The delimitation ofthe CBD
Most of you are likely to have relatively easy
access to a town or city centre. If so, your geog­
raphy group may be able to make one or more
visits to that C BD w ith the aim of trying to
delim it its extent. Bearing in m ind possible
dangers, such as from m oving traffic, your group
could attempt one or more of several methods,
based on the pioneer work of M urph y and Vance
in N orth America, and described in Places 54,
page 430. Ideally you should:
1 formulate one (or more) hypothesis before
you begin your fieldwork (Framework 10,
page 299)
2 collect, as a group, the relevant data
3 determine how you w ill record that data
(i.e. using w hich geographical techniques)
4 discuss - again as a group - your findings.
F ra m e w o rk 13 S te re o ty p e s
O n e o f s e v e ra l d a n g e r s t h a t m a y re s u lt fro m p u t t in g
fo r w a r d g e o g r a p h ic a l m o d e ls a n d fro m m a k in g
g e n e r a lis a t io n s is t h a t o f c r e a t in g s t e r e o ty p e s . F o r
e x a m p le :
a U r b a n m o d e ls h a v e t h e t e n d e n c y to s u g g e s t
t h a t s o m e a re a s a r e 'b e t t e r 't h a n o th e rs , e.g. t h a t
all h o u s in g in in n e r c it y a re a s is lo w - c la ss/ lo w -
in c o m e a n d t h a t o n ly t h e e ld e r ly a n d s in g le ­
p a r e n t fa m ilie s liv e h e r e in a z o n e la c k in g o p e n
s p a c e , w h e r e a s w e a lt h y fa m ilie s o n ly re s id e in
t h e 't r e e - lin e d 's u b u r b s ,
b D iffe re n t g ro u p s o f p e o p le t e n d to d e v e lo p th e ir
o w n c u s to m s a n d w a y s o f life. B y p u ttin g su ch
c h a ra c te ris tic s to g e th e r , w e m a k e m e n ta l p ic tu re s
a n d d e v e lo p p r e c o n c e p t io n s o f d iffe re n t g ro u p s
o f p e o p le , i.e. w e c r e a te s te re o ty p e s .
T h e f o llo w in g u n s u p p o r t e d , e m o t iv e s t a t e m e n t s
m a y n o t o n ly b e g ro s s ly in a c c u r a t e , t h e y m a y a ls o
b e c o n s id e r e d , b y m a n y , to b e o ffe n s iv e .
• T h e G e rm a n s , o n h o lid a y , a re a lw a y s firs t t o t h e
s w im m in g p o o l a n d d in in g ro o m .
• A ll Ita lia n s d r iv e c a rs d a n g e r o u s ly .
• A ll C h in e s e a n d Ja p a n e s e a re sm all.
• Favelas a re s h a n t y s e t t le m e n t s w h o s e re s id e n ts
h a v e n o c h a n c e o f im p r o v in g t h e ir liv in g
c o n d it io n s a n d w h o c a n o n ly s u r v iv e b y a life o f
c r im e (s e e b e lo w ).
• T h e A m a z o n A m e r in d ia n w a y o f life r e m a in s
u n d e v e lo p e d as t h e p e o p le a re la z y a n d
u n in t e llig e n t (s e e b e lo w ).
T h e f o llo w in g a c c o u n t s a re b a s e d o n t h e a u th o r's
e x p e r ie n c e s in Brazil.
Example One
A c c o r d in g to b o o k s w h ic h I h a d re a d in B rita in an d
a d v ic e g iv e n to m e b y g u id e s in S a o P a u lo , favelas
w e r e to b e a v o id e d a t all c o s ts (P la c e s 57, p a g e 443).
A n y s tra n g e r e n te rin g o n e w a s su re to lo s e his w a tc h ,
je w e lle r y a n d m o n e y a n d w a s lik e ly to b e a v ic t im o f
p h y s ic a l v io le n c e .
W it h th is in m in d , I s e t o f f in a ta x i to ta k e
p h o t o g r a p h s o f s e v e ra l favelas. O n r e a c h in g t h e
firs t favela, t o m y h o r r o r t h e d r iv e r t u r n e d in to t h e
s e t t le m e n t a n d w e b u m p e d a lo n g a n u n m a d e
tra c k . H e k e p t s t o p p in g a n d in d ic a t in g t h a t I s h o u ld
t a k e p h o t o g r a p h s . E x p e c t in g a t e a c h s to p t h a t
t h e c a r w o u ld b e a t t a c k e d a n d m y c a m e r a s to le n , I
h a s tily t o o k p ic t u r e s - w h ic h t u r n e d o u t to b e o v e r ­
e x p o s e d b e c a u s e , n o t d a r in g t o o p e n w in d o w s , I
t o o k t h e m t h r o u g h t h e w in d s c r e e n a n d lo o k in g
in t o t h e su n !
S u d d e n l y t h e ta x i s p lu t t e r e d a n d s t o p p e d . In o n e
m o v e m e n t , I h a d h id d e n m y c a m e r a a n d w a s
o u t s id e t r y in g to p u s h t h e car. I ra is e d m y e y e s to
fin d t h r e e w e ll- b u ilt m a le s h e lp in g m e t o p u s h t h e
car. W h i c h o n e w o u ld h it m e firs t? I s m ile d a n d t h e y
s m ile d . I p o in t e d t o e a c h o n e in t u r n a n d c a lle d
h im a ft e r o n e o f Braz il's fo o tb a ll p la y e r s a n d t h e n
re fe rre d to m y s e lf as L in e k e r. H u g e sm ile s , b ig p a ts
o n t h e b a c k a n d c o m m e n t s lik e Ingleesh amigo w e r e
o n ly h a lt e d b y t h e c a r re - s ta rtin g . A s w e d r o v e a w a y ,
I b e g a n to q u e s t io n m y o r ig in a l s t e r e o t y p e d v i e w o f
a favela in h a b ita n t.'
ExampleTwo
'I w a s s u rp ris e d to fin d , o n la n d in g a t M a n a u s
a ir p o r t in t h e m id d le o f t h e A m a z o n ra in fo re st,
t h a t o u r c o u r ie r w a s an A m e r in d ia n . H e d a s h e d
a r o u n d q u ic k ly g e t tin g o u r p a r t y o rg a n is e d a n d o u r
lu g g a g e c o lle c t e d . (H e c e r t a in ly d id n o t s e e m to b e
s lo w o r lazy.) H e la te r a d m itte d , a n d p ro v e d , t h a t h e
c o u ld s p e a k in s e v e n la n g u a g e s (h a rd ly t h e sig n o f
s o m e o n e u n in t e llig e n t - h o w m a n y c a n you s p e a k ?).
I a s k e d h im w h y so f e w A m e r in d ia n s a p p e a r e d to
h a v e g o o d jo b s a n d w h y h e k e p t ta lk in g a b o u t
re tu rn in g t o t h e ju n g le . H is r e p ly w a s s im p le : " t o
a v o id hassle". H e c o n s id e r e d t h a t t h e In d ia n life s ty le
w a s p re fe r a b le to t h e W e s t e r n o n e w it h its q u e s t fo r
m a te ria l p o ss e s sio n s. H a d h e re tu rn e d to t h e ju n g le ,
h e w o u ld h a v e re jo in e d his f a m ily a n d b e c o m e
a s h iftin g c u lt iv a to r livin g in h a r m o n y w it h t h e
e n v ir o n m e n t (P la c e s 66, p a g e 4 8 0 ). Is t h a t t ra d itio n a l
w a y o f life re a lly less d e m a n d in g o f in t e llig e n c e t h a n
t h a t im p o s e d b y in v a d in g t im b e r a n d b e e fb u r g e r
tr a n s n a tio n a ls e n g a g e d in t h e d e s tr u c t io n o f la rg e
tra c ts o f ra in fo re s t? '
F ro m t h e s e e x a m p le s , w e c a n s e e h o w e a s y it is to
a c c e p t s t e r e o ty p e s w it h o u t re a lis in g w e are d o in g
so, a n d a lso h o w s e e in g a s itu a tio n fo r o u rs e lv e s
m a y le a d us to q u e s tio n o u r o r ig in a l p ic tu re . S h o u ld
g e o g r a p h e r s t a k e a ro le in o v e r c o m in g t h e p ro b le m s
o f s t e r e o ty p e d im a g e s (o n t h e b asis o f w h ic h
p la n n in g d e c is io n s , fo r e x a m p le , m a y b e m a d e ) b y
h e lp in g to p r o v id e re la tiv e ly u n b ia s e d in fo r m a tio n to
im p r o v e k n o w le d g e a n d u n d e r s ta n d in g ?
Urbanisation 427
 Figure 15.19

Functional zones
in a British city

Al In d o o r s h o p p in g m a ll (S t E n o c h 's C e n tre , G la s g o w
A2 H ig h - ris e o ffic e d e v e l o p m e n t (t h e C ity o f L o n d o n
A CBD

B1 A n in n e r - c ity c o r n e r s h o p (L e e d s )
B2 1 9 th - c e n tu ry t e r r a c e d h o u s in g (L a n c a s h ire )
B3 In n e r- c ity r e d e v e lo p m e n t (L o n d o n )
B4 19 th - c e n tu r y in d u s t r y a n d t r a n s p o r t ( M a n c h e s t e r
B Inner city
C Inter-war areas
D Edge of city
C1 A s u b u r b a n s h o p p in g p a r a d e
C2 In te r- w a r s e m i- d e ta c h e d p r iv a t e h o u s in g (E n fie ld )
C3 In te r- w a r c o u n c il h o u s in g e s t a t e (C arlisle )
C4 P u b lic o p e n s p a c e (B r o c k w e ll Park, L o n d o n )

D1 E d g e - o f- city s h o p p in g c o m p le x (L a k e s id e s h o p p in g
c e n tre , D a rtfo rd )
D2 A m o d e r n p r iv a t e h o u s in g e s t a t e (W ir r a l)
D3 P o s t- w a r e d g e - o f- c ity c o u n c il h o u s in g e s t a t e (K e n to n ,
N e w c a s t le u p o n T y n e )
D4 B u s in e s s / s c ie n c e p a rk (G u ild fo rd )

2 Residential styles 3 Other land uses

 The C B D

The main characteristics of the CBD b e s ta tic , o r e v e n d e c lin in g (d u e to c o m p e t it io n fro m

o u t- o f- to w n d e v e lo p m e n t s ) , w h ile o ffice s, b a n k s
1 T h e C B D c o n t a in s t h e m a jo r re ta ilin g o u tle ts .
a n d in s u r a n c e c o m p a n ie s a r e in c r e a s in g in t e r m s o f
T h e p r in c ip a l d e p a r t m e n t s to re s a n d s p e c ia lis t
s p a c e ta k e n a n d in c o m e g e n e r a t e d .
s h o p s w it h t h e h ig h e s t t u r n o v e r a n d re q u irin g

la rg e s t t h r e s h o ld p o p u la t io n s c o m p e t e fo r t h e

p r im e site s (F ig u r e 15.19 A l ) . Mapping the characteristics ofthe CBD

2 It c o n t a in s a h ig h p r o p o r t io n o f t h e c ity 's m a in T h e f o llo w in g f ie ld w o r k m e t h o d s m a y b e u s e d to

o ffic e s (F ig u r e 15.19 A 2 ). e v a lu a t e t h e s e v e n c h a r a c t e r is t ic s d e s c r ib e d a b o v e .

3 It c o n t a in s t h e t a lle s t b u ild in g s in t h e c it y (m o r e 1 Land use m apping of shops

t y p ic a l in N o rth A m e r ic a ), m a in ly d u e t o t h e
a P lo t t h e lo c a tio n o f all t h e sh o p s. W h e r e t h e ratio
h ig h re n ts w h ic h re s u lt fr o m t h e c o m p e t it io n fo r
o f sh o p s to o t h e r p ro p e rtie s is m o re th a n 1:3,
la n d (F ig u r e 15.16).
c o u n t t h a t a re a as b e in g w it h in t h e C B D (b ase d
4 It h a s t h e g r e a t e s t n u m b e r a n d c o n c e n t r a t io n o f o n e v id e n c e th a t o v e r 33 p e r c e n t o f b u ild in g s in
p e d e s tria n s . t h e C B D a re c o n n e c t e d w it h re tailin g ).

5 It h a s t h e g r e a t e s t v o lu m e a n d c o n c e n t r a t io n o f b A n a lt e r n a t iv e m e t h o d is t o in c lu d e w it h in t h e
tr a ffic .T h e c it y c e n t r e g r e w a t t h e m e e t in g p o in t C B D all s h o p s t h a t a re w it h in 100 m (o r a n y
o f t h e m a jo r lin e s o f c o m m u n ic a t io n in to t h e c ity a g r e e d d is t a n c e ) o f a d ja c e n t s h o p s . T h is m a y
a n d th e r e fo r e h a d t h e g r e a t e s t a c c e s s ib ility . p r o d u c e a c e n t r a l'c o r e 'a n d s e v e r a l s m a lle r

6 It h a s t h e h ig h e s t la n d v a lu e s in t h e c ity g r o u p in g s .

(F ig u r e 15.17). c A th ird p o ss ib ility is to ta k e t h e m e a n fro n ta g e (in

7 It is c o n s t a n t ly u n d e r g o in g c h a n g e , w it h n e w m e tre s) of, fo r e x a m p le , t h e m id d le fiv e b u ild in g s

s h o p p in g c e n tre s , t a lle r o ffic e b lo c k s a n d tr a ffic o r s h o p un its in a b lo ck . S h o p fro n ta g e s are

s c h e m e s . S o m e o f t h e g r a n d io s e s c h e m e s o f t h e lik ely to b e g re a te s t n e a r to t h e PLVI w h e r e m o st

Figure 15.20
e a r ly 19 6 0 s a re n o w v ie w e d as o u t o f d a t e a n d d e p a r t m e n t sto res are lo c ate d .
The core and frame
concept for the CBD
u n a t t r a c t iv e (B ir m in g h a m 's B u ll R in g ; L o n d o n 's 2 Land use m apping of offices M e th o d 1a a b o v e
P a t e r n o s t e r S q u a r e a t S t P a u l's). M a n y h a v e c o u ld b e r e p e a t e d u s in g o ffic e s in s t e a d o f
s in c e b e e n d e m o lis h e d a n d re b u ilt. s h o p s , a n d a ra tio o f 1 :1 0 .T h is re c o g n is e s t h a t,

R e c e n t s tu d ie s h a v e s h o w n t h a t t h e C B D o f m a n y a t g ro u n d - flo o r le v e l, o ffic e s a re less n u m e r o u s

□ < c itie s is a d v a n c in g in s o m e d ir e c t io n s (zone of t h a n s h o p s . In c lu d e b a n k s a n d b u ild in g

assimilation) a n d r e t r e a t in g in o t h e r s (zone of s o c ie t ie s in y o u r c o u n t .
frame
discard). T h e z o n e o f a s s im ila tio n is u s u a lly t o w a r d s 3 Height of buildings P lo t t h e h e ig h t (i.e. t h e
B = heavy industry and t h e h ig h e r- s ta tu s r e s id e n tia l d is tric ts w h e r e a s t h e n u m b e r o f s to re y s ) o f in d iv id u a l b u ild in g s , o r th e
poor residential
z o n e o f d is c a rd t e n d s to b e n e a r e r t h e in d u s tria l a n d m e a n o f a g r o u p o f b u ild in g s in t h e c e n t r e o f a
properties
A = better residential p o o re r- q u a lity r e s id e n tia l a r e a s (F ig u re 1 5 .2 0 ).T h e r e b lo c k . M o s t c itie s t e n d t o h a v e a s h a rp d e c lin e ip
properties
h a s a ls o b e e n a tr e n d in m a n y C B D s fo r re ta ilin g to b u ild in g h e ig h t a t t h e e d g e o f t h e C B D .

4 Number of pedestriansThis is a g r o u p a c tiv ity

CBHI under 1.0 - t h e m o re g ro u p s t h e b e tte r! E a c h g r o u p c o u n ts

CBII under 50% t h e n u m b e r o f p e d e s tria n s p a s s in g a g iv e n

p o in t a t a g iv e n t im e (e.g. 11 0 0 -1 1 1 5 h o u rs). T h e
Discard zone
g r e a t e r t h e n u m b e r o f sites (id e a lly c h o s e n by
CBHI over 1.0
CBII over 50% u s in g r a n d o m n u m b e rs , F r a m e w o r k 6, p a g e 159

t h e g re a te r t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e su rv e y . D e fin e a
Outer core
p e d e s tria n as s o m e o n e o f sc h o o l a g e a n d over,
social
CBHI over 2.0 light
services w a lk in g into, o u t o f o r p a s t a s h o p o n y o u r sid e o f
CBII over 70% offices manufact-
smaller department stores, specialist shops, (insurance, Uring t h e s t re e t.T h e s e c rite ria m a y b e a lte re d as lo n g as
car sales shops high-rise office blocks, commercial solicitors);
t h e y a re a p p lie d b y all t h e g ro u p s.
and offices (banks) public
services administration wholesale
Inner core 5 Accessibility to trafficThis is s im ila r t o t h e

p r e v io u s s u r v e y e x c e p t t h a t h e r e v e h ic le s are
theatres and cinemas c o u n t e d . M a k e s u r e all g r o u p s h a v e t h e s a m e

d e f in it io n o f a v e h ic le , e .g . d o y o u in c lu d e a
Assim ilation b ic y c le a n d / o r p r a m ?
zone
transport terminals;
education multi-storey car parks
 Land values T h e s e m ig h t b e e x p e c te d to d e c lin e c t h e t o ta l flo o r a re a (u p s ta ir s f lo o r a re a as w e ll
o u t w a r d s a t a fa irly u n ifo rm rate. P ro v id in g as t h e g r o u n d flo o r).
ra te a b le v a lu e s c a n b e o b t a in e d (try t h e rates
Y o u m a y la b o r io u s ly w o r k th is o u t fro m a la rg e - sc a le
o ffice ) a n d t h e re is t h e t im e to p ro c e ss t h e m (o r a
p la n , o r c h o o s e to c o m p r o m is e b y t a k in g t h e m e a n
s a m p le o f t h e to ta l), th is is o fte n a g o o d in d ic a to r
o f a s a m p le o f b u ild in g s in e a c h b lo c k . F ro m t h e s e
o f t h e C B D . It m a y b e u s e fu l to ta k e t h e PLVI
d a ta , t w o in d ic e s c a n b e d e r iv e d :
p o in t a n d ca ll th is 100 p e r c e n t, a n d t h e n c o n v e rt

t h e ra te a b le in d e x fo r all o t h e r p ro p e rtie s as a • The central business height index, o r CBHI,

p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e PLVI. It has b e e n s u g g e s te d w h ic h is e x p r e s s e d as:

t h a t a fig u re o f 20 p e r c e n t d e lim its t h e C B D fo r a

to ta l flo o r a re a o f
British city.
all C B D f u n c t i o n s
CBHI
Changing land use and functionsThis is a to ta l g r o u n d flo o r a re a
m a p w o r k e x e rc is e u s in g o ld m a p s o f t h e c e n tra l
The central business intensity index, or CBII,
a r e a (s h o p p in g m a p s a r e p r o d u c e d b y G O A D
w h ic h is e x p re s s e d as:
p la n s ) a n d s u p e r im p o s in g o n t o t h e m p re s e n t-

d a y la n d use s. L o o k fo r e v id e n c e o f z o n e s o f to ta l flo o r a r e a o f
a s s im ila t io n a n d d is c a rd (F ig u re 15.20). all C B D f u n c t i o n s 100
CBHI =
Central business index T h is is p r o b a b ly t h e to ta l g r o u n d flo o r a r e a x 1

b e s t m e t h o d as it in v o lv e s a c o m b in a t io n o f
T o b e c o n s id e r e d p a r t o f t h e C B D , t h e C B H I o f a p lo t
la n d u s e c h a r a c t e r is t ic s , b u ild in g h e ig h t a n d
s h o u ld b e o v e r 1.0 a n d t h e C B II o v e r 50 p e r c e n t
la n d v a lu e s . T h e p r o b le m is in o b t a in in g t h e
( F ig u r e 15.21).
n e c e s s a r y d a ta , i.e.

a t h e t o ta l flo o r a re a o f all c e n tra l o r C B D

fu n c tio n s
Plotting the data
ure 15.21
C a re fu l c o n s id e r a t io n s h o u ld b e g iv e n as to w h ic h
”' i :entral business b t h e t o ta l g r o u n d flo o r a re a (c e n t r a l a n d
c a r t o g r a p h ic t e c h n iq u e is b e s t a p p lie d to e a c h se t o f
roex(CBI) n o n - c e n tra l f u n c t io n s )
c o lle c t e d d a ta . Y ou m a y w is h to u s e o n e o r s e v e ra l o f
________ J I____ J L J L J L
t h e fo llo w in g : la n d u s e m a p s , iso lin e s, c h o r o p le th s ,

f lo w g ra p h s , h is to g ra m s , b a r g ra p h s , s c a tte r g r a p h s

CBHI = 0.8 CBHI = 0.9 CBHI = 0.5 a n d tra n s e c ts . A lt e r n a tiv e ly , y o u m a y b e a b le to

CBII = 4 4 % CBII = 4 7 % CBII = 2 7 % d e v is e a t e c h n iq u e o f y o u r o w n . Y o u m a y s a v e t im e

a n d p r o d u c e re su lts t h a t a re e a s ie r to c o m p a r e b y

u s in g tra c in g o v e r la y s a n d / o r a c o m p u te r.

CBHI = 1.3 CBHI = 2.9 CBHI = 0.8

CBII = 6 1 % CBII = 8 8 % CBII = 4 6 %
Delimiting the CBD: conclusions
If y o u h a v e c a rrie d o u t y o u r o w n s u rve y, y o u r r e p o rt

m ig h t in c lu d e c o m m e n ts o n t h e fo llo w in g q u e s tio n s :
Block X
1 W h a t p r o b le m s d id y o u e n c o u n t e r in c o lle c t in g
1=1.2 CBHI = 2.4 CBHI = 2.8 CBHI = 1.5
CBII = 7 4 % CBII = 8 6 % CBII = 6 8 % a n d re fin in g t h e d a t a ?

2 W h ic h o f t h e m e t h o d s u s e d in c o lle c t in g t h e

d a ta a p p e a r e d t o g iv e t h e m o s t, a n d t h e le ast,

a c c u r a t e d e lim it a t io n o f t h e C B D ?
CBHI = 0.9 CBHI = 1.4 CBHI = 0.7
CBII = 4 8 % CBII = 6 1 % CBII = 4 1 % 3 In y o u r t o w n , w a s t h e r e a n o b v io u s C B D ; d id y o u

fin d a n in n e r a n d a n o u t e r c o re (F ig u re 15 .2 0)?

W a s t h e r e e v id e n c e o f z o n e s o f a s s im ila tio n
I I r a n d d is c a rd ? W e r e t h e r e a n y s p e c ific fu n c tio n a l
res for Block X z o n e s o t h e r t h a n s h o p s a n d o ffic e s ? W a s t h e
I "o o r area o f all CBD a re a o f t h e C B D s im ila r t o y o u r m e n t a l m a p (y o u r
~ c n s = 75 000 m2
CBHI =0.6 p r e c o n c e iv e d p ic t u r e ) o f its lim its ?
: -ound floor CBII = 33% i Blocks inside CBD
i = 50 000 m 2 4 W h a t r e fin e m e n t s w o u ld y o u m a k e to t h e
i "o o r area t e c h n iq u e s u s e d if y o u h a d to r e p e a t th is
CBHI = central business height index
rc-eys) = 110 000 m 2
CBII = central business intensity index ta s k in a d iffe r e n t u r b a n a r e a ?
__ ~-rr rn\ ii 75 000 -i r
-re C B H I - 5 0 000 - 15
(The shape o f each block is more
—„ _ 75 000 _ , 00, typical o f a N orth A m erican city than
110 000 o ne in Britain.) Urbanisation 431
 Retailing
Traditional shopping patterns
Traditionally, as neatly summarised by Prosser,
'Retailing in British cities has been based upon a
well-established hierarchy from the CBD or "High
Street" at the top, through major district centres,
local suburban centres, to neighbourhood parades
and the local corner shop. Using numbers of
outlets, floor space, type and range of goods, for
example, as measures of size or "mass", Christaller's
central place (page 407) and gravity models
(page 410) have been applied to the hierarchical
structure, relating mass to spatial distribution of
shopping centres and their spheres of influence.'
W ith in this hierarchy were two m ain types
of shop:
1 Those selling convenience or low-order
goods w hich are bought frequently, usually
daily, and are not sufficiently high in value
to attract customers from further than the
immediate catchm ent area, e.g. newsagents
and small chain stores.
2 Those selling com parison or high-order
goods which are purchased less frequently
but w hich need a much higher threshold
population, e.g. goods found in department
stores and specialist shops.
The preferred location of these two types of shop
was usually determined by the frequency of visit,
their accessibility and the cost of land and, there­
fore, rent (page 425).
Convenience shops are com m only located in
housing estates, both in the inner city and the
suburbs, and in neighbourhood units so as to
be w ith in easy reach of their customers - often
w ith in walking distance. W ith a lower turnover
of goods than retail units in the CBD, they may
have to charge higher prices but their rent and
Figure 15.22 rates are lower. Ideally, they are located along
suburban arterial roads or at a crossroads for easier
An environmentally
improved city centre access and, possibly, to encourage impulse buying
shopping area in Sheffield by motorists driving into the C BD (Figure 15.18).
Convenience shops are also located in inner cities
where the corner shop (Figure 15.19 B l) caters for
a population that cannot afford high transport
costs; in suburban shopping parades (Figure 15.19
C l ) where the inhabitants live a long way from
the central shopping area; and along side-streets
in the C BD where they take advantage of lower
rents to provide daily essentials for those who
work in the city centre.
Comparison shops need a large threshold
population (page 407) and therefore have to
attract people from the whole urban area and
beyond. As they bid for a central location, they
must have a high turnover in order to pay the
high rents. This central area has traditionally
afforded the greatest accessibility for shoppers,
w ith public transport competing w ith the private
motorist. Large department stores and specialist
shops usually locate w ith in the C BD (Figure
15.19 A l), although comparison shops m ay also
locate in the more affluent suburbs.
The retailing revolution
Since the 1970s there has been such a revolution
in retailing that, by 2007, it provided 8 per cent
of the UK's G D P and employed 11 per cent of
its total workforce. It began with the growth of
superstores, often in then traditional city centre
shopping areas, and hypermarkets, locating on
new edge-of-city sites (Figure 15.19 D 1). The 1980s)
saw a growth in both non-food retail parks and, at
MetroCentre (Places 55), the first of the now domf
nant out-of-town regional shopping centres.
Town centres
M any city centres have undergone constant
change either to try to attract new customers
or, as is more usual, to restrict losses of existing
shoppers to the regional shopping centres or to
internet shopping. Most city centres contain
covered malls, where shoppers can compare
styles and prices while staying warm and dry, and
w hich are either traffic free or have access limited
to delivery vehicles and public transport. M any
local councils have allowed an extension of land
use to include places for eating, drinking and
entertainment and have improved the quality of
the shopping environm ent (Figure 15.22).
A report by the New Fxonomics Foundation
(August 2004) claimed that Britain was becoming
a nation of 'clone towns with high streets having
identical shops owned by a small number of pow­
erful chains'. The only variation was how smart
a town is perceived to be by the stores' market
researchers - that this, there is a hierarchy in the
quality of shop: usually the larger the town, the
greater the degree of cloning. The report claimed
that local businesses are suffocated by identikit
 Stores in Applications

2007 existence New Extensions

chain stores that have marketing budgets, political Tesco 1819 37 26
contacts and resources that give them an unfair
Sainsbury's 751 6 9
economic advantage. The only real recent gainers
have been coffee shops, pub chains, mobile phones ASDA 302 21 6
and charity shops.
Morrisons 370 10 2
Despite attempts, both locally and nationally,
to try to restrict further shopping developments Total 3242 74 43

on edge-of-city sites, an increasing number of

■ Retail parks, w h ich have also been attracted
the smaller city-centre retailers are still being
to inner city brownfield sites, tend to concen­
forced to close. Initially these were m ainly food,
trate on the sale of non-food items (e.g. B&Q,
clothing and other specialist shops but, as 2008
Comet and Homebase).
has shown w ith the previously unforeseen
■ Regional shopping centres not only sell 'eve­
closure of banks, nothing in the C BD is immune
rything' under one roof, but often include
to an economic downturn. These recent events
restaurants, children's play areas and cinemas.
may well buck the trend by w hich city centres
The earliest such centres, each covering over
have responded, often successfully, to the chal­
100 000 m 2, were Gateshead MetroCentre
lenges of the out-of town centres through consid­
(Places 55), Sheffield Meadowhall, Dudley
erable re-branding and updating.
Merry Hill, Lakeside and Dartford Bluewater.
Out-of-town shopping centres They were controversial in that they not only
An increasing number of shopping outlets took a large amount of business from local city-
began locating on the edge of towns and centres, they also attracted literally coachloads
cities to take advantage of economies of scale, of shoppers from places up to 150 km away.
lower rents, and a more pleasant and planned W h ile the volume of trade in city centres has
environment. Superstores in particular were been increasing by less than 1 per cent annually
built on cheaper land at, or beyond, city margins in recent times, that of the regional shopping
(Figure 15.17), w hich allowed them space for centres has seen a growth of over 20 per cent
immediate use, future expansion and essential a year. New ones are still being developed as
large car parking areas. The ideal location is also at Liverpool One (2007) and Cabot Circus in
near to a m otorway interchange facilitating Bristol (2008). However, Westfield in west
access for both customers and delivery drivers. London (2008 - page 458) and Stratford C ity
Developments have included the following: in east London (planned) are attempts to
■ The present 'big four' supermarkets of Tesco, keep retail spending w ith in the capital (at the
: 15.25 Sainsbury's, ASDA and Morrisons - there is expense of Bluewater). However, predictions
t“ \ ;ew ofthe much concern about these as they continue, are that, following any economic downturn,
»p- Zentre site, between them, increasingly to dominate it w ill be the regional centres, not the city
■ esd: to the left is the
Britain's retailing industry: centres, that w ill be the first to recover.
-;tem by-pass) and
i - ■ghtthe Newcastle—
. t 'ailway, with
Gateshead: the M etroCentre
lit ■ and the RiverTyne

Location
T h e M e tr o C e n tre , o n t h e e d g e o f G a te s h e a d , o p e n e d

in 1986, a n d w a s t h e p r o t o t y p e fo r a n e w c o n c e p t

in re ta ilin g in B rita in : o u t- o f- to w n s h o p p in g . A fte r

s e v e ra l u p g ra d e s a n d e x te n s io n s , it still re m a in s

E u ro p e 's la rg e s t s in g le s h o p p in g c e n tre . B e fo re

d e v e lo p m e n t t h e site w a s m a rs h la n d , w h ic h m e a n t

t h a t a la rg e a m o u n t o f la n d w a s a v a ila b le a n d

r e la tiv e ly c h e a p to buy.

Access
T h e s ite is a d ja c e n t to t h e w e s t e r n b y- p ass w h ic h

n o w fo r m s p a r t o f t h e m a in n o r t h - s o u t h t r u n k

ro a d , t h e A l , w h ic h a v o id s c e n t r a l N e w c a s t le a n d

G a t e s h e a d . It h a s 10 0 0 0 fr e e c a r p a rk in g s p a c e s

Urbanisation 433
 to Carlisle
River Tyne Figure 15.24

Layoutofthe
MetroCentre

M etroC entre Circular S I

(buses travel in direction
Additional amenities
o f arro w only)
to G ateshead
L e is u r e h a s a lw a y s b e e n a
M etroC entre
“ W aterm ark Services S2 an d New castle v it a l p a r t o f t h e s c h e m e . S ir
bus stop
J o h n H a ll, w h o s e id e a t h e
El tran sp ort interchange

Q cycle parking M e t r o C e n t r e w a s , b e lie v e d

a car park
t h a t s h o p p in g s h o u ld b e an
railw ay line and station
©
red e n j o y a b l e o c c a s io n fo r t h e
sh op pin g zone
zone
w h o le f a m ily ( F ig u r e 15.24).

1 T h e r e is a 'c h ild r e n 's v illa g e ', a

w it h s p e c ia l fa c ilit ie s fo r t h e d is a b le d m o to ris t,
100 b u s e s p e r h o u r, a n d 69 t ra in s d a ily . T h e c e n tr e ,
w h ic h h a s its o w n b u s a n d r a ilw a y s ta tio n s , is less
th a n 70 m in u t e s 'd r iv e a w a y fo r 2.6 m illio n p e o p le
(F ig u r e s 15.23 a n d 15.24).
c r e c h e , a 1 0 - sc re e n c in e m a , a
's p a c e c i t y 'f o r c o m p u t e r e n t h u s ia s t s , a n d v a r io u s
t h e m e a r e a s s u c h a s T h e F o r u m , T h e V illa g e a n d
G a r d e n C o u r t . O p e n in g in t h e Y e llo w M a ll in 2 0 0 9
w ill b e b o w lin g , p o o l, s o ft p la y a n d e le c t r o n ic
g a m e s in a f a m ily e n t e r t a i n m e n t c e n t r e , t o g e t h e r

w i t h a n e w c in e m a a n d m o r e r e s t a u r a n t s .T h is

Shopping environment c o u ld in c r e a s e t h e p r e s e n t w o r k in g p o p u la t io n o f
7 0 0 0 b y a n o t h e r 1 0 0 0 .T h e M e t r o C e n t r e c o m p le x
In 2 0 0 8 t h e r e w e r e 342 s h o p s w it h M a rk s & S p e n c e r ,
a ls o in c lu d e s a 15 0 - b e d r o o m h o t e l, a n o ffic e b lo c k
H o u s e o f Fraser, D e b e n h a m s a n d B H S f o r m in g t h e
a n d a p e t r o l s t a t io n , w h i le t h e a d ja c e n t M e t r o
a n c h o r sto re s. T h e s h o p s , g r o u p e d in t o f o u r co lo u r-
R e ta il P a r k c o n t a in s IK E A , D F S , A S D A , T o ys Us and
c o d e d z o n e s (F ig u r e 15.24), a re se t o n t w o le v e ls in
H a r r y R a m s d e n 's .
a p le a s a n t e n v ir o n m e n t w h ic h in c lu d e s tre e - lin e d

m a lls, a ir c o n d it io n in g , 1 k m 2 o f g la z e d r o o f to le t in

n a tu ra l lig h t (s u p p le m e n t e d b y 'o ld w o r ld 'la m p s ) , Visitors

n u m e r o u s s e a ts fo r re la x in g , e s c a la t o r s a n d , fo r t h e M e tro C e n tre 's s p h e re o f in flu e n c e e x te n d s as far as
d is a b le d , lifts (F ig u r e 15.25). A s tr e e t a t m o s p h e r e York, C u m b ria a n d S c o tla n d . O v e r 24 m illio n p e o p le , 70
Figure 15.25 is c r e a t e d b y t r a d e r s s e llin g fro m s ta lls a n d t h e r e p e r c e n t o f w h o m are fe m a le , visit a n n u a lly w ith 84 p er

Inside the a re o v e r 50 p la c e s fo r e a t in g a n d d r in k in g - m a n y c e n t arrivin g b y ca r a n d 16 p e r c e n t b y p u b lic tra n s p o rt

MetroCentre s t a y in g o p e n lo n g a ft e r t h e s h o p s clo se . (Fig u re 15.26).

mm t , lo p fix c r a n k in g o f
S ig n i f ic a n t c h a n g e h a v e la k ^ ^ c c o v d in g to ih c 2 0 0 h
th e W a d in g s h o p p in g . , T ,v o r W o o d A ^ o o a t ^

ZThep most
pm s
notabW is that Ga ^ ^ ^ t a s ; e “ ne t
replaced SIX y e a ^
ton spot from Bluewater whl res in many categoric

® ' " inc“which

in the report “ ev 7 ^ " » investors
and — ‘ b!
overall attractiveness to s h o p p ^ ^ K n a n t s , gross lettable
Categories included qual y ^ tQ the ekm ents and
retail area, whethei it 1 The ranking was
X t h e r it has a food court anda cteche ^ for over 8 50
achieved by checking de a .. ^ fp r s c h e m e s co^en
shopping centres, parks J g 0f the Red Mai i

Figure 15.26

Adapted from the Newcastle

Journal, November 2007

434 Urbanisation
 Financial institutions and offices
Financial institutions em ploy large numbers of
people, especially in world centres such as New
York, Tokyo, Hong Kong and London. These
institutions, w hich include banking, insur­
ance and accountancy, operate w ith in offices.
Traditionally offices have vied w ith shops for
city centre locations regardless of the coun­
try's level of development (compare Tokyo,
Figure 15.13; London, Figure 15.19 A2; Hong
Kong, Figure 15.27; and Nairobi, Figure 15.36).
However, whereas shops offer assistance to local
individuals, offices form part of an agglomera­
tion of businesses usually served b y and in close
association with, a myriad consultants, media,
hospitality and recreational establishments.
C om pany head offices and major institu­
tions such as the stock exchange locate in the
capital city. As offices use land intensively, they
compete w ith shops for prim e sites w ith in city
centres (Figure 15.17). Increasingly, due to high
land values, they have had to locate in ever-
taller office blocks. Elsewhere in city centres,
offices m ay locate above shops in the m ain
street or on ground-floor sites in side-streets
running off the m ain shopping thoroughfares.
Banks can afford prim e corner sites, w hile
building societies and estate agents vie for high-
visib ility locations. A city centre office location
igure 15.27 , 7 ,
m ay have been desirable for prestige reasons, for
Wee development ease 0f access f0r clients and staff, for proxim ity
- Hong Kong Island
to other fu n c tio n a l lin k s (banks, insurance and
entertainm ent) and sources of data and in fo r­
mation, and for face-to-face contact.
Taking London as an example, it can be
seen that demands for office space and loca­
tion change over time. In the late 1940s, some
firms re-located to the then New Towns. Later
the decentralisation of government offices saw a
movement often to areas where there was high
unem ploym ent (DHS to Newcastle, D V LA to
Swansea and Giro to Bootle) and, un til the early
1990s, to smaller towns where rents were lower,
more space was available and the quality of life
perceived to be higher. Since then there has been
a remarkable reversal, w ith a huge demand for
space w ith in the capital itself resulting from
London's increasing status as a global city. The
Docklands can now be considered to be a CBD
in it own right (U llm an and Harris, page 423),
w hile media and advertising companies have put
real pressure on commercial space in Soho and
central London. It w ill be interesting to see how
the global financial crisis of 2008 affects future
growth and location.
New technology has allowed the easier
transfer of data and has reduced the need for face-
to-face contact, while increased computerisation
has often led to a reduced workforce (banking) but
one that is more highly skilled. M any new office
locations are on purpose-built business, office or
science parks (Figure 15.19 D4).
iH k
P H IL IP
Urbanisation 435
 Industrial zones was yet available. Houses and factories
competed for space. As a result, houses were
Industry w ithin urban areas has changed its
small, sometimes w ith only one room upstairs
location over time. In the early 19th century, it
and one downstairs or they were built 'back to
was usually sited w ith in city centres, e.g. textile
back'. The absence of gardens and public open
firms, slaughter houses and food processing.
space added to the high housing density.
However, as the Industrial Revolution saw the
B y the 1950s, m any of these inner-city areas
growth in size and number of factories, and later
the low-class/low-income houses of the urban
when shops began to compete for space in the
models, had become slums. W holesale clear­
city centre, industry moved centrifugally out­
ances saw large areas flattened by bulldozers
wards into what today is the inner city (Places 52,
and redeveloped w ith high-rise blocks of flats
page 421). Inner-city areas could provide the large
(Figure 15.19 B3). W ith in 20 years, the previ­
quantity of unskilled labour needed for textile
ously unforeseen social problems of these flats
mills, steelworks and heavy engineering. The land
led to a change in policy where, under urban
was cheaper and had not yet been built upon.
renewal, older housing was improved, rather
Factories were also located next to main lines of
than replaced, by adding bathrooms, kitchens,
communication: originally, rivers and canals,
hot water and indoor toilets. The tower blocks
then railways and finally roads (Figure 15.19 B4).
and estates, m ainly due to the action of housing
Firms including bakeries, dairies, printing
associations, are themselves being replaced on an
(newspapers) and furniture, w hich have strong
ambitious scale.
links w ith the city centre, are still found here.
Some inner-city areas have undergone a
Between the 1950s and the 1980s this zone
process known as g e n trifica tio n . This is where
increasingly suffered from industrial decline as
old, substandard housing is bought, modernised
older, traditional industries closed down and
and occupied by more w ealthy families. In some
others moved to edge-of-city sites. In Britain,
Inner London districts, like Chelsea, Fulham and
recent changes in government policy have led
Islington, such properties are much sought-afte:
to attempts to regenerate industry in these areas
and have become very expensive. The process is
through initiatives such as Enterprise Zones,
partly triggered by the proximity of employment
derelict land grants and Urban Development
and services in the city centre and partly throucr
Corporations (page 439). Even so, the replacement
the availability of im provem ent grants. Once
industries are often on a small scale and compete
begun, it is often maintained by the perception of
for space w ith warehouses and D IY shops.
social prestige derived from living in such areas.
Most modern industry is 'light' and clean
More recently, inner-city areas w ith a waterfron:
in comparison to that of the last century and
location, as in London, Bristol, Manchester,
has moved to greenfield sites near to the city
Liverpool and Newcastle, have undergone a
boundary (Figure 15.19 D4). Industrial estates
renaissance w hich has also seen them becoming
and modern business and science parks are
fashionable and expensive (Figure 15.30).
located on large areas of relatively cheap land
The outward growth of the city continued
where firms have built new premises, use
both during the inter-war period when, aided
modern technology and, by being near to
by the development of private and public trans­
local housing estates, can satisfy the need for a
port, large estates of semi-detached houses w ere
wider range of skills and the increased demand
built (the medium-class houses of the urban
for female labour (Places 86, page 566). Most
models, Figure 15.19 C2 and C3), and after the
industries are 'footloose' and include high-tech,
1950s. M any of the present edge-of-city estates
electronics, IT software houses, media/news
consist of low-density private housing. Due to
companies, food processing and distribution
low land values (Figure 15.17), the houses are
firms and those providing services such as waste
large, and have gardens and access to open space
recycling.
(Figure 15.19 D2). Other estates were created by
local councils in an attempt to rehouse those
Residential zones
people forced to m ove during the inner-city
The Industrial Revolution also led to the rapid clearances. These estates, a mixture of high-rise
growth in urban population and the outward and low-rise buildings (Figure 15.19 D3), have
expansion of towns. Long, straight rows of ter­ a high density and, like some older inner-city
raced houses (Figure 15.19 B2) were constructed areas, are now experiencing extreme social and
as close as possible to the nearby factories where economic problems (page 441).
most of the occupants worked. The closeness was
essential as neither private nor public transport

436 Urbanisation
 F ra m e w o rk 14 V a lu e s a n d a ttitu d e s

E x is tin g A 2 / A S s y lla b u s e s s ta te as o n e o f t h e ir w it h f e w e r p re ju d ic e s a n d p r e c o n c e p t io n s , t h e
a im s :'im p r o v e as c ritic a l a n d re fle c t iv e le a rn e rs , f o u n d a t io n s o f t h e ir o w n v a lu e s .
a w a r e o f t h e im p o r t a n c e o f a t t it u d e s a n d v a lu e s ,
T h is m a y b e illu strated w it h re fe re n c e to t h e fo llo w in g
in c lu d in g t h e ir o w n '.T h is is n o t a n e w a im : s in c e
s e c tio n o n in n e r cities w h ic h is s tru ctu re d as fo llo w s:
t h e e a r ly 19 7 0 s g e o g r a p h y t e a c h e r s h a v e b e e n

tr y in g to e n c o u r a g e t h e ir s t u d e n t s t o d e v e lo p a n d 1 The problem of inner cities W ill th e s e issu es b e

c la r ify t h e ir o w n v a lu e s a n d a ttitu d e s , a p ro c e s s b y s e e n d iffe re n tly b y t h e in h a b it a n t o f a n in n e r- city
w h ic h g e o g r a p h e r s d o n o t s im p ly m e a s u r e a n d a re a a n d a p e rs o n liv in g in a rural e n v ir o n m e n t ?
q u a n t ify b u t c o n f r o n t s o m e o f t h e q u e s t io n s a n d
2 The image of an inner-city area W ill a d e s c rip ­
c o n c e p t s t h a t a ris e fro m t h o s e m e a s u r e m e n t s , e.g.
tio n o f inn er-city p ro b le m s g iv e a n e g a tiv e p ic tu re
in e q u a lit ie s a n d d e p r iv a t io n (p a g e 4 3 8 ). It is n o t a
o f t h e q u a lity o f life in th o s e e n v iro n m e n ts a n d in
c a s e o f t e a c h e r s 'p a s s in g o n 't h e ir o w n v a lu e s b u t
d o in g so p e rp e tu a te th e p ro b le m s , o r c o u ld it h e lp
g e t tin g t h e ir s t u d e n t s t o e n q u ire , fo r e x a m p le , w h y
in t h e u n d e rs ta n d in g a n d ta c k lin g o f th e m ?
t h e r e a re in e q u a lit ie s a n d h o w t h e y h a v e d e v e lo p e d .
3 Possible solutions to the inner-city problem
T h e p r e s e n t a u t h o r h a s trie d , r ig h t ly o r w r o n g ly , W o u ld so lu tio n s p r o p o s e d b y in n e r- city re s id e n ts
to m a in t a in a 'n e u t r a l's t a n c e . S o m e w o u ld c la im b e sim ila r to t h o s e s u g g e s te d a n d im p le m e n t e d
t h a t w h a t h a s b e e n in c lu d e d in th is b o o k h a s b e e n b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t o r t h e lo cal a u t h o r ity ?
in flu e n c e d b y t h e a u t h o r 's o w n v a lu e s a n d a ttitu d e s ,
4 What successes have governm ent schemes
e.g. a b e lie f in t h e f u n d a m e n t a l ro le o f p h y s ic a l
had? Y o u r a n s w e r t o th is m a y d e p e n d u p o n
g e o g r a p h y in a n u n d e r s ta n d in g o f e n v ir o n m e n t a l
y o u r owm p o litic a l v ie w s . B e fo r e t h e 1997
p ro b le m s ; a p r e f e r e n c e fo r liv in g in a se m i- ru ral a re a
g e n e r a l e le c t io n , C o n s e r v a t iv e s p o in t e d o u t
ra t h e r t h a n a n in n e r city . C ritic is m c o u ld a ls o b e
t h e m a n y a c h ie v e m e n t s o f t h e p e r io d 1 9 8 0 -9 7 ;
le v e lle d fo r u s in g p e rs o n a l e x p e r ie n c e s as e x e m p la rs
L a b o u r, t h e L ib e ra l D e m o c r a t s a n d o t h e r
in s o m e Places a n d Case Study s e c tio n s . W h a t th e
o p p o s it io n p a r tie s c la im e d t h a t little h a d b e e n
a u t h o r h a s t rie d to d o is to p r e s e n t re a d e r s w it h
d o n e . W h o , if e ith e r, w a s c o r r e c t ? P r e s u m a b ly
in fo r m a t io n in t h e h o p e t h a t t h e y m a y b e c o m e
s in c e t h a t e le c t io n , w h ic h le d to a re v e rs a l o f
m o re a w a r e o f t h e ir o w n v a lu e s in re la tio n t o t h e
ro les, t h e t w o m a in p a r t ie s w ill b e c h a n g in g
b e h a v io u r o f o th e rs , a n d to e n a b le t h e m to d iscu ss,
t h e ir a ttitu d e s !

Issues in Britain's inner cities ■ a lack of basic household amenities (1 m illion

Tremendous changes have taken place in inner- w ithout a bathroom, W C or hot water)
city areas since the last edition of this book was ■ high densities in high-rise flats, overcrowding
published a decade ago. In m any areas these in houses
changes, which include land use and social ■ lower life expectancies and a greater in ci­
composition, have replaced the largely negative dence of illness
picture that was described in the late 1990s ■ a predominance of lower-income, semi­
(the dangers of stereotyping, Framework 13, skilled manual workers
page 427) and, w ith an increasing mix in the ■ a higher incidence of single-parent families
types of building and in population structure and the elderly
(Hampstead and Brixton are both inner-city loca­ ■ a concentration of ethnic minorities.
tions), it has become impossible to make broad, Even if it was true at the time, these indicators
accurate generalisations such as those suggested only tended to reinforce the concept of the inner
by 20th-century urban models and textbooks. cities being areas of poverty and deprivation
(Figures 15.28 and 15.29).
1997
The widest definition of an inner city at that 2008
time was 'an area found in older cities, sur­ Certain London boroughs have seen consider­
rounding the CBD, where the prevailing eco­ able regeneration and most areas have seen
nomic, social and environm ental conditions improvements, to a greater or lesser degree,
pose severe problems'. This definition was, in housing, transport, em ploym ent and the
intentionally or otherwise, reinforced by the provision of amenities. The biggest transfor­
'Small-area Census' of that year w h ich listed the m ation has occurred in the former Docklands
characteristics of inner-city London, and of other where - as in similar locations in places like
inner-city areas, as: Liverpool, Bristol and Newcastle - derelict land

Urbanisation 437

Figure 15.28
Deprivation index by wards,
Newcastle upon Tyne, 2007
and unused buildings have been cleared, poor-
quality housing has been upgraded and former
warehouses converted into expensive accom ­
modation. Transport links have been im proved
by the construction of a new light railw ay and
the extension of the Jubilee line. Numerous new
jobs, often office-based, have been created, as
at C anary W harf, together w ith im provements
in leisure amenities, shopping and the en viron ­
ment (Figure 15.30).
Elsewhere in London, Brixton M arket and
the Notting H ill Carnival are examples of events
where local people and visitors from a wider
area come together. In 1996, Tower Hamlets
(Figure 13.7) recorded o n ly 11 per cent of its stu­
dents obtaining 5 GCSEs, but ten years later that
figure was 44 per cent. New shopping centres are
appearing and more are planned (Stratford City,
page 433). The biggest change of all is beginning
in east London w ith the regeneration in prepara­
tion for the 2012 Olym pics (Places 56). Perhaps
the best indicator of all of London's successful
transformation is the large number of people,
m ainly in the 20s and 30s age groups and from
overseas, m oving here to be part of a m u lti­
ethnic, global city.
Yet to m any people living in parts of inner
London, this now positive view of the city
is either unrecognisable or remains beyond
their reach. There are still too m any pockets
of poverty, especially in some of the boroughs
towards east London. However, whereas 30
years ago it was the result of industrial decline,
especially in the former docklands, now it often
results from poor housing and social conditions.
Canning Town, quoted as the poorest ward in
the poorest borough (Newham ), owes m uch of
its poverty to (a) a housing policy that led to the
selling of large tracts of public (council) housing
and w hich resulted in an increasing accumula­
tion of deprived families and individuals and
(b) the low level of educational attainment com­
pared w ith other London boroughs.
Indicators of welfare and deprivation
The Department of the Environment describes
deprivation as: 'when an individual's well-being
falls below a level generally regarded as a reason­
able m inim um for Britain today' and it is measured
by several economic, social, housing and environ­
mental indicators (Figure 15.28). In 2007, despite
a determined government effort, over 7 million
people were living in households which received
less than the national annual income, and up to
one-quarter of children born each year are born
into poverty (Figure 15.29).
Figur*

Cyde
o r:;

Cycle of poverty, or deprivation

This is a concept that is largely, i
to improve conditions5 for
though not exclusively, linked to who are caught in this cvc
inner-city problems. It offers some poverty. They tend to) 1leave
explanation o f how the problems have early with insecure job p r_
2 km
Deprivation indicators arisen. The cycle o f poverty involves Poor conditions and poor
Economic stress a continuous process which transmits encourage criminal activir.
IMD2007 - u n e m plo ym en t relative poverty from one generation of interest in the neighb
National Deprivation - low-incom e families to another and which makes escape environment, discouraging
in 1 0 % most deprived Social stress from deprivation very difficult. investment and incentives:
10 - 20 % - all d ep end an ts in house: no fam ily earner Certain occupational groups earn very it. On the contrary, the ne_
■ I 20 -3 0 % - lone-parent families low incomes, which makes for a low becomes even more run
30-50% - families w ith o u t a car standard of living, including poor adverse image of it is c
- crim e/overt d elinq uen cy housing (since they cannot afford any discouraging inward mov
5 0 -100% least deprived
- racial tension
better). The poor environment may but the desperate house’
---- ward bou nd ary
Housing stress produce stresses and strains in the have nowhere else to go.
IM D = indicators o f m ultiple deprivation
household, and poor health amongst The cycle o f poverty ;
- lacking o ne or m ore basic am enities (W C,
household members. In turn this characteristic o f the under
running water, b athroom )
affects the educational and other is also increasingly cone
- overcro w ding (m ore than 1 person per room )
prospects of younger members in the particular areas of the cii
- no central heating
family. The school and certain housing estates o e
Environmental stress
neighbourhood may lack the o f som e cities.
- noise pollution
resources and skilled people needed Source: Material adapted:
- derelict land
Department of the E nvr

438 Urbanisation
Government policies for the inner cities
Innumerable inner city initiatives have b e e n
introduced by various governments since 1945.
These have sought to try to achieve one or more
of the following:
■ enhance job prospects and re-train local
people to compete for them
■ bring derelict land and buildings back into use
■ improve housing conditions and local services
■ encourage private sector investment
■ encourage com m unity co-operation and
involvem ent to improve the social fabric
■ improve the quality of the environment.
Since the 1980s m any schemes have proved to be
short-lived and to have had on ly limited effect,
e.g. Urban Developm ent Grants, Derelict Land
Grants, Inner C ity Task Force, C ity Challenge,
Urban Task Force and Neighbourhood Renewal
Units. The two most successful and longest
lasting initiatives operated throughout most of
the 1980s and 1990s.
1 Enterprise Zones (EZs) tried to stimulate
economic activity in areas of high unem­
ployment by lifting certain tax burdens, e.g.
exemption from paying rates for the first ten
years; 100 per cent grants for m achinery and
new buildings; and the relaxing or speeding
up of planning applications. Included in
the 26 EZs that affected inner cities were
Gateshead's MetroCentre (Places 55), the
cleaning up of the Lower Swansea Valley, and
the opening of the independent television
studios at Limehouse in London's Isle of Dogs.
2 Urban Developm ent Corporations (UDCs)
were introduced to spearhead the then
government's attempts to regenerate areas
Figure 15.30
Canary Wharf and
London Docklands, 2008
that contained large amounts of derelict,
unused land or buildings. UDCs were given
the power to acquire, reclaim and service
land; to restore buildings to effective use;
to promote new industrial activity and
housing developments; and to support local
com m unity facilities. Financed by private-
sector investment, the first two, the London
Dockland Developm ent Corporation (LDDC,
Fig 15.30) and the Merseyside Developm ent
Corporation (M D C ), were set up in 1981.
B y 1993 there were 13 - 12 in England and
1 in Wales. Most of these schemes changed
the face of the areas in w hich they operated,
for example the LD D C (w hich transformed
London's former docklands and included the
pulling down of the Limehouse television
studios (see above) and replacing them w ith
C anary W harf); the M D C (w hich revitalised
Liverpool's Albert Dock); Trafford Park D C in
Manchester; Cardiff Bay DC; and Sheffield
D C (which regenerated the Lower Don
Valley). The UD Cs in England were all wound
up by 1998, and Cardiff Bay D C in 2000.
Present schemes
■ U rb an R e g e n e ra tio n C o m p an ies (URCs)
are local partnerships with the task of
achieving radical physical, economic and
social transformation of towns and cities in
declining urban areas. Launched in 1999,
w ith three pilot companies in Liverpool, east
Manchester and Sheffield, they now operate
in 22 areas, including one in each of Wales
and Northern Ireland.
■ N ew Deal fo r C o m m u n itie s (NDC) oper­
ates in 39 of England's most deprived areas
including in Lambeth and Hackney in
London, as well as in Bradford, Manchester,
Leicester, Oldham, H ull and Middlesbrough.
Its aim was to deliver real improvements to
people's lives and to narrow the gap between
the most deprived areas and the rest of the
country by, among other factors, reducing
crime and im proving education, health and a
com m unity spirit.
It is difficult to generalise on the overall success of
so m any wide-ranging schemes introduced over
such a long period. There have been many positive
improvements, especially to the environment, but
social and economic problems still remain, with
some former inner city areas experiencing above
the national average in terms of unemployment,
amounts of poor-quality housing and levels of
crime, while standards in education and health
care are often below it.
..................................................................................
I
Urbanisation 439
 London: regeneration and th e 2012 O lym pics

T h e Ea st E n d o f L o n d o n w o u ld a p p e a r to h a v e h ad th e O ly m p ic site, w ith its v illa g e a n d stad iu m s, w ill

its fair sh a re o f g o v e r n m e n t in n e r c ity in itia tive s,
w it h p a rts h a v in g b e e n in t h e Isle o f D o g s E Z a n d
u n d e r t h e L o n d o n D o c k la n d s D C (p a g e 439). T h e s e
s c h e m e s re su lte d in m a n y im p ro v e m e n ts , e s p e c ia lly
in h o u s in g , jo b o p p o r tu n itie s , t r a n s p o rt links a n d
t h e e n v ir o n m e n t . Yet, as w a s n o te d o n p a g e 438,
C a n n in g T o w n , in t h e b o r o u g h o f N e w h a m a n d ju s t
a s h o rt d is ta n c e fro m t h e p re s tig io u s C a n a r y W h a r f
d e v e lo p m e n t (F ig u re 15.30) w a s , a c c o r d in g to s ta ­
tistic s in t h e U K 2001 ce n su s , t h e p o o r e s t a n d m o st
d e p r iv e d a re a in t h e c o u n t r y n o t o n ly fo r s ta n d a rd s
o f h o u s in g b u t a lso fo r p e o p le e m p lo y e d , h a v in g a
lim itin g illn ess o r d isa b ility , a n d la c k in g e d u c a tio n a l
q u a lific a tio n s o r jo b skills. O n e m e a n in g fu l c o m m e n t
c o m e s fro m B o b D ig b y w h o w r o te : 'a t u b e jo u r n e y
a lo n g t h e Ju b ile e lin e b e t w e e n W e s t m in s t e r a n d th e
S tra tfo rd te rm in u s in e a s t L o n d o n links t w o are as
w it h n in e y e a r s 'd iffe r e n c e in life e x p e c t a n c y - o n e
y e a r fo r e v e r y station'.
Figure 15.31
A m a jo r reaso n fo r L o n d o n b e in g
The Lea Valley area
g ra n te d th e 2012 O ly m p ic s G a m e s
before redevelopment
w a s its p la n to use t h e e v e n t as
m e a n re lo c a tin g e xisting facto rie s, s tu d e n ts a n d p e r­
m a n e n t residen ts, an d c le a n in g u p t h e e n v iro n m e n t.
A fte r t h e O ly m p ic s , t h e p lan is to re-m o d el th e villag e ,
w h e r e 17 000 a th le te s a n d officials w ill h a v e stayed ,
in to 3500 m a in ly a ffo rd a b le h o m e s ; to c o n s tru c t u p to
a fu rth e r 9000 n e w h o u se s o f w h ic h 50 p er c e n t w ill
b e affo rd a b le ; a n d to b e left w ith an im p ro v e d tra n s ­
p o rt syste m , a n e w p rim a ry h e a lth c a re c e n tre an d
a n a c a d e m y sch o o l. A lso, o n c e s o m e o f t h e s p o rtin g
fa cilitie s h a v e e ith e r b e e n d is m a n tle d o r re-located,
su ch as t h e m u lti-sp orts a re n a a t H a c k n e y W ic k , th e
are a w ill h a v e a larg e u rb a n p a rk e x te n d in g a lo n g s id e
t h e R ive r Lea, w it h p ro te c te d w ild life a n d cle a re d river
a n d ca n a l c h a n n e ls. T h e reality, th o u g h , c o u ld b e th a t
t h e re g io n , like B a rc e lo n a , A tla n ta , S y d n e y a n d A th e n s
afte r p re v io u s O ly m p ic s , w ill s tru g g le t o c re a te p e rm a ­
n e n t jo b s, h a v e s p o rtin g a m e n itie s u n u s e d a n d m a n y
o f t h e h o u se s (e s p e c ia lly in 2008's fin a n cia l clim ate ),
re m a in in g un so ld .

a w a y o f re g e n e ra tin g d e p riv e d
Clays Lane:
are as su ch as C a n n in g T o w n an d
the site o fth e
S tratfo rd (Fig u re 15.31). L o n d o n 's O lym pic Village
b id w a s m a d e o n c e rta in b asic

p rin cip le s: th a t th e lon g -term b e n ­

efits o f t h e O ly m p ic s w o u ld o u t ­
A ne w park in w h ich the main
w e ig h t h e to ta l costs; th a t L o n d o n
O lym pic facilities will be located -
is a g lo b a l city w ith o n e o f t h e
the first m ajor park to be
w o rld 's m o st c u ltu ra lly a n d e th n i­ established in London for over a
ca lly m ix e d p o p u la tio n s ; a n d th a t century, it will extend along the
valley o fth e River Lea towards
b y p o rtra y in g c h ild re n as t h e o n e s
its co nfluence w ith th e T h am e s
w h o w o u ld b e lik ely t o b e n e fit th e
m o st, this co u ld h e lp link, th ro u g h

sp ort, t h e n a tio n s o f t h e w o rld .

T h e sp e cific site, a lo n g s id e th e

R ive r Lea, is a t p re s e n t a m ix tu re o f
The largest co m m u nity w ithin
in d u strial e state s w ith m a n y firm s
N ew ham , and the main
in t h e se rv ic e sector, u n iv e rs ity
com m ercial heart o fth e borough.
halls o f re sid e n ce , low -co st h o u sin g London's biggest transport hub
a n d larg e trac ts o f w a s t e lan d th a t outside the C BD - the main reason
for its selection as the main site for
c re a te a n e y es o re . Flo w e ve r, this
the Olym pics
are a has th e a d v a n t a g e o f b e in g

n e a r to S tratfo rd w h ic h is a m a jo r

t r a n s p o r t 'h u b '(p a g e 637) w ith n in e M arshgate Lane:an area of

s u rfa c e an d u n d e rg ro u n d rail links industrial estates to be part
o fth e main O lym pic site
an d , o p e n in g in 2009, a n in te rn a ­

tio n a l sta tio n o n t h e h ig h - sp ee d

C h a n n e l T u n n e l rail link, b rin g in g

t h e site w ith in t w o h o u rs o f Paris

N ew ham -
a n d Brussels. T h e c o n s tru c tio n o f
the London borough
in w h ich most Olym pic
facilities will be located,
Urbanisation e.g. the O lym pic Stadium
440
Issues in Britain's council estates 2020 (Figure 14.22) to accommodate the pre­
dicted rise in households by that date (m ainly
Whereas most government policies and funding
due to an increase in both single person house­
have been focused on the inner cities, there
holds, from 5.8 m illion to 8.7 m illion, and in
is increasing evidence that poverty, unem ploy­
immigrants). The intention is that 60 per cent of
ment, crime and social stress m ay be even higher
the new houses w ill be built on b ro w n field sites,
on council estates.
i.e. on land w ith in urban areas, and 40 per cent
1 Inter-w ar estates have the most acute prob­
on g reen field sites, i.e. in the countryside.
lems. One such estate, in Newcastle upon Tyne's
■ W h y greenfield sites? Developers claim that
West End, which was passed by the city council
most British people w ant their own home,
to private builders in the mid-1980s, was revi­
complete w ith garden, set in a rural, or semi-
talised with government Urban Development
rural, location. As evidence they quote that,
Grants. The flats, over 170 in total, were mod­
at present, for every three people m oving
ernised for aspiring home-owners, and the local
into cities, five move out. Greenfield sites are
parade of shops was regenerated. Despite this,
cheaper to build on than brownfield sites as
many flats have proved difficult to sell, even at
they are likely to have lower land values and
a very affordable price. For the people still living
are less likely to be in need of clearing-up
there, crime is a constant threat, and finding
operations than former industrial locations.
work is difficult. It has been suggested that the
■ W h y brownfield sites? Groups such as the
scheme failed because it was an 'oasis' and that,
Council for the Protection of Rural England
in future, the redevelopment of brownfield sites
and Friends of the Earth argue that there are
must neither be as isolated nor as small.
already three-quarters of a m illion unoccupied
2 E d g e-o f-city e states (Figure 15.19 D3), built
houses in cities w hich could be upgraded,
on greenfield sites during the 1950s and
while a further one and a quarter m illion
1960s, were created to house people forced to
could be created by either subdividing large
move by inner-city redevelopment schemes.
houses or using empty space above offices and
Today they exhibit several com mon features:
shops. They quote the database w hich showed
■ The physical fabric of the buildings, m any
that one-third of a m illion homes could be
originally built using cheap materials and
built on vacant and derelict land and another
methods, is deteriorating rapidly. Local
one-third of a m illion by re-using old indus­
councils, w ithout the financial help given
trial and commercial buildings. They also
to the inner cities, are trying to upgrade
argue that urban living reduces the use of the
selected estates as and when they can.
car and maintains services, especially retailing,
■ M an y estates include high-rise buildings
w ith in city centres. Arguably, of course, many
which, as in the inner cities, have created
of those people wanting to protect the green
feelings of isolation and stress-related
belt and build in cities are probably already
illnesses. Flats and maisonettes have not
living in rural areas themselves.
proved popular under the 'right-to-buy'
However, the National Data Base shows a mis­
schemes and have been too expensive for
m atch between:
most of the occupants to consider buying.
■ the South East of England where brownfield
■ The low level of car ownership and high
sites are lim ited but where most homes are
bus fares have increased the feeling of isola­
needed (1996-2021 has a projected increase
tion from jobs, shops and entertainment.
in households in the South of 24.2 per cent)
■ Levels of unem ploym ent often exceed 30
■ the Midlands and the North where more
per cent. There are also m any low-income
brownfield sites are available but where
families; m any elderly living on small pen­
demand for new properties is likely to be less
sions; and up to two-thirds of households
(Midlands a 16.1 per cent increase and the
may be receiving housing benefit.
North an 11.4 per cent increase in households).
■ The environm ental quality of the estates is
There are two considerations as to how sustain­
poor, often w ith a lack of open space.
able urban development can take place in the
■ The estates tend to have high levels of
South East:
problems, drug-taking, petty crime and
1 Settlements should become self-contained for
vandalism, and low levels of academic
work, living and leisure (see Case Study 14A,
attainm ent and aspiration.
page 412).
Brownfield and greenfield sites 2 Public transport needs to be improved for the
In 2008, the government announced that 3 resulting longer journeys to work.
m illion new homes would have to be built by

Urbanisation 441
 centre
c'aV

favelas : spontaneous shanty

town, squatter-type settlements
to Figure 15.33
coastal
cities
Living conditions in
/ Howrah, Kolkata
modern factories
periferia: poor-quality but along main road;
permanent housing with favelas in
some basic amenities between

zone of average
quality housing
where better-
expensive, CBD. off have
high-rise offi h moved
flatsr lth and traffic
m oder" congestion “ nt“ ry> periferia favelas
amenities

modern
factories along
small, the main road
low-cost,
government, high-class,
house- suburban housing
improvement for executive and
schemes professional
classes, with own to coastal cities
commercial cores

Figure 15.32

Model showing land use and

residential areas in Brazilian
cities (excluding Brasilia): the
zoning of housing, with the
more affluent living near to the
CBD and the poorest further
from the centre, is typical of
cities in developing countries
(flferWaugh, 1983)
Cities in developing countries
Cities in econom ically less developed countries,
w hich have grown rapidly in the last few decades
(page 419), have developed different structures
from those of older settlements in developed
countries. Despite some observed similarities
between most developing cities, few attempts
have been made to produce models to explain
them. Clarke has proposed a model for West
African cities, M cG hee for South-east Asia, and
the present author (based on two television
programmes on Sao Paulo and Belo Horizonte
together w ith some limited fieldwork) for Brazil
(Figure 15.32).
Functional zones in developing cities
The C BD is similar to those of 'Western' cities
except that congestion and com petition for
space are even greater (Sao Paulo, Cairo, and
Nairobi, Places 58).
In n e r z o n e In pre-industrial and/or colonial
times, the w ealthy landowners, merchants and
administrators built large and luxurious homes
around the CBD. W h ile the condition of some
of these houses m ay have deteriorated w ith
time, the well-off have continued to live in this
inner zone - often in high-security, modern,
high-rise apartments, sometimes in well-
guarded, detached houses.
M iddle zo n e This is similar to that in a developed
city in that it provides the 'in between' housing,
except that here it is of much poorer quality. In
m any cases, it consists of self-constructed homes
to w hich the authorities m ay have added some o f
the basic infrastructure amenities such as running
water, sewerage and electricity (the periferia in
Figure 15.32 and the 'site and service' schemes o n
page 449 and in Figure 15.41).
O u ter zo n e Unlike that in the developed city, t h e
location of the 'lower-class zone' is reversed as t h e
quality of housing decreases rapidly w ith distance
from the city centre. This is where migrants from
the rural areas live, usually in shanty towns (the
fa v elas of Brazil and bustees in Kolkata, Places 57
and Figure 15.33) w hich lack basic amenities.
W here groups of better-off inhabitants have
moved to the suburbs, possibly to avoid the con­
gestion and pollution of central areas, they live
together in well-guarded communities w ith the::
own commercial cores.
In d u stry This has either been planned w ithin
the inner zone or has grown spontaneously
along m ain lines of com m unication leading out
of the city.

442 Urbanisation
 Kolkata and Rio de Janeiro: shanty settlem ents
Kolkata's bustees
A lt h o u g h o v e r 100 0 0 0 p e o p le liv e a n d s le e p o n
K o lk a ta 's s tre e ts , o n e in t h r e e in h a b it a n t s o f t h e c ity
liv e s in a bustee (F ig u r e 1 5 .3 3 ).T h e s e d w e llin g s a re
b u ilt fro m w a t t le , w it h t ile d ro o fs a n d m u d flo o rs
- m a te ria ls t h a t a r e n o t p a r t ic u la r ly e f f e c t iv e in
c o m b a t in g t h e h e a v y m o n s o o n r a in s .T h e h o u s e s ,
p a c k e d c lo s e ly t o g e t h e r , a re s e p a r a t e d b y n a r r o w
a lle y s . In s id e , t h e r e is o ft e n o n ly o n e ro o m , n o
b ig g e r t h a n a n a v e r a g e B ritis h b a t h r o o m . In th is
ro o m t h e fa m ily , o ft e n u p to e ig h t in n u m b e r , live ,
e a t a n d s le e p . Yet, d e s p it e t h is o v e r c r o w d in g , t h e
in te rio r s o f t h e d w e llin g s a re c le a n a n d tid y . T h e
h o u s e s a re o w n e d b y la n d lo rd s w h o r e a d ily e v ic t
t h o s e b u ste e f a m ilie s w h o c a n n o t p a y t h e re n t.
Rio de Janeiro's favelas
A favela is a w ild f lo w e r t h a t g r e w o n t h e s te e p monos,
o r hillsid e s, w h ic h s u rro u n d a n d a re fo u n d w it h in R io
d e Ja n e iro .T o d a y , th e s e s a m e morros a re c o v e re d in
favelas o r s h a n ty s e ttle m e n ts (F ig u re 15.34). A favela
is o ffic ia lly d e f in e d as a re sid e n tia l a re a w h e r e 60
o r m o re fa m ilie s live in a c c o m m o d a t io n t h a t lacks
b a sic a m e n it ie s .T h e favelados, t h e in h a b ita n ts , a re
s q u a tte rs w h o h a v e n o le g a l rig h t to t h e la n d t h e y
live o n .T h e y live in h o u s e s c o n s tru c te d fro m a n y
m a te ria ls a v a ila b le - w o o d , c o rru g a te d iron, a n d e v e n
c a rd b o a rd . S o m e h o u s e s m a y h a v e t w o ro o m s, o n e
Figure 15.34
A favela in Rio
de Janeiro
fo r liv in g in a n d t h e o t h e r fo r s le e p in g . T h e re is n o
ru n n in g w a te r, s e w e r a g e o r e le c tric ity , a n d v e r y f e w
lo c al jo b s , s c h o o ls, h e a lth fa c ilitie s o r fo rm s o f p u b lic
t r a n s p o r t .T h e lan d u p o n w h ic h t h e favelas are b u ilt is
t o o s te e p fo r n o rm a l h o u s e s .T h e m o s t fa v o u r e d sites
a re a t t h e fo o t o f t h e hills n e a r to t h e m a in ro a d s a n d
w a t e r s u p p ly , a lt h o u g h t h e s e m a y re c e iv e s e w a g e
r u n n in g in o p e n d ra in s d o w n h ill fro m m o re re c e n tly
b u ilt h o m e s a b o v e t h e m . O fte n t h e r e is o n ly o n e
w a t e r p u m p fo r h u n d r e d s o f p e o p le a n d th o s e livin g
a t t h e t o p o f t h e hill (w it h fin e v ie w s o v e r t h e to u ris t
b e a c h e s o f C o p a c a b a n a a n d Ip a n e m a !) n e e d to
c a r ry w a t e r in ca n s s e v e ra l tim e s a d ay. W h e n it rains,
m u d s lid e s a n d flash flo o d s o c c u r o n t h e u n s ta b le
s lo p e s (P la c e s 8, p a g e 49; p a g e 55). T h e s e c a n c a rry
a w a y t h e flim s y h o u s e s (o v e r 200 p e o p le w e r e killed
in th is w a y in F e b ru a ry 1988).
A lm o s t 1.1 m illio n p e o p le - n e a r ly o n e - fifth o f t h e
t o ta l p o p u la t io n - liv e in Rio's e s tim a te d 7 5 0 favelas.
T h e t w o la rg e st, R o g n h a a n d M o rr o d e A le m a o ,
e a c h h a v e a p o p u la t io n in e x c e ss o f 100 000. L iv in g
c o n d it io n s a re im p r o v in g a n d U N fig u re s s a y t h a t
95 p e r c e n t o f favela re s id e n ts n o w h a v e a c c e s s to
c le a n w a t e r a n d 76 p e r c e n t t o im p r o v e d s a n ita tio n .
T h e B ra z ilia n g o v e r n m e n t has p le d g e d $1.7 b illio n
o n f u r t h e r im p r o v e m e n t s in c lu d in g d e a lin g w it h t h e
m a jo r p r o b le m w h ic h , in o v e r h a lf t h e favelas, is t h e
in flu e n c e o f p o w e r fu l d ru g g a n g s .
 3§ N airobi, Kenya: functional zones

tttfi
uthaina
M uthaiga
(Vlathare
4A
~'a:- a.'ics Dandora
8
golf X
W estlands course

tairobi
Eastleigh Kariobangi

Pum w am

Uhuru
Nairobi Park Eastlands
Hill

Kibera

to Nairobi
Nairobi National . airport anc
M om basa

Figure 15.35 In 1899 a ra ilw a y , b e in g b u ilt b e t w e e n M o m b a s a , 1 CBD T h is is t h e c e n t r e fo r a d m in is t r a t io n ;

Functional zones o n t h e c o a s t, a n d L a k e V ic to ria , r e a c h e d a s m a ll riv e r i t i n c l u d e s t h e P a r lia m e n t B u ild in g s , t h e

and residential w h ic h t h e M a a s a i c a lle d enairobi (m e a n in g 'c o o l'). p r e s t ig io u s K e n y a t ta In t e r n a t io n a l C o n fe r e n c e
areas in Nairobi T h e la n d t h a t s u r r o u n d e d t h e riv e r w a s s w a m p y , C e n tre , c o m m e r c e a n d s h o p p in g (F ig u r e 15.36
m a la ria l a n d u n in h a b it e d . D e s p it e t h e s e s e e m in g ly A ls o lo c a t e d h e re a re la r g e h o t e ls a n d , in t h e
u n f a v o u r a b le c o n d it io n s , a r a ilw a y s ta tio n w a s b u ilt n o rth , t h e U n iv e r s it y a n d t h e N a t io n a l T h e a tre .
a n d , less t h a n a c e n t u r y later, t h e s e t t le m e n t at
2 Open space Im m e d ia t e ly to t h e w e s t a n d
N a iro b i h a d g r o w n to o v e r 1.5 m illio n p e o p le . T h e
n o r t h o f N a iro b i's C B D (u n lik e in d e v e lo p e d
p re s e n t- d a y fu n c tio n a l z o n e s (F ig u re 15.35) s h o w
c itie s ), a re s e v e r a l la rg e a re a s o f o p e n sp a ce .
t h e e a r ly le g a c y o f N a ir o b i as a c o lo n ia l s e t t le m e n t
T h e s e in c lu d e U h u r u (F r e e d o m ) P a rk a n d s e v e r ;
a n d t h e m o re r e c e n t c h a r a c te r is tic s a s s o c ia te d
o t h e r p ark s, s p o r ts g r o u n d s a n d a g o lf c o u rs e .
w it h a r a p id ly g r o w in g c it y in a n e c o n o m ic a lly
O t h e r a re a s o f o p e n s p a c e , n o t a b ly t h e N a iro b
Figure 15.36 d e v e lo p in g c o u n try . N a t io n a l P a rk to t h e s o u t h a n d t h e K a ru ra F o re s
The CBD (zone 1) t o t h e n o r t h , lie o u t s id e t h e c it y b o u n d a r y .
ii;
k

Figure 15.37

Higher income
housing (zone 5)

444 Urbanisation
Figure 15.38

Shanty settlement, te n d to c o n c e n t r a t e in M u t h a ig a (4A) a n d th e

Mathare Valley (zone 6) A s ia n s a n d m o r e w e a lt h y A fric a n s in P a rk la n d s

a n d W e s t la n d s (4B). W e s t la n d s , w it h its s h o p s

a n d re s ta u ra n ts , fo rm s a sm a ll s e c o n d a r y c o re

w h ile s e v e ra l la rg e h o te ls a re lo c a te d o n N a iro b i

Hill (4C). M a n y o f t h e la rg e s t p riv a te p r o p e rtie s

h a v e t h e ir o w n s e c u r ity g u a rd s .
:igure 15.39
5 Middle-income residential T h e s o u th e r n
nside a shanty settle­
s e c to r w a s o r ig in a lly b u ilt fo r A s ia n s w h o w o r k e d
ment, Kibera (zone 6)
in t h e a d ja c e n t in d u s tria l z o n e .T h e e s ta te s , w h ic h

w e r e p la n n e d , a re n o w m a in ly o c c u p ie d b y t h o s e

A fr ic a n s w h o h a v e fo u n d fu ll- tim e e m p lo y m e n t .

6 Shanty settlements A s in o t h e r d e v e lo p in g

citie s, s h a n t y s e t t le m e n t s h a v e g r o w n u p a w a y

fr o m t h e C B D o n la n d t h a t h a d p r e v io u s ly b e e n

c o n s id e r e d u n u s a b le - in N a iro b i, th is w a s o n

t h e n a rro w , s w a m p y f lo o d p la in s o f t h e R iv e rs

M a t h a r e a n d N g o n g . T h e t w o la rg e s t s e t t le m e n t s

a r e t h o s e t h a t e x t e n d fo r s e v e ra l k ilo m e tre s

Industrial zone E a r ly in d u s try , m u c h o f a lo n g t h e M a t h a r e v a lle y (F ig u r e 15.38) a n d in

w h ic h is fo rm a l, g r e w u p in a s e c t o r t h a t K ib e ra (F ig u re 15.39). E s tim a te s s u g g e s t t h a t

b o rd e rs t h e r a ilw a y lin k in g N a ir o b i w it h t h e o v e r 100 0 0 0 p e o p le , a lm o s t e x c lu s iv e ly A fric a n ,

p o rt o f M o m b a sa (3A in F ig u re 15.35). T h e liv e in e a c h a r e a .T h e y fin d w o r k in in fo rm a l

m a in in d u s trie s , m o s t o f w h ic h a re fo rm a l in d u s tr ie s (p a g e 574).

(F ig u r e 19.34), in c lu d e e n g in e e r in g , c h e m ic a ls , 7 Low-income residential T h e s e a re a s in c lu d e

c lo t h in g a n d fo o d p ro c e s s in g . A m o d e r n fla ts, 3 -5 s to r e y s in h e ig h t a n d c o u n c il- b u ilt
in d u s tria l a re a (3B) e x t e n d s a lo n g s id e t h e (F ig u r e 15.40), a n d f o r m e r s h a n t y s e t t le m e n t s
a ir p o r t ro a d a n d c o n t a in s m a n y w e ll- k n o w n to w h ic h t h e c o u n c il h a s a d d e d a w a t e r s u p p ly ,
t r a n s n a t io n a l firm s. T h is z o n e in c lu d e s (3C) t h e s e w e r a g e a n d e le c t r ic it y .
Jua kali w o r k s h o p s (P la c e s 8 9, p a g e 575).
8 Self-help housing U n d e r t h i s s c h e m e (p a g e
High-income residential W e a lt h y E u r o p e a n 4 4 9 ), t h e c o u n c il p r o v id e d b a s ic a m e n it ie s a n d ,
c o lo n is ts a n d , later, im m ig r a n t A s ia n s liv e d o n a t a c h e a p p ric e , b u ild in g m a te ria ls . In D a n d o r a
rid g e s o f h ig h la n d to t h e n o rth a n d w e s t o f t h e ( F ig u r e 15.41), w h ic h h a s o v e r 120 0 0 0 re s id e n ts ,
C B D w h e r e t h e y b u ilt la rg e h o u s e s a b o v e t h e r e la t iv e ly w e a lt h y p e o p le b o u g h t p lo ts o f la n d
m a la ria l s w a m p s (F ig u re 15 .3 7).T o d a y , E u ro p e a n s a n d b u ilt u p t o six h o u s e s a r o u n d a c e n t r a l

c o u r t y a r d . T h e c o u n c il t h e n in s ta lle d a t a p a n d
: ;ure 15.40
a t o ile t in e a c h c o u r t y a r d a n d a d d e d e le c t r ic it y
--'■■.-income, coundl-
a n d ro a d s t o t h e e s ta te . T h e 'o w n e r ' is a b le t o sell
i i : housing (zone 7)
o r r e n t t h e h o u s e s t h a t a r e n o t n e e d e d b y his/

h e r o w n fa m ily .

In 1993, a n a r t ic le in N a ir o b i's d a ily n e w s p a p e r

The Nation s t a t e d t h a t 'K e n y a h a s b e e n h a ile d as

A frica 's le a d in g e x a m p le o f m u lti- ra c ia l h a r m o n y ,

y e t o n e h a s o n ly to t o u r its re s id e n tia l d is tric ts to

s e e a fo r m o f " a p a r t h e id " . D e s p it e a fa c a d e o f ra c ia l

h a r m o n y , p e o p le liv e a c c o r d in g to c o lo u r a n d s ta tu s

a n d , u n lik e in t h e U K o r U S A , d o n o t fe e l t h e y h a v e

t o m ix w it h e a c h o th e r.'T h is e x a m p le o f g lo b a l
sure 15.41
h a r m o n y w a s u n e x p e c t e d ly s h a t t e r e d in D e c e m b e r
•:: ra site and 2 0 0 7 b y p o s t- e le c tio n v io le n c e , m a in ly b e t w e e n
:es scheme'
t w o p o w e r f u l e t h n ic g ro u p s , t h e K a le n jin a n d t h e
i* 8 )
K ik u y u , w h ic h le d to o v e r 1000 d e a t h s a n d t h e

d is p la c e m e n t o f o v e r 6 0 0 0 0 0 p e o p le .

Urbanisation 445
 Problems resulting from rapid growth
The 'pull' and rapid growth of cities in the
developing world has led to serious problems
in providing housing, basic services and jobs
- problems accentuated by a much wider gulf
between the m inority rich and the m ajority poor
than exists in the developed world. (Remember
that developing cities do have positive as well
as negative features.)
Housing
Despite some promising initiatives, most
authorities have been unable to provide adequate
shelter and services for the rapidly growing
urban population and so the m ajority of the
poor have to fend for themselves and to survive
by their own efforts. Estimates suggest that
one-third of the urban dwellers in developing
countries either cannot afford or cannot find
accommodation that meets basic health and
safety standards. Consequently, they are faced
w ith three alternatives: to sleep on pavements
or in public places; to rent a single room if
they have some resources; or to build them ­
selves a shelter, possibly w ith the help of a local
craftsman, on land w hich they do not own and
on w hich they have no permission to build
(Figure 15.38 and Places 57 and 58).
In time, some squatter settlements may
develop into residential areas of 'adequate'
standards (th ep eriferia in Figure 15.32 and
Dandora in Places 58). Rather than trying to
build new housing, city councils find it cheaper
and easier to add water supplies, sewerage
systems, electricity and public services (refuse
disposal, street lighting) to existing shanties,
and to allow occupants to obtain legal tenure
of the land (pages 448-49).
Services
O n ly small areas w ith in m any developing
cities have running water and mains sewerage.
Rubbish, dumped in the streets, is rarely col­
lected. W h e n heavy rains fall, especially in the
monsoon countries, the drains are inadequate
to carry the surplus water away. The lack of elec­
tricity hinders industrial growth and affects the
material standard of living in homes. There is a
shortage of schools and teachers, and of hospitals,
doctors and nurses. Police, fire and ambulance
services are unreliable. Shops m ay sell only
essentials, and food m ay be exposed to heat
and infection-carrying flies.
446 Urbanisation
Pollution and health
D rinking water is often contaminated w ith
sewage w hich may give rise to outbreaks of
cholera, typhoid and dysentery. The uncollected
rubbish is an ideal breeding-ground for disease.
M a n y children have worms and suffer from
m alnutrition as their diet lacks fresh vegetables,
protein, calories and vitamins. Local industry
is rarely subjected to pollution controls and so
discharges waste products into the air w hich
m ay cause respiratory diseases, and/or into water
supplies. The constant struggle for survival often
causes stress-related illnesses. It is not surprising
that in these rapidly growing urban areas infant
m ortality is high and life expectancy is low.
Unemployment and underemployment
New arrivals to a city far outnumber the jobs
available and so high unemployment rates result.
As manufacturing industry is limited, full-time
occupations are concentrated in service industries
such as the police, the army, cleaning, security
guards and the civil service. The majority of
people w ho do work are in the informal sector,
i.e. they have to find their own form of employ­
ment (page 574). Informal jobs m ay include street
trading (selling food or drinks), food processing,
services (shoe-cleaning) and local crafts (making
furniture and clothes, often out of waste prod­
ucts). Most of these people are underemployed
and live at a subsistence level.
Transport
Relatively few developing cities can afford an
elaborate public transport system. This means that
the road network is likely to be unable to deal with
the large volume of traffic. This traffic will, at the
best, consist mainly of old cars, vans, trucks, over­
crowded minibuses and buses and, at the worst
and depending upon the individual city, an added
complication of rickshaws, bullock carts, donkeys,
matatus, tuc-tucs and bicycles (Figure 15.42). Apart
from congestion, there is likely to be severe air
pollution and a high accident rate. As countries
develop, the main city may consider building a
subway system, or metro, as a means of relieving
pressure on the roads, e.g. Flong Kong (Places 106,
page 640), Sao Paulo, Singapore and Seoul in the
NICs (page 578) and, more recently in an emerging
country, Shanghai (Case Study 15B).
In 1996, w h e n t h e a u t h o r w a s ta k e n o n a n e ye-
o p e n in g j o u r n e y t h r o u g h t h e b a c k a lle y s a n d
m a rk e ts o f o ld C a iro , t h e p o p u la t io n o f t h e c it y w a s
g iv e n , a c c o r d in g t o t h e c e n s u s o f t h a t y e a r, as 6.801
m illio n (s e e F r a m e w o r k 15). A t t h e t im e , c o m p a r e d
w it h o t h e r d e v e lo p in g c itie s , C a iro h a d r e la t iv e ly
f e w s q u a t t e r s e t t le m e n t s . M o s t n e w c o m e r s to t h e
c it y d is a p p e a r e d in t o t h e m e d ie v a l c e n t r e o f t h e o ld
t o w n to liv e e ith e r in:
to w a s t e d u m p s o n t h e e d g e o f t h e c it y w h e r e it is
s o rte d b y p e o p le lo o k in g fo r b o ttle s , p la s tic a n d
p a p e r t h a t c a n b e r e c y c le d in lo c a l fa c to r ie s .
A r e t u r n v is it in 2 0 0 9 s h o w e d h o w t h e c it y
a u t h o r it ie s h a v e t r ie d t o o v e r c o m e t h e s e p r o b le m s
b y e x t e n d in g a n d im p r o v in g t h e s e w e r a g e s y s t e m
in w h a t b e c a m e o n e o f t h e w o r ld 's la r g e s t p u b lic -
h e a lt h e n g i n e e r i n g s c h e m e s ; w i d e n i n g ro a d s
a n d b u ild in g a 1 0 - la n e rin g ro a d ; o p e n in g a n

• o v e r c r o w d e d t w o - r o o m e d a p a r t m e n t s w it h in e f f ic ie n t u n d e r g r o u n d 'm e t r o 's y s t e m w it h t w o
ta ll b lo c k s o f fla ts (F ig u r e 15.43) lin e s o p e r a t in g a n d a t h ir d p la n n e d ; o r g a n is in g

r e fu s e c o lle c t io n a n d c o n v e r t in g o n e o f t h e la rg e s t
• ro o f- to p s lu m s (t h e fla t ro o fs a re s u it a b le fo r
t h e d e s e r t c lim a t e a n d a llo w t h e la te r a d d it io n , t ip s in t o a la r g e u r b a n p a rk t h a t o v e r lo o k s t h e

o ft e n ille g a lly , o f a n e x tra s to re y c it y ; e r e c t in g n u m e r o u s h ig h - ris e a p a r t m e n t

b u ild in g s ; a n d c r e a t in g lo w - c o s t h o u s in g in s e v e r a l
• t h e 'C it y o f t h e D e a d ' a h u g e M u s lim c e m e t e r y
'n e w t o w n s 't h a t h a v e s p r u n g u p in t h e d e s e r t
w h e r e , a c c o r d in g to o n e e s tim a te , u p to 3
t h a t s u r r o u n d s t h e c it y ( o n e o f w h ic h , t h e S ix th o f
m illio n p e o p le a c t u a lly liv e in t h e t o m b s
O c t o b e r , a l r e a d y h a s a p o p u la t io n o f 2.6 m illio n ).
b e c a u s e t h e y a re c le a n e r a n d g iv e m o r e s h e lt e r
E v e n so, t h e C a iro a u t h o r it ie s a r e s t r u g g lin g to
t h a n t h e c it y a p a r t m e n t s , e v e n t h o u g h t h e y a re
k e e p p a c e w i t h p o p u la t io n g r o w t h , w h i c h r e s u lts
a k ilo m e t r e fro m w a t e r (F ig u r e 15.44).
fro m a c o m b in a t i o n o f h ig h f e r t ilit y ra te s (3.1 p e r
C airo 's n a r r o w s tre e ts w e r e n o t b u ilt fo r t h e v o lu m e
f a m ily ) a n d r u r a l- u r b a n m ig r a t io n , a n d w h ic h h a s
o f its p r e s e n t n o is y a n d a ir- p o llu tin g tra ffic .
all b u t d o u b l e d in t h e t h r e e d e c a d e s s in c e 1975.
P o llu t io n a ls o c o m e s fr o m a d ila p id a t e d e a r ly
O n e c o n s e q u e n c e h a s b e e n t h e r a p id g r o w t h o f
2 0 t h - c e n t u r y s e w e r a g e s y s te m a n d n u m e r o u s sm a ll
in fo r m a l s e t t le m e n t s t h a t n o w e n c ir c le t h e c ity ,
fa c t o r ie s lo c a t e d in b a c k y a rd s , w it h in h o u s e s a n d
in c lu d in g t h a t o f E z b e t El H a g g a n a , a s h a n t y in t h e
o n ro o fto p s , t h a t e m it t h e ir w a s t e b o th in t o t h e air n o r t h - e a s t o f C a ir o w it h o v e r 1 m illio n in h a b it a n t s .
a n d o n t o t h e s tre e ts . D o n k e y c a rts t a k e r u b b is h

Urbanisation 447
 F ra m e w o rk How reliable are statistics?
2 0 0 1 UK census 1.92 m illio n lo w e r a t t h e 1991 c e n s u s ).T h is m a y h a v e

b e e n d u e to a fa ilu re to re c o rd p e o p le w h o le a v e t h e
A c c u r a te a n d re lia b le sta tis tic s a re o fte n d iffic u lt to
c o u n t r y p e r m a n e n t ly o r w h o w e r e a w a y fro m t h e ir
o b ta in , e v e n fo r d e v e lo p e d c o u n trie s . S o m e o f t h e
h o m e s (e.g. o n h o lid a y ) o n c e n s u s n ig h t.
le a s t re lia b le fig u re s a re fo r p o p u la t io n , a n d th o s e

p re s e n te d in th is b o o k , e.g. f e rtility ra te s a n d u r b a n

p o p u la tio n s , s h o u ld b e u s e d w it h s o m e c a u tio n , W h a t is Cairo's p o p u la tio n ?

e v e n t h o u g h t h e m o s t r e lia b le r e s o u rc e s w e r e u s e d
F o r 2 0 0 5 - 0 6 t h e p o p u la t io n o f C a iro h a s v a r io u s ly
t o a c q u ir e t h e m . It is s u g g e s te d t h a t B rita in 's 2001
b e e n g iv e n as:
c e n s u s c o u ld h a v e h a d a m a rg in o f e r ro r o f 1 p e r c e n t
• E g y p t S t a t e In fo r m a t io n S e r v ic e - C airo :
e ith e r w a y , e v e n w it h t h e u s e o f t h e la te s t a v a ila b le
6.8 m illio n
t e c h n o lo g y a n d w it h s u p p o s e d ly h ig h le v e ls o f
U N p o p u la t io n d iv is io n - C a ir o g o v e r n o r a t e :
r e fin e m e n t .T h is w a s p a r t ly b e c a u s e m a n y p e o p le
7.7 8 6 m illio n
fa ile d to c o m p le t e a n d re tu rn t h e r e le v a n t fo rm s

(o v e r 20 p e r c e n t in 10 in n e r L o n d o n b o ro u g h s ), • C o llin 's A tla s : 9 .462 m illio n

a n d p a r t ly d u e to a rise in ille g a l im m ig r a t io n w h ic h , • U N W o r ld U r b a n is a t io n - C a ir o a g g lo m e r a t io n
b y its v e r y n a tu re (p a g e 3 67), m e a n s t h a t p e o p le (w o r ld 's 13 th la rg e s t): 1 1 .487 m illio n
a rriv in g in a c o u n t r y d o n o t w a n t to b e r e c o rd e d
• W o r ld B a n k - C a iro r e g io n a n d its n e w t o w n s :
a n d so d o n o t a p p e a r in o ffic ia l fig u re s. Later, t h e
15.2 m illio n
(H o u s e o f) C o m m o n s P u b lic A c c o u n t s C o m m it t e e
• R o u g h G u id e - C a iro re g io n : a b o u t 18 m illio n
q u e s t io n e d t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e ce n s u s , a ft e r c la im s

w e r e m a d e t h a t t h e p o p u la t io n o f E n g la n d a n d W a le s T h e s e d is c r e p a n c ie s m a y a ris e fro m o r g a n is a tio n s

w a s 9 0 0 0 0 0 lo w e r t h a n p r e v io u s ly p r e d ic t e d (it w a s u s in g d if f e r e n t c r ite ria , n o t a b ly :

• t h e la n d a re a c o v e r e d c a n v a r y , fro m t h e c ity

it s e lf t o u r b a n d e v e lo p m e n t s s u c h as El G iz a

2001 India census t h a t h a v e s p r a w le d b e y o n d t h e c it y 's 'o ffic ia l'

India, the second most populous nation in the world, has lim its, o r t h e C a ir o r e g io n in c lu d in g t h e n e w
begun its mammoth task of conducting its first census for a t o w n s e t t le m e n t s
decade, a year after the population officially exceeded 1
• e x c e p t fo r t h e a c t u a l y e a r o f t h e c e n s u s , t h e
billion. Several states, including Jammu and Kashmir, have
p o p u la t io n h a s to b e e s t im a t e d fr o m b irth a n d
already been surveyed, while recording in Gujarat, where the
d e a t h r a te s (a s s u m in g t h a t t h e s e a re a lw a y s
authorities are struggling to deal with the aftermath of the
earthquake [Places 5, page 20], has been delayed. Elsewhere, r e c o r d e d ) a n d m ig r a t io n - b u t t h e r e is n o

the exercise will take to the end of the month and will involve e f f e c t iv e m e a n s o f c o u n t in g in - c o m in g m ig r a n ::
around 2 million census workers who will visit 5000 towns fr o m ru ra l a re a s o r fr o m o v e r s e a s c o u n trie s .
and cities and more than 600 000 villages. One of India’s
In a c ity like C airo , w it h its g r o w in g s h a n tie s a n d
most publicised revolutions, the greater use of computers,
th e 'C ity o f t h e D ead', it is h ig h ly u n lik e ly t h a t e v e r y
has enabled the authorities to promise 98 per cent accuracy.
re s id e n t w a s c o n s u lte d d u rin g t h e ce n su s, a n d e v e n
Source: Adapted from BBC News Online, 9 February 2001
fo r th o s e w h o w e r e it is u n lik e ly all w e r e a b le to re ac

a n d t h e n to c o m p le te , t h e c e n s u s fo rm s.

Government housing
permanent and that it is cheaper and easier t
Upgrading and self-help schemes improve them by adding basic amenities tha
A policy of wholesale dem olition of squatter is to build new houses.
settlements, as was attempted in Rio de Janeiro The concept of 'site a n d serv ices', funda
(Places 57) and South Africa (Places 45, page 372), the W orld Bank and several voluntary organ:
is often a mistaken one. Squatters have shown sations, encourages local people to become
that they are capable of constructing cheap involved in self-help projects. This approach
accommodation for themselves, but that they seems to be most appropriate in the poorer
cannot provide the essential basic services. In countries whose governments cannot afford
Latin America, and less successfully in Africa large rehousing schemes. One such scheme
and South-east Asia, governments have, albeit Dandora in Nairobi (Figure 15.41), was brief,
reluctantly, at times accepted that shanties are described in Places 58.

448 Urbanisation
 living and sleeping sanitary block:

quarters w ith co n crete or bath, W C

mud

blocks

un derground
'o ve d road sew er

ire 15.45 A similar scheme in Lusaka (Zambia) encour­ Self-help schemes can create a com m unity
:e and services' ages about 25 individuals to group together. They spirit, can improve the skills of local people and
r^-ie, Sao Paulo, are given a standpipe and 8 hectares of land. If the can result in cheap-to-erect accommodation. Yet
group digs ditches and foundations then, with their success often depends upon the m otiva­
the money saved, the authorities w ill lay water tion and skills of the local people and the use of
and drainage pipes and construct the houses. appropriate and cheap building materials under
Moreover, if local craftsmen are prepared to build expert guidance.
the shells of the houses, the group w ill be supplied
w ith low-priced building materials and the extra
Practical Action and 'materials for
shelter'
money saved by the authorities may be used to
Practical Action (Places 90, page 577) helps people
add electricity and to tarmac the roads. In some
in Africa, Asia and South America to develop and
cases, a small clinic and school may be added.
use technologies and methods that give them more
Several schemes in Sao Paulo's periferia (Figure
control over their lives and which contribute to
15.45) have enabled running water, main drains
the long-term development of their com muni­
and electricity to be added to houses, w ith street
ties. Several of Practical Action's projects involve
lighting and improved roads if there was any
investigating, developing and promoting a range
surplus money. The result over a lengthy period of
of building materials suitable and affordable for
time has been an upgrading of living conditions,
self-help schemes (Figures 15.46 and 15.47). A
and the introduction of some shops and small-
Practical Action-sponsored scheme in India pro­
scale industry, although the people are still poor.
longs the lives of thatch roofs by coating them
Elsewhere in Brazil, an estimated 62 per cent
w ith a waterproof compound of copper sulphate
of Recife's population (Figure 13.5) live in fa v ela s.
and cashew nut resin. In Kenya, the Maasai are
Here, following over a decade of popular organi­
under increasing internal pressure to give up their
sation and collective negotiation, the city's
semi-nomadic way of life and settle in perma­
Plan for the Regularisation and Urbanisation of
nent houses. Practical Action has responded to
Special Zones of Social Interest (PREZEIS) became
this situation by working closely with the Maasai
law. It meant that urban services such as sewers
in helping to modify their traditional houses
and paved streets would be forthcoming and that
by adding a concrete mix to the cow-dung roof
fa v e la residents would be protected from eviction
(which always seemed to leak), inserting a small
(or from being ignored as if they did not exist).
chim ney to remove smoke (all cooking is done
Each fa v e la elected two representatives w ho met
inside the house), improving lighting (previously
weekly w ith officials to develop and carry out
each house had only one minute opening as a
urbanisation schemes. B y 2008, living condi­
'window'), and using chicken wire as a framework
tions in m any fa v ela s had improved dramati­
for the walls. It also provides, in several parts of the
cally (Places 57), m ainly due to the enthusiasm
world, technical assistance in the mining, quar­
of local people, whereas in others, where less
rying and processing of local raw materials which
interest has been shown, limited progress had
can be used for building.
been made.

Urbanisation 449
 Relocation housing and new towns
Som e o f th e m ore w ealth y d eveloping countries,
such as Venezuela w ith its oil revenue and the
NICs o f Sou th Korea, H ong Kong and Singapore
w ith th e ir in co m e from trade and fin an ce, have
m ade consid erable efforts to provide new hom es
to replace squ atter settlem en ts. In m ost cases,
high-rise blocks o f flats have b een b u ilt on sites
as close as possible to th e CBD or in new tow ns
b eyon d th e city b ou n d ary (Places 60).

Figure 15.47

Production of
low-cost roofing
tiles in Kenya

Singapore: a housing success story

Figure 15.48 F a c e d w it h a la rg e a n d r a p id ly in c r e a s in g n u m b e r

o f s lu m d w e lle r s , a n d a n o v e r c r o w d e d , u n p la n n e d ,
Early high-rise
flats on the edge c e n t r a l a re a , t h e S in g a p o r e g o v e r n m e n t s e t up, in
of China Town, 1960, t h e F lo u s in g a n d D e v e lo p m e n t B o a r d (H D B ).
Singapore T h e H D B c le a r e d o ld p r o p e r t y n e a r to t h e C B D ,

e s p e c ia lly in t h e C h in e s e , A r a b a n d In d ia n e t h n ic

a re a s ( F ig u r e 15.48), a n d c r e a t e d p u r p o s e - b u ilt

e s t a t e s (w it h 10 0 0 0 - 3 0 0 0 0 p e o p le ) w it h in a se ries

o f 23 n e w t o w n s , e a c h w it h u p to 2 5 0 0 0 0 p e o p le

a n d all w it h in 25 k m o f t h e C B D .

In b o th cases, t h e H D B c o n s t r u c t e d h o u s in g

u n its o f 1-3 ro o m s in c lo s e ly p a c k e d high-rise

flats (F ig u re 15.49). T h e flats w e r e in itia lly fo r low-

in c o m e fa m ilie s a n d re n ts w e r e k e p t to a m in im u m .
H o w e v e r, o n e - q u a rte r o f e v e r y w a g e - e a rn e r 's salary

is a u t o m a t ic a lly d e d u c t e d a n d in d iv id u a lly c re d ite d

b y t h e g o v e r n m e n t in to a c e n tra l p e n s io n fu n d (C P F

W e s te rn - s ty le w e lfa r e b e n e fits are re g a rd e d as an

a n ti- w o rk e th ic , b u t S in g a p o r e a n s c a n u se t h e ir C P F

c a p ita l to b u y th e ir o w n a p a r t m e n t o r flat. S in c e

1974 t h e H D B h a v e b u ilt m a n y 4 -ro o m a n d 5-room

Figure 15.49
u n its fo r t h e a v e r a g e a n d h ig h e r- in c o m e g ro u p s
Blocks of 1960s
w h o h a v e t h e n b e e n e x p e c t e d to b u y th e ir o w n
high-rise flats
p ro p e rty . In 2 0 08,81 p e r c e n t o f S in g a p o r e a n s live d in

g o v e rn m e n t- b u ilt h o u s in g , w it h 79 p e r c e n t o f th e m

h a v in g m a n a g e d to b u y t h e ir o w n h o m e .

T h e la rg e e s t a t e s a r e f u n c t io n a l in d e s ig n a n d

w e r e d e v e lo p e d o n t h e n e ig h b o u r h o o d c o n c e p t

o f B ritis h n e w t o w n s . E a c h e s t a t e c o n t a in s m u c h

g r e e n e r y a n d is w e ll p r o v id e d w it h a m e n it ie s su ch

as s h o p s , s c h o o ls , b a n k s , m e d ic a l a n d c o m m u n it y

c e n tre s . W h e r e s e v e ra l e s t a t e s a re in c lo s e

p ro x im ity , b e t t e r s e r v ic e s a re p r o v id e d s u c h as
d e p a r t m e n t s to re s a n d e n t e r t a in m e n t fa c ilitie s . A t

t h e n e w t o w n s h a v e b e e n lin k e d to , a n d a re w it h in

h a lf a n h o u r of, t h e c it y c e n t r e b y t h e M R T (m a ss

ra p id t r a n s p o r t r a ilw a y ). E a c h e s t a t e has its o w n

lig h t in d u s t r ie s p r o d u c in g , u s u a lly , c lo t h in g , fo o d

450
 p r o d u c t s a n d h ig h - te c h g o o d s . A s e v e r y w h e r e e ls e c o m m u n a l fa c ilitie s , im p r o v in g ro a d s a n d p la n t in g
in S in g a p o r e , t h e e s t a t e s a re m o d e ls o f c le a n lin e s s m o r e t r e e s a n d s h r u b s .T h is h a s m e a n t t h a t t h e s e
w it h t h e b u ild in g s c o n s t a n t ly b e in g p a in t e d , g ra ss e s ta te s , u n lik e t h o s e e ls e w h e r e in t h e w o r ld , s h o w
a r e a s c u t a n d w h e r e t h e r e is a n a b s e n c e o f litte r little o r n o sig n o f d e c a y .
a n d g ra ffiti (t h e s t a t e h a s a lw a y s im p o s e d h e a v y
B y t h e e n d o f 2 0 0 7 , t h e H D B h a d b u ilt 99 3 2 0
fin e s fo r litte r). B y 1999, w h e n o v e r 825 0 0 0 fla ts h a d
f la t s in w h ic h 81 p e r c e n t o f S in g a p o r e a n s liv e d
b e e n b u ilt, t h e H D B h a d s e t o u t to p r o v id e e v e r y
(3 m illio n o u t o f S in g a p o r e 's t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f
h o u s e h o ld e r w it h a m in im u m o f t h r e e ro o m s . T h is
3.6 m illio n ). U n d e r t h e H o m e O w n e r s h ip fo r t h e
w a s a c h ie v e d b y p u llin g d o w n a n d r e p la c in g s o m e
P e o p le S c h e m e , w h e r e b y m o s t r e s id e n t s h a d
o f t h e e a rlie s t a p a r t m e n t b lo ck s, m e r g in g a d ja c e n t
b o u g h t t h e i r o w n h o m e , s p e c ia l h e lp h a d a lw a y s
fla ts to m a k e t h e m la rg e r, a n d b u ild in g m o re
b e e n b e in g g iv e n t o a s s is t lo w - in c o m e fa m ilie s .
a r c h it e c t - d e s ig n e d e s t a t e s in s p e c ia lly d e s ig n a t e d
T h e H D B , u n d e r t h e i r B u ild - to - O rd e r s y s te m ,
'n e w t o w n s '(F ig u r e s 1 5 .5 0 a n d 1 5 .5 1 ) .T o e n s u r e
n o w o ffe r n e w t w o - r o o m a n d t h r e e - r o o m fla ts
t h a t all S in g a p o r e a n s h a d a h o m e , t h e H D B b o u g h t
t o f a m ilie s , in it ia lly a f t e r 2 0 0 4 w it h a m o n t h ly
t h r e e - b e d r o o m e d fla ts o n t h e o p e n m a r k e t a n d
h o u s e h o ld i n c o m e o f u n d e r $ 3 0 0 0 a n d , s in c e 2 0 0 6 ,
th e n so ld t h e m a t a d is c o u n t p ric e to lo w - in c o m e
t o t h o s e w it h a n i n c o m e o f u n d e r $ 2 0 0 0 . A ls o b y
f a m ilie s as w e ll as in t r o d u c in g t h e i r 'R e n t a n d
t h e e n d o f 2 0 0 6 , v a r io u s r e n e w a l s c h e m e s h a d
P u r c h a s e S c h e m e '.T h is s c h e m e a llo w e d fa m ilie s
s e e n t h e c o n t in u a l i m p r o v e m e n t a n d u p g r a d in g o f
w h o h a d a m in im u m o f f o u r m e m b e r s a n d w h o
all e s t a t e s , e s p e c ia lly t h e e a r lie r o n e s .
h a d p r e v io u s ly o n ly b e e n e lig ib le fo r a o n e - r o o m o r

tw o - r o o m fla t, in it ia lly to re n t a th r e e - r o o m e d fla t V is ito r s fr o m t h e W e s t u n ju s t ly a n d in c o r r e c t ly

fr o m t h e H D B a n d t h e n , s u b s e q u e n tly , t o b u y it. c o m p a r e liv in g in o n e o f t h e s e 'b o x e s in t h e s k y '

w it h t h e o ft e n p o o r - q u a lit y h ig h - rise p ro je c t s fo u n d
T h e g o v e r n m e n t a ls o c o n t in u e d its S e le c t iv e
in p la c e s lik e t h e U K a n d t h e U S A . H o w e v e r , s e t in a
E n b lo c R e d e v e lo p m e n t S c h e m e u n d e r w h ic h all
s e lf- s u ffic ie n t 'n e w t o w n 'w i t h its o w n c o m m e r c ia l,
e s t a t e s w e r e e x t e n s iv e ly m o d e r n is e d o n c e t h e y
s h o p p in g a n d le is u re f a c ilit ie s a n d in a c le a n a n d
w e r e 17 y e a rs o ld (p r o v id in g t h a t 75 p e r c e n t o f t h e
in c r e a s in g ly g r e e n e n v ir o n m e n t , H D B fla ts h a v e
o c c u p a n t s a g r e e d ). T h is in c lu d e d a llo w in g o w n e r s
b e c o m e v e r y m u c h p a r t o f t h e S in g a p o r e w a y o f life
to a p p ly fo r a la r g e r fla t a n d / o r t o r e lo c a t e t o a
a n d t h e c o u n t r y 's e s t a t e s a re s t u d ie d b y p la n n e r s
n e w e r e s t a t e as w e ll as r e fu r b is h in g t h e in t e r io r
fro m a r o u n d t h e w o r ld , w h o c o n s id e r t h e m a m o d e l
: gure 15.50 a n d d e c o r a t in g t h e e x t e r io r o f e x is tin g fla ts. A
o f s u cc e s s. In 2 0 0 8 t h e H D B w o n a U N p u b lic s e r v ic e
--early 1990s c o r r e s p o n d in g im p r o v e m e n t in p u b lic u tilitie s a n d
a w a r d fo r its h o m e o w n e r s h ip p r o g r a m m e .
r ::ate in Bishan s e r v ic e s in c lu d e d t h e a d d it io n , o r u p g r a d in g , o f

Figure 15.51

A late 1990s
estate

Urbanisation 451
 A Los A n g e le s
Physical hazards
For several generations, southern California
was seen as America's promised land. Now
it seems that this part of the'sunshine state'
is cursed by natural disasters such as earth­
quake, fire, fog, drought and flood - disasters
which, in part, are created or exacerbated
by the lifestyle and economic activities of its
inhabitants.The Los Angeles agglomeration,
with a population in excess of 12 million
people, has become known as'hazard city'.
Earthquakes
Not only does the San Andreas Fault,
marking the conservative boundary
between the Pacific and North American
Plates, cross southern California (Places 6,
page 21), but Los Angeles itself has been
built over a myriad transform faults
(Figure 15.52). Although the most violent
earthquakes are predicted to occur at
any point along the San Andreas Fault
between Los Angeles and San Francisco,
earth movements frequently occur along
most ofthe lesser-known faults.The most
recent of 11 earthquakes to affect Los
S a n Andreas Fault
San Fernando Fault
Sah tS Barbara Northridge
(epicentre of
1994 earthquake)
Santa M onica Fault
Pacific Ocean
m ajor faults
o ther faults
Figure 15.52
Major faults in the
Los Angeles basin
452 Urbanisation
Angeles since 1970 occurred in January
1994. It registered 6.7 on the Richter scale,
lasted for 30 seconds, and was followed by
aftershocks lasting several days.The quake
killed 60 people, injured several thousand,
caused buildings and sections of freeways
to collapse, ignited fires following a gas
explosion, and left 500 000 homes without
power and 200 000 without water.
Tsunamis
Tsunamis are large tidal waves triggered
by submarine earthquakes which can
travel across oceans at great speed. The
1964 Alaskan earthquake caused consider­
able damage in several Californian coastal
regions. Although Los Angeles has escaped
so far, it is considered to be a tsunami
hazard-prone area.
Sinking coastline
The threat of coastal flooding has increased
due to crustal subsidence. Although this
may, in part, be due to tectonic processes,
the main cause has been the extraction
of oil and, to a much lesser extent, subter­
ranean water. Parts of Long Beach have
sunk by up to 10 m since 1926. Although
this sinking has now been checked, parts of
Figure 15.53
Los Angeles rainfall,
1950-2006
5 La Nina
1 El Nino
[j o ther years
100
100 km
:* !
1950
the harbour area lie below sea-level a n ;
protected from flooding by a large sea /.
Landslides and mudflows
Landslides and mudflows occur almost
annually during the winter rainfall seasc-
within the city boundary of Los Angeles
They have increased in number and fre­
quency due to effects of urbanisation s t :
as the removal of vegetation from, and
cutting of roads through, steep hillsides a
by channelling rivers (Figure 3.8). In 199-
winter storms buried parts ofthe Pacific
Coast Highway to a depth of over a m ere
mud, trapped hundreds of people in the
cars and houses, and threatened the Ma
homes offilm andTVstars. Landslides s'e
frequent along coastal cliffs, and the 19
earthquake caused several thousand of
them in the hills surrounding the city.
Heavy rain
Winter storms bring rain and strong
winds.These are especially severe d u r '
an El Nino event (Figure 15.53 and Case
Study 9A). Although most rivers in the
Angeles basin are short in length and se
sonal, they can transport large volumes
water during times of flood. Deforests: :
I " 1 I I 1 , :l::l 1 1 1 ‘ :1 P-’ !>;,| I ':" d L M fl V ^ I I 1
1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990
season

/ id b ru sh fires o n t h e s te e p s u rro u n d in g
- sides, an d rap id u rb a n is a tio n (p a g e 63),
^ave in c re a s e d s u rfa c e runoff. La rg e d a m s
~3ve b e e n b u ilt to t ry to h o id b a c k flo o d -
.a te r b u t e v e n so t h e flo o d risk rem ains.
n F e b ru a ry 1992 (d u rin g a n El N in o e v e n t)
r ig h t p e o p le d ie d a n d d o z e n s o f cars an d
'a v a n s w e re s w e p t o u t to sea w h e n , fol-
: .ving t w o d a y s o f to rre n tia l rain, flo o d w a -
:ers p o u re d t h ro u g h a c a ra v a n p ark to th e
; ; J t h o f M a lib u . H e a v y rain also trig g e rs
;- d s lid e s a n d m u d flo w s .
El Nino and La Nina events
E N in o e v e n ts s e e m to c o in c id e w ith
.^ars o f a b o v e - a v e ra g e rainfall, an d La
na e v e n ts w ith p e rio d s o f d ro u g h t,
“ o u g h t o a lesser e x te n t (F ig u re 15.53). In
- e o ru a ry 1998, p arts o f s o u th e rn C alifo rn ia
* ye d e c la re d a d isa ste r area. El N in o w a s
: a m e d for t h e se rio u s flo o d s, m u d flo w s ,
i 'd s lid e s , sto rm s an d , in t h e m o u n ta in s,
^ e avy sn o w falls.
Drought
- ' e long, d ry s u m m e rs a s s o c ia te d w ith
~re M e d ite rra n e a n c lim a te m a y b e ideal
' : ' to u rists but, as t h e p o p u la tio n o f Los
- - g eles c o n tin u e s to g ro w , t h e y p u t tre ­
m e n d o u s p ressu re o n t h e lim ite d w a t e r
iio u r c e s . M u c h o f t h e city 's w a t e r c o m e s ,
. 3 th e C o lo ra d o a q u e d u c t, fro m t h e R ive r
I : o ra d o 400 km to th e east. S o m u c h
n ; : e r is n o w e x tra c te d fro m t h e rive r th a t,
Living in developed cities
in v e r y d ry years, it a lm o s t d rie s u p b e fo re Fog and smog
re a c h in g t h e sea. D ro u g h ts a re e x p e c te d to A d v e c t io n fo g (p a g e 222) o c c u rs w h e n
in c re a s e w it h g lo b a l w a rm in g . c o o l air fro m t h e c o ld o ffsh o re C a lifo rn ia n
c u rre n t drifts in la n d w h e r e it m e e ts w a rm
Brush fires
air. Fo g c a n fo rm m o s t a fte rn o o n s b e t w e e n
M u c h o f t h e Los A n g e le s b asin is c o v e re d
M a y a n d O c t o b e r as t h e s tre n g th o f t h e sea-
in d ro u g h t- re s ista n t (x e ro p h y tic ) ch ap -
b re e z e in c re a se s (p a g e 2 4 0 ).T h is e v e n t ca n
paral, or b ru sh v e g e t a t io n (p a g e 324). B y
c a u s e a t e m p e r a tu r e in ve rsio n (p a g e 217),
th e a u tu m n , a fte r six m o n th s w it h o u t rain,
w h e r e w a r m air b e c o m e s tr a p p e d u n d e r
th is v e g e t a t io n b e c o m e s tind er-dry. T h e
c o ld air. W h e n m a n y p o llu ta n ts fro m Los
S a n ta A n a is a hot, d r y w in d th a t o w e s its
A n g e le s 'tra ffic , p o w e r statio n s a n d in d u s try
h ig h t e m p e r a tu r e to a d ia b a tic h e a tin g as
are re le a se d in to t h e air, t h e re su lt is s m o g
it d e s c e n d s fro m t h e m o u n ta in s . T h e h e a t
(Fig u re 9.25) a n d , w h e n t h e y re tu rn to Earth,
a n d e x tre m e lo w h u m id ity o f S a n ta A n a
a c id rain. S m o g in Los A n g e le s c a n b e a
w in d s c a u s e d is c o m fo r t to h u m a n s an d
m a jo r h e a lth p ro b le m (F ig u re 15.55). It has
in c re a s e t h e d ry n e s s in v e g e ta tio n . A c a r e ­
b e e n c o n fir m e d th a t th e r e is a co rre la tio n
less sp ark o r an e le c tric a l sto rm c a n p ro v e
b e t w e e n fo g a n d h o sp ita l ad m issio n s. For
su fficie n t to se t o ff se rio u s fires.
e a c h 10 m ic ro g ra m in c re a se in a irb o r n e
In O c t o b e r 2007, o v e r 500 000
p a rtic u la te c o n c e n tra tio n s , a d m issio n s
C a lifo rn ia n s w e r e fo rce d to flee fro m
ju m p e d 7 p e r c e n t fo r c h ro n ic re sp ira to ry
b ru sh fires t h a t e x te n d e d fro m n o rth
p a tie n ts a n d 3.5 p e r c e n t fo r c a rd io v a s c u la r
o f Los A n g e le s d o w n to t h e M e x ic a n
d is e a s e p atie n ts. A c c o r d in g to a n o th e r
b ord er. W o rs t- h it w a s S a n D ie g o c o u n ty ,
re c e n t s tu d y re p o r te d in t h e Los Angeles
so u th o f Los A n g e le s , an d t h e 'c e le b r it y '
Times, local re sid e n ts s h o w lu n g d a m a g e
e n c la v e o f M a lib u , to t h e n o rth o f t h e
th a t m ig h t b e e x p e c te d o f s o m e o n e w h o
c ity (Fig u re 15.54).T h e fires c a u s e d th e
sm o k e d h a lf a p a c k o f c ig a re tte s e v e r y d a y .
d e a th s o f s e v e n p e o p le , d e s tro y e d o v e r
L a te s t fig u re s s u g g e s t t h a t 9000
2000 h o m e s a n d th o u s a n d s o f h e c ta re s
C a lifo rn ia n s d ie a n n u a lly fro m d ise a se s
o f v e g e ta tio n . Fi re-fighters, fifty o f w h o m
ca u s e d o r a g g ra v a te d b y air p o llu tio n , m o re
w e r e in ju re d w h ile o n d u ty, w o r k e d a ro u n d
th a n h a lf fro m t h e s o u th o f t h e state, an d
t h e c lo c k fo r se ve ra l d a y s try in g to c o n tro l
th a t o n e in e v e r y 15 000 are a t risk o f c o n ­
fla m e s t h a t w e r e fu e lle d b y a S a n ta A n a
tra c tin g c a n c e r fro m b re a th in g c h e m ic a ls
w in d g u s tin g u p to 160 k m /h r o v e r p a rc h e d
in t h e air.
v e g e t a t io n in te m p e ra tu re s o f 38°C.
Urbanisation 453
© B S I2 S J Living in developed cities

Social contrasts Beverly Hills Mission Viejo Compton

Figure 15.56

Living in Los Angeles presents great con­ Contrasts in

trasts in lifestyle and opportunity.The
census data for Compton (Figures 15.56
and 15.58), an area between downtown
Los Angeles and the docks, contrasts with
the idealised picture given by films and
TV of expensive Beverly Hills located to
the north-west and life in the more distant
southern district of Mission Viejo in Orange
County (Figure 15.57).
Population
In 2006, the population of Los Angeles city
was given as 3.834 million; Los Angeles
county as 9.948 million; and the Los
Angeles-Long Beach-Santa Ana urban
agglomeration as 12.307 million (the 11th
largest in the world - Figure 15.3).
Immigration
Average household income $70945 $78248 $31819
Los Angeles
Households below poverty level 7.9% 2.3% 25.5% Source: US
2000 Census
Households earning over $150 000 a year 25.2% 3.8% 1.9%
Unemployment rate 3.2% 2.4% 7.1%
O fth e growing number of Asian immi­ However, there does appear to be an
grants who have settled in Los Angeles, increasing re-location within Los Angeles
those from Japan and Korea include of earlier immigrants, on the basis of social
highly educated professional and busi­ class, as the more successful, especially thcsi
from Asia and South America, move to m c r
ness people who are improving low- and
medium-cost housing, creating many new affluent areas. In contrast many Mexicans,
jobs and helping to provide services for who still are often forced to take the poore'
their own com m unity and for the city. In jobs, remain in the least desirable districts.
districts where they have settled, such as
Norwalk, neighbourhood schools have
Figure 15.57
improved, house prices have risen and vio­
lence has decreased. Los Angeles

Over 36 per cent of people living in Los

Angeles county were born outside the G reater Los Anae

USA, and 58 per cent do not speak English 115 km east to . ^

an area of 1166 •
at home. Classified by race (the term used
by the US Census Bureau), 45 per cent are
n Fernando
Hispanics (mainly from Mexico and Latin
America), 31 per cent are white, 9 per cent
are black and most ofthe remaining 15 per
cent are Asian (mainly from China, Japan
and Korea).
Most ofthe Hispanics are men of working
age, which includes a high proportion
D o w n to w n
w ho entered the country as illegal immi­
• B everly Hi Los Angeles
grants. Most are young, have little money
M alibu
and limited qualifications or skills.They
are attracted to California's wealthy image
(Stereotypes - Framework 13), but the reality W atts
they face on arrival is often very different.
Until they can obtain a Green Card from the
Department of Immigration, they may not
work legally nor can they receive welfare.
They are therefore forced to take very low- Pacific
paid jobs, often in the informal (page 574) or Ocean
D isneyland
hidden sectors (page 367). Low educational
standards, a lack of qualifications and poor
health and housing characterise some ofthe
docks Santa Ana
black American-African communities such
as Compton, although this relatively small
ethnic group is likely to have migrated here
from elsewhere in the USA rather than from
overseas.The city authorities, as well as the
state and federal government, are making
attempts to improve housing, health and F ___! Los Angeles urban area
education for both the Hispanic and black m ajor route
communities. 1 upland area (over 500 m)

[ ] highest-incom e areas

[ j poorest districts 20 km
_i
454 Urbanisation
 Living in developed cities | JB E !E E R D

Beverly Hills Mission Viejo Compton

a annual household income

5 ° -I 50 50
40- a 4°- a, 40
cn cn
3 30- 2 30- S 30
20- y 20 § 20
cu ai
- 10- Q- 10 Q- 1 0

0- 0 ______________________ 0
under $15- $35- $75- over under $15- $35- $75- over under $15- $35- $75- over
$15 000 34 999 74 999 149 999 150 000 $15 000 34 999 74 999 149 999 150 000 $15 000 34 999 74 999 149 999 150 000

under 5 under 5 under 5

f-14years 6-14 years 6-14 years
'5-24 years 15-24 years 15-24 years
15-44 years 25-44 years 25-44 years
-5-59 years 45-59 years 45-59 years
i>Z-74 years 60-74 years 60-74 years
over 75 over 75 over 75
10 20 30 40 50% 10 20 30 40 50% 10 20 30 40 50%
: ob types

1.6 - 6 .5 % m anagem ent/professional

service occupations
15.0
27.9 32.7%
sales and office o ccupations
60 1% 3 1.3% 46.8% 17.9%
construction/m aintenance
9 .3 %"
S' production/transportation
10.3%-

■ithoutcars

Figure 15.58
28.4%
Contrasting data for Beverly
Hills (an affluent city in the
western suburbs), Mission

; i erage household size Viejo (a new city in south-east

Orange County) and Compton
(a deprived inner-city area)

H o usin g t h e n e w c o m e r s e sta b lish t h e m s e lv e s w ith

■creased m ig ra tio n has led to a lack o f
-“ o rd a b le h o u s in g in d istricts n e a r t o
: : .v n to w n Los A n g e le s . M a n y im m ig ra n ts
rn less th a n $5 an h o u r an d so ca n
■; :h e r afford to b u y th e ir o w n h o m e n o r
s . th e h ig h re n ts.T w e n ty - fiv e p e r c e n t o f
1 £ ans a n d o v e r 60 p e r c e n t o f H isp a n ics
■-. '■no v e r c r o w d e d c o n d itio n s , y e t still p a y
: e 'o n e - th ir d o f th e ir in c o m e o n h o u sin g
a 'e as t h a t are d is a d v a n ta g e d socially,
MM*to g ro w , a n u m b e r
a re lia b le jo b , t h e n m o v e m e n t a w a y fro m
t h e p o o r h o u s in g c o n d itio n s b e c o m e s a
p ossib ility, c o n t in u in g t h e p ro c e sse s o f c e n ­
trifu g al m o v e m e n t (P la c e s 52, p a g e 421)
an d u rb a n sp raw l. M ig ra n ts fro m t h e s a m e
c o u n t r y te n d to g r o u p to g e th e r, o fte n
m a in ta in in g t h e c u ltu re s o f th e ir p la c e o f
o rig in as in C h in a t o w n a n d K o re a to w n .
T h e Lo s A n g e le s a g g lo m e r a t io n n o w
e x t e n d s e a s t w a r d s fo r o v e r 115 km in la n d
of'edge-cities',
s u c h as M is s io n V ie jo in O r a n g e C o u n t y ,
h a v e s p r u n g up. E d g e - c itie s h a v e larg e ,
m o d e r n h o u s e s , n e w s c h o o ls a n d h o s p i­
tals, a n d la rg e s h o p p in g c e n t r e s all s e t in
a p le a s a n t e n v ir o n m e n t . H o w e v e r , t h e y
o ft e n la ck b o t h t h e t y p e s o f w o r k t h a t
t h e w e a lt h y in h a b it a n t s s e e k a n d a n a d e ­
q u a t e p u b lic t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m .T h is has
re s u lte d in o v e r 80 p e r c e n t o f M is s io n
V ie jo 's w o r k in g p o p u la t io n b e c o m in g

::n o m ic a lly a n d e n v iro n m e n ta lly . S h o u ld fro m t h e P a c ific c o a s t a n d , as it c o n t in u e d lo n g - d is ta n c e c o m m u t e r s .

Urbanisation 455
 Living in developed cities

B N IC c itie s R iv e r H u a n g p u w h ic h , in 1989, w a s an area t w o u n d e rg r o u n d (m e tro ) rail lines; a n d th e

o f fa rm la n d r e a c h e d o n ly b y ferry. W it h in b e g in n in g s o f a n e w in te rn a tio n a l a irp o rt
Shanghai te n y e a rs P u d o n g (F ig u re 19.43) w a s a (F ig u re 15.59).

S h a n g h a i is t h e in d u strial, c o m m e rc ia l, c ity in its o w n rig ht, w it h S h a n g h a i's sto ck B y 2008, t h e in te rn a tio n a l a irp o rt h a d

fin a n c ia l a n d fa s h io n c e n tre o f C h in a an d, e x c h a n g e , n u m e r o u s in d u strial areas a n d a t w o te rm in a ls a n d t h r e e r u n w a y s in use

w it h a p o p u la tio n o f 15.789 m illio n , is th e larg e re s id e n t p o p u la tio n , w it h b o th a m a g le v ra ilw a y an d an eight-

w o rld 's s e v e n th la rg e st u rb a n a g g lo m e r a ­ S h a n g h a i's d e v e lo p m e n t d u rin g th e la n e e x p re s s w a y lin k in g it w it h S h a n g h a

tio n . In d u strially, it h as m o re t h a n 400 000 1980s w a s h a n d ic a p p e d b y c o n g e s tio n T h e c ity also h a d e ig h t m e tro lin es a n d th e

firm s in t h e p riv a te se cto r, a n d o v e r 31 000 o n its ro ad s a n d a lack o f p o r t facilities. first s ta g e o f a 1318 km rail tra c k to B e i j i r ;

fo re ig n - in v e s te d c o m p a n ie s a n d is t h e D ra stic m e a s u re s w e r e ta k e n . B y 1999, t h e w it h tra in s t h a t w ill ru n a t s p e e d s o f u p t :

re g io n a l h e a d q u a rte rs fo r 130 t ra n s n a ­ c it y h a d t h re e b rid g e s a n d t h re e t u n n e ls 350 km/hr. D e e p - h a rb o u r fa c ilitie s a t th e

tio n a l c o rp o ra tio n s . D e s p ite C h in a's h u g e ( t w o m e tro a n d o n e ro ad ) lin k in g it w it h m o u th o f t h e Y a n g tz e R ive r m a k e S h a n g - ;

P u d o n g ; a 47 km lo n g o u t e r rin g road t h e la rg e st p o rt in t h e w o rld (a c c o rd in g
d o m e s t ic m ark et, its rap id e m e r g e n c e as

a m a jo r w o rld e c o n o m ic p o w e r - p e rh a p s w h ic h o n ly t o o k t h r e e y e a rs to b uild ; an to 2008 fig u re s b a s e d o n t h e w e ig h t o f

the m a jo r w o rld p o w e r - d e p e n d s o n its e a s t- w e s t a n d a n o r t h - s o u t h th re e - la n e g o o d s ) a n d t h e th ird la rg e st fo r c o n t a in e r

a b ility to t ra d e a n d to in c re a s e its o v e rs e a s e le v a t e d fre e w a y , e a c h o f w h ic h c u t (50 n e w c o n t a in e r b e rth s are a t p re s e n t

links. O n e o f t h e first m a jo r d e v e lo p m e n t s s tra ig h t t h r o u g h t h e e x istin g c ity r e g a rd ­ u n d e r c o n s tru c tio n ).

to o k p la c e a t P u d o n g d ire c tly a c ro ss t h e less o f w h a t lay in its p a th (F ig u re 15.60);

Figure 15.59

Shanghai's transpc"
development

elevated inner ring road

outer ring road

EW /NS freew ay

tunnel

bridge

main line to railway

Beijing
m aglev
Pudong
free port
international

G*J airport

□ built-up area

m ainly farm land

original
Hongqiao
airport

■
■
■
i
main line to 1
Shenzhen ▼
and Hong Kong

456 Urbanisation

Figure 15.60
Elevated freeways, Shanghai
Seoul
n th e early 1950s Seoul, like m o st o ft h e
co u ntry and its e co n o m y , lay in ruins after
:n e Korean W ar. It had a p o p u latio n o f u n d er
2 m illion and no industries ca p a b le o f com-
oetin g in th e glob al m arket. T o d ay t h e city has
5 p op u lation o f o ve r 10 m illion an d its build-
"ngs, office blocks an d tran sp o rt system are as
m o d ern as th o se a n y w h e re in th e w orld.
Figure 15 .6 T sh o w s th e present land use in
:^is v e ry m o d e rn city.T he co m m e rcia l cen tre
F u rth e r re fe re n c e
:new, ]. (2004) 'International migration:
-he view from Los Angeles’, Geography
Review Vol 17 No 4 (March),
nby, M. (2008) 'Megacities, migration
jn d M anila', Geography Review Vol 21
No 4 (April).
;:ke, M. and O ’Hare, G. (1991) The
~'rird World, Oliver & Boyd.
-d ford , M.G. and Kent, W.A. (1982)
Human Geography: Theory and
Applications, Hodder & Stoughton.
Oigby, B. (2007) 'Progress on the London
. fym pics', Geography Review Vol 21 No
. September.
Living in developed cities ^25^51^
Figure 15.61
Land use, Seoul
residential green areas
I j com m ercial | ^ ] parks
I I industrial [2?/l green belt
(Figure 15.62) lies e a st- w e st an d in part has blocks (Figure 15.63), e ach w ith its identifying
b ee n re-created b y o p e n in g u p a previously n u m b e r visible from so m e d ista n ce .T h e
co n creted - over river. A lo n g sid e th is'b u rie d ' se e m in g ly end less blocks o f flats m e an that
river used to b e co u ntless small family-run low -quality hou sing has all b u t b ee n replaced.
businesses, m a n y o f w h ic h ha ve b ee n re­ Ju s t so uth o ft h e CBD , an d creatin g a large
located in a m ajo r re d e v e lo p m e n t schem e. area o f o p e n space, is N am san Park in w h ic h
A lo n g w ith n u m e ro u s larger, n e w e r industries, th e Seo u l T o w e r caps a hill 262 m high, w h ile
th e y are n o w g ro u p e d to g e th e r alo n g part o f surro un ding th e city itself are vast areas o f
th e so uth b ank o ft h e River Han-gang. M u ch parkland and w o o d s th a t form part o f an
o ft h e city is co ve re d in high-rise residential exten sive g re e n belt.
Digby, B. (2007) 'Regeneration in east UN u rb a n is a tio n :
London', Geography Review Vol 21 No 2 www.unep.org/geo2000
November. U rb a n re g e n e ra tio n in th e UK:
Smith, D. (2005) '"C lo n e tow n" www.urcs-online.co.uk
surveys', Geography Review Vol 19 No 1 US C en su s B u reau :
September. www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty.
S o u th e rn C a lifo rn ia E a rth q u a k e C en ter, htm l
L os A ngeles, N o rth rid g e e a rth q u a k e : USGS R esp onse to a n U rb an
www.data.scec.org/chrono_index/ E a rth q u a k e :
northreq.htm l http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/1996/
UN P o p u la tio n D iv isio n W orld ofr-96-0263/
U rb a n isa tio n P ro sp ects: 2 0 0 7 R evision W o rld u rb a n isa tio n :
P o p u la tio n D atab ase:
http://cities.canberra.edu.au/
http://esa.un.org/unup/ publications/OECDpaper/World_
urbanisation.htm
In O c t o b e r 2008, t h e W e s tfie ld s h o p p in g
c e n tre o p e n e d in S h e p h e rd 's B u s h in w e s t
L o n d o n . Fro m t h e t im e t h a t it w a s first
p la n n e d it has b e e n co n tro v e rs ia l. W h y
s h o u ld th is b e ? Retail c e n tre s an d s h o p p in g
m alls h a v e o p e n e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e UK;
w h a t's d iffe re n t a b o u t th is o n e ?
What is the Centre like?
T h e W e s tfie ld C e n tre (F ig u re 15.64) is th e
UK's th ird larg e st s h o p p in g c e n tre after
G a te s h e a d 's M e tro C e n tre a n d B lu e w a te r
in Ken t. It c o v e rs a s h o p p in g area o f
149 000 m 2 - t h e s a m e as 30 fo o tb a ll
p itc h e s .T h e C e n tre is o w n e d b y th e
W e s tfie ld G ro u p , a m u ltin a tio n a l A ustra lian
c o m p a n y w h ic h o w n s s h o p p in g ce n tre s
in A u stra lia, t h e U S A , N e w Z e a la n d a n d th e
UK. It re s e m b le s A m e ric a n - s ty le m alls m o re
th a n British h ig h streets.
T h e c o re o f t h e C e n tre is t h e s h o p p in g
c o m p le x , b u t o n e w it h a d iffe re n ce . E ig h ty
p e r c e n t o f t h e stores are h ig h- value,
u p m a rk e t fa s h io n o u tle ts ; o f its 265 shops,
t h e C e n tre has 40 lu x u ry b ra n d s in c lu d in g
Lo uis V u itto n , M u lb e r r y a n d Pra d a. M a in ­
s tre a m c h a in sto res in c lu d e M arks &
S p e n c e r, D e b e n h a m s , N ext, a n d o n e su p e r­
m ark et, W a itro s e . ■
W h a t m ak e s th e C e n tre d iffe re n t is th a t
it b rin g s luxury, hig h stre e t a n d su p e r­
m a rk e t fu n c tio n s t o g e t h e r o n o n e site.
T h a t is u n u s u a l fo r s u c h ce n tre s, w h ic h
n o rm a lly try to a ttra c t m ass s h o p p in g .
458 Urbanisation
It is also u n u s u a l for
L o n d o n , w ith its u p m a rk e t
sto res in C h e ls e a an d
K n ig h ts b rid g e , a n d mass-
m a rk e t stores in O x fo rd
S tre e t.
H o w e v e r, t h e C e n tre is
n o t s im p ly a b o u t s h o p ­
p in g . It aim s to a ttra c t
c u s to m e rs to stay lo n g e r
a n d s p e n d m o re. Its facili­
tie s in c lu d e 50 re sta u ra n ts
a n d a 14-screen m u ltip le x
c in e m a . In its b id to b e
u p m a rk e t, it has b arre d
KFC, M c D o n a ld 's an d
p lastic cu tle ry , o ffe rin g
in ste a d u p m a rk e t c h o ic e s s u c h as t h e
O ly m p ic s are e x p e c te d to re-brand east
S q u a re Pie C o m p a n y . W it h th is ra n g e o f
L o n d o n . O n W e stfie ld 's d o o rs te p is t h e W h -
b u sin e ss e s o n site, W e s tfie ld e s tim a te s th a t
C ity estate, o n e o f L o n d o n 's m o st d e p r iv e :
21 m illio n p e o p le w ill visit a n n u a lly . W h a t
are as .T h e C e n tre is a c tu a lly b u ilt o n land
W e s tfie ld re ally w a n t s is h ig h s p e n d in g p er
fo rm e rly o w n e d b y L o n d o n U n d e rg ro u n c
cu sto m e r.
b efo re w h ic h it w a s th e site o f t h e 1908
Franco-British Ex hibition . C lose b y is th e
Where is it located?
BBC 's T ele visio n C entre, itself a re g e n e ra ­
T h e C e n tre is lo c a te d 4 km w e s t o f Lo n d o n 's
tio n p ro je ct fro m t h e mid-1980s, o n th e
m ain s h o p p in g areas in O xford Street,
site o f t h e fo rm e r W h it e C ity S ta d iu m ,
K n ig h ts b rid g e a n d C h e lse a (Fig u re 15.65).
w h e r e Lo n d o n 's 1908 O ly m p ic s w e r e he ic
A cc e ss is g o o d : c lo s e b y is t h e W e s tw a y , th e
(Fig u re 15.66).
b ra n c h o f th e m ain A40 h e a d in g w e s t to
Oxford, an d it is a sh o rt d is ta n c e fro m th e
The demand for retail space in
start o f t h e M 4 to H e a th ro w a n d th e w est.
London
T h e C e n tre is a re g e n e ra tio n p ro je ct
d e s ig n e d to 're - b ra n d 'th e area, ju st as th e U n til t h e 2008 c re d it c r u n c h , d e m a n d
fo r retail s p a c e in L o n d o n w a s c o n sid e '-
Figure 15.65 a b le . In c o m e s in L o n d o n are h i g h e r t h a '
The location ofthe a n y w h e r e in t h e UK; t h e a v e ra g e w e e k .
O lym pic Park and
W estfield Stratford
Westfield Centre in c o m e p e r w o r k e r w a s £619 in 2008, <
in west London, p e r c e n t a b o v e t h e U K a v e ra g e . In a d o : :
City in east London
in relation to
s o m e o f L o n d o n 's w e a lth ie s t s u b u rb s are
central London and
o n t h e C e n tre 's d o o rs te p , s u ch as H o l l a " :
Westfield's next
development on Park a n d N o ttin g Hill. In t h e L o n d o n
the edge ofthenew B o ro u g h o f H a m m e r s m ith a n d F u lh a m ■
Olympic Park at w h ic h t h e C e n tre is lo c a te d , 33 p e r c e r : : I
Stratford City
t h e p o p u la tio n w o r k in m a n a g e ria l o r p r :
fe ssio n al jo b s, c o m p a re d w ith 26 p e r ce
fo r L o n d o n as a w h o le . N o t far a w a y are zfr
rive rsid e s u b u rb s o f C h is w ic k (52 p e r c e
o f t h e p o p u la tio n in s u c h o c c u p a tio n s
K e w a n d R ic h m o n d (56 p e r c e n t).
Figure 15.66 The Westfield Centre, Shepherd's Bush
The layout and transport links
close to the Westfield Centre
B u s h G r e e n h as h a d a £3 m illio n

re v a m p , w it h a n o t h e r £4 m illio n s p e n t
o n 2 4 -h o u r p o lic in g , a n e w lib ra ry a n d

78 a ffo r d a b le h o m e s .

What local people have to say

'I th in k p a rk in g is an issue. If th e r e isn't

e n o u g h in t h e W e s tfie ld c o m p le x s o m e ­

th in g has to b e d o n e so t h a t th o s e cars
n r n
d o n 't c o m e to t h e local area. It's n o t
■©■ Underground station
O verground station a b o u t W e s tfie ld ; it's a b o u t residents.'

■©■ Bus station Jam ie Bishop, 35, shopowner

l Library
t Theatre
™ - R ailw ay line 'V e ry f e w p e o p le are a g a in s t t h e r e g e n e r ­

a tio n .T h e site h a sn 't b e e n p ro p e rly u sed

Shepherd's Bush sin c e t h e 1908 O ly m p ic s . B u t t h e c o u n c il

has d o n e n o th in g to lo o k a t p a rk in g o r
Shepherd's co n g e s tio n .'

Andrew Slaughter, local Labour MP

H o w e v e r, L o n d o n 's p ro b le m is th a t so 2 Accessibility
m u c h m o n e y e a rn e d w it h in t h e c ity is C o m p a r e d w it h s h o p s In c e n tra l 'W e m ig h t h a v e to in tro d u c e residents-

s o e n t o u ts id e it. C o m m u te rs are as likely to L o n d o n , W e s t fie ld is less a c c e s s ib le , o n ly p a rk in g w it h s o m e kind o f visitors'

d o th e ir s p e n d in g in Essex (at L a k e sid e ) or a n d is b a d ly a ffe c te d b y tra ffic c o n g e s ­ s c h e m e .T h e re 's n o d o u b t t h a t s o m e ­

K e n t (at B lu e w a te r). W e s tfie ld C e n tre is an tio n . W e s t fie ld h as in v e s te d £1 70 m il­ th in g o f th is m a g n it u d e isn't g o in g to

a tte m p t to g e t L o n d o n e rs to s p e n d m o re o f lio n in to lo cal tr a n s p o r t im p r o v e m e n t s c o m e w it h o u t p a in b u t th e re is h u g e

:n e ir c a s h in L o n d o n . (F ig u re 1 5 .6 6).T h e s e in c lu d e e c o n o m ic b e n e fit an d so cial r e g e n e ra ­

• a n e w U n d e r g r o u n d statio n , W o o d tio n fo r local p eo p le .'

What are the issues? Lan e, o n t h e H a m m e r s m ith an d Stephen Greenhalgh, Leader of

1 D iverting trade from local shops C ity Line, lin k ing to c e n tra l a n d e ast Conservative-run Hammersmith and
O n e o f t h e p ro b le m s w ith a n y n e w
Lo nd on Fulham Council
s h o p p in g ce n tre s is to w h a t e x te n t it • a n e w S h e p h e rd 's B u s h o v e rg ro u n d

d ive rts tra d e fro m o th e r shops. C lose statio n o n t h e lin e b e t w e e n East 'TfL's o w n re se arch p ro ve s H a m m e rs m ith

to W e s tfie ld is S h e p h e rd 's B ush G reen, C ro y d o n a n d M ilto n K e yn e s, g iv in g a n d F u lh a m a lre a d y has th e m o st

w h e r e th e re is a sm all s h o p p in g c e n tre t h e W e s tfie ld C e n tre a p o te n tia l sp h e re c lo g g e d - u p stre e ts in L o n d o n w ith 7.6

an d su p e rm ark e t, c in e m a a n d g y m , o f in flu e n c e u p t o 80 km n o rth o f m illio n h o u rs lost in traffic e v e r y year.'

London.
a n d several sm all, m o stly in d e p e n d e n t Spokesperson for Hammersmith and
B u t ro ad traffic is a c o n c e rn ; th e re are
sh op s, m a n y o f w h ic h c a te r fo r local Fulham Council
e th n ic m in o rity c o m m u n itie s . M o s t sh o p o n ly 450 0 p a rk in g s p a c e s in t h e C e n tre .

o w n e rs b e lie v e th a t t h e W e s tfie ld C e n tre Lo cal re sid e n ts an d b u sin e ss e s cla im

w ill b rin g in cre ase d tra d e fo r th e m . t h a t traffic ja m s a n d p a rk in g sh o rta g e s Activities

o n local stre e ts h a v e b e c o m e w o rse . 1 S u m m a r is e t h e n e e d fo r e c o n o m i c
H o w e v e r, o th e rs in t h e are a are less c e r ­
tain , e s p e c ia lly in O x fo rd S tre e t, a f e w W e s tfie ld e s tim a te t h a t 60 000 visito rs a n d s o c ia l r e g e n e r a t io n in th is a re a .

k ilo m e tre s a w a y . S o m e fe e l th a t th e p e r d a y w ill visit t h e C e n t r e .T h e y cla im 2 A n a ly s e t h e b e n e f it s a n d p r o b le m s

t w o are a s are n o t c o m p e t in g , a n d th a t t h a t p u b lic tra n s p o rt w ill b rin g 60 p er o f lo c a t in g a c e n t r e o f th is siz e in

t h e n e w C e n tre w ill a c t u a lly b rin g n e w c e n t o f its visitors, i.e. 36 OOO.The s h o rt­ th is p a r t o f w e s t L o n d o n .

m o n e y in to L o n d o n . B u t in N o v e m b e r a g e o f p ark in g c a n o n ly w o r s e n if th e 3 D r a w a t a b le t o s h o w t h e e c o n o m ic ,

2008, t h e n u m b e r o f c u s t o m e r s in re m a in in g 24 000 visito rs are fig h tin g s o c ia l a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l b e n e ­

O x fo rd S t r e e t a n d R e g e n t S t r e e t fell fo r 450 0 sp ace s. fits a n d p r o b le m s b r o u g h t b y t h e

b y 25 p e r c e n t c o m p a r e d w it h fig u re s 3 Im pact on the local area W e s t f ie l d C e n t r e .

for a y e a r earlier. H o w e v e r , it is d iffic u lt W e s tfie ld e s tim a te s t h a t t h e C e n t r e 4 Ju s t if y w h e t h e r y o u t h in k t h a t t h e

w ill c r e a te 70 0 0 n e w jo b s , a n d c la im s C e n tre a re p re s e n ts or b d o e s n o t
to k n o w w h e t h e r th is w a s d u e to th e

C e n tre , o r a re su lt o f r e d u c e d c o n s u m ­ t h a t 1000 o f t h e s e h a v e g o n e to local r e p r e s e n t a g o o d e x a m p le o f s u s ­

e r s p e n d in g d u rin g t h e c r e d it c r u n c h . re sid e n ts. In t h e lo cal are a, S h e p h e r d 's t a in a b le d e v e l o p m e n t .

Urbanisation 459
 Questions & Activities

Figure 15.67
100 - - 100
L an d use Land use in
90 -90 a British city:
residential
an idealised
80- -80
open space transect from
70 -70 the CBD to the
public buildings city bounda'.
60 -60
industry and
warehouses 50- -50

offices 40- -40

i

convenience shops 30 -30

20 -20
comparison shops
10 - 10

-0
A B C D
CBD CBD Inner city Middle zone Outer zone Edge of city
(core) (19th century) (inter-war) (suburbs)

Activities
1 S t u d y F ig u re 15.67. m ig ra te to c itie s .T h e s e in c lu d e p o ve rty , s h o rta g e o f land,

a i D e scrib e a n d a c c o u n t fo r t h e d iffe re n c e s b e t w e e n fa m in e a n d n a tu ra l disasters, a n d t h e lack o f o p p o rtu n ity .

Z o n e A a n d Z o n e B, w h ic h are b o th d e s c rib e d as p a rt a E x p la in w h a t t h e m a in 'p u ll'f a c t o r s a re t h a t a t t r a c t p e o c r

o f t h e C BD . (5marks) to m o v e t o t h e c itie s. (4 marts
ii W h ic h t w o ty p e s o f land use o c c u p y t h e m o st area b M a n y o f t h e n e w c o m e r s in t h e c itie s fin d t h e m s e lv e s
in Z o n e C ? Ex p lain w h y this is so. (4 marks) liv in g i n 's q u a t t e r s e t t le m e n t s 'o n t h e o u t s k ir t s o f t h e c i t y

iii H o w w o u ld y o u e x p e c t th e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e i W h y d o m a n y n e w c o m e rs e n d u p livin g in su ch
h o u s in g are as in Z o n e D to b e d iffe re n t fro m th o s e s e ttle m e n ts ? (2 marts
in Z o n e E? (4 marks) ii W h y are su ch s e ttle m e n ts o fte n fo u n d o n th e e d g e s
iv Ex p lain w h y Z o n e F h as m o re in d u s try a n d w a re h o u s e s , o f citie s? (2 mans
o ffices an d c o m p a ris o n sh o p s th a n Z o n e s D a n d E. iii D e s c rib e th e m ain fe a tu re s o f a s q u a tte r s e ttle m e n t
(5 marks) in a n a m e d c ity th a t y o u h a v e s tu d ie d . (5 marts
b N a m e a c it y in t h e U K t h a t y o u h a v e s t u d ie d . A s s e s s h o w c W it h r e f e r e n c e t o a n a m e d e x a m p le , e x p la in w h y
c lo s e ly it m a t c h e s t h e id e a lis e d c it y s h o w n in t h e d ia g r a m . tr a ffic c o n g e s t io n c a n b e a p r o b le m in c itie s in less
M a k e s p e c ific re fe r e n c e to n a m e d a re a s w it h in y o u r c h o s e n e c o n o m ic a lly d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r ie s . (4 m arts
c ity . (7 marks)
d N a m e a c it y in a less e c o n o m ic a lly d e v e lo p e d c o u n try .
E x p la in h o w t h a t c it y is t a c k lin g t h e p r o b le m o f h o u s in g
2 T h e re are m a n y fa c to rs t h a t 'p u s h 'p e o p le a w a y fro m rural are as
its g r o w in g p o p u la t io n , a n d s h o w h o w s u c c e s s fu l it has
in less e c o n o m ic a lly d e v e lo p e d c o u n trie s a n d m a k e th e m
been. (8 m a m

Exam practice: basic structured questions

C hoose one o f t h e f o llo w in g p o lic ie s fo r in n e r c ity
a W h a t i s t h e m e a n in g of:
e d e v e l o p m e n t t h a t h a v e b e e n t rie d in t h e U K :
u r b a n is a t io n (2 marks)
U rb a n D e v e lo p m e n t C o rp o ra tio n s (U D C s)
g e n t r if ic a t io n (2 marks) E n te rp ris e Z o n e s (EZ s)
b r o w n f ie ld d e v e l o p m e n t ? (2 marks) U rb a n R e g e n e ra tio n C o m p a n ie s (U R C s)
N e w D e a l fo r C o m m u n itie s (N D C s)
b W it h re fe r e n c e to o n e o r m o r e in n e r c it y a re a s in E n g lish P a rtn e rs h ip (E P ) a g re e m e n ts .
t h e U K, e x p la in w h a t is m e a n t b y t h e 'c y c l e o f D e s c rib e h o w y o u r c h o s e n s c h e m e h as a ffe c te d o n e area
d e p riv a tio n '. (5 marks) n w h ic h it h as b e e n tried, a n d assess its success. (14mc'

460 Urbanisation
4 a D e s c r ib e t h e m a in f e a t u r e s o f t h e B u r g e s s m o d e l o f i D e s c r ib e y o u r c h o s e n m o d e l, a n d e x p la in h o w
u r b a n s tru c tu r e , a n d e x p la in w h y t h e m o d e l is u s e fu l it is d iffe r e n t fro m t h e B u r g e s s m o d e l o f u r b a n
to g e o g r a p h e r s . (5 marks) d e v e lo p m e n t . (5 marks)
b S e le c t one o f t h e f o llo w in g m o d e ls o f u r b a n ii D is c u s s t h e lim it a t io n s o f t h e m o d e l. (5 marks)
d e v e lo p m e n t :
c W it h re fe r e n c e to a n a m e d city , d e s c r ib e t h e s t r u c t u r e
th e H o y t m o d el o f t h e c it y a n d d is c u s s t h e e x t e n t t o w h ic h a n y o f t h e
th e M a n n m o d el m o d e ls o f u r b a n s t r u c t u r e fit t h a t c ity . (lOmarks)
t h e U llm a n a n d H a rris m o d e l.

Exam practice: structured questions

5 S t u d y F ig u re 15.67. c C h o o s e o n e o f t h e m o r e e c o n o m ic a lly d e v e lo p e d

a D e s c r ib e a n d e x p la in t h e c h a n g e s in la n d u s e a lo n g r e g io n s s h o w n in t h e t a b le . E x p la in w h y t h e ra te o f

th e tra n s e ct. (15 marks) u r b a n is a t io n w a s c o m p a r a t iv e ly s lo w in t h e la s t 30

y e a r s o f t h e 2 0 th c e n t u r y . (9 marks)
b D r a w a n id e a lis e d t r a n s e c t fro m t h e C B D to t h e
c it y b o u n d a r y fo r a t y p ic a l c it y in a less e c o n o m ic a lly
d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r y . A d d n o te s b e lo w y o u r t r a n s e c t to Urban population (percentage)
e x p la in s o m e o f t h e k e y fe a t u r e s o f y o u r d ia g ra m .
Area 1950 1970 1990 2000 2030 (estimai
(lOmarks)
World 29.2 37.1 45.2 48.2 61.9
6 S t u d y F ig u re 15.68.
Europe and Russia 56.3 66.7 73.4 73.5 80.6
a D e s c r ib e a n d c o m p a r e t h e ra te s o f u r b a n is a t io n
s h o w n in t h e ta b le . (7marks) North America 63.9 73.8 74.3 77.4 84.6
b C h o o s e o n e o f t h e less e c o n o m ic a lly d e v e lo p e d Oceania 61.3 70.8 71.3 74.2 72.2
re g io n s s h o w n in t h e t a b le . E x p la in w h y t h a t re g io n
is e x p e r ie n c in g ra p id u r b a n is a t io n . (9marks) Latin America 41.0 57.4 75.1 75.3 84.1

Asia (excl. Russia) 16.4 24.1 28.2 37.5 54.1

Africa 15.7 22.5 33.9 48.2 52.9

Figure 15.68

The proportion of world

population living in
urban areas

Exam practice: essays

7 S t u d y F ig u re 15.68 a b o v e . C o m p a r e a n d c o n t r a s t t h e ra te s 8 S e v e r a l d iffe r e n t s c h e m e s h a v e b e e n d e v e lo p e d b y U K
o f u r b a n is a t io n in a r a n g e o f r e g io n s a t d iffe r e n t s ta g e s o f g o v e r n m e n t s s in c e 1979 to im p r o v e c o n d it io n s in d e c lin in g
e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t . S u g g e s t re a s o n s fo r t h e d iffe r e n c e s in n e r c it y a re a s .
th a t y o u h a ve o b se rve d . (25 marks)
C hoose any two o f t h e s e s c h e m e s . D e s c r ib e t h e a im s a n d
m e th o d s o f e a c h o f t h e sch e m e s. Assess th e su ccesses an d
fa ilu re s o f e a c h s c h e m e , w it h r e f e r e n c e to o n e o r m o r e c itie s
w h e r e t h e s c h e m e s w e r e p u t in to p ra c tic e . (25 marks)

Urbanisation 461
 Farming and food supply
'But o f a ll the occupations by w hich gain is secured, none
is better than agriculture, none m ore p rofitable, none m ore
delightful, none m ore becom ing to a free m an .'
Cicero, De Officiis, 1.51
' B eh o ld ,
there s h a ll com e seven years o f g reat plen ty
throughout a ll the lan d o f Egypt: a n d there sh a ll arise
a fter them seven years o f fa m in e; a n d a ll the plen ty
sh a ll b e forgotten in the lan d o f Egypt; an d the
fa m in e sh a ll con su m e the lan d ...'
The Bible, Genesis 41:29,30
'He w ho slaughters his cow s today sh a ll thirst for m ilk
tom orrow .'
M uslim proverb
The location of different types of agriculture at all
scales depends on the interaction of physical, cul­
tural and economic factors (Figure 16.25). W here
individual farmers in a market economy (capi­
talist system) or the state in a centrally planned
economy have a knowledge, or understanding,
of these three influences, then decisions may be
made. H ow these decisions are reached involves a
fourth factor: the behavioural element.
Figure 16.1
The optima and limits
model (after McCarty
and Lindberg)
462 Farming and food supply
Environmental factors
affecting farming
Although there has been a movem ent away fro n
the view that agriculture is controlled solely by
physical conditions, it must be accepted that
environm ental factors do exert a major influence
in determining the type of farming practised in
any particular area. Increasingly, the environment
is seen to be an input converted into monetary
terms, e.g. yields and slopes.
In 1966 M cC arty and Lindberg produced
their optima and limits model, an adaptation
of w h ich appears in Figure 16.1. They suggested
that there was an optim um or ideal location for
each specific type of farming based on climate,
soils, slopes and altitude. The optimum is defined
as where the total cost of production per unit
output (TCP) is m inim ised for that crop or live­
stock. As distance increases from this optimum,
conditions become less than ideal, i.e. too wet oi
dry; too steep or high; too hot or cold; or a less
suitable soil. Consequently, the profitability of
producing the crop or rearing animals is reduced,
and the law o f d im in ish in g retu rn s operates
when either the output decreases or the cost of
m aintaining high yields becomes prohibitive.
Eventually a point is reached where physical
conditions are too extreme to permit produc­
tion on an econom ically viable scale, and later
at even a subsistence level (page 477). M cCarty
and Lindberg applied their model to the cotton
belt of the U SA (Figure 16.2), but it can equally
be adapted to account for the growth of spring
wheat on the Canadian Prairies (Figure 16.3).
 F igure 16.3

Optima and limits model

cotton in the south-east USA wheat-growing applied to wheat growing

optim um cotton
optim um w heat
areas □ w ith decreasing
on the Canadian Prairies

□
cotton-growing yields
areas (most
favourable soils)
□ w ith decreasing
yields

Rockies:
to o high
and steep,
poor soils,
short
grow ing
season

needs a m inim um of 200, and spring wheat 90.

: — la and limits
This is critical for plant growth because each
■ applied to the
plant or crop type requires a m inim um growing
~er cotton belt in
^-eastern USA temperature and a m inim um growing season.
In temperate latitudes, the critical temperature
is 6°C. Below this figure, members of the grass
family, w hich include most cereals, cannot grow
- an exception is rye, a hardy cereal, w hich may
be grown in more northerly latitudes.
In Britain, wheat, barley and grass begin to
grow only w hen the average temperature rises
above 6°C, w hich coincides w ith the beginning
of the growing season. The growing season is
defined as the number of days between the last
:igure 16.4 severe frost of spring and the first of autumn.
Tie effect of altitude
It is therefore synonymous w ith the number
:■ farming and of frost-free days that are required for plant
■egetation growth. Figures 16.2 and 16.3 show that cotton
Barley can be grown further north in Britain
than wheat, and oats further north than barley
because wheat requires the longest growing
season of the three and oats the shortest. Frost
is more likely to occur in hollows and valleys.
It has beneficial effects as it breaks up the soil
and kills pests in winter, but it m ay also damage
plants and destroy fruit blossom in spring.
W ith in the tropics there is a continuous
growing season, provided moisture is available. As
well as decreasing w ith distance from the Equator,
both temperatures and the length of the growing
season decrease with height above sea-level. This
produces a succession of natural vegetation types
according to altitude, although m any have been
modified for farming purposes (Figure 16.4).

Farming and food supply 463

 Precipitation and water supply
The mean annual rainfall for an area deter­
mines w hether its farm ing is likely to be based
upon tree crops, grass or cereals, or irrigation.
The relevance and effectiveness of this annual
total depends on temperatures and the rate
of evapotranspiration. Few crops can grow in
temperate latitudes where there is less than 250
m m a year or in the tropics where the equiva­
lent figure is 500 mm. However, the seasonal
distribution of rainfall is usually more signifi­
cant for agriculture than is the annual total.
W h e a t is able to grow on the Canadian Prairies
(Places 70, page 486) because the summer rain ­
fall m axim um means that water is available
during the growing season. The M editerranean
lands of southern Europe have relatively high
annual totals, yet the growth of grasses is
restricted b y the summer drought. Some crops
require high rainfall totals during their ripen­
ing period (maize in the Am erican corn belt),
whereas for others a dry period before and
during harvesting is vital (coffee).
The type of precipitation is also im portant
(page 62). Long, steady periods of rain allow the
water to infiltrate into the soil, making moisture
available for plant use. Short, heavy downpours
can lead to surface runoff and soil erosion and so
are less effective for plants. Hail, falling during
heavy convectional storms in summer in places
such as the Canadian Prairies, can destroy crops.
Snow, in comparison, can be beneficial as it
insulates the ground from extreme cold in winter
and provides moisture on melting in spring. In
Britain we tend to take rain for granted, forget­
ting that in m any parts of the world amounts and
occurrence are very unreliable (Figure 9.28). India
depends upon the monsoon; if this fails, there
is drought and a risk of famine (page 502). Even
in the best of years, the Sahel countries receive
a barely adequate am ount of moisture. The eco­
system is so fragile that should rainfall decrease
even by a small am ount (and in several years
recently no rain has fallen at all), then crops
fail disastrously - an event which appears to be
occurring w ith greater frequency. In Britain,
we would barely notice a shortfall of a few m il­
limetres a year: in the Sahel and sub-Saharan
Africa, an equivalent fluctuation from the mean
can ruin harvests and cause the deaths of m any
animals (Figure 16.61).
Wind
Strong winds increase evapotranspiration rates
w hich allows the soil to dry out and to become
464 Farming and food supply
vulnerable to erosion. Several localised winds
have harm ful effects on farming: the m istral
brings cold air to the south of France (Figure
12.22); the kh a m sin is a dry, dust-laden wind
found in Egypt; Santa Ana winds can cause brush
fires in California (Case Study 15A); and hur­
ricanes, typhoons and tornadoes can all destroy
crops by their sheer strength. Other winds are
beneficial to agriculture: the fo lm and ch in ook
(page 241) melt snows in the Alps and on the
Prairies respectively, so increasing the length of
the growing season.
Altitude
The growth of various crops is controlled b y the
decrease in temperature w ith height. In Britain
fewTgrasses, including those grown for hav, car.
give com mercial yields at heights exceeding
300 m, whereas in the Himalayas, in a lower
(warmer) latitude, wheat can ripen at 3000 m.
As height increases, so too does exposure to
w in d and the amounts of cloud, snow and
rain, w h ile the length of the growing season
decreases. Soils take longer to develop as there
are fewer m ixing agents; humus takes longer to
break down and leaching is more likely to occui
Those high-altitude areas where soils have
developed are prone to erosion (Case Study 10
Angle of slope (gradient)
Slope (see catena, page 276) affects the depth
of soil, its moisture content and its pH (acidity;
page 269), and therefore the type of crop that g h i
be grown on it. It influences erosion and is a liiru
tation on the use of machinery. U ntil recently,
a 5° slope was the maximum for mechanised
ploughing but technological improvements hawe
increased this to 11°. M any steep slopes in Soutr:
east Asia have been terraced to overcome some :«
the problems of a steep gradient and to increase
the area of cultivation (Figure 16.29).
Aspect
Aspect is an important part ofthe microclimate.
Adret slopes are those in the northern hemisphere
that face south (Places 28, page 213). They have
appreciably higher temperatures and drier soils
than the ubac slopes which face north. The adre:
receives the maximum incoming radiation and
sunshine, whereas the ubac may be permanently
in the shade. Crops and trees both grow to highe
altitudes on the adret slopes.
Soils (edaphic factors)
Farming depends upon the depth, stoniness,
water-retention capacity, aeration, texture, struc­
ture, pH, leaching and m ineral content of the soil
(Chapter 10). Three examples help to show the
extent of the soil's influence on farming:
1 C lay soils tend to be heavy, acidic, poorly
drained, cold, and give higher economic
returns under permanent grass.
2 Sandy soils tend to be lighter, less acidic,
perhaps too well-drained, warmer and more
suited to vegetables and fruit.
3 Lime soils (chalk) are light in texture,
alkaline, dry, and give high cereal yields.
Although soils can be improved, e.g. by adding
lime to clay and clay to sands, and by applying
fertiliser, there is a lim it to the increase in their
productivity - i.e. the law of dim inishing
returns operates.
N orthern Kenya: precipitation and w ater supply
The Rendille tribe live on a flat, rocky plain in
northern Kenya where the only obvious vegetation
is a few small trees and thorn bushes.Their
traditional way of life has been to herd sheep, goats
and camels, moving about constantly in search of
water. (See Places 65, page 479 and Figure 16.5.)
'On the government map of Kenya, the realities
ofthe Rendille's land are summarised in a few
Figure 16.5
Rendille herders at a
shallow hand-dug well
Global warming
Despite uncertainty as to the exact effects of
global warming, scientists agree that the green­
house effect w ill not on ly lead to an increase
in temperature but also to changes in rainfall
patterns. The global increase in temperature
w ill allow m any parts of the world to grow crops
w h ich at present are too cold for them: wheat
w ill grow in more northerly latitudes in Canada
and Russia, w hile maize, vines, oranges and
peaches may flourish in southern England
(Case Study 9 B ) . Of greater significance w ill be
the changes in precipitation, w ith some places
becoming wetter and more stormy (Australia
and South-east Asia) w hile others are likely to
become drier (the wheat-growing areas of the
American Prairies and the Russian Steppes).
words:"Koroli Desert", it says, and just above this is
the warning "Liable to Flood". There are two rainy
seasons here: the long rains in April and May and
the short rains in November. But the word "season"
suggests that the rains are much more predictable
and steady than they are in reality. Add together
rainfall from the long and the short rains and you
arrive at only 150 mm on the Rendille's central
plains in an average year. But the word average
means nothing here, because "normal variation"
from that average can bring only 35 mm of rain one
year and 450 mm the next. Variation from place to
place is even more erratic than variation from year
to year. Rains can be heavy when they do come,
and water often rushes off the baked ground in
flash floods; thus the apparent contradiction of
a flood-prone desert.
It may suddenly rain in a valley for the first time
in ten years; and it may not rain there for another
decade. Therefore, the Rendille do not so much
follow the rains as chase them, rushing to get their
animals on to new grasses, which are more easily
digested and converted into milk than are the
drier, older shoots.'
L.Timberlake, On/y One Earth, p. 92
Farming and food supply 465
 T h e fo rm er Soviet Union: physical controls on farm ing
Although the former Soviet Union is the largest
country in the world, physical controls of climate,
relief and soils have restricted farming to relatively
small parts ofthe country. O fthe land area of 22.27
million km2, only 27 per cent was farmed in 1989
(10 per cent arable and 17 per cent pastoral), mainly
in the deciduous forest belt, where the land had
been cleared, and on the Steppes.The remaining
73 per cent (non-farmed) consisted of forest (42 per
cent), tundra, desert and semi-desert (Figure 16.6).
After the Second World War, farmers were offered
incentives to exceed their production targets.
This task was most difficult for those farmers
who were'encouraged'by state directives rather
Figure 16.6
than by financial incentives to develop the'virgin
lands'(Figure 16.6), in such states as Kazakhstan,
Physical controls on
by ploughing up the natural grassland in order to
farming in the former
Soviet Union grow wheat and other cereals. Unfortunately, the
Scandinavia
Europe \ %
> iO P re c ip ita tip rL u n d e r 250 mm; saline
(5* / soils d ue to high evaporation; m ean
j Ja n u a r y tem p e ra tu re 0°C; m ean J^ iy
tem p e ra tu re over 2 4 °C _ v\>
C u ltu r a l ( h u m a n ) fa c to r s a f f e c t in g
f a r m in g
La n d te n u re
Farmers may be owner-occupiers, tenants, land­
less labourers or state employees on the land
w hich they farm. The latifu n d ia system is still
com m on to most Latin American countries.
466 Farming and food supply
unreliable rainfall, with totals often less than
500 mm a year, did not guarantee reliable crop
yields. Later, to help cereal production, irrigation
schemes were begun. These have since been
extended into semi-desert areas where cotton
is now grown. This necessitated the Soviets
constructing large-scale transfer schemes by which
water from rivers in the wetter parts ofthe country
was diverted to areas suffering a deficiency.
Future water-transfer schemes are even more
ambitious and may never reach fruition, as they
involve diverting water from the northward-flowing
Pechora, Ob and Yenisei rivers towards the south.
Apart from the cost, environmentalists fear that
this could result in the saline Arctic Ocean receiving
less cold river water and then being warmed up
sufficiently to cause the pack ice to melt and sea-
levelsto rise.
D ense coniferous forest; p odsolic soils,
acidic and h eavily leached; discontinuous
perm afrost in north; m ean Ja n u a ry Sea o f O khotsk
tem p e ra tu re b elow -10 °C ; m ean Ju ly
tem pe ratu re 10 °C to 18 °C
[ |tundra | | desert and semi-desert
| coniferous forest (taiga) [ . j m ountains
deciduous forest virgin land developm ents
^ tem perate grassland (steppe) | | non-Soviet countries
The land here is organised into large, centrally
managed estates worked by peasants w ho are
semi-serfs. Even in the mid-1980s it was estimated
that in Brazil 70 per cent of the land belonged U
3 per cent of the landowners. Land is worked tn
the landless labourers among the peasantry wb
sell their labour, when conditions permit, for
substandard wages on the large estates or
commercial plantations.
 Other peasant farmers in Latin America have
some land of their own held under insecure
tenure arrangements. This land m ay be owned
by the farmer, but it is more likely to have been
rented from a local landowner or pawned to a
moneylender. This latter type of tenancy takes
two forms: cash-tenancy and share-cropping.
Cash-tenancy is when farmers have to give as
much as 80 per cent of their income or a fixed
pre-arranged rent to the landowner. If the farmer
has a short-term lease, he tends to overcrop
the area and cannot afford to use fertiliser or
to m aintain farm buildings. If the lease is long­
term, the farmer may try to invest but this often
leads to serious debt. Share-cropping is when
farmers have to pay, as a form of 'rent-in-kind' for
occupying the land, part of their crop or animal
produce to the landowner. As this fraction is
usually a large one, the farmer works hard w ith
little incentive and remains poor. This system
operated in the cotton belt of the USA following
the abolition of slavery and still persists in places.
Both forms of tenancy, together w ith that of lati-
fundia, resemble feudal systems found in earlier
times in western Europe. The p lantation is a
variant form of the large estate system in that it is
usually operated commercially, producing crops
for the world market rather than for local use as
in latifundia. On some plantations (oil palm in
Malaysia - Places 68, page 483), the labourers
are landless but are given a fixed wage; on others
(sugar in Fiji), they are smallholders as well as
receiving a payment.
In econom ically more developed, capitalist
countries, m any farmers are owner-occupiers,
i.e. they own, or have a mortgage on, the farm
where they live and work. Such a system should,
in theory, provide maximum incentives for the
farmer to become more efficient and to improve
his land and buildings. Tenant farmers have
been and still are, albeit in reduced numbers, an
im portant part of land tenure in developed coun­
tries as well as in developing countries.
In sharp contrast to the neo-feudalist (lati­
fundia, cash-tenancy and share-cropping) and
capitalist systems of land tenure is the socialist
system. In the former USSR, the individual
farmer and the company-run estates were
replaced by the k o l k h o z (collective farm) and
s o v k h o z (state farm) system of organisation and
management. Other forms of socialist tenure
include the com m une system w h ich operated
during the early years of communism in China
(Places 63) and the k ib b u t z , w hich is a form of
com m unal farming in Israel.
Inheritance laws and the fragmentation
of holdings
In several countries, inheritance laws have meant
that on the death of a farmer the land is divided
equally between all his sons (rarely between
daughters). Also, dowry customs m ay include
the giving of land w ith a daughter on marriage.
Such traditions have led to the sub-division of
farms into numerous scattered and small fields.
In Britain, fragmentation of land parcels m ay
also result from the legacy of the open-field
system (Places 51, page 400) or, more recently,
from farmers buying up individual fields as they
come onto the market. Fragmentation results in
m uch time being wasted in m oving from one
distant field to another, and m ay cause problems
of access. It may, however, be of benefit as it can
enable a wider range of crops to be grown on
land of different qualities.
Farm size
Inheritance laws, as described above, tend to
reduce the size of individual farms so that, often,
they can operate only at subsistence level or
below. In most of the EU and North America, the
trend is for farm sizes to increase as competitive
market capitalism leads to the demise of small
farms, and their land being purchased for enlarge­
ment by larger and more efficient, economically
successful farms (page 493). Capital-intensive
farms use much machinery, fertiliser, etc. and
have a wide choice in types of production.
In South-east Asia and parts of Latin America
and Africa, the rapid expansion of population
is having the reverse effect. Farms, already inad­
equate in size, are being further divided and
fragmented, making them too small for m ech­
anisation (even if the farmers could afford
machines). They are increasingly limited in
the types of production possible, and output
in certain areas, such as sub-Saharan Africa, is
falling. Although farms of on ly 1 ha can support
families in parts of South-east Asia where in ten­
sive rice production occurs and several crop­
pings a year are possible, the average plot size in
m any parts of Taiwan, Nepal and South Korea has
fallen to under 0.5 ha (about the size of a football
pitch). In comparison, farms of several hundred
hectares are needed to support a single fam ily in
those parts of the world where farming is mar­
ginal (upland sheep farming in Britain, cattle
ranching in northern Australia).
Farming and food supply 467
 China: land tenure
Pre-1949
Before the establishment ofthe People's Republic
in 1949, farming in China was typical of South-east
Asia, i.e. it was mostly intensive subsistence
(page 481). Farms were extremely small and
fragmented, with the many tenants having to pay
up to half of their limited produce to rich, often
absentee landlords. Cultivation was manual or
using oxen. Despite long hours of intensive work,
the output per worker was very low. The need
for food meant that most farmland was arable,
with livestock restricted to those kept for working
purposes or which could live on farm waste
(chickens and pigs).
People's communes, 1958
After taking power in 1949, the communists
confiscated land from the large landowners and
divided it amongst the peasants. However, most
plots proved too small to support individual
farmers. After several interim experiments, the
government created the'people's communes'. The
communes, which were meant to become self-
sufficient units, were organised into a three-tier
hierarchy with communist officials directing all
aspects of life and work (Figure 16.7). Members
ofthe commune elected a people's council, who
elected a subcommittee to ensure that production
targets, set by the Central Planning Committee
(the government) in a series of Five Year Plans,
were met.The committee was also responsible
for providing an adequate food supply to make
the unit self-supporting (crops, livestock, fruit and
fish), for providing small-scale industry (mainly
food processing and making farm implements),
organising housing and services (hospital, schools)
and for flood control and irrigation systems. Most
communes had a research centre which trained
workers to use new forms of machinery, fertiliser
and strains of seed correctly (Green Revolution,
page 504). By pooling their resources, farmers were
able to increase yields per hectare.
50 families = 1 production team (300 people, 20 ha) Responsiblefor own finances and payment
of taxes for welfare services
10 production teams = 1 brigade (3000 people, 200 ha) Responsible for overall planning, although
they left the details to the production team
5 brigades =1 commune (15000 people, 1000 ha) Responsible for ensuring that production
targets set by the state were met
Figure 16.7
The structure of a former
Chinese commune
468 Farming and food supply
Responsibility system, 1979
The introduction in 1979 of this more flexible
approach, which encouraged farming families to
become more'responsible', preceded the abolition
ofthe commune system in 1982. Under it, individual
farmers were given rent-free land in their own village
or district. They then had to take out contracts
with the government, initially for 3 years but now
extended to 30, to deliver a fixed amount of produce.
To help meet their quota, individual farmers were
given tools and seed. Once farmers had fulfilled
their quotas, they could sell the remainder of their
produce on the open market for their own profit.
The immediate effect, due to farmers working much
harder, was an increase in yields by an average of
6 percent per year throughout the 1980s. Rural
markets thrived and some farmers have become
quite wealthy. Profits were used to buy better
seed and machinery and to create village industry.
Although most farmers have improved their
standard of living, admittedly from an extremely low
base, those living near to large cities (large nearby
market) and in the south ofthe country (climatic
advantages) have benefited the most.
1999
Hua Long (Case Study 14B) was one of several
villages where the residents claimed that both their
standard of living and quality of life had improved
considerably over the last 20 years (Figure 16.8).
Even the more rural villages were showing signs
of an improvement in services and amenities
(Figures 14.47 and 14.48), while the more efficient
and prosperous farmers were able to save money
and to invest it in new homes (Figure 14.49) and
machinery. Farmers were now able to sublet land,
hire labour, own machinery and make agricultural
decisions.
Figure 16.8
Group 4Team 1 in
Hua Long village
 Large farms are often extensive on more commercial in the EU animal grazing (sheep,
marginal land and North America cattle ranching
plantations; and tem­
perate cereals (wheat)
Small farms are often intensive on flat, subsistence in Asia, tropical crops (rice); and
fertile land Latin America and Africa market gardening
Figure 16.9 Bearing in m ind the dangers of making
Reasons for spatial generalisations (Framework 11, page 347),
variations in farm size Figure 16.9 gives some of the spatial variations,
and reasons for these variations, between large
and small farms. Differences in farm size also
affect other types of land use and the landscape.
Economic factors affecting
farming
However favourable the physical environment may
be, it is of limited value until human resources are
added to it. Economic man - a term used by von
Thtinen (page 471) - applies resources to maximise
profits. Yet these resources are often available only
in developed countries or where farming is carried
out on a commercial scale.
Transport
This includes the types of transport available, the
time taken and the cost of moving raw materials to
the farm and produce to the market. For perishable
commodities, like milk and fresh fruit, the need for
speedy transport to the market demands an effi­
cient transport network, while for bulky goods, like
potatoes, transport costs must be lower for output
to be profitable. In both cases, the items should
ideally be grown as near to their market as possible.
Markets
The role of markets is closely linked with transport
(perishable and bulky goods). Market demand
depends upon the size and affluence of the
market population, its religious and cultural
beliefs (fish consumed in Catholic countries,
abstinence from pork by Jews), its preferred diet,
changes in taste and fashion over time (vegetar­
ianism) and health scares (BSE and G M foods).
Capital
Most economically developed countries, with
their supporting banking systems, private invest­
ment and government subsidies, have large
reserves of readily available finance, w hich over
time have been used to build up capital-intensive
types of farming (Figure 16.24) such as dairying,
market gardening and mechanised cereal
growing. Capital is often obtained at relatively
furtherfrom large cities areas of low population increasing in size and
density and/or under- efficiency due to
populated amalgamation and
mechanisation
nearer large cities areas of high decreasing in size and
population density and/ efficiency due to
or overpopulated fragmentionand
hand labour
low interest rates but remains subject to the law of
diminishing returns. In other words, the increase
in input ceases to give a corresponding increase in
output, whether that output is measured in ferti­
liser, capital investment in machinery, or hours of
work expended.
Farmers in developing countries, often
lacking support from financial institutions and
having limited capital resources of their own,
have to resort to labour-intensive methods
of farming (Figure 16.24). A farmer wishing
to borrow m oney m ay have to pay exorbitant
interest rates and m ay easily become caught up
in a spiral of debt. The purchase of a tractor or
harvester can prove a liability rather than a safe
investment in areas of uncertain environmental,
economic and political conditions.
Technology
Technological developments such as new strains
of seed, cross-breeding of animals, improved
m achinery and irrigation may extend the area of
optimal conditions and the limits of production
(Green Revolution, page 504). Lacking in capital
and expertise, developing countries are rarely
able to take advantage of these advances and
so the gap between them and the econom ically
developed world continues to increase.
The state
W e have already seen that in centrally planned
economies it is the state, not the individual, that
makes the major farming decisions (Places 62
and 63). In the UK, farmers have been helped by
government subsidies. Initially, organisations such
as the M ilk and Egg Marketing Boards ensured
that British farmers got a guaranteed price for their
products. Today, most decisions affecting British
farmers are made by the EU. Sometimes EU policy
benefits British farmers (support grants to hill
farmers) and sometimes it reduces their income
(reduction in milk quotas). Certainly countries in
the EU have improved yields, evident by their food
surpluses (pages 487 and 493), and have adapted
farming types to suit demand. Increasingly farmers
in the U K are being pressurised by the demands of
supermarkets and in developing countries by those
of transnational companies.
Farming and food supply 469
Figure 16.10

Farming in China: the relation­

ship between precipitation
and farming type

It is very difficult to generalise (Framework 11,

Precipitation per year 1000 km
page 347) about farming in a country that is the
world's third largest in terms of area (40 times that
E l over 2000 mm
ofthe UK) and largest in population. An atlas will
_____ J 1001-2000 mm
show more accurately that, in general, the height
!___ J 501-1000 m m ofthe land decreases, while temperatures and
500 mm
rainfall together with the length ofthe growing
! 500 mm and under
and rainy season (the monsoon, page 239), increase
---- limit o f farm ing types from the deserts and mountains of north and
One sum m er crop west China to the subtropics ofthe south-east.
only: either w h eat,
maize, barley or The type of farming - i.e. the type of crop grown
millet, but not rice and the number of croppings per year - shows a
close correlation with such physical factors as the
(Jj T o o d ry or too
1000 m m
length ofthe growing season and the amount and
m ountainous
for crops One rice crop in distribution of annual rainfall (Figure 16.10).
sum m er; o ne w in ter
crop: w h e a t or Although there has been a population movement
vegetables
towards the towns, increasingly since 1979,
Two rice crops a year
plus som etim es especiallyto those near to the coast, and an
sugar cane or, on increase in employment in the manufacturing and
hills, tea
service sectors, 56 per cent of Chinese still live in
T hree rice crops
per year rural areas and 44 per cent are farmers. Despite
many improvements both in farming and in rural
settlements (Case Study 14B), most farmers still
have a very hard life and live at, or only a little
above, subsistence level (page 477). Many work
in their fields from daylight to dusk and have to
rely upon hand labour (Figure 16.11). Although
machinery is increasingly being used on the larger,
flatter fields and the bigger farms of north-east
China (Figure 16.12), animals such as the water
buffalo are better suited to the smaller fields and
farms found towards the south ofthe country
where every conceivable piece of land is intensively
used (Figure 16.13). Pastoral farming is practised in
the higher, drier lands to the north and west
(Figure 16.14).

Most farmers are still short of capital, although

since the introduction ofthe responsibility system
(Places 63) they now have the freedom to grow
those crops or rear the animals they choose,
together with the incentive to produce more and
to diversify, as they can now sell any surplus. (The
Figure 16.12
creation of wealth was not allowed during the first
Extensive 30 years ofthe People's Republic, which coincided
farming: wheat with a time when food shortages caused the deaths
and oilseed rape
of millions of people.) As a result farmers across
nearXi'an
the country now claim that their standard of living,
their quality of life and the country's food supply
are better than they have been in living memory
(Case Study 14B).

Figure 16.13
Von Thiinen's model of rural
land use
H einrich von Thiinen, w ho lived during the
early 19th century owned a large estate near
to the town of Rostock (on the Baltic coast of
present-day Germ any). He became interested in
how and w h y agricultural land use varied w ith
distance from a market, and published his ideas
in a book entitled T h e Iso la ted State (1826).
To sim plify his ideas, he produced a model in
w hich he recognised that the patterns of land
use around a market resulted from competition
w ith other land uses. Like other models, von
Thiinen's makes several simplifying assumptions.
These include:
■ The existence of an isolated state, cut off from
the rest of the world (transport was poorly
developed in the early 19th century).
■ In this state, one large urban market (or
central place) was dominant. All farmers
received the same price for a particular
product at any one time.
■ The state occupied a broad, flat, featureless
plain w hich was uniform in soil fertility and
climate and over w h ich transport was equally
easy in all directions.
■ There was o n ly one form of transport avail­
able. (In 1826 this was the horse and cart.)
■ The cost of transport was directly propor­
tional to distance.
■ The farmers acted as 'economic m en' wishing
to maximise their profits and all having equal
knowledge of the needs of the market.
In his model, von Thiinen tried to show that
w ith increasing distance from the market:
Figure 16.14
Pastoral farming:
northern China
a the intensity of production decreased, and
b the type of land use varied.
Both concepts were based upon locational rent
(LR) w hich von Thiinen referred to as econom ic
rent. Locational rent is the difference between
the revenue received by a farmer for a crop grown
on a particular piece of land and the total cost of
producing and transporting that crop. Locational
rent is therefore the profit from a unit of land, and
should not be confused w ith actual rent, which is
that paid by a tenant to a landlord.
Since von Thiinen assumed that all farmers
got the same price (revenue) for their crops
and that costs of production were equal for all
farmers, the only variable was the cost of trans­
port, w h ich increased proportionately with
distance from the market. Locational rent can be
expressed by the formula:
LR = Y ( m - c - t d )
where:
LR = locational rent
Y = yield per unit of land (hectares)
m = market price per unit of commodity
c = production cost per unit of land (ha)
t. = transport cost per unit of commodity
d = distance from the market.
Since Y, m, c and fare constants, it is possible
to work out by how much the LR for a com­
m odity decreases as the distance from the market
increases. Figure 16.15 shows that LR (profit)
w ill be at its m aximum at M (the market), where
there are no transport costs. LR decreases from M
to X w ith dim inishing returns, until at X
(the m argin of cu ltivatio n ) the farmer ceases
production because revenue and costs are the
same - i.e. there is no profit.
Farming and food supply 471
 translated into land use. Potatoes, an in ten­
sive, bulky crop, are grown near to the market
(between M and Z) as their transport costs are
locational (economic) rent, high. W heat, a more extensively farmed and les:
i.e. profit, is absorbed at
bulky crop, is grown further away (between Z
and X ) because it incurs lower transport costs.
W h a t happens if three crops are grown in
com petition? This is the com bination of von
Thiinen's two concepts: variation of intensity
market distance from market
margin of
and type of land use, w ith distance from marke:
cultivation Let us suppose that wool is produced in addition
to potatoes and wheat (Figure 16.17).
Figure 16.15 Details o f von T h i i n e n ' s th e o ry Potatoes give the greatest profit if grown
The relationship
at the market, and wool the least. However, as
Von Thiinen tried to account for the location
between locational (eco­ potatoes cost £10 to transport every kilometre,
of several crops in relation to the market. He
nomic) rent and distance after 7 km their profit w ill have been absorbed iii
from the market
suggested that:
these costs (£70 profit - £70 transport = £0). This
a bulky crops, such as potatoes, should be
has been plotted in Figure 16.18a w h ich is a net
grown close to the market as their extra
profit graph. W heat costs £3/km to transport
weight would increase transport costs
and so can be moved 15 km before it becomes
b perishable goods, such as vegetables and
unprofitable (£45 profit - £45 transport = £0).
dairy produce, should also be produced as
W ool, costing only £l/km to transport, can be
near as possible to the market (he wrote
taken 30 km before it, too, becomes unprofitar*-
before refrigeration had been introduced)
Figure 16.18 also shows that although potatoes
c intensive crops should be grown nearer to the
can be grown profitably for up to 7 km from the
market than extensive crops (Figure 16.16).
market, at point A, only 3.5 km from the marki*
Consequently, bulky, perishable and intensive
wheat farming becomes equally profitable anc
crops (or commodities) w ill have steep R lines
that, beyond that point, wheat farming is mor
(Figures 16.15, 16.16 and 16.17).
lucrative. Similarly, wheat can be grown up tc
Figure 16.16 shows the result of two crops,
15 km from the market, but beyond 7.5 km i t _■
Figure 16.16 potatoes and wheat, grown in competition. The
less profitable than, and is therefore replaced bi
two R lines, showing the locational rent or profit
Locational rents for wool. The point at w h ich one type of land use
two crops grown in
for each crop, intersect at Y. If a perpendicular
is replaced by another is called the m argin of
competition is drawn from Y to Z, locational rent can be
transference.
The types of land use can now be plotted
spatially. Figure 16.18b shows three concentric
circles, w ith the market as the com m on cent:
point. As on the graph, potatoes w ill be gro*
w ith in 3.5 km of the market. This is because
com petition for land, and consequently l a r ;
values, are greatest here so o n ly the most intern
c sive farm ing is likely to make a profit. The p an
o
also shows that wheat is grown between 3.5 i n
wheat: a more ertensive, less bulky crop
7.5 km from the market, w h ile between 7.5 u
^ with lower transport costs
30 km, where the land is cheaper, farming is
extensive and wool becomes the m ain prod
Von Thiinen's land use model is therefore h a w
on a series of concentric circles around a cent*
market.
The formula for locational rent (page 4T:
distance from market
assumed that market prices (m ), production :
potatoes are grown wheat is growl (c) and transport costs (t) were all constant. V
between M and Z between Zand X would happen to a crop's area of production
each of these in turn were to alter?
Market price per Production costs Transport costs If the market price falls or the cost of prod
unit of per unit of land (ha) per unit of Profit if grown
tion increases, there is a decrease in both the
Farm product commodity commodity at market

Potatoes 100 30 10 70 Figure 16.17

Wheat 65 20 3 45 Locational rents for three

commodities in competition
Wool 45 15 1 30
profits would rise, leading to an extension in
the margin of cultivation. Changes in trans­
port costs w ill not affect any farm at the market
(Figure 16.19c) but an increase in transport
costs reduces profits for distant farms, causing a
decrease in the margin of cultivation. Conversely,
a fall in transport costs makes those distant farms
more profitable and enables them to extend their
margin of cultivation.

Von Thiinen's land use model

Von Thiinen combined his conclusions on how
the intensity of production decreased and the
type of land use varied w ith distance from the
market, to create his model (Figure 16.20a).
He suggested six types of land use w hich were
located by concentric circles.
M arket gardening (horticulture) and dairying
were practised nearest to the city, due to the
perishability of the produce. Cattle were kept
indoors for most of the year and provided
manure for the fields.
W ood was a bulky product much in demand
as a source of fuel and as a building mate­
rial w ith in the tow n (there was no electricity
when von Thiinen was writing). It was also
expensive to transport.
An area w ith a 6-year crop rotation was based
on the intensive cultivation of crops (rye,
potatoes, clover, rye, barley and vetch) w ith
no fallow period.
Cereal farming was less intensive as the
7-year rotation system relied increasingly on
anim al grazing (pasture, rye, pasture, barley,
pasture, oats and fallow).

c c h a n g e s in tra n s p o rt co sts

no effect at the market

an increase in
transport costs
a decrease in
transport costs
/

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80

distance from market (km)

Figure 16.19

Some causes of variation

in locational rent

Farming and food supply 473

 a th e 's im p le ' b th e m o d e l w ith tw j
m odel m o d ific a tio n s
| forestry (w ood)
Figure 16.20 5 Extensive farming based on a 3-field crop
The von Thiinen land rotation (rye, pasture and fallow). Products
use model were less bulky and perishable to transport
and could bear the high transport costs.
6 Ranching w ith some rye for on-farm con­
sumption. This zone extended to the margins
of cultivation, beyond w hich was wasteland.
Modifications to the model
Later, von Thiinen added two modifications in
an attempt to make the model more realistic
(Figure 16.20b). This im mediately distorted the
land use pattern and made it more complex.
The inclusion of a navigable river allowed an
alternative, cheaper and faster form of transport
than his original horse and cart. The result was
a linear, rather than a circular, pattern and an
extension of the margin of cultivation. The
addition of a secondary urban market involved
the creation of a small trading area w h ich would
compete, in a m inor way, w ith the m ain city.
Later still, von Thiinen relaxed other assump­
tions. He accepted that climate and soils affected
production costs and yields (though he never
moved from his concept of the featureless plain)
and that, as farmers do not always make rational
decisions, it was necessary to introduce in di­
vidual behavioural elements.
Why is it difficult to apply von Thiinen's
ideas to the modern world?
Models, in order to represent the totality of
reality, rely upon the sim plifying of assumptions
(Framework 12, page 352). These simplifications
can, in turn, be subject to criticisms w h ich in
the case of von Thiinen's model can be grouped
under four headings;
474 Farming and food supply
free cash cropping
(horticulture and
dairying)
6-year rotation
(intensive arable
rotation) Num bers 3-5 are crop rotation
systems with rye the important
7-year rotation (arable >- market product; intensity of rye
w ith fallow and pasture) cultivation and yields of rye
both decreased w ith distance
from th e m arket
3-field system
(arable rotation)
stock farm ing
(ranching and 250 km
grazing)
a O versim plification There are very few places
w ith flat, featureless plains, and where such
landscapes do occur they are likely to contain
several markets rather than one. As large areas
w ith homogeneous climate and soils rarely
exist, certain locations w ill be more favour­
able than others. Similarly, the 'isolated state'
is rarely found in the m odern world - Albania
may be nearest to this situation - and there is
much com petition for markets both w ith in anc
between countries. Von Thiinen accepted that
w hile his model simplified real-world situatior
the addition of two variables im mediately mace
it more complex (Figure 16.20b).
b Outdatedness As the model was produced
170 years ago, critics claim it is out-dated and
of limited value in modern farming economics.
Certainly since 1826 there have been signifi­
cant advances in technology, changing uses of
resources, pressures created by population grow tl
and the emergence of different economic poli­
cies. The invention of motorised vehicles, train?
and aeroplanes has revolutionised transport,
often increasing accessibility in one particular
direction and making the movement of goods
quicker and relatively cheaper. M ilk tankers anc
refrigerated lorries allow perishable goods to be
produced further from the market (London uses
fresh milk from Devon) and stored for longer : *
E U ’s food mountains). The use of wood as a fuel ■
developed countries has been replaced by gas m i
electricity and so trees need not be grown so near
to the market, while supplies of timber in devel­
oping countries are being rapidly consumed ar i
not always replaced. Improved farming techn: jod
using fertilisers and irrigation have improved
yields and extended the margins of cultivaticr
 Figure 16.21

Land use and labour requirements around

Land use Days of work/ a hilltop village in southern Europe
ha/yr

arable (som e irrigation)

□ 88
d Failure to include behavioural factors
Von Thiinen has been criticised for assuming
w ith trees [1 3 50
that farmers are 'rational economic men'.
olives
□ 44 Farmers do not possess full knowledge, m ay not
unirrigated arable:
m ainly w h eat and barley □ 35
always make rational or consistent decisions,
may prefer to enjoy increased leisure time rather
□ 15 than seeking to maximise profits and may be

□ 14
reluctant to adopt new methods. Farmers, as
hum an beings, m ay have different levels of
y
u ability, ambition, capital and experience and
u
n
ii none can predict changes in the weather,
ii
V\\ government policies or demand for their product.

How relevant is von Thiinen's theory to

the modem world?
It is pointed out on pages 411 and 557 that
although theories are difficult to observe in the
real world, they are useful because reality can be
measured and compared against them. In the
case of von Thiinen's model:
0-1 1.1-2 2.1-3 3.1-4 4.1-5 5.1-6 6.1-7 7.1-8 a Figure 16.21 takes, at a local level, a rela­
distance from centre o f villag e (km) tively remote, present-day h ill village in the
Mediterranean lands of Europe. M an y villages
Elsewhere, farmland has been taken over by urban in southern Italy, Spain and Greece have
growth or used by competitors who obtain higher hilltop sites (in contrast to von Thiinen's
economic rents. featureless plain) where, usually, transport
ii 22 c Failure to recognise the role of governm ent links are poor, affluence is limited and the
Governments can alter land use by granting/ village provides the m ain - perhaps the only
: ; “ erns in Uruguay
reducing subsidies and imposing/removing - market (Figure 14.7). As the distance from
quotas. The E U (page 493) has recently reduced the village increases, the amount of farmland
m ilk quotas and paid farmers to take land out used, and the yields from it, decrease. Two
■arket gardening
of production (set-aside). Centrally planned critical local factors are the distance w hich
:';h a rd s and vines)
economies, as in the former USSR and in the early farmers are prepared to travel to their fields
: 5 -ying
years of the People's Republic of China (Places 63, and the am ount of time, or intensity of atten­
■:ensive cereals
.-•able)
page 468), directly control the types and amount tion, needed to cultivate each crop,

:-reals with
of production rather than manipulating market b Figure 16.22 shows, at the national level,
estock mechanisms. the spatial pattern of land use in Uruguay.
t te n s iv e sheep The capital city, Montevideo, is located on
: -azing the coast, and Fray Bentos is on the navigable
t ' tensive
cattle Rio Uruguay: a situation similar in some
inching (beef)
respects to von Thiinen's modified model
(Figures 16.20b and 16.35).

Conclusions
• gentina
Von Thiinen's land use model still has some
modern relevance, particularly at the local level,
provided its limitations are understood and
accepted. His concept of locational rent, w hich is
useful in studying urban as well as rural land use
(page 425), is still applicable today, as conceptu­
ally the land use providing the greatest locational
rent w ill be the one farmed. However, cheap and
efficient transport systems, powerful retailers,
variable regulatory and planning frameworks,
and uneven patterns of wealth now severely lim it
the model's application in the modern world.
100 km

Farming and food supply 475

 tem peratu re
precipitation
w ind negative feedback:
Physical inputs altitude equilibrium is m aintained (reinvestm ent
slope and innovation returned to system)
aspect
soils
o utp uts exceed inputs
= profit and wealth

tenure
Cultural

/
inheritance
inputs
farm size decision-making
processes by

(1) individual patterns outputs: ^ incom e from outputs

farm ers of land animals, equals cost of inputs
(2) groups of crops = stability

\
transport farm ers
markets the state
Economic capital
inputs te ch n o lo g y
g o vernm ents
buildings

outp uts less than inputs

= loss and poverty

loss to the
II I I
age
system, along
am bition positive feedback:
Behavioural w ith natural
p erception disequilibrium is increased (stagnation and decline)
elements hazards such as
kn ow led g e
drought, hail
experience
and disease

Figure 16.23

The farming system

The farming system
Farming is another example of a system, and one
w h ich you may have studied already (Framework
3, page 45). The system diagram (Figure 16.23)
shows how physical, cultural, economic and
behavioural factors form the inputs. In areas
where farming is less developed, physical factors
are usually more im portant but as hum an inputs
increase, these physical controls become less sig­
nificant. This system model can be applied to all
types of farming, regardless of scale or location.
It is the variations in inputs that are responsible
for the different types and patterns of farming.
Types of agricultural econom y
The simplest classifications show the contrasts
between different types of farming.
1 Arable, pastoral and mixed farming
Arable farm ing is the growing of crops, usually
on flatter land where soils are of a higher quality.
It was the development of new strains of cereals
w hich led to the first permanent settlements
in the Tigris-Euphrates, N ile and Indus valleys
(Figure 14.1). M uch later, in the mid-19th
century, the building of the railways across the
Prairies, Pampas and parts of Australia led to
a rapid increase in the global area 'under the
plough' (page 485). Today there are few areas
left w ith a potential for arable farming. This fad
coupled w ith the rapid increase in global
population, has led to continued concern over
the world's ability to feed its present and future
inhabitants, a fear first voiced by Malthus
(page 378). Already, there has been a decrease ::
the amount of arable land in some parts of the
world, especially those parts of Africa affected 1
drought and soil erosion (Places 75, page 503 .
Pastoral farm ing is the raising of animals
usually on land w hich is less favourable to aratt
farming (i.e. colder, wetter, steeper and highei
land). However, if the grazed area has too ma:
animals on it, its carrying capacity is exceede;
the quality of the soil and grass is not m a in ta in
and then erosion and desertification may resu
(Case Study 7).

476 Farming and food supply

 M ixed farm ing is the growing of crops and the
rearing of animals together. It is practised on a
commercial scale in developed countries, where
it reduces the financial risks of relying upon a
single crop or anim al (monoculture), and at a
subsistence level in developing countries, where
it reduces the risks of food shortage.
2 Subsistence and commercial farming
Subsistence farm ing is the provision of food
by farmers on ly for their own fam ily or the local
com m unity - there is no surplus (Places 67,
page 481). The m ain priority of subsistence
farmers is self-survival w hich they try to achieve,
whenever possible, by growing/rearing a wide
range of crops/animals. The fact that
subsistence farmers are rarely able to improve
their output is due to a lack of capital, land and
technology, and not to a lack of effort or ability.
They are the most vulnerable to food shortages.
Com m ercial farm ing takes place on a large,
profit-making scale. Commercial farmers, or the
companies for w hom they work, seek to maximise
yields per hectare. This is often achieved -
especially w ith in the tropics - by growing a
single crop or rearing one type of animal
(Places 68, page 483). Cash-cropping operates
successfully where transport is well developed,
domestic markets are large and expanding, and
there are opportunities for international trade
(Places 69 page 484, and 70 page 486).
3 Shifting and sedentary farming
M an y of the earliest farmers moved to new land
every few years, due to a reduction in yields and
also reduced success in hunting and gathering
supplementary foods. Shiftin g cu ltivatio n is
now limited to a few places where there are low
population densities and a limited demand for
food; where soils are poor and become exhausted
16.24
a + b Extensive
iveandintensive
g(after Briggs)
labour
land o utp ut
capital
labour
r
land output
capital
after three or four years of cultivation (Places
66, page 480); or where there is a seasonal move­
ment of animals in search of pasture (Places 65,
page 479). However, farming over most of the
world is now sedentary, i.e. farmers remain in
one place to look after their crops or to rear
their animals.
4 Extensive and intensive cultivation
These terms have already been used in describing
von Thiinen's model (Figure 16.16). Extensive
farm ing is carried out on a large scale, whereas
intensive farm ing is usually relatively small-
scale. Farming is extensive or intensive
depending on the relationship between three
factors of production: labour, capital and land
(Figure 16.24). Extensive farming occurs when:
■ Amounts of labour and capital are small in rela­
tion to the area being farmed. In the Amazon
Basin (Places 66, page 480), for example, the
yields per hectare and the output per farmer
are both low (Figure 16.24a).
■ The amount of labour is still limited but the
input of capital may be high. In the Canadian
Prairies (Places 70, page 486), for example, the
yields per hectare are often low but the output
per farmer is high (Figure 16.24b).
Intensive farming occurs when:
■ The am ount of labour is high, even if the
input of capital is low in relation to the area
farmed. In the Ganges valley (Places 67, page
481), for example, the yields per hectare may
be high although the output per farmer is
often low (Figure 16.24c).
■ The am ount of capital is high, but the
input of labour is low. In the Netherlands
(Places 71, page 487), for example, both the
yields per hectare and the output per farmer
are high (Figure 16.24d).
c + d Intensive
Farming and food supply 477
 Mainly tropical
1 | | nomadic hunters
2| | nomadic herding
extensive subsistence
□ (including shifting
cultivation)
intensive subsistence
agriculture
commercial plantation
□ agriculture
Mainly temperate
livestock ranching
O (commercial pastoral)
cereal cultivation
(commercial grain)
intensive commercial
8
(mixed)
9 i1 Mediterranean
-
IS ili agriculture
10| irrigation
unsuitable for
□ agriculture
Figure 16.25
Location ofthe world's
major farming types
478 Farming and food supply
World distribution of farming
types
There is no widely accepted consensus as to
how the major types of world farming should
be classified or recognised (Framework 7,
page 167). There is disagreement over the basis
used in attempting a classification (intensity,
land use, tropical or temperate, level of hum an
input, the degree of commercialisation); the
actual number and nomenclature of farming
types; and the exact distribution and location
of the major types.
You should be aware that:
1 Boundaries between farming types, as
drawn on a map, are usually very arbitrary.
2 One type of farm ing merges gradually w ith
a neighbouring type; there are few rigid
boundaries.
3 Several types of farming may occur w ith in
each broad area, e.g. in West Africa, sed­
entary cultivators live alongside nom adic
herdsmen.
4 A specialised crop m ay be grown locally, e.g.
a plantation crop in an area otherwise used
by subsistence farmers.
5 Types of farming alter over time w ith
changes in economies, rainfall, soil charac­
teristics, behavioural patterns and politics.
Figure 16.25 suggests one classification and
shows the generalised location and distribu­
tion of farming types based upon the four
variables described in the previous section. O n
a continental scale, this map demonstrates a
close relationship between farm ing types and
the physical environm ent/pattern of biomes
(page 306). It disguises, however, the im por­
tant hum an-econom ic factors that operate al
a more local level.
The following section describes the main
characteristics of each of these categories
of farming together w ith the conditions
favouring their development. A specific
example is used in each case (which should
be supplemented by wider reading) together
w ith an account of recent changes or problem
w ith in that agricultural economy.
1 Hunters and gatherers
Some classifications ignore this group on the
grounds that it is considered to be a relict wav
of life, w ith the original lifestyle now largely, a ri
totally, destroyed by contact w ith the outside
world. Others feel that even if it did exist the:
it does not constitute a 'true' farming type, a
no crops or domesticated animals are invo/ -
It is included here as, before the advent of se
entary farming, all early societies had to rely
upon hunting birds and animals, catching f.s i® ,
and collecting berries, nuts and fruit in order
to survive ... w hich is surely w h y we rely upc»
farming today. There are now very few hun:^
gatherer societies remaining - the Bushman
of the Kalahari, the Pygmies of central Africa
several Am erindian tribes in the Brazilian
rainforest, and the Australian Aborigines. AD
have a varied diet resulting from their in t iir jt
knowledge of the environm ent, but each gr:
need an extensive area from w hich to obtain
their basic needs.
2 Nomadic herding
In areas where the climate is too extreme to
support permanent settled agriculture, farmers
become nom adic pastoralists. They live in
inhospitable environments where vegetation is
sparse and the climate is arid or cold. The m ove­
ment of most present-day nomads is determined
by the seasonal nature of rainfall and the need to
find new sources of grass for their animals, e.£
the Bedouin and Tuareg in the Sahara and the
Rendille and Maasai in Kenya (Places 65 and Case
Study 12A). The indigenous Sami of northern
Scandinavia have to move w hen their pastures
become snow-covered in winter, while the Fulani
in West Africa m ay migrate to avoid the tsetse fly.
There are two forms of nomadism. Total
nom adism is where the nomad has no permanent
N orthern Kenya: nom adic herders
Rainfall is too low and unreliable in northern Kenya
to support settled agriculture (Places 61, page 465).
Over the years, the Rendille have learned how to
survive in an extreme environment (Figure 16.26).
All they need are their animals (camels, goats and a
few cattle): all their animals need is water and grass.
The tribe are constantly on the lookout for rain,
which usually comes in the form of heavy, localised
downpours. Once the rain has been observed or
reported, the tribe pack their limited possessions
onto camels (a job organised by the women) and
head off, perhaps on a journey of several days,
to an area of new grass growth. In the past, this
movement prevented overgrazing, as grazed
areas were given time to recover. Camels, and to a
T n —. - • .i?
home, while semi-nomads m ay live seasonally
in a village. There is no ownership of land and
the nomads m ay travel extensive distances,
even across national frontiers, in search of
fresh pasture. There m ay be no clear migratory
pattern, but migration routes increase in size
under adverse conditions, e.g. during droughts
in the Sahel. The animals are the source of life.
Depending upon the area, they m ay provide
milk, meat and blood as food for the tribe; wool
and skins for fam ily shelter and clothing; dung
for fuel; mounts and pack animals for transport;
and products for barter. Just as sedentary farmers
w ill not sell their land unless they are in dire eco­
nom ic difficulty, similarly pastoralists w ill not
part w ith their animals, retaining them to regen­
erate the herd w hen conditions improve.
much lesser extent goats, can survive long periods
without water by storing it within their bodies or
by absorbing it from edible plants - food supply is
as important as water. Flumans, who can go longer
than animals without food but much less long
without water, rely upon the camels for milk and
blood, and the goats for milk and occasional meat.
Indeed, the main diet of blood and milk avoids the
necessity of cooking and the need to find firewood.
But the Rendille way of life is changing. Land
is becoming overpopulated and resources
overstretched as the numbers of people and
animals increase and as water supplies and
vegetation become scarcer. Consequently, as the
droughts of recent years continue, pastoralists are
forced to move to small towns, such as Korr. Flere
there is a school, health centre, better housing,
jobs, a food supply and a permanent supply of
water from a deep well (Figure 16.26).The deep
well waters hundreds of animals, many of which are
brought considerable distances each day. Flowever,
the increase in animal numbers has resulted in
overgrazing, and the increase in townspeople has
led to the clearance of all nearby trees for firewood.
This has resulted in an increase in soil erosion,
creating a desert area extending 150 km around
the town (desertification, Case Study 7). Although
attempts are being made to dig more wells to
disperse the population, travelling shops now take
provisions to the pastoralists, and the tribespeople
have been shown how to sell their animals at fairer
prices, many Rendille are still moving to Korr to live.
There the children, having been educated, remain,
looking for jobs, with the result that there are fewer
pastoralists left to herd the animals.
Farming and food supply 479
 3 Shifting cultivation (extensive
subsistence agriculture)
Subsistence farming was the traditional type of
agriculture in most tropical countries before the
arrival of Europeans, and remains so in m any of
the less economically developed countries and in
more isolated regions. The inputs to this system
are extremely limited. Relatively few labourers are
needed (although they m ay have to work inten­
sively), technology is lim ited (possibly to axes),
and capital is not involved. Over a period of
years, extensive areas of land may be used as the
tribes have to move on to new sites. Outputs are
also very low with, often, only sufficient being
A m azo n Basin: shifting cultivation
With the help of stone axes and machetes, the
Amerindians clear a small area of about 1 ha in
the forest (Figures 16.27 and 16.28). Sometimes
the largest trees are left standing to protect
young crops from the sun's heat and the heavy
rain; so also are those which provide food, such as
the banana and kola nut. After being allowed to
dry, the felled trees and undergrowth are burnt
- hence the alternative name of'slash and burn'
cultivation. While burning has the advantage of
removing weeds and providing ash for use as a
fertiliser, it has the disadvantage of destroying
useful organic material and bacteria.The main
crop, manioc, is planted along with yams (which
need a richer soil), pumpkins, beans, tobacco and
Figure 16.27
'Slash and burn':
a shifting culti­
vator clearing
the rainforest
Figure 16.28
Crops gown in
chagras (fields)
around the
maloca (com­
munal house)
grown for the immediate needs of the family,
tribe or local community.
The most extensive form of subsistence
farming is shifting cultivation w hich is still
practised in the tropical rainforests (the m ilpa
of Latin America and la d an g of South-east Asia)
and, occasionally, in the wooded savannas (the
ch itim en e of central Africa). The areas covered are
becoming smaller, due to forest clearances, and
are m ainly limited to less accessible places w ithin
the Amazon Basin (Places 66), Central America.
Congo and parts of Indonesia. Shifting cultiva­
tion, where it still exists, is the most energy-
efficient of all farming systems as well as oper­
ating in close harm ony w ith its environment.
coca.The Amerindian diet is supplemented by
hunting, mainly fortapirs and monkeys, fishing and
collecting fruit.
The productivity ofthe rainforest depends on
the rapid and unbroken recycling of nutrients
(Figure 12.7). Once the forest has been cleared, this
cycle is broken (Figure 12.8).The heavy, afternoon,
convectional rainstorms hit the unprotected
earth causing erosion and leaching. With the
source of humus removed, the loss of nutrients
within the harvested crop, and in the absence of
fertiliser and animal manure, the soil rapidly loses
its fertility. Within four or five years, the decline in
crop yields and the re-infestation ofthe area by
weeds force the tribe to shift to another part of
the forest. Although shifting cultivation appears
to be a wasteful use of land, it has no long-term
adverse effect upon the environment as, in most
places, nutrients and organic matter can build up
sufficiently to allow the land to be re-used, often
within 25 years.
The traditional Amerindian way of life is being
threatened by the destruction ofthe rainforest.
As land is being cleared for highways, cattle
ranches, commercial timber, hydro-electric
schemes, reservoirs and mineral exploitation, the
Amerindians are pushed further into the forest or
forced to live on reservations. Recent governmen:
policy of encouraging the in-migration of landless
farmers from other parts ofthe country, together
with the development of extensive commercial
cattle ranching, has meant that sedentary farming
is rapidly replacing shifting cultivation. After just
a few years, as should have been foreseen, large
tracts of some cattle ranches and many individua
farms have already been abandoned as their soils
have become infertile and eroded.
 4 Intensive subsistence farming
This involves the m axim um use of the land with
neither fallow nor any wasted space. Yields,
especially in South-east Asia, are high enough
to support a high population density - up to
2000 per km2 in parts of Java and Bangladesh.
The highest-yielding crop is rice w hich is grown
chiefly on river floodplains (the Ganges and
Figure 16.30) and in river deltas (the Mekong and
: gure 16.29
Irrawaddy). In both cases, the peak river flow,
w hich follows the monsoon rains, is trapped
behind bunds, or walls (Places 67). W here flat
land is limited, rice is grown on terraces cut
into steep hillsides, especially those where soils
have formed from weathered volcanic rock as
in Indonesia and the Philippines (Figure 16.29).
Upland rice, or dry padi, is easier to grow but, as
it gives lower yields, it can support fewer people.
Rice requires a growing season of on ly 100 days,
w h ich means that the constant high tempera­
tures of South-east Asia enable two, and some­
times even three, croppings a year (Figure 16.10).
The high population density, rapid popula­
tion growth and large fam ily size in m any South­
east Asian countries mean that, despite the high
yields, there is little surplus rice for sale. The farms,
due to population pressure and inheritance laws
(page 467), are often as small as 1 hectare. M an y
farmers are tenants and have to pay a proportion
of their crops to a landlord. Labour is intensive
and it has been estimated that it takes 2000
hours per year to farm each 1 hectare plot. Most
tasks, due to a lack of capital, have to be done
by hand or w ith the help of water buffalo. The
buffalo are often overworked and their manure
is frequently used as a fuel rather than being
returned to the land as fertiliser. Poor transport
systems hinder the marketing of any surplus
crops after a good harvest and can delay food
relief during the times of food shortage w hich
m ay result from the extremes of the monsoon
climate: drought and flood.

i :e cultivation on T h e Ganges valley: intensive subsistence agriculture

traced hillsides, Bali
Rice, with its high nutritional value, can form up
to 90 percent of the total diet in some parts ofthe Figure 16.30

flat Ganges valley in northern India and western Rice harvesting on the flood
Bangladesh. Padi, or wet rice, needs a rich soil and plain ofthe River Ganges

is grown in silt which is deposited annually by

the river during the time ofthe monsoon floods.
The monsoon climate (page 239) has an all-year
growing season but, although 'winters'are warm
enough for an extra crop of rice to be grown, water
supply is often a problem. During the rainy season
from July to October, the kharif crops of rice, millet
and maize are grown. Rice is planted as soon as the
monsoon rains have flooded the padi fields and is
harvested in October when the rains have stopped
and the land has dried out. During the dry season
from November to April, the rabi crops of wheat,
barley and peas are grown and harvested. Where
water is available for longer periods, a second rice
crop may be grown.

Farming and food supply 481

 Rice growing is labour intensive with much
manual effort needed to construct the bunds
(embankments); to build irrigation channels; to
prepare the fields; and to plant, weed and harvest
the crop (Figure 16.30).The bunds between the
fields are stabilised by tree crops. The tall coconut
palm is not only a source of food, drink and sugar,
but also acts as a cover crop protecting the smaller
banana and other trees which have been planted
on the bunds. The flooded padi fields may be
stocked with fish which add protein to the human
diet and fertiliser to the soil.
5 Tropical commercial (plantation)
agriculture
Plantations were developed in tropical areas,
usually where rainfall was sufficient for trees
to be the natural vegetation, by European and
Figure 16.31 North American merchants in the 18th and 19th
A rubber plantation centuries. Large areas of forest were cleared and
in Malaysia a single bush or tree crop was planted in rows
Figure 16.32
Advantages
The advantages and Higher standards of living forthe local workforce
disadvantages of
plantation agriculture Capital for machines, fertiliser and transport provided initially by
colonial power, now the transnational corporations
Use of fertilisers and pesticides improves output
Increases local employment
Housing, schools, health service and transport provided, also often
electricity and a water supply
482 Farming and food supply
In 1964, many Indian farmers and their families were
short of food, lacked a balanced diet and had an
extremely low standard of living. The government,
with limited resources, made a conscious decision
to try to improve farm technology and crop yields
by implementing Western-type farming techniques
and introducing new hybrid varieties of rice and
wheat - the so-called Green Revolution (page 504).
Although yields have increased and food shortages
have been lessened, the'Green Revolution'is not
considered to be, in this part ofthe world, a social,
environmental or political success (Figure 16.63).
(Figure 16.31 and 16.32) - hence the term m ono
culture (page 280). This so-called c a s h c r o p was
grown for export and was not used or consumed
locally (Places 68).
Plantations needed a high capital input to
clear, drain and irrigate the land; to build estate
roads, schools, hospitals and houses; and to
bridge the several years before the crop could
be harvested. Although plantations were often
located in areas of low population density, they
needed much manual labour. The owners and
managers were invariably white. Black and Asian
workers, obtained locally or brought in as slaves
or indentured labour from other countries, were
engaged as they were prepared, or forced, to work
for m inim um wages. They were also capable
of working in the hot, hum id climate. Today,
m any plantations, producing most of the world's
rubber, coffee, tea, cocoa, palm oil, bananas,
sugar cane and tobacco, are owned and operated
by large transnational companies (Figure 16.32 (.
Plantations, large estates and even small
farmers are being increasingly drawn into
making commercial contracts to supply fruit
and vegetables to consumers in the developed
world. Although such contracts m ay help some I
developing countries to provide jobs and to pav
off their international debts, it also means they I
have to im port greater volumes of staple foods
to make up for the land switched from staples to l
export crops (page 501).
Disadvantages
Exploitation of local workforce, minimal wages
Cash crops grown instead of food crops: local population have to
import foodstuffs
Most produce is sent overseas to the parent country
Most profit returns to Europe and North America
Dangers of relying on monoculture: fluctuations in world prices
and demand
Overuse of land has led, in places, to soil exhaustion and erosion
 Malaysia: tro p ical co m m e rcia l (p lan tatio n) agricu ltu re
A plantation is defined in Malaysia as an estate
exceeding 40 ha in size. Many extend over several
thousand hectares.The first plantations were of
coffee, but these were replaced at the end of the
19th century by rubber. Rubber is indigenous to
the Amazon Basin, but some seeds were smuggled
out of Brazil in 1877, brought to Kew Gardens in
London to germinate and then sent out to what
is now Malaysia.The trees thrive in a hot, wet
climate, growing best on the gentle lower slopes
ofthe mountains forming the spine ofthe Malay
peninsula. Rubber tends not to be grown on the
coasts where the land is swampy, but near to the
relatively few railway lines and the main ports. The
'cheap' labour needed to clear the forest, work in
the nurseries, plant new trees and tap the mature
trees was provided by the poorer Malays and
immigrants from India (Figure 16.31). 2006, which was high enough even for trees felled
by storms to be tapped. Flowever, the high price is
The Malaysian government has now taken over
predicted to be a short-term trend.
all the large estates, formerly run by such trans­
nationals as Dunlop and Guthries, having seen The Malaysian plantation industry is now heavily
them as a relict of colonialism. In the early 1970s, dependent on just one crop, oil palm (Figure 16.33).
the Federal Land Development Authority (FELDA) Oil palm, which covers over 80 per cent ofthe
was set up. Initially its job was to clear areas of country's plantations, has many advantages over
forest, divide the land into 5 ha plots and to plant rubber including higher yields, higher prices, lower
young rubber trees. After four years, smallholders production costs and a less intensive use of labour
were put in charge ofthe trees but FELDA still (Figure 16.34). It is also more versatile because,
provided fertiliser and pesticide and, later, bought apart from providing an edible oil and being used
and marketed the crop. in a wide range of foodstuffs, it is also used in the
oleochemical industry in the manufacture of soap,
The world demand for rubber steadily declined
cosmetics and paint. Since 2000, further large areas
after the 1950s, mainly due to competition from
have been converted into oil palm plantations
synthetic rubber - apart from the years immediately
where the crop is grown as a source of biofuel,
after the first AIDS scare (page 622) which saw an
mainly in the EU (page 543). Palm oil currently
increased demand for contraceptives. By 2000, the
accounts for 6 per cent of Malaysia's GDP.
income of one-quarter of smallholders was said to
be below the poverty line. Official figures suggested Although oil palm fruits have still to be harvested
that half the country's smallholders, each with an manually (the fronds get in the way of machines)
average of four dependants, were totally reliant and the fruits have to be harvested within a short
on rubber which, by 2001, hit a low price of RM1 period of time (otherwise the oil is lost), the
per kg (RM = Malaysian ringgit, the local currency). spraying of herbicides, the application of fertiliser
Since then it has risen sharply, reaching over RM7 in and transportation have all been mechanised.

(15 823 in 2007)

Figure 16.34 Rubber Oil palm

oil paim
The changing 1950 (thousand tonnes) 722 49
— rubber
importance of
rubber and oil 1995 (thousand tonnes) 1089 7810
palm 2007 (thousand tonnes) 1200 15823 4000-

Tonnes per ha 2 24-26

Years for trees to mature 6-7 4-5

Labour intensive Higher Lower

Price 1990s very low; Higher, rising 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2007
since 2003 rising

Farming and food supply 483

 6 Extensive commercial pastoralism upland Britain) and commercial cattle ranching
(livestock ranching) (Places 69), m ainly for beef (in the Pampas,
American Midwest, northern Australia and, mort
Livestock ranching returns the lowest net profit
recently, Amazonia and Central America). It cor­
per hectare of any commercial type of farming.
responds, therefore, to the outer land use zone of
It is practised in more remote areas where other
von Thiinen's model (Figure 16.20) and does not
forms of land use are lim ited and where there are
include commercial dairying which, being more
extensive areas of cheaper land w ith sufficient
intensive, is found nearer to the urban market
grass to support large numbers of animals. It is
(Places 71, page 487).
found m ainly in areas w ith a low population
The raising of beef cattle is causing consider­
density and aims to give the m axim um output
able environmental concern. It is a cause of
from m inim um inputs - i.e. there is a relatively
deforestation (uses 40 per cent of the cleared
small capital investment in comparison w ith the
forest in Amazonia), desertification and soil
size of the farm or ranch, but output per farm­
erosion (overgrazing) and global warming (release
worker is high. This type of farming includes
of methane). It also takes more water and feed to
commercial sheep farming (in central Australia,
produce 1 kg of beef than the equivalent amour.:
Canterbury Plains in N ew Zealand, Patagonia,
of any other food or animal product.

T h e Pam pas, South A m erica: extensive com m ercial

pastoralism
The Pampas covers Uruguay and northern cross the plain (Figure 16.35).The grasses help to
Argentina.The area receives 500-1200 mm of maintain fertility by providing humus when they
rainfall a year - enough to support a temperate die back (Figure 11.29b).
grassland vegetation. During the warmer summer
Many ranches, or estancias, exceed 100 km2and
months the water supply has to be supplemented
keep over 20 000 head of cattle. Most are owned
Figure 16.35 from underground sources, while in the cooler, drier
by businessmen or large companies based in the
winter much ofthe grass dies down. Temperatures
Land use on the larger cities, and are run by a manager with the
South American
are never too high to dry up the grass in summer,
help of cowboys or gauchos. Several economic
Pampas, an area with nor low enough to prevent its growth in winter.The
improvements have been added to the natural
azonationsimilarto relief is flat and soils are often of deep, rich alluvium,
physical advantages. Alfalfa, a leguminous,
that suggested by deposited by rivers such as the Parana which
vonThiinen moisture-retaining crop, is grown to feed the

484 Farming and food supply

 cattle when the natural grasses die down in winter.
Barbed wire, for field boundaries, was essential
where rainfall was insufficient for the growth of
hedges. Pedigree bulls were brought from Europe
to improve the local breeds and later British
Hereford cattle were crossed with Asian Brahmin
bulls to give a beef cow capable of living in warm
and drier conditions. Initially, due to distances
from world markets, cattle were reared for their
7 Extensive commercial grain farming
As shown on the map of the Pampas
(Figure 16.35) and in the von Thiinen model
(Figure 16.20), cereals utilise the land use zone
closer to the urban market than commercial
ranching. Grain is grown com mercially on
the American Prairies (Places 70), the Russian
Steppes (Figure 16.6) and parts of Australia,
Argentina and north-west Europe (Figure 16.25).
In most of these areas, productivity per hectare is
low but per farmworker it is high.
It was the introduction and cultivation of new
strains of cereals that led to the first permanent
:igure 16.36
Changes in the
world's arable areas,
1870-2005
hides. It was only after the construction of a railway
network, linking places on the Pampas to the
stockyards (frigorificos) at the chief ports of Rosario,
Buenos Aires, La Plata and Montevideo on the Rio
de la Plata (Figure 16.35), that canned products
such as corned beef became important. Later still,
the introduction of refrigerated wagons and ships
meant that frozen beef could be exported to the
more industrialised countries.
settlements (Figure 14.1) and, later, it was a reli­
ance upon these cereals to provide a staple diet
which allowed steady population growth in
Europe, Russia and South-east Asia (Figure 16.36).
A demand for increased cereal production came, in
the mid-19th century, from those countries expe­
riencing rapid industrialisation and urban growth.
This demand was met following the building of
railways in Argentina, Australia and across North
America (Figure 16.36). More recent demands
have, so far, been met by the Green Revolution in
South-east Asia (page 504) and increases in irriga­
tion and mechanisation.
Indian subcontinent: grow th d ue to
Green Revolution; no w stable
Russia: more m echanised, cultivating new
lands, irrigation, 5-year plans; recently land
taken out of production
North Am erica: overproduction, bad
harvests ab o ut 1960
China: increase in late 1950s due to
expansion o f co m m u nes and since 1990s
due to a rise in standard o f living
Europe: m ost land used in 19th century,
n o w a d eclin e due to urbanisation and EU
policies
Argentina and Uruguay: rapid increase
d ue to railways; decline d ue to increasing
costs of transport to overseas markets;
recent d em and from China
Australia: rapid increase d ue to railways,
grow ing population (recently), irrigation
and w o rld d em and
Japan: o nly a lim ited am o u n t o f land
available (com petition from housing and
industry); rice provides a higher yield
Farming and food supply 485
 T h e Canadian Prairies: extensive com m ercial
j§ K f arable farm ing
The Prairies have already been referred to in the
optima and limits model (Figure 16.3). Although this
area has many favourable physical characteristics,
it also has disadvantages (Case Study 12B). Wheat,
the major crop, ripens well during the long, sunny,
summer days, while the winter frosts help to break
up the soil. However, the growing season is short and
in the north falls below the minimum requirement
of 90 days. Precipitation is low, about 500 mm,
but though most of this falls during the growing
season there is a danger of hail ruining the crop, and
droughts occur periodically.The winter snows may
Figure 16.37
Extensive
commercial
cereal
farming on
the Canadian
Prairies
When European settlers first arrived, they drove
out the local Indians, who had survived by hunting
bison, and introduced cattle.The world price for
cereals increased in the 1860s and demand from
the industrialised countries in Western Europe rose.
The trans-American railways were built in response
to the increased demand (and profits to be made)
and vast areas of land were ploughed up and given
over to wheat. The flat terrain enabled straight,
fast lines of communication to be built (essential
as most ofthe crop had to be exported) and the
land was divided into sections measuring 1 square
mile (1.6 km2). In the wetter east, each farm was
allocated a quarter or a half section; while in the
drier west, farmers received at least one full section.
486 Farming and food supply
come as blizzards but they do insulate the ground
from severe cold and provide moisture on melting in
spring.The chinookwind (page 241) melts the snow
in spring and helps to extend the growing season,
but tornadoes in summer can damage the crop. The
relief is gently undulating, which aids machinery and
transport.The grassland vegetation has decayed
over the centuries to give a black (chernozem -
page 327) or very dark brown (prairie) soil (page 328).
However, if the natural vegetation is totally removed,
the soil becomes vulnerable to erosion by wind and
convectional rainstorms.
The input of capital has always been high in
the Prairies as farming is highly mechanised
(Figure 16.37). Mechanisation has reduced the neec
for labour although a migrant force, with combine
harvesters, now travels northwards in late summer
as the cereals ripen. Seed varieties have been
improved, and have been made disease-resistant
drought-resistant and faster-growing. Fertilisers
and pesticides are used to increase yields and the
harvested wheat is stored in huge elevators while
awaiting transport via the adjacent railway.
In the last three decades, spring wheat has become
less of a dominant crop and the area on which it is
grown has decreased considerably, with many farms
diversifying into canola (second biggest crop), barley
sugar beet, dairy produce and beef (Case Study 12B
8 Intensive co m m ercial (mixed)
agriculture
This corresponds w ith von Thiinen's inner zone
where dairying, market gardening (horticulture)
and fruit all compete for land closest to the
market. All three have high transport costs, are
perishable, bulky, and are in daily demand by
the urban population. Similarly, all three require
frequent attention, particularly dairy cows which
need m ilking twice daily, and market gardening.
Although this type of land use is most common
in the eastern U SA and north-west Europe
(Places 71), it can also be found around every
large city in the world. Intensive commercial
farming needs considerable amounts of capital
to invest in high technology, and numerous
workers: it is labour intensive. The average farm
size used to be under 10 ha but recently this has
been found to be uneconom ic and amalgama­
tions have been encouraged by the American
government and the E U in order to maximise
profits. This type of farming gives the highest
output per hectare and the highest productivity
per farmworker.
Food surpluses
As farming in the more developed countries of
North America and the EU continued to become
more efficient, output increased. Farmers were
paid subsidies, or a guaranteed m inim um price,
for their produce. The result was the overproduc­
tion of certain commodities for the American
and European markets. Although food surpluses
T h e western Netherlands: intensive com m ercial farm ing
Most ofthe western Netherlands, stretching from
Rotterdam to beyond Amsterdam, lies 2-6 m below
sea-level. Reclaimed several centuries ago from the
sea, peat lakes or areas regularly flooded by rivers,
this land is referred to as the o ld p o ld e r s .Today,
they form a flat area drained by canals which run
above the general level ofthe land. Excess water
from the fields is pumped (originally by windmills)
by diesel and electric pumps into the canals. With
469 persons per km2 in 1998 (compared with only
360 in 1975), the Netherlands has the highest
population density in Europe. Consequently, with
farmland at a premium, the cost of reclamation so
high and the proximity of a large domestic urban
market, intensive demands are made on the use of
the land (Figure 16.38).
There are three major types of farming on the
old polders.
are needed for trade to take place, the issue is the
unit cost at which the surpuses are produced. The
problem arises when surpluses are produced at
costs and subsidised prices that are above world
market prices. This means that the commodities
can only be sold on at a further subsidised price
w hich then either distorts world markets or makes
them inaccessible to developing countries. During
the 1980s and 1990s, the EU introduced a variety
of measures to try to lim it the production of
surplus products. These included fixed quotas on
m ilk production, w ith penalties for overshoots;
limits on the area of crops or number of animals
for which the farmer could claim subsidies; and -
voluntary at first but later compulsory - set-aside,
w hich obliged farmers to leave a proportion of
their land uncultivated (page 493). Since 2000,
the E U has also encouraged farmers to restructure
their farms, to diversify and to improve their
product marketing. Farmers are, therefore, no
longer paid just to produce food. Today's CAP
is demand driven and takes into account con­
sumers' and taxpayers' concerns while still giving
farmers the freedom to produce wbat the market
needs but not to receive subsidies on products
that are overproduced. In addition, farmers have
to respect environmental (page 496), food safety
and animal welfare standards. These initiatives
have meant that over time the EU has managed to
reduce its use of export subsidies while managing
to maintain, and in some cases even increase, its
agricultural exports. Even so the EU remains a net
importer of farm products.
Dairying is most intensive to the north of
Amsterdam, in the'Green Heart'and in the
south-west of Friesland. It is favoured by mild
winters, which allow grass to grow for most of
the year; the evenly distributed rainfall, which
provides lush grass; the flat land; and the
proximity ofthe Randstad conurbation. Most
ofthe cattle are Friesians. Some ofthe milk
is used fresh but most is turned into cheeses
(the well-known Gouda and Edam) and butter.
Most farms have installed computer systems to
control animal feeding.
The land between The Hague and Rotterdam
(Figure 16.38) is a mass of glasshouses where
h o r t ic u lt u r e is practised on individual holdings
averaging only 1 ha. The cost of production is
exceptionally high. Oil and natural gas-fired
central heating maintain high temperatures and
Farming and food supply 487
 sprinklers provide water. Heating, moisture and
ventilation are all controlled by computerised
systems. Machinery is used for weeding and
removing dead flowers, and the soils are heavily
fertilised and manured. Sometimes plants are
grown through a black plastic mulch (heat-
absorbing) which has the effect of advancing
Figure 16.38
their growth and thus extending the cropping
Agricultural land
season to meet market demand for fresh
use in the western
Netherlands produce. Several crops a year can be grown
Figure 16.39
9 Mediterranean agriculture
A distinctive type of farming has developed
in areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea.
W inters are m ild and wet, allowing the growth of
cereals and the production of early spring vegeta­
bles o rprim eu rs. Summers are hot, enabling fruit
to ripen, but tend to be too dry for the growth of
cereals and grass. As rainfall amounts decrease
and the length of the dry season increases from
west to east and from north to south, irrigation
becomes more important. River valleys and
their deltas (the Po, Rhone and Guadalquivir)
provide rich alluvium, but m any parts of the
Mediterranean are m ountainous w ith steep
slopes and thin rendzina soils (page 274). Due to
earlier deforestation, m any of these slopes have
suffered from soil erosion. Frosts are rare at lower
levels, though the cold mistral and bora winds
may damage crops (Figure 12.22).
Farming tends to be labour intensive but
w ith lim ited capital. There are still m any
absentee landlords (latifundia, page 466) and
outputs per hectare and per farmworker are
usually low. Most farms tend to be small in size.
488 Farming and food supply
in the glasshouses, i.e. cut flowers in spring,
tomatoes and cucumbers in summer, and
lettuce in autumn and winter.
The sandier soils between Leiden and Haarlem
are used to grow bulbs.Tulips, hyacinths and
daffodils, protected from the prevailing winds
by the coastal sand dunes, are grown on farms
averaging 8 ha (Figure 16.39). The flowers form
a tourist attraction, especially in spring, and
bulbs are exported all over Europe from nearby
Schipol Airport.
Land use (Figure 16.21) shows the importance
of tree crops such as olives, citrus and nuts,
w hile land use frequently illustrates that crops
w h ich need most attention are grown nearest
to the farmhouse or village, and that land use is
more closely linked to the physical environmen
than controlled by hum an inputs (Places 72).
M a n y village gardens and surrounding fields are
devoted to citrus fruits, such as oranges, lemons
and grapefruit, as these have thick waxy skins
to protect the seeds and to reduce moisture loss
These fruits are also grown com mercially where
water supply is more reliable, e.g. oranges in
Spain around Seville and on huertas (irrigated
farms) near Valencia, lemons in Sicily and grape
fruit in Israel. Recently there has been a rapid
increase in the use of polythene, especially in
south-east Spain, where the area around Almeri;
has become known as the 'Costa del Polythene
and in Israel. The polythene, w h ich is stretche;
across 3 m high poles, creates a hothouse envi­
ronment suitable for the growth of tomatoes an
other crops such as melons, green beans, peppe:
and courgettes. The crops are harvested twice
yearly, usually when they are out of season in
more northerly parts of Europe.
 Vines, another labour-intensive crop, and
olives, the 'yardstick' of the Mediterranean
climate, are both adapted to the physical condi­
tions. They tolerate thin, poor, dry soils and hot,
dry summers by having long roots and protective
bark. W heat may be grown in the wetter winter
period in fields further from the village as it needs
less attention, while sheep and goats are reared on
the scrub and poorer-quality grass of the steeper
hillsides. Grass becomes too dry in summer to
support cattle and so m ilk and beef are scarce in
the local diet.
Apart from central Chile, other areas experi­
encing a Mediterranean climate have developed a
more commercialised type of farming based upon
irrigation and mechanisation. Central California
supports agribusiness based on a large, affluent,
domestic market w hich is, in terms of scale,
organisation and productivity, the ultimate in
the capitalist system. Southern Australia produces
dried fruit to overcome the problem of distance
from world markets. All Mediterranean areas
have now become important wine producers.

T h e Peloponnese, G reece: M editerranean farm ing

: igure 16.40
jn d use and farming
rypes in the Pelopon-
'ese (not to scale)
Figure 16.40 is a transect, typical ofthe
Peloponnese and many other Mediterranean
areas, showing how relief, soils and climate affect
land use and farming types.The area next to the
coast, unless taken over by tourism, is farmed
intensively and commercially (Figure 16.41). As
distance from the coast increases, farming becomes
more extensive and eventually, before the limit of
cultivation, at a subsistence level (Figure 16.42).

A Intensive commercial B Extensive commercial C Extensive, subsistence D Virtually no farming/some

farm ing farm ing farm ing rough grazing

Coastal plain: flat w ith deep,
often alluvial, soil (w ashed d ow n
from hills by seasonal rivers)
Hot, d ry summers; mild, w e t
winters w ith no frost
Som e m echanisation; irrigation
needed in sum m er
Citrus fruits (oranges,
clem entines and m andarins);
peaches and som e figs
Undulating land with small hills:
soils quite d eep and relatively
fertile (terra rossa)
Larger farm s (villages on hills
originally for defence, no w
ab o ve best farm land)
Sim ilar clim ate, w ith a slight risk
o f frost in w in ter
Som e m echanisation, but
donkeys still used
Steeper hillsides covered in scrub:
thin, poor soils (rendzina)
Warm , d ry summers; cool, w e t
winters w ith increasing risk o f frost
No m echanisation
S h eep and goats
Steep hillsides, mountainous, with
poor, discontinuous scrub:
ve ry little soil (m uch erosion) /'
Cool, d ry summ ers; cold,
w e t and w in d y winters
w ith a risk o f snow
Sh eep and goats y
(m ainly in
sum m er)

Olives and vines with,

occasionally, to bacco

HSSHHBSHHS9I
'Si..-".-,
' ■ - ■" Figure 16.42
81—
Orange and olive groves in foreground,
rough grazing on hillsides beyond: near
Mycenae in the Peloponnese

=16.41
.5 fruit, mainly
next to the
:ittlementon
• ess fertile
■ —id-distance,
-ested hills
ackground:
evplion in the
 10 Irrigation controlled. Unfortunately, it is the economically
less developed countries, lacking in capital and
Irrigation is the provision of a supply of water
technology, that suffer most severely from water
from a river, lake or underground source
deficiencies. Unless they can obtain funds from
to enable an area of land to be cultivated
overseas, most of their schemes are extremely
(Figure 16.43). It m ayb e needed where:
labour intensive as they have to be constructed
1 rainfall is limited and where evapotrans­
and operated by hand.
piration exceeds precipitation, i.e. in semi-
arid and arid lands such as the Atacama
Desert in Peru (Places 24, page 180) and the
N ile valley (Places 73)
2 there is a seasonal water shortage due to
drought, as in southern California w ith its
M editerranean climate (Case Study 15A)
3 amounts of rainfall are unreliable, as in the
Sahel countries (Figure 9.28)
4 farming is intensive, either subsistence or
commercial, despite high annual rainfall
totals, e.g. the rice-growing areas of South­
east Asia.
In econom ically more developed countries, large
dams m ay be built from w h ich pipelines and
canals m ay transport water m any kilometres to a
dense network of field channels (Case Study 17).
The flow of water is likely to be computer-

T h e Nile valley: irrigation

Figure 16.44
From the time ofthe Pharaohs until very recently, 1-2 m by a shaduf, saquia (sakia) w h e e l or
Landsatphotoofthe
water for irrigation was obtained from the River A r c h im e d e s s c re w . However, the Egyptians had
Nile delta: the River
Nile by two methods. First, each autumn the annual long wished to control the Nile so that its level
Nile, Suez Canal and
Mediterranean Sea are floodwater was allowed to cover the land, where it would remain relatively constantthroughoutthe
shown in black, the remained trapped behind small bunds until it had year. Although barrages of increasing size had been
irrigated lands in deposited its silt. Second, during the rest ofthe year built during the early 20th century, it was the rapid
magenta, and Cairo
when river levels were low, water could be lifted increase in population (which doubled from 25 to 50
and other settlements
million between 1960 and 1987) and the accom­
in pale blue
panying demand forfood that led to the building of
the Aswan High Dam (opened 1971) and several new
schemes to irrigate the desert near Cairo (late 1980s).

The main purpose ofthe High Dam was to hold

back the annual floodwaters generated by the
summer rains in the Ethiopian Highlands. Some
water is released throughout the year, allowing an
extra crop to be grown, while any surplus is saved
as an insurance against a failure ofthe rains. The
river regime below Aswan is now more constant,
allowing trade and cruise ships to travel on it at all
times.Two and sometimes three crops can now
be grown annually in the lower Nile valley (Figure
16.44). Yields have increased and extra income
is gained from cash crops of cotton, maize,
sugarcane, potatoes and citrus fruits. The dam
incorporates a hydro-electric power station which
provides Egypt with almost a third of its energy
needs for domestic and industrial purposes. Lake
Nasser is important for fishing and tourism.

490 Farming and food supply

 Following the construction ofthe Aswan High Dam
(Figure 16.45), Egypt has modernised its methods of
irrigation. Electricity is now used to power pumps
which, by raising water to higher levels, allow a strip
of land up to 12 km wide on both sides ofthe Nile
to be irrigated. D r ip ir r ig a t io n utilises plastic pipes
in which small holes have been made; these are laid
over the ground and water drips onto the plants in
a much less wasteful manner, as less evaporates or
drains away. Between the Nile and the Suez Canal,
b o o m ir r ig a t io n has been introduced (Figure 16.43
shows this method in use in Saudi Arabia), creating
fields several hectares in diameter. However, the
Dam has created several problems.
Environmental
The cessation ofthe summer Nile flood has also
meant the ending ofthe annual deposition of fertile
silt on the fields, which in turn means that fertiliser
now has to be added. Without its supply of sediment,
: gure 16.45 which included silt and sand, the delta has begun to
~ie Nile: sources retreat, causing a loss of tourist beaches, the threat of
: id uses of water saltwater contaminating existing irrigation schemes
and - not envisaged when the Dam was originally
built - less protection against the rising sea-level of
the Mediterranean which is resulting from global
warming.The number of bilharzia snails has also risen
due to the greater number of irrigation channels,
while moisture in the air, caused by evaporation over
Lake Nasser, is affecting ancient buildings.
Economic and social
Farmers have been encouraged to grow cash crops
for export instead of providing a better diet for
themselves, and their costs have increased due to the
need to buy fertiliser. The area of land under irrigation
has actually decreased since the Dam was built due
to the increased effects of salinisation (page 273 and
Figure 16.53) and clay is less easy to find for making
sun-baked bricks in the traditional manner. More
recently, great concern has been raised over rising
damp and the deposition of salt (salt crystallisation,
page 40), resulting from the constantly higher
river level, in the foundations of temples and other
buildings dating from the time of Ancient Egypt.

M ean d is c h a rg e o f R. N ile in to L. N a sse r

s in ce 1971

800 r 800

w a ter from
- R. Atbara and_
-a 600 600
' Blue Nile:
both reduced
_ w ater from j 400
;4 0 0
W h ite Nile: //
no ch an g e //
mllllo

o
= 200 200

1 I ! 1 1 1 1 1
J F M A M J J A S O N D

R a in fa ll n e a r so u rc e o f B lu e N ile
a n d R. A tb a ra (sa v a n n a - p a g e 3 19)
300i------------------------------ 300

250 250

„ 200 200
i l l il.ill (l in n )

E
E
= 150 150

100 100

50 50

0
J F M A M J J A S O N D

Farming and food supply 491

Victoria
 Farming types and economic
development
Throughout the section on types of farming,
several fundamental assumptions have been
made. These include the generalisations that: 'the
poorest countries are those which, because they
have the lowest inputs of capital and technology,
have the lowest outputs'; and 'the wealthier
countries are those w hich can afford the highest
inputs, giving them the maximum yield, or profit,
per person'. Is it really possible to make a simple
correlation between wealth (the standard of
living) and the type of agriculture?
Figure 16.46 shows 15 countries selected
(not chosen randomly) as representing the main
types of farming and used as examples in the pre­
vious section. Using the five variables A-E, it is
possible to postulate four hypotheses:
1 The less developed a country (i.e. the lower
its GDP/GN P per capita - see pages 604 and
606), the greater the percentage of its popula­
tion involved in agriculture.
2 The less developed a country, the greater
the percentage of its G D P/G N P is made
up from agriculture.
3 The less developed a country, the less
fertiliser it w ill use.
4 The less developed a country, the less
mechanised w ill be its farming (fewer tractors
per head of population, for example).
Figure 16.47 shows schematically possible links
between farming and economic development.
As w ith all data, there are considerations w hich
you should remember when drawing conclusions
from Figure 16.46.
■ The countries were selected w ith some bias in
order to cover all the m ain types of farming.
■ G D P/G N P is not the only indicator of wealth
or development (pages 607-608).
■ G D P/G N P figures are not necessarily accurate
and m ay be derived from different criteria
(page 606).
■ There m ay be several different types of
farming in each country.

Figure 16.46
Types of farming, GDP
■
1
Country Major farming type
800
E lB
81 46
m 12 0.3
A Gross domestic product (GDP) pe-
capita in US$
B Percentage of population
and agricultural data
for selected countries 2 Bangladesh Intensive subsistence 1300 52 21 88 0.7 engaged in agriculture
C Percentage of GDP derived from
3 Kenya Nomadic herding/subsistence 1700 74 27 31 2.8
agriculture
4 India Intensive subsistence 2700 58 20 101 15.7 D Kg offertiliser used per hectare
agricultural land
5 China Intensive subsistence/centrally planned 5300 54 16 278 7.0
E Number of tractors per 1000 ha
6 Egypt Irrigation 5500 31 15 434 30.7 ofland

7 Uruguay Extensive commercial ranching 1600 12 11 94 24.2

8 Malaysia Commercial plantation 13 300 16 9 683 24.1

9 Argentina Extensive commercial grain/ranching 13 500 9 10 27 10.7

10 Russia Centrally planned 14700 9 5 12 4.8

11 Greece Mediterranean 29700 15 7 149 94.5

Figure 16.47
12 Spain Mediterranean 30100 6 4 157 68.7
An alternative method of showir;
13 UK Intensive commercial 35100 2 1 311 88.3 links between types of farming
14 Canada Extensive commercial/grain 38400 2 2 57 16.0 and levels of economic develop­
ment (as devised by a group of
15 Netherlands Intensive commercial/mixed 38500 3 2 478 163.9
A-level Geography students)

subsistence
commercial agriculture
agriculture ___________________ A_______________________

collectives

JT
com m ercial grain
(extensive)
plantations
(extensive) irrigation
shifting
(intensive) > arable
cultivation M ed iterranean
(extensive) (intensive) market gardening
hunters and (intensive)
collectors
(extensive)

nom adic
pastoral ranching
herding
(extensive)
(extensive)
dairying
(intensive)

492
shifting cultivation sedentary cultivation
The EU -a n example of a supra-national
agricultural policy
Member countries of the EU are meant to imple­
ment the Com m on Agricultural Policy (CAP) by
w hich most major decisions affecting farming are
made in Brussels and not by individual countries
or by individual farmers. The five basic aims of the
CAP were to:
1 increase agricultural productivity and to
improve self-sufficiency
2 m aintain jobs on the land, preferably on
fam ily farms
3 improve the standard of living (income) of
farmers and farmworkers
4 stabilise markets
5 keep consumer food prices stable and reason­
able.
Although m any of these aims had been fulfilled
by the early 1990s, there was increasing concern
over both the running and the effects of the CAP.
■ 70 per cent of the EC's (as it was then) budget
was spent supporting farming w hen agricul­
ture on ly provided 5 per cent of the EC's total
income.
■ As farmers were encouraged, and were helped
by improved technology, to produce as much
as possible, large surpluses were created
(page 487).
■ Imports were subject to duties to make
them less competitive w ith EC prices. This
handicapped the econom ically less developed
countries.
■ EC farmers were granted generous subsidies to
maintain prices. This helped restrict imports
from non-EC econom ically developed
countries.
■ As EC farms became larger and more efficient,
it was the more prosperous farmers w ho bene­
fited, often at the expense of those farming in
upland areas and on the periphery, especially
in southern Europe.
■ There was insufficient regard for the
environment.
Since 1992 the CAP has undergone a series of
reforms in order to solve some of these problems
and has introduced policies aimed at encouraging
the de-intensification of farming and the protec­
tion of the environment.
■ Subsidies guaranteed farmers a m inim um
price and an assured market for their produce.
Farmers tended, therefore, to overproduce
(hence the EU surpluses), and the payment
of subsidies became a drain on EU finances.
Since the 1990s, steps have been taken to lim it
the production of surplus products either by
reducing subsidies for them or, in some cases,
imposing penalties (page 487). In the early
1990s, the E U began a programme of progres­
sive reductions of subsidies in cereal, beef and
other commodities which has led, over time,
to the elim ination of the so-called 'mountains
and lakes' surpluses of agricultural products.
Even so, in 2006 the CAP still accounted for
45 per cent of the EU's total budget.
■ Quotas were introduced in 1984 to reduce
m ilk output. These, like subsidies, have been
gradually phased out and, as announced in
2006, w ill end by 2015. To try to reduce the
impact on dairy farmers (Figure 16.48), the
E U has proposed five annual quota increases
between 2008 and 2013.
■ Set-aside was initially introduced on a volun­
tary basis, but later enforced, to try to reduce
overproduction of arable crops. Farmers who
took 20 per cent of their cultivated land out
of production (pasture and fallow were not
included) were given £20 a hectare, provided
that the land was either left fallow, turned
into woodland (under the Farm Woodland
Management Scheme) or diversified into
other non-agricultural land uses such as golf
courses, nature trails, wildlife habitats and
caravan parks. By the early 2000s, there was
little surplus production and so when 2007-08
saw a rapid global increase in food prices, the
E U fixed the set-aside rate at zero. This meant
that British farmers could bring up to 5 m illion
hectares back into production.
■ En viro n m en tally friend ly farm ing is a new
E U approach by which, instead of paying
farmers to produce more food, they are given
payments if they meet environm ental and
animal standards and keep their land in good
condition - the so-called 'health check'. This
health check is an attempt to streamline and
modernise the CAP and to encourage farmers
to be 'guardians of the countryside'.
■ The W orld Trade Organisation (W TO ) has
been trying, w'ith minimum success (pages
627-629), to encourage the EU, and other well-
off trade blocs, to reduce tariffs, quotas and sub­
sidies so as to help the developing countries.
The C AP reforms of the early 2000s did not antici­
pate the increased global needs to fight climate
change (page 256), to improve water management
and supply (page 610), to satisfy the growing
demand for biocrops as a source for renewable
energy (page 543), or the rise in food prices. In
2008 it was claimed that even w ith in the EU itself,
43 m illion people were at risk of food poverty -
that is, they had less than one meal in two days
that included meat, chicken or fish.
Farming and food supply 493
 Figure 16.48

Problems for dair

UK dairy farmers on brink of collapse farmers, 2008

U K dairy farmers lose an average of 4.7p
on every pint of milk they produce, giving
the average dairy farm an annual loss of
£37,600, new figures show.
The figures from First Milk, a farmer-
owned dairy business that supplies more
than 1.8 bn litres of milk a year, lay bare the
desperate plight of the UK dairy industry.
According to a report out today, the
average price paid to a farmer for a litre of
milk over the year to March 31 2007 was
17.5p. However, the cost o f producing this
milk was 22p. This 4.7p loss multiplied by
the 800,000 litres that the average farm
produces each year equates to £37.600.
The U K dairy industry has been
shrinking rapidly since 2000. Around 1 lpc
of the national herd has disappeared in the
past five years, while farmer numbers are
reducing at the rate o f 6.5pc a year.
First Milk is calling for the introduction
o f a new formula to calculate a ‘consis­
tently fair price’ for milk. The formula
should take into account rising production
costs, labour costs on the farm and should
include a profit margin so that farmers can
reinvest in their businesses.
It says that farmers should be paid 29.6p
a litre for their milk this year.
The report - called The R ea l P rice o f
M ilk - details the rising costs that have
been absorbed by farmers in recent years,
including animal feed, fertiliser and fuel.
These rising costs were equivalent to an
extra £36,000 a year since 2006.
D aily T elegraph, 3 March 2008

than in recent years. Estimates by the Nature

Conservancy Council suggest that, between 1949
and 1990, 40 per cent of the remaining ancient
broadleaved woodlands, 25 per cent of hedgerows
30 per cent of heaths, 60 per cent of wetlands and
30 per cent of moors have 'disappeared'. W hile
most accusing fingers point to the intensifica­
tion of agriculture, together w ith afforestation
and building programmes, as the major causes, it
should be remembered that farmland too is under
threat from rival land users (Figure 17.4).

Farming as a threat to the environment

Figure 16.49
Farming and the environment
A rural landscape
with trees and Numerous pressure groups are claiming that the
hedges, Dorset traditional British countryside is being spoilt, yet
the countryside of today is not 'traditional' - it
has always been changing. The primeval forests,
regarded as Britain's climatic climax vegetation
(page 286), were largely cleared, initially for sheep
farming and later for the cultivation of cereals.
Although there is evidence that hedges were used
as field boundaries by the Anglo-Saxons, it was
much later that land was 'enclosed' by planting
hedges and building dry-stone walls (page 397).
Figure 16.50 It is this 18th- and 19th-century landscape which
has become looked upon, incorrectly as the tra­
Howeutrophication
can upsetthe ditional or natural environment (Figure 16.49).
ecosystem However, the rate of change has never been faster
a The use of chemicals
Fertiliser, slurry and pesticides all contribute to the
pollution of the environmental system. Fertiliser,
in the form of mineral compounds which contain
elements essential for plant growth, is widely usee
to produce a healthy crop and increase yields. If
too much nitrogenous fertiliser or animal waste
(manure) is added to the soil, some remains unab­
sorbed by the plants and may be leached to con­
taminate underground water supplies and rivers.
Where chemical fertiliser accumulates in lakes
and rivers, the water becomes enriched with nutri­
ents (eutrophication) and the ecosystem is upset
(Figure 16.50). In parts of north-west Europe, levels
of nitrates in groundwater are above EU safety
limits and over 80 per cent of lowland areas in the
U K are said to be affected.
In Britain, the Water Authorities claim that
slurry (farmyard effluent) is now the major pol­
lutant of, and killer of life in, rivers. After several
decades in which the quality of river water had
improved, the last few years have seen levels of poH
lution again increasing, especially in farming areas-1

A erobic
Slurry (animal Enriched nutrient A lgae and Aerobic
A lgae and other decom posers
w aste) and/or co n ten t in rivers autotrophs use up organism s (fish)
autotrophs (bacteria) multiply
fertiliser runoff and lakes oxygen and begin die due to lack of
m ultiply and use up even
from farms (eutrophication) to die off oxygen
more oxygen

494 Farming and food supply

Figure 16.51
'he case for and
Hedgerows
2gainst hedgerows
and ponds in a Form part of the attractive, traditional British landscape
-jralarea
Form a habitat for wildlife: birds, insects and plants (Large Blue butterfly is
extinct, 10 other species are endangered)
Act as windbreaks (and snowbreaks)
Roots bind soil together, reducing erosion by water and wind
Ponds
Form a habitat for wildlife: birds, fish and plants
Add to the attractiveness ofthe natural environment
i.e. Concern is environmental
Pesticides and herbicides are applied to crops
to control pests, diseases and weeds. Estimates
suggest that, without pesticides, cereal yields
would be reduced by 25 per cent after one year
and 45 per cent after three. The Friends of the
Earth claim that pesticides are injurious to health
and, although there have been no human fatali­
ties reported in Britain in the last 15 years, there
are m any incidents in developing countries
resulting from a lack of instruction, fewer safety
regulations and faulty equipment. A U N report
claims that 25 m illion agricultural workers in
developing countries (3 per cent of the total work­
force) experience pesticide poisoning each year.
Pesticides are blamed for the rapid decrease in
Britain's bee and butterfly populations, and an up
to 80 per cent reduction in 800 species of fauna in
the Paris basin. Pesticides can dissipate in the air
as vapour, in water as runoff, or in soil by leaching
to the groundwater.
: gure 16.52
-■ agricultural land-
b The loss of natural habitats
;:oe without trees or The most emotive outcries against farmers have
•riges, Cambridgeshire been at their clearances of hedges, ponds and wet-
filasiSSs
mm
8 K
I I m ill
a n I * i
Against
Are not traditional and were initially planted by farmers
Harbour pests and weeds
Costly and time-consuming to maintain
Take up space which could be used for crops
Limit size of field machinery (combine harvesters need an 8 m turning circle)
Take up land that could be used more profitably
Stagnant water may harbour disease
i.e. Concern is economic
lands. These clearances mean a loss of habitat for
wildlife and a destruction of ecosystems, some of
w hich may have taken centuries to develop and,
being fragile, may never recover or be replaced.
As stated earlier, over 25 per cent of British hedge­
rows were removed between 1949 and 1990 - in
Norfolk, the figure was over 40 per cent. Figure
16.51 lists some of the arguments for and against
the removal of hedgerows and the drainage of
ponds/wetlands. Figures 16.49 and 16.52 show
the contrast between a landscape w ith trees and
hedges, and one where they have been removed.
Farming can increase soil erosion. The rate of
erosion is determined by climate, topography,
soil type and vegetation cover (Case Study 10),
but it is accelerated by poor farming practices
(overcropping and overgrazing) and deforesta­
tion. In Britain, w ind erosion (Figures 7.8 and
10.34) tends to be restricted to parts of East
Anglia and the Fens where the natural vegeta­
tion cover, including hedges, has been removed
and where soils are light or peaty. W ater erosion
(page 62) is most likely to occur after periods
of prolonged and heavy rainfall, on soils w ith
less than 35 per cent clay content, in large and
steeply sloping fields and where deep ploughing
has exposed the soil.
Arable farming, especially when ploughing is
done in the autumn, removes the protective vege­
tation cover, increasing surface runoff. The inten­
sification of farming, and overcropping, in areas
of highly erodible soils in the USA have led to a
decrease in yields and an estimated loss of one-
third of the country's topsoil - much of it from
the Dust Bowl during the 1930s. Deforestation in
tropical rainforests, mountainous and semi-arid
areas - Brazil, Nepal and the Sahel, respectively -
also accelerates soil erosion.
Farming and food supply 495
Figure 16.53
a with good drainage
Saiinisation in California
field drain carries away
used water and its salts
returned to R. Colorado via
desalinisation plant at Yuma
b w ithout drainage
Kesterson Salt Marsh
(San Francisco Bay area)
once used, irrigated water (with its salt
content) empties into saltmarshes:
birds' eggs not hatching; embryos of
coots, grebes, stilts and avocets either
dead or deformed - cause believed to be
'salinium' poisoning
Irrigation (Places 73, page 490) also needs the
surplus water to be drained away. W itho ut this
careful, and often expensive, management, the
soil can become increasingly saline and water­
logged (Figure 16.53). As the water table rises it
brings, through capillary action (page 261), dis­
solved salts into the topsoil. These affect the roots
of crops, which are intolerant of salt, so that over
a period of time they die. W here water is brought
to the surface and then evaporates, a crust of
salt is left on the surface and the area may revert
to desert. To date, only rough estimates have
been made of the amount of irrigated land now
affected by saiinisation, but figures suggest that
it may be as high as 40 per cent in Pakistan and
Egypt, and 30 per cent in California.
Attempts by farming to improve the
environment
a Environmental improvement schemes
The EU and the British government introduced
several schemes in w h ich financial incentives
were offered to farmers w ho tried to improve
their environment, e.g. set-aside, woodland
management and Environm entally Sensitive
Area (ESA) schemes (page 493).
M any parts of Britain benefited from set-aside
because, when this was in operation, soils that were
left under either permanent or rotational fallow
with its protective vegetation cover were given the
time to improve their humus content, while other
496 Farming and food supply
temperatures of 50°C: land constant flooding
needs equivalent of 3 m of washes salts out
water per year irrigation water
surface kept moist
water percolates
downwards taking
salts with it water table:
remains constant
groundw ater
evaporation of as costs increase, less water is
water leaves a white temperatures of 50°C: used and less salt is flushed out
crust of salt | rapid evaporation irrigation water ®
salt concentrates around
roots: plants wither
water table: rises rapidly
subsoil becomes waterlogged and, with
no drains, the water table rises
groundw ater: will become increasingly
salty which begins to affect plant roots.
In California, some areas have yields
decreasing by 10% a year and 25% of land
has become desert again.
areas saw the restoration of ponds, wetlands and
other wildlife habitats. The woodland manage­
ment scheme increased the number of trees and
small woods, while the Countryside Commission
and the Nature Conservancy Council looked at
areas where it was considered that farming land­
scapes were under threat from changing farming
practices. These two parties originally looked at 46
'search' areas which targeted chalk and limestone
grasslands, lowland heath, river valleys, coasts,
uplands and historic landscapes. From these, 22
were eventually to be designated, at four different
stages, as Environm entally Sensitive Areas (ESAsi
because of 'their high landscape, wildlife or his­
toric value' (Figure 16.54). Farmers living in ESAs
were then invited to join the scheme at one of two
levels: a lower level paid on condition that they
maintained the existing landscape; and a higher
level if they made environmental improvements
such as replanting hedges or restoring ponds and
traditional farm buildings. This, the Countryside
Stewardship Scheme (CSS), was superseded in 2003
by the Environmental Stewardship Scheme (ESSi.
Environmental Stewardship is a joint farming-
environmental initiative that builds on the success
of the former ESAs and Countryside Stewardship
schemes. Its primary objectives are to:
■ conserve wildlife (biodiversity)
■ m aintain and enhance landscape quality and
character
■ protect the historic environm ent and natural
resources
 En viro n m en tally Sensitive Areas (22) cover ab o ut 1 0 %
o f agricultural land

Stage I Stage II
1 Broads 6 Breckland
2 Pen nine Dales 7 Clun
3 Som erset Levels & Moors 8 North Peak
4 South D ow ns 9 Suffolk River Valleys
5 W est Penw ith 10 Test Valley

Stage III Stage IV

11 Avon Valley 17 Blackdow n Hills
12 Exm oor 18 Cotsw old Hills
13 Lake District 19 D artm oor
14 North Kent Marshes 20 Essex Coast
15 South W essex Downs 21 Shropshire Hills
16 South W est Peak 22 Up perT h am esT ribu taries

Figure 16.54

En, ironmentally ■ promote public access and understanding of b Organic farming

Sensitive Areas (ESAs) the countryside.
r England W ith in these prim ary objectives were the
jri i Wales
secondary aims of:
■ genetic conservation and
■ flood management.
There are three levels of stewardship:
■ Entry Level Stewardship (ELS) is open to
all farmers and landowners and provides a
straightforward approach to land manage­
ment for w hich payment is £30 per hectare.
■ Organic Entry Level Stewardship (OELS)
is similar but is geared to organic farming
w ith payments of £60 per hectare (Case
Study 16B).
■ Higher Level Stewardship (HLS) is designed
to build on the first two in that it aims to
achieve a wide range of environm ental ben­
efits across the farm. As it also concentrates
on more complex types of management
where landowners need advice and support
and where agreements need to be tailored to
suit local circumstances, then payments are
less rigid.
Since the mid-1980s there has been a small but
increasing number of farmers in Britain and
elsewhere w ho have turned to organic farming
(Case Study 16B). Organic farming aims to
produce food of high nutrient quality by using
management practices that avoid the use of agro­
chemical inputs and w h ich minim ise damage to
the environm ent and to wildlife. As such, it is
both self-supporting and an example of sustain­
able development (Framework 16, page 499). For
any food to qualify for the organic label it must
adhere to a strict set of rules enforced by a regula­
tory body, such as the Soil Association.
Figure 16.55 describes both the advantages
of organic farming and some of its problems. In
the last few years, more British shoppers have
been prepared to pay the higher prices asked for
organic produce, believing it to be healthier than
conventionally produced food. This, together
w ith a greater range of organic brands, has per­
suaded the giant supermarkets that it is worth
their w hile to stock organic products. However,
it w ill be interesting to see if these shoppers con­
tinue to buy 'organic' at a time of rising global
food prices and during the 'credit crunch'.

Farming and food supply 497

 Figure 16.55
Advantages and
A d v a n ta g e s
problems of Compared with conventional farming, organic
organic farming farming is self-sustaining in that it produces
more energy than it consumes and it does not
destroy itself by misusing soil and water resources
(Framework 16, page 499). It rules out the use of
artificial (chemical) fertiliser, herbicides and pes­
ticides, favouring instead only animal and green
manures (compost) and mineral fertilisers (rock
salt, fish and bonemeal). These natural fertilisers
put organic matter back into the soil, enabling it
to retain more moisture during dry periods and
allowing better drainage and aeration during
wetter spells. Organic farming involves the inten­
sive use of both land and labour. It is a mixed
farming system which involves crop rotations
and the use of fallow land. It is less likely to cause
soil erosion or exhaustion as the soils contain
more organic material (humus), earthworms and
bacteria than soil in non-organic farms. It is also
less likely to harm the environment as there will
be no nitrate runoff (no eutrophication in rivers)
and less loss of wildlife (no pesticides to kill
butterflies and bees).
GM crops
The growing of genetically modified (G M ) crops
is an issue of global concern that has led to the
extreme polarisation of opinions held by those in
favour and those against. G M crops are a result of
a deliberate attempt, using biotechnology, to alter
the genetic make-up of a plant w ith the inten­
tion of increasing yields by making it resistant to
either disease, pests or a climatic extreme such
as drought. At present, nearly all the world's G M
crops being grown are in the USA, Argentina,
Canada and China (where the world's first G M
crop was planted in 1992). In the USA, around
70 per cent of all packaged foods already contain
G M material. Of about 40 m illion hectares of G M
crops at present being grown worldwide, most are
soya and maize (corn):
1998 2007 (m illio n ha)
Soya 14 20
Maize 8 12
Oilseed rape 3 4
Sugar beet 1 2
Potatoes >1 1 shortages, as they neither increase yields nor
The production of G M crops is dominated by
several large transnational corporations. They
claim that G M crops are essential in order to feed
the world's growing population and to combat
the rise in global food prices which, with the
effects of climate change, they believe is the main
cause of the increasing food shortages, especially
498 Farming and food supply
P ro b le m s
If organic farming replaces a conventional
farming system, yields can drop considerably
in the first two years, when artificial fertiliser is
no longer used, although they soon rise again
as the quality of the soil improves. Also, during
the conversion period, farmers cannot market
any goods as 'organic': they must wait until they
meet the regulatory body's standards before
receiving its label guaranteeing the authenticity
of their produce. Weeds can increase without
herbicides, and may have to be controlled by
hand labour or by being covered with either
mulch or polythene. This means that, although
organic farming is helpful to the environment
and, arguably, less harmful to human health,
its produce is more expensive to buy. Producers,
processors and importers must all be registered
and are subject to regular inspections.
in sub-Saharan Africa (Places 74 and 75). The
TNCs claim that after 30 years of growing G M
soya and maize in the USA, there appear to be no
ill-effects either to people's health or to the envi­
ronment, although recent reports suggest that,
instead of improving yields of those crops, output
has actually fallen by up to 10 per cent. The TNCs
also suggest that, apart from reducing hunger, G \ l
crops w ill reduce the use of weedkillers and insec­
ticides and w ill provide both cheaper and higher-
nutrient food.
But the production of G M crops is opposed
by virtu ally all the m ain environm ental groups,
w h ich claim that the crops remain untested and
that such crops are not a solution to food short­
ages as, so far, being grown intensively in devel­
oped countries, they seem inappropriate to the
needs and demands of up to 400 m illion subsist­
ence smallholders in m any of the world's poorest
countries. The environm ental groups claim that
governments, including that of Britain, are being
misled if they believe G M crops w ill end food
tackle the fundamental problem of poverty. The?
also fear that pollen from G M crops is adversely
affecting insect wildlife, especially bees and but­
terflies. This debate is far from over, w ith DEFRA
claim ing (2008) that 'w hile tests in Britain are
continuing, no G M crop w ill be released if there
is any doubt about its impact'.
F ra m e w o rk 16 S u s ta in a b le d e v e lo p m e n t
The concept of sustainable development
dominated the environmental agenda during the
1990s and, following the 1992 Earth Summit at Rio
de Janeiro, has been embraced by governments
at all levels of development. The term is not,
however, easy to explain; Dobson, in 1996, claimed
that there were over 300 different definitions and
interpretations. Of these, the most widely used is
that taken from the Brundtland Report (The World
Commission on Environment and Development,
1987) which claims that sustainable development
'meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs'. This definition, according
to Munton and Collins (Geography, 1998),
'highlights the socio-economic rather than the
environmental basis of sustainable development
and, unlike earlier understandings ofthe term
"environmental sustainability", it gives absolute
primacyto improving human conditions and not to
environmental limits'.
Put more simply, sustainable development should
lead to an improvement in people's:
• quality of life, allowing them to become
more content with their way of life and the
environment in which they live
• standard of living, enabling them, and future
generations, to become better off economically.
This may be achieved in a variety of ways:
• by encouraging economic development at a
pace that a country can both afford and manage
so as to avoid that country falling into debt
• by developing technology that is appropriate
to the skills, wealth and needs of local people
irrespective ofthe country's level of develop­
ment, and developing local skills so that they
may be handed down to future generations
• by using natural resources without spoiling the
environment, developing materials that will
use fewer resources, and using materials that
will last for longer - ideally, once a resource is
used, it should either be renewed, recycled or
replaced.
Sustainable development needs careful planning
and, increasingly as it involves a commitment
to conservation, the co-operation of groups of
countries and, under extreme conditions,
global agreement.
Sustainable development is a theme that keeps
re-appearing throughout this book. It is a concept
that, from a geographer's point of view, can be
studied:
• through a selection of physical and human
environments
• at a variety of levels of development
in the context of people and food supply, resources,
and natural and human created/adapted environ­
ments. Examples referred to in this book, with
chapter numbers in brackets, include the following:
• P e o p le a n d e n v ir o n m e n t s
- world biomes and fragile environments such
as the tropical rainforest (11 and 12) and the
tundra (5)
- smaller-scale ecosystems including wetlands
(16) and sand dunes and saltmarshes (6 and 11)
- effects of economic development on
scenic areas and the wildlife of coastal and
mountainous areas (6,17 and 20)
• P e o p le a n d r e s o u rc e s
- finite resources of fossil fuels (18) and
minerals (17)
- renewable resources, providing that they are
carefully managed, including soils (10); fresh
and reliable water supply (3 and 21); forests
(11 and 17); crops and food supply (16);
energy (18); recycled materials (19); and the
atmosphere (9)
- ecological footprint (13) and carbon credits (21)
• S o c io -e c o n o m ic
- population growth and family planning (13)
- urban growth/loss of countryside (15)
- housing materials (15 and 19)
- development of skills and levels of
education (21).
Farming and food supply 499
 kilocalories consum ed per person per day

over 2900

3600 ....... I 2600— 2899

average intake:
3 4 0 0 ----
eco nom ically
develo ped
per day

3 2 0 0 --- countries

3 0 0 0 ---
per person

2800 ---

average world intake, also

2600 --- m inim um requirem ent
kilocalories consumed

for d evelo ped countries

2400 ---
m inim um requirem ent for
tropical countries
2200 ----- average intake: eco nom ically Equator
d evelo ping countries

2000 -----
8 5 % of requirem ent for econom ically
develo ping countries
1800 ---

7 0 % of requirem ent for econom ically

1600 --- 5000 km
develo ping countries

Figure 16.56
World food supply
Food supplies ■ carbohydrates, w hich include cereals, sugar,
fats, meat and potatoes, to provide energy, and
in 2008: average kilo-
Diet and health ■ vitam ins and m inerals, as found in dairy
calorie consumption
per person per day, by produce, fruit, fish and vegetables, which
It is over 200 years since Malthus expressed his
country prevent m any diseases.
fears that world population would outstrip food
M alnutrition and undernutrition, often caused
supply (page 378). Today, despite assurances from
by poverty, affect many people including even
various international bodies such as the Food
a surprisingly high number in developed coun­
and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) that there is
tries. M alnutrition may not be a primary cause of
still sufficient food for everyone, it is estimated
death, but by reducing the ability of the body to
that three-quarters of the world's population is
function properly, it reduces the capacity to work
inadequately fed, and that the majority of these
and means that people, and especially children,
live in less economically developed countries.
become less resistant to disease and more likely t:
The problem is, therefore, the unevenness in the
fall ill. Nutritional diseases, w hich include rickets
distribution of food supplies: surpluses still exist in
(vitam in D deficiency), beri-beri (vitam in B1 defi­
North America and the EU; and there are shortages
ciency and common in rice-dependent China),
in m any developing countries.
kwashiorkor (protein deficiency) and marasmus
This uneven distribution is reflected in
(shortage of protein and calories), can reduce
Figure 16.56 which shows variations in kilocalorie
resistance to intestinal parasitic diseases, malaria
intake throughout the world. Dieticians calcu­
and typhoid. In contrast, people in developed
late that the average adult in temperate latitudes
countries are at risk from over-eating and from
requires 2600 kilocalories a day, compared with
an unbalanced diet which often contains too
2300 kilocalories for someone living w ithin the
m any animal fats which can cause heart disease.
tropics. The FAO reports that the actual average
Malnutrition, a M illennium Development Goa',
intake for the economically more developed world
(page 609), is believed to be the underlying causu
is 3300 kilocalories, but only 2200 kilocalories in
for almost half of all child deaths worldwide.
less developed countries. However, the quantity of
Figure 16.57 shows the proportion of children
food consumed is not always as important as the
aged under 5 who are underweight. More than
quality and balance of the diet. A good diet should
one-quarter of all under 5s living in the devel­
contain different types of food to build and m ain­
oping countries are underweight, about 143
tain the body, and to provide energy to allow the
m illion in total, with the highest levels in South
body to work. A balanced diet should contain:
Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. In these countries
■ proteins, such as meat, eggs and milk, to
children living in rural areas are twice as likely
build and renew body tissues
to be underweight as those living in urban areas
There is no gender difference.

500 Farming and food supply

 Figure 16.58
Number of persons chronically 500-1
undernourished in developing
countries
400-
300-
200-
South Asia
Sub-Saharan Africa
10 0 -
Middle East and North Africa
East Asia/Pacific
_atin America and Caribbean
N orth Africa
and Near East
: ; ure 16.57
Trends in food supply
: r ■:entage of
■ dren under Since the early 1950s world food output has
, no are usually increased more rapidly than has world
.:erw eight population. This increase has been more rapid in
the developing countries, albeit from a very low
base, than in developed countries and, during
the 1960s and 1970s, was attributed m ainly to
the 'Green Revolution' (page 504). There were,
however, exceptions to still this trend. The main
exception was sub-Saharan Africa where, in several
countries, food output per person actually fell
and has continued to fall. A second exception was
short-term periodic declines in either global or,
more often, regional rainfall. During the late 1980s,
for example, m any places received below average
totals which resulted in an estimated fall in the
world's food reserves from 101 days to 54 days, and
when up to 35 per cent of the world's total popula­
tion was left living at or below starvation level. At
that time there was much pessimism about future
food prospects, and Malthus's gloomy predictions
were, for a time, revived (page 378).
However, food production did once again
begin to exceed the rate of population growth,
this time in the 1990s, although there were dis­
parities on a continental scale. W h ile there was
5 kg of food per person for North America, 3.5 kg
for Oceania and 2 kg for Western Europe, there
was only 1 kg for Latin America and South-east
Asia and less than 0.5 kg for Africa. Even so,
at the beginning of the 21st century the W H O
was able to report that 'new farming techniques
are im proving output, nutrition seems to be
improving, life expectancy is increasing due to a
better diet and global food supplies are in a rela­
tively good shape w ith surpluses in certain areas’.
□ 1971-73
□ 1981-83
M 1991-93
□ 2001-03
1 r
Sub-Saharan East Asia South Asia Latin Am erica
Africa & Caribbean
However, the W H O report did highlight several
areas of considerable concern.
■ There was a continued decline of food pro­
duction in Africa (Places 75) and an inability
of several of the countries located there to
afford to buy sufficient to satisfy their short­
ages and, therefore, they were forced to rely
increasingly on food aid (page 632).
■ Although production was increasing in most
regions, there had been a global decline in
the yields of the three staple food crops of
wheat, rice and maize.
■ Throughout history, whenever extra food
was needed, people simply cleared more land
for crops. Today, most high-quality land is
already in use, or, increasingly, has been built
upon. M uch of the remaining areas have soils
that are less productive and more fragile, i.e.
less sustainable (Framework 16, page 499).
■ There is a lack of food security - a term used
by the W H O w hich means a lack of nu tri­
tious food needed to keep people alive and
healthy. Although numbers have dropped,
some 20 per cent of the world's popula­
tion are still thought to experience chronic
undernutrition (Figure 16.58).
■ There is increasing globalisation of food pro­
duction, w ith transnational corporations and
large supermarkets in developed countries
sourcing more of their food from developing
countries. Smallholders in less well-off coun­
tries are being drawn into contracts to supply
fruit and vegetables to markets in the devel­
oped world w h ich is resulting in a decline
in the growth of staple foods for their own
domestic consumption.
Farming and food supply 501
 Famine
Famines were once considered to be an inevitable
occurrence but increasingly they can be seen to
result from human mismanagement of the envi­
ronment, or localised wars leading to the displace­
ment of people. The notion that famine means a
total food shortage (as implied in the introductory
quote to this chapter) has been challenged, as
recent studies suggest that it only affects certain
groups in society (the poorest, the least skilled and
the rural dwellers). Even during the worst times of
famine, some food still appears in local markets -
but at a price beyond the reach of most people. It is
now widely accepted that most famines result from
a combination of natural events and human mis­
management together with a decline in the access
to food, rather than a decline in the available food
supply (Places 74).
Rising food prices
The year 2008 saw an unprecedented rise in global
food prices which resulted from a combination
N ig e r : fa m in e
In 2005, Niger was on the brink of a famine with
over 3 million of its inhabitants (one in every three)
suffering from severe hunger.To many people living
in remote rural areas-which is the majority ofthe
population - the only food available until that year's
crop was ready was a watery-looking porridge look-
alike. The often quoted causes of famine and food
shortages are poverty and overpopulation, but this is
too simplistic an answer. While it was true that many
people were, at that time, unable to afford what food
was available from within the country, and Niger
itself was too poor to buy much from other countries,
especially at a time when global food prices were
Figure 16.59
Niger
502 Farming and food supply
of factors (e.g. wheat £70 per tonne in 2006, £180
per tonne in 2008). These factors included:
■ a change in diet, especially in India and
C hina where greater affluence has led to a
rising demand for meat products w h ich in
turn means more grain is needed to feed the
extra number of reared animals
■ more land and more cereal crops being used
to produce biofuels (e.g. one-third of the
USA's maize crop) in an attempt to provide
more renewable energy
■ climate change causing more erratic rainfall
patterns, e.g. drought in the cereal growing
areas of Australia and northern India, floods
in the American mid-west
■ growth in the world's population
■ the reduction of subsidies to American and
E U farmers, meaning that less food is held in
storage
■ encouragement of developing countries to
grow cash crops rather than cereal crops.
beginning to rise, the real cause ofthe threatened
famine was a combination of environmental,
economic, social, cultural and political factors.
Niger had experienced two natural disasters in
2004: drought (it is a Sahel country - Case Study 7
and page 280), and a locust infestation.These
were exacerbated by social causes that included
a growing population that needed to be fed and,
within that population, a considerable unevenness
in the distribution of wealth. The country's limited
development is shown by a lack of technology in
farming, in which most ofthe population is engaged.
Also, there is a limited amount of land suitable for
agriculture, and what there is lies on the fringes of
the Sahara Desert and so is'marginal'(zone 3 on
Figure 16.1, and Figure 16.59), with nutrient-deficient
soils and a lack of water (rain or irrigation).
The lack of development (notice its position at the
foot ofthe HDI table on page 607) is partly due to a
lack of resources (other than uranium), which means
that with little to export, Niger has a balance of trade
deficit (page 624) which places it on the wrong side
ofthe development gap (page 605).With limited
money for investment and a legacy of colonialism,
the country lacks a basic infrastructure.This includes
a poorly developed transport network, which makes
it difficult to distribute food internally at times of
shortage and limits links with the outside world (the
only long-haul flight isto Paris); it also has a poorly
developed banking system.
 Sub-Saharan Africa: food shortages
Severe drought, civil strife and economic security
have displaced large numbers of people and
disrupted food production (Figure 16.60). Food
shortages at present affect 26 countries in sub-
Saharan Africa (Figure 16.61).
The population of this region is growing faster than
anywhere else in the world. With over 70 percent of
its labour force in agriculture and 66 percent living
in rural areas, the income, nutrition and health of
most Africans is closely tied to farming. In an area
where, due to limited capital and technology, the
use of new seeds, fertiliser, pesticides, machinery
and irrigation is the lowest in the world, agriculture
is almost totally reliant upon an environment that
is not naturally favourable.The soils often have
fertility constraints, a low water-holding capacity
and limited nutrients, making them vulnerable to
erosion. High evapotranspiration rates harm crops
while the unreliable rains which may cause flooding
one year may then fail for several that follow. Periods
of droughtare getting longer and more frequent
with experts arguing as to whether this is part of a
natural climatic cycle, less moisture in the air due to
deforestation, or the effects of global warming.
With increases in population, fallow periods have
: igure 16.60 been reduced and the land has been overgrazed or
> Idren awaiting overcropped which, together with destruction of
;:od aid: Somalia
Country
Burundi-Rwanda-Uganda
Central African and Congo Reps
Chad
Congo Democratic Republic
Eritrea—Somalia
Ethiopia
Ghana
Guinea
Kenya
Lesotho-Swaziland
Liberia-Sierra Leone
Malawi-Zambia
Mali—Niger—Burkina Faso
Mauritania
Mozambigue
Sudan
Zimbabwe
IDPs = internally displaced persons
trees for fuelwood, has accelerated soil erosion and
desertification (Case Studies 7 and 10).The region
has limited money for investment in agriculture
and when overseas aid has been given it has often
been channelled into unsuitable projects such as
promoting monoculture, growing crops for export
instead of domestic consumption, increasing
the size of animal herds on marginal land and
ploughing fragile soils that would have been better
left under a protective vegetation cover.
Financial aid from overseas can also increase the
debt ofthe recipient country (page 632). People's
diet often lacks sufficient calories or protein and,
with many living in extreme poverty (page 609),
they cannot afford the inflated food prices at times
of shortage. Animals may be attacked by tsetse fly,
crops in the field by locusts, and crops in storage
by rats and fungi.To add to these difficulties,
several countries are, or have been recently, torn
by civil strife resulting in the problem of internally
displaced persons and refugees.This, together with
administrative corruption, interrupts farming and
the distribution of relief supplies. Last, but by no
means least, is the effect ofthe HIV/AIDS pandemic
which, even when not fatal to individual farmers,
considerably reduces their ability to work (Places
100, page 623).
Figure 16.61
Countries with exceptional shortfalls in food production supplies
Reasons
Civil strife, IDPs
IDPs
Civil strife, refugees
Civil strife, refugees, IDPs
Civil strife, drought, IDPs
Drought, IDPs
Flood and drought
Civil strife, refugees
Civil strife, drought, pests
Drought, HIV/AIDs
Civil strife, refugees, IDPs
Drought, HIV/AIDs
Drought, locusts
Drought, locusts
Floods, drought, HIV/AIDs
Civil strife, IDPs, drought
Economic crisis, HIV/AIDs
Farming and food supply 503
 Type of change biochemical
irrigation
hybrid herbicides by diesel
Innovation seed fertilisers and and
selection pesticides electric
pum ps
increased
w eed s controlled
yields of increased
Consequence and pests w ater
w heat, rice yields
controlled supply
and maize
Figure 16.62 What might be done to improve food
The Green Revolution supplies in developing countries?
As most areas w ith an average or high agricul­
tural potential have already been used, future
extension of cropland can only take place on
marginal land where the threats of soil erosion
and desertification are greatest. The solution is
not, therefore, to extend the cultivated area but
to make better use of those areas already farmed.
L a n d reform can help to overcome some
inefficiencies in the use of land and labour. The
redistribution of land has been tackled by such
methods as the expropriation of large estates
and plantations and distributing the land to
individual farmers, landless labourers or
com m unal groups; the consolidation of small,
fragmented farms; increasing security of tenure;
attempting new land colonisation projects; and
state ownership. The success of these schemes
has been mixed. Not all have increased food
production, although m any farms in C hin a have
seen an increase in yields since the transference
of farming decisions to individual farmers under
the responsibility system (Places 63, page 468;
Places 64, page 470).
The Green R evo lu tio n refers to the applica­
tion of modern, Western-type farming tech­
niques to developing countries. Its beginnings
were in Mexico when, in the two decades after
the Second W orld War, new varieties or hybrids
of wheat and maize were developed in an
attempt to solve the country's domestic food
problem. The new strains of wheat produced
dwarf plants capable of withstanding strong
winds, heavy rain and diseases (especially the
'rusts' w h ich had attacked large areas). Yields
of wheat and maize tripled and doubled respec­
tively, and the new seeds were taken to the
Indian subcontinent. Later, new varieties of
improved rice were developed in the Philippines.
504 Farming and food supply
mechanical
tractors transport:
facilities
and farm roads land
to b orrow
m ech an ­ and reforms
m o ney
isation vehicles
increased som e farm farm ers able
quicker
arable land, consoli­ to obtain
m o vem ent increased
reduced dation: b etter seeds
to : incentives
labour more and
markets
force incentive m achinery
The most famous, the IR-8 variety, increased
yields sixfold at its first harvest. Another ‘super
rice' increased yields by a further 25 per cent
(1994). Further improvements have shortened
the growing season required, allowing an extra
rice crop to be grown, and new strains have
been developed that are tolerant of a less than
optimum climate.
In 1964 m any farmers in India were short ot
food, lacked a balanced diet and had an extrem
ely low standard of living. The government,
with limited resources, was faced w ith the chc-
(Figure 16.62) o f attempting a land reform p r:-
gramme (redistributing land to landless farmer
or trying to improve farm technology. It o p te ;
the latter. Some 18 000 tonnes of Mexican HYV
(high-yielding varieties) wheat seeds and la r;;
amounts of fertiliser were imported. Tractors iw«
introduced in the hope that they would repla
water buffalo; communications were improv
and there was some land consolidation. The s
cesses and failures of the Green Revolution ir
India are summarised in Figure 16.63. In gen-anl
it has improved food supplies in m any parts :
the country, but it has also created adverse sc
environmental and political conditions. Tfc
question now being asked in India is: 'Hov.
was the Green Revolution?' For the first tiir.r m
four decades, population growth is outstrippnfl
food production. This is due to high birth a
longer life expectancy, more land being dev;ini|
to commercial crops and a mass rural-urbar.
migration caused by India’s rapidly em er;:: _
economy. At the same time there are growing j
health concerns w ith fertiliser and pesticici-i
leached into water supplies, blamed for a rap
increase in cancers, birth defects and othe:
nesses. A small but growing number of fan:
are turning away from a reliance on chemicalm
a more organic-type of farming.
 r

Successes
Wheat and rice yields have doubled HYV seeds need heavy application of fertiliser and pesticides, which has increased costs,
encouraged weed growth and polluted water supplies

Often an extra crop per year Extra irrigation is not always possible; it can cause saiinisation and a falling water table

Rice, wheat and maize have varied the diet HYVs not suited to waterlogged soils

Dwarf plants can withstand heavy rain and wind and photosynthesise more easily Farmers unable to afford tractors, seed and fertiliser have become relatively poorer

Farmers able to afford tractors, seed and fertiliser now have a higher standard of living Farmers with less than 1 ha of land have usually become poorer

Farmers with more than 1 ha of land have usually become more wealthy Farmers who have to borrow are likely to get into debt

The need for fertiliser has created new industries and local jobs Still only a few tractors, partly due to cost and shortage of fuel

Some road improvements Mechanisation has increased rural unemployment

Area under irrigation has increased Some HYV crops are less palatable to eat

Some land consolidation Fertiliser and pesticides have contaminated water supplies causing health problems

Conclusions
A production and economic success which has lessened but not eliminated the threat of Social, environmental and political failure: bigger gap between rich and poor
food shortages

Figure 16.63
Appropriate technology (Case Study 18) is runoff is trapped giving water time to infiltrate
An appraisal ofthe
needed to replace the many, often well-inten- into the soil and allowing silt to be deposited
Green Revolution in
tioned schemes that involved importing capital behind the barriers. These simple methods,
the Indian sub­
continent and technology from the more developed taking up only 5 per cent of farmland, have
countries. Appropriate technology, often funded increased crop yields by over 50 per cent.
by non-governmental organisations such as N ot chemical fertiliser, but cheaper organic
the British-based Practical Action (Places 90, fertiliser from local animals (which can also
page 577), seeks to develop small-scale, sustain­ provide meat and milk in the diet). Unfort­
able projects w hich are appropriate to the local unately, in m any parts of Africa dung is needed
climate and environment, and the wealth, skills as fuel instead of being returned to the fields.
and needs of local people. This means: N ot tractors, but simple, reliable, agricultural
■ Not large dams and irrigation schemes, but tools made, and maintained, locally.
more wells so that people do not migrate to the N ot cash crops (often monoculture) on large
few existing ones, drip irrigation as this wastes estates, but smallholdings where both cash
less water, stone lines (Figures 10.40 and 16.64) crops (income) and subsistence crops (food
and check-dams (Figure 10.43). For stone lines, supply) can be grown. Mixed farming and
stones are laid down, following the contours, crop rotation are less likely to cause soil
even on gentle slopes in Burkina Faso, while erosion and exhaustion. Intercropping can
small dams built of loess are constructed across protect crops and increase yields (smaller
gulleys in northern China. In both cases, surface plants protected by tree crops).

Figure 16.64

Stone lines in
Burkina Faso
 Farming
16 /
Jp A
A F a r m in g in w e s te r n N o r m a n d y

land is used for producing fodder for the

Figure 16.65
animals.The present herd consists of 52
The Cotentin, cattle - mainly Friesian, with some tradi­
Normandy
tional Normandy cows.The black-and-
white Friesians have high milk yields, but
the Normandy cows have better-quality
Cherbourg milk with a high cream content.They are
Climate: strong kept outdoors all year round, with some
m aritim e influence with
w esterly w inds protection in the winter.The cattle in milk
predom inating; w in ter are brought to the dairy twice a day and
Low coastal plain tem peratures 5°C;
alluvium and sandy soils they produce on average 116 litres per cov
sum m er tem peratures
used for vegetables per day (Figure 16.67).The small milking
Rivero. 16°C; rain all year;total
w hich are sold through
rainfall 760 m m with parlour is similar to many in the region. It
co-operatives
m axim um in late w in ter
holds eight cows at a time, and is simpler
and early spring
(im po rtan t for dairy than large dairies in the English Midlands
farmers) or on dairy farms close to Paris.The milk is
kept under refrigeration on the farm until
River Vire
it is collected by the creamery lorry-each

Coutances
Estuary land: used for
fattening 'm arais' lamb
La Renondiere
G avray
Granville
Villedieu
Michel
The Cotentin lies between the Vire estuary
and Mont St Michel Bay (Figure! 6.65). It
is mainly an agricultural region, although
tourism is also important.The maritime
climate, with rain (760 mm per year) occur­
ring at all seasons and reaching a maximum
in the late winter and spring months, is
important for the farming.The maximum
occurs just as temperatures are rising and
the grass is starting to grow.This has been
the basis ofthe successful dairy farming
industry. Cattle are reared for their milk from
which Normandy butter is made in addi­
tion to many local cheeses and cream. Most
farms also produce fodder for their cattle,
either in the form of silage in the late spring
or as crops of corn in the late summer.
Central Cotentin:
an cient igneous and
m etam o rph ic rocks form
rolling countryside;
100-120 m ab ove sea-
level; small fields
Cattle: reared for milk
w h ich is sent to co ­
o perative cream eries for
m anufacture into butter,
cream and local cheeses,
e.g. C outances cheese
25 km
La Renondiere is a typical Cotentin dairy
farm (Figure 16.66). It lies at 71 m above
sea-level in a small valley whose stream
flows into the RiverVanne 0.75 km to the
n o rth.Jh e land slopes very gently; fields
are small and bounded by dense hedges;
and most ofthe farm can be ploughed
except for a small area in the valley bottom
which becomes very wet.The Normandy-
style farmhouse of grey stone covered in
creeper, with white shutters, faces south. It
is sheltered from the westerly winds, as are
most ofthe buildings grouped around it.
The farm is 44 ha in area. This is large
for Normandy, where the average size is
between 15 and 24 ha. Cattle are kept
on 4 ha close to the farm; the rest ofthe
day in summer, but every two days at othe
times ofthe year (Figure 16.68).
The cows are artificially inseminated and
produce one calf a year. Bull calves are sold f
Gavray market for veal, and female calves are
sold or used to replenish the herd.They are
carefully checked for yield and as this drops :
they are replaced.They are kept as long as p:
sible, as the return from cull cows is not hie"
The present farmer has been on the farm -
over 20 years, but it was farmed earlier by he
parents and grandparents. All the work is de'
by the farmer, his wife (she is in charge ofthe
dairy) and his father. Neighbours help during
silage making.There is a strong tradition of
dairy farming in the region.
On the western side ofthe Cotentin,
there is a low-lying plain approximately
15-60 m above sea-level. It contains area:
of sandy soils which are important for
producing vegetables, including carrots,
leeks, sweet corn, lettuce and tomatoes.
These vegetables are marketed through :
operatives in the largertowns ofthe rec :
as well as in Paris and the UK.
. The lowlands along the estuary ofthe
Sienne and the Vanne are used as grazing
and for the'marais lamb'; large flocks of
sheep are fattened on the marshes, pro­
viding yet another income for the farme':
ofthe region.
As income from farming declines, farm*
across the EU are having to diversify. In

506 Farming and food supply

 !

I Farming

a d d itio n to th e ir reg ular e n terp rises, m a n y

N o rm a n d y fa rm e rs b re e d an d train tro ttin g

p o n ie s - m ak in g reg ular visits to t h e long

o p e n s a n d y b e a c h e s to train t h e m at lo w

tide. As in Britain, b e d an d b reakfast a c c o m ­

m o d a tio n d u rin g th e sh o rt to u rist se aso n

fro m Ju n e to t h e e n d o f A u g u s t p ro vid e s an

a d d itio n a l so u rc e o f in c o m e .

A m a jo r issu e fa c in g fa rm e rs in th is p art

o f F ra n c e is t h e s te a d y loss o f p e o p le fro m

t h e land . M a n y sm all fa rm e rs are g o in g o u t

o f b usiness, le a v in g h o u s e s e m p ty . A s in

o th e r p e rip h e ra l re g io n s o f E u ro p e , y o u n g

p e o p le are m o v in g to t h e c itie s .T h e re is

e v id e n c e th a t o n e o r t w o w e a lt h ie r larg e

fa rm e rs are b u y in g u p v a c a n t land . S o m e o f

t h e v illa g e s c o n ta in s u m m e r h o m e s , o w n e d

b y Parisians, w ith a n u m b e r o f British

re sid e n ts b o th in h o lid a y a n d p e r m a n e n t

h o m e s. Prices fo r s o m e h o u s e s w it h o u t

lan d h a v e b e e n low , e n c o u r a g in g o ve rse a s

b uyers. V illa g e s still c o n ta in th e ir b a k e ry

a n d sh o p , o fte n w ith a b u tch e r, b u t c h il­

d re n are b e in g fo rce d to tra ve l in c re a sin g

d is ta n c e s t o s c h o o l.T h e s e fe a tu re s o f rural
life are c o m m o n to m a n y re m o te r areas

w it h in t h e EU.

T h e im p a c t o f E U re g u la tio n s c a n b e
se e n . M ilk q u o ta s in lin e w it h E U ru lin g s

h a v e b e e n se t b y th e g o v e r n m e n t

(p a g e 4 9 3 ).T h e y are g e n e ra lly h ig h e r th a n

in t h e UK, p e rh a p s d u e to t h e p o litic al

s tre n g th o f t h e farm ers, a n d are an e s t a b ­

lish e d p a rt o f t h e farm e c o n o m y . H o w e v e r,

t h e y are g e n e r a lly u n p o p u la r w it h local

farm ers. P e rh a p s t h e y w ill n o t b e t o o d is a p ­

p o in te d w h e n m ilk q u o ta s are p h a s e d o u t
b y 2015 (p a g e 493).

S u b s id ie s fo r la m b e n c o u r a g e t h e p ro ­

d u c e r to m a in ta in flocks. D e m a n d fo r la m b

Figure 16.68 is h ig h , as is s h o w n b y t h e h ig h p rice s in

t h e s u p e rm a rk e ts .
A co-operative creamery
in Normandy F ro m 1988, E U fa rm e rs w e r e p aid

su b sid ie s if t h e y left p arts o f th e ir land

u n c r o p p e d . P a y m e n ts fo r th is set-aside land

e n d e d in 200 8 w h e n t h e rise in g lo b a l fo o d

p rice s fo rc e d t h e EU to e n c o u r a g e fa rm e rs

t o b rin g b a c k in to p r o d u c tio n fo rm e r

c r o p - g ro w in g areas a n d to in tr o d u c e n e w

p o licie s b y w h ic h fa rm e rs w ill o n ly g e t

su b sid ie s if t h e y k e e p th e ir land in g o o d

c o n d itio n - t h e so -calle d 'h e a lth c h e c k '

(p a g e 493).

Farming and food supply 507

 4HgfflEW!?l Farming

N
A

Figure 16.69

The Nafferton Ecological

Farming Group's plan
conventional m anagement organic m anagement

w in ter oilseed rape p erm anen t pasture

spring beans perennial ryegrass ley
organic potatoes red clover ley
vegetables spring w h e at B O r g a n ic f a r m in g in
trial plots w in ter w h eat
N o r t h u m b e r la n d
spring barley
w in ter barley T h e N a ffe rto n E c o lo g ic a l F a rm in g G ro u p a:

N e w c a s tle U n iv e rs ity is lo c a te d a t N a ffe rto r

Conventional management
Crops Cereal-dominated rotation (typical of lowland
Northumberland) - almost a monoculture. An
8-year rotation would be 2 years silage, 2 years
Farm a d ja c e n t to t h e A 6 9 b e t w e e n
Organic management
N e w c a s tle a n d C a rlisle .T h e farm , in c lu d in g
Rotation includes legumes and prohibits
its b u ild in g s, c o v e rs 293 ha. In 2000 it w a s l
mowing. An 8-year rotation would be 3 years
red dover/grass cultivation, 1 year spring wheat, d iv id e d in to t w o e q u a l 140 ha parts, w ith

winter wheat, 1 year barley, 1 year industrial 1 year potatoes, 1 year spring beans, 1 year t h e lan d to t h e w e s t to b e fa rm e d c o n v e n ­
rape, 1 year winter wheat, 1 year barley vegetables, 1 year spring barley t io n a lly a n d t h a t to t h e e a s t o rg a n ic a lly

Can use from a range of 220 herbicides, 186 No synthetic herbicides or pesticides but S, Si (Fig u re 16.69). As w e ll as b e in g th e sa m e
pesticides and 43 fungicides and Cu can be used as nutrients size, b o th s e c tio n s w e r e to h a v e t h e sa m e

Significant use of soluble fertiliser No solublefertilisersuch as N and Cl (Figure 10.13) n u m b e r o f a n im a ls a n d - t h e id e al for th e

e x p e rim e n ta l c o m p a r is o n - e x a c tly t h e
Animals 90 dairy cows fed on silage, grazing or 80 dairy cows fed on home-grown cereals,
purchased feed (37% diet from grazing) beans or forage (80% diet from grazing) sa m e clim a te , soil an d re lie f.T h e d iffe re n ce s

Young stock and calves reared for beef
Maximum efficiency and production
Animals often kept indoors
Young stock rearing
Animal welfare/sustainability paramount
Access to outside (including chickens)
in c ro p s a n d a n im a l re arin g b e t w e e n th e
c o n v e n t io n a lly m a n a g e d a n d t h e o rg a n i­
ca lly m a n a g e d are as are s h o w n in Fig u re
16.70.T h e m o n e y fo r o rg a n ic fu n d in g an d

Figure 16.70 Lower stock density for re se arch c o m e s fro m t h e EU, w h ic h sets
Higher stock density
le g a lly b in d in g s ta n d a rd s to w h ic h t h e U K
How the land Greater medical protection No growth promoters
m u s t a d h e re ; t h e U K ca n a d d fu rth e r re g u ­
is farmed
Seasonal withdrawal period Longer withdrawal permitted lation s b u t c a n n o t d e le t e any.

508 Farming and food supply

 Farming E T O f f lB d f t
T h e E c o lo g ic a l F a rm in g G ro u p re se a rc h e s
t h e e ffe c ts o f soil, c r o p a n d live s to c k

m a n a g e m e n t o n fo o d q u a lity a n d safety,
e n v ir o n m e n t a l im p a c t, soil h e a lth an d

b io lo g ic a l ac tivity , b io d ive rsity , a n d t h e e c o ­

n o m ic v ia b ility o f t h e t w o ty p e s o f fa rm in g

syste m . It has c o n fir m e d t h a t t h e o rg a n ic

m a n a g e m e n t area:

• b y u sin g less fertiliser, p ro d u c e s less

C 0 2 a n d has a sm a lle r e c o lo g ic a l
fo o tp rin t (p a g e 379)

• b y usin g less n itro g e n , re d u c e s

e u tro p h ic a tio n (p a g e 494)

• b y u sin g c o m p o s t to b in d t h e

soil to g e th e r, re d u c e s soil e ro sio n

(p a g e 495)

• has a g re a te r b io lo g ic a l a c tiv ity (e.g.

e a rth w o rm s )

• d e s p ite n o t a d d in g fertiliser, w h ic h

in c re a se s c r o p yield s, h a s o u tp u ts
sim ila r t o t h o s e o f c o n v e n tio n a l
m e t h o d s o f t h e 1980s

• p ro d u c e s m ilk th a t is b o th b e tte r

in q u a lity a n d h e a lth ie r th a n th a t

p r o d u c e d c o n v e n t io n a lly (F ig u re 16.71).
B e in g a c o m m e r c ia l v e n tu re , w h a t t h e

re se a rc h c e n tre a c tu a lly g ro w s c a n b e

in flu e n c e d b y m a rk e t d e m a n d - so lo n g as

th is d e m a n d fits in to t h e ro ta tio n syste m .

F o r e x a m p le , if t h e m a rk e t p ric e fo r w h e a t
increases, t h e n m o re w h e a t m ig h t b e

p la n te d t h a t year. T h e c e n tre d o e s sell s o m e

o f its o w n p r o d u c e b u t ce re a ls a re s e n t to a
g rain m e rc h a n t fo r p ro c e s s in g b e fo re b e in g
s e n t t o s h o p s a n d su p e rm a rk e ts .

Organic milk has more healthy benefits

A study of organic milk, conducted by Professor Carlo Leifert of Newcastle University,
has shown that drinking organic milk has greater health benefits than drinking normal
milk. The study showed that organic milk contained 67 per cent more antioxidants and
vitamins than ordinary milk and 60 per cent more of a healthy fatty acid called
conjugated linoleic acid (CLA9) which tests have shown can shrink tumours. Similar
levels of vaccenic acid, which has been shown to cut the risk of heart disease, diabetes
and obesity, were also found as was an extra 39 per cent of the fatty acid Omega-3 which
has also been shown to cut the risk of heart disease.
Gillian Butler, the livestock project manager, pointed out the health benefits even if
consumers did not switch completely to organic milk. She pointed out that organic milk
is more expensive to produce, as you get less milk per unit of land, and to buy, but
because it is higher in all these beneficial compounds you do not need to buy as much to
get health benefits.

Figure 16.71
Adapted from Daily Telegraph, 28 May 2008
Findings on organic milk

Farming and food supply 599

 Farming

C Banana cultivation in so urce o f incom e, e m p lo y m e n t and e xp o rt t h e a m o u n t it exp o rts. In 1998, b a n a n a s

South and Central America earn in g s for several m ajo r exp o rtin g countries,
m ain ly in Latin A m e rica an d th e C arib b e an as
Ban an as are th e m ain fruit in international w e ll as in Asia an d Africa.
trad e and th e m o st e d ib le in th e w orld. In O v e r h a lf t h e w o rld 's b a n a n a s are g ro w n
te rm s o f v o lu m e th e y are th e first e x p o rt fruit in ju s t five c o u n trie s (F ig u re 16.74a) a n d 98
w h ile in va lu e th e y rank se co n d after citrus p e r c e n t in d e v e lo p in g c o u n trie s . D e s p ite
fruits.The b an a n a ind ustry is a v e ry im p o rtan t this, o n ly o n e in fiv e b a n a n a s e n te rs t h e
e x p o rt m a rk e t an d o f th e s e 70 p e r c e n t
Countries % total
c o m e fro m five c o u n trie s (F ig u re 16.74b).
a World producers
A lt h o u g h t h e y are t h e m a jo r e x p o rt o f
India 23 E c u a d o r a n d C o sta Rica, t h e h ig h e s t
Brazil 9 le ve ls o f d e p e n d e n c e c a n b e fo u n d in t h e
w e r e at t h e c e n tre o f a m a jo r tra d e d isp -
b e t w e e n t h e E U a n d t h e U SA .
B a n a n a s are c u ltiv a te d u n d e r tro p ica l
c o n d itio n s w h e r e t h e t e m p e ra tu r e s are
h ig h an d rainfall e x c e e d s 120 m m p er
m o n th . In s o m e tro p ic a l p la n ta tio n con< :
tio n s w h e r e e v a p o tra n s p ira tio n is hig h ,
g a tio n m a y b e u sed . D rip irrig a tio n is m e
e ffe c tiv e a n d p ro d u c e s a b e tte r b u n c h
w e ig h t o f b a n a n a s t h a n b asin irrigatio n.
In o rd e r to m e e t t h e d e m a n d s o f t h e m
k e tin g c o m p a n ie s , t h e b u n c h e s (o r h a r

W in d w a r d Island s o f S t L u cia (50 p e r c e n t o f o f b a n a n a s m u s t b e o v e r 270 g in w e i c '-

Ecuador 9
its e x p o rts), S t V in c e n t an d t h e G re n a d in e s, B a n a n a s g ro w n fo r local c o n s u m p tio n
China 8
D o m in ic a a n d G re n a d a . a re m a in ly c u ltiv a te d o n sm all la n d h o lc
Philippines 8 W o r ld tra d e in b a n a n a s is d o m in a t e d b y ings, w h ils t th o s e p r o d u c e d fo r e x p o rt a
Rest of wo rid 43 t w o g ro u p s o f p ro d u c e rs, t h e A C P (A frica, g ro w n o n larg e p la n ta tio n s (F ig u re 16T-

Countries % total C a rib b e a n an d Pa cific) p ro d u c e rs an d th e In m o st C a rib b e a n co u n trie s, b a n a n a s a

'd o llar p r o d u c e r s 'o f t h e C e n tra l A m e r ic a n g r o w n o n sm all fam ily-ru n p o t s . T h e e ra
b World exporters
re p u b lic s C o lo m b ia a n d E c u a d o r (c o n ­ req u ire s a h ig h la b o u r in p u t, w h ic h in t ^
Ecuador 29
t ro lle d b y larg e A m e ric a n tra n sn a tio n a ls ). C a rib b e a n island s is m a in ly p ro v id e d b .
Costa Rica 14 O v e r 80 p e r c e n t o f b a n a n a s e n te rin g s m a llh o ld e r's fam ily. S u c k e rs ta k e n fr o ~

Philippines 12 t h e E U c o m e fro m t h e C a rib b e a n w h e r e a m o th e r p la n t are ro o te d an d g r o w w e

t h e y a re g ro w n o n sm all fa m ily - o w n e d in t h e d e e p v o lc a n ic soils. W e e d s g ro w -
Colombia 10
fa rm s b y p e o p le w h o are a lm o s t to ta lly b e t w e e n t h e p la n ts n e e d to b e k e p t d :
Guatemala 6
re lia n t o n this s in g le c r o p as a so u rc e o f until th e p la n t is tall e n o u g h to o u t g r c a
Rest of world 29 in c o m e (F ig u re 16.75). B a n a n a s are g ro w n th e m . It is c o m m o n to se e p lan ts b e in g

Figure 16.74 o n p la n ta tio n s in t h e Iv o ry C o a s t an d s u p p o r te d b y p ro p s so th a t th e w e ig h :

C a m e r o o n w h ic h are also m e m b e r s o f ACP. t h e b u n c h d o e s n o t pull t h e p la n t ove-
World producers and exporters of bananas
E a c h c o u n t r y is g iv e n a q u o ta b a s e d o n Fru it has to b e p r o te c te d fro m b ruising

scarrin g . E a c h b u n c h m a y b e c o v e re d b;
Country Production Export % total Export (value
larg e p lastic b a g until it is re a d y fo r h a '
(tonnes) (t onnes) exported £'000s)
T h is take s p la c e a b o u t 10 m o n th s a f t e "
Belize 76000 64891 85 21353 p la n t is e s ta b lis h e d .T h e fru it is c u t w h e '
Colombia 1 764501 1 621 746 92 464959 is still g re e n a n d hard, a n d t h e n it is ta- ei

Costa Rica 1 875 000 1 775519 95 483 492 t h e p ro c e s s in g p lan t. Flere it is p a c k e c 5

re frig e rate d b e fo re b e in g sold o rs h ip c -

Dominica 16000 12732 80 6800
o v e rs e a s (F ig u re 16.74b).
Dominican Republic 547433 163 510 29 44640
O n th e C a rib b e a n island s m a rk e tin g
Ecuador 6118425 4764193 78 1 068659 is d o n e t h r o u g h tra n s n a tio n a ls su ch as

Grenada* 0 0 0 0 F y ffe s.T h e sm all fa rm e rs rely o n t h e b a -,

in d u s try to p ro v id e th e ir b asic n e e d s c J
Guatemala 1 150200 1 129477 98 238100
fo o d , s h e lte r a n d e d u c a tio n .
Honduras 887072 545 527 61 134698
T h e s e sm all-scale fa rm e rs are also t * e
Jamaica 125000 11713 93 4693 o n e s w h o su ffer m o s t fro m h u rric a n e

Mexico 2250041 70166 31 25342 d a m a g e as in 1998 w h e n H u rric a n e V ::

Nicaragua 49915 45532 91 11579 d e s tro y e d m u c h o f t h e p la n ta tio n area

o f N ic a ra g u a a n d H o n d u ra s, a n d in 21 :
Panama 439228 352480 80 96517
w h e n G re n a d a 's c r o p w a s d e v a s ta te d
St Lucia 45000 30630 68 15542
(F ig u re 16.75).
St Vincent & Grenadines 50000 24470 55 12815
Figure 16.75
Trinidad&Tobago 7000 39 6 23
Banana production in the Caribbean
World total 69644923 15 946146 23 5651 321
and Central America, 2005
* Grenada lost all its crop in 2005 through hurricane damage

510 Farming and food supply

 Farming

T h e in flu e n c e o f t h e larg e t ra n s n a ­

tio n a l c o m p a n ie s is s tro n g in t h e C e n tra l

A m e ric a n c o u n trie s w h e r e t h e b a n a n a s are

g r o w n o n t h e rich allu vial soils fo u n d o n

th e c o a s ta l lo w la n d s , p ro v id in g h ig h y ie ld s

p e r h e c ta re for larg e p la n ta tio n s o w n e d Dominica

' St Lucia
b y tra n sn a tio n a ls . L a b o u r is hired an d
f Barbados
o fte n lo w -p aid . L a n d is c a re fu lly c u ltiv a te d
St Vincent
an d m o re m e c h a n is a tio n is u s e d th a n o n Grenada ^Grenadines
Tobago
sm a lle r fa rm s .T h e re is in te n s iv e use o f fe rti­
Trinidad
liser a n d p e s tic id e s w h ic h is h a v in g c u m u la ­ .ago
tiv e e n v iro n m e n ta l effects. O n e o f t h e m o st

se rio u s o f th e s e is t h e d a m a g e to t h e coral

reefs o ff t h e C o sta R ican co ast, w h e r e 90 p e r

c e n t are n o w d e a d as a re su lt o f p e s tic id e

ru n o ff fro m b a n a n a p la n ta tio n s.

B a n a n a s w e r e to b e c o m e o n e o f t h e

first p ro d u c ts to b e tra d e d in te rn a tio n a lly

u n d e r t h e Fa irtra d e label (F ig u re 21.44)

an d also, in p laces, to b e g r o w n o rg a n i­
Figure 16.76
cally. U n d e r Fairtrad e, fa rm e rs in S o u th a n d
The banana
C e n tra l A m e ric a are g e ttin g a fairer p ric e for
producers
th e ir p ro d u c e , e n a b lin g t h e m to im p ro v e

th e ir s ta n d a rd o f livin g (Fig u re s 16.77b

an d 21.45).

F o llo w in g y e a rs o f e x p a n s io n b e c a u s e o f

in c re a se d d e m a n d fo r t h e fruit, t h e re is n o w

a p ro b le m o f o v e rs u p p ly . E c o n o m ie s su ch

as th o s e o f S t V in c e n t an d S t Lucia d e p e n d

o n t h e c r o p fo r s u rv iv a l.T h e re is a n e e d to

d ive rsify in to fo o d c ro p s a n d o t h e r cash

cro p s to re d u c e t h e d e p e n d e n c y o n o n e

m a jo r e x p o rt.

Figure 16.77
The banana industry:
a Bananas on the tree
b Preparing Fairtrade
bananas for export
Further reference
Barke, M. and O'Hare, G. (1991) TheThird Sustainable developm ent: UN FAO Statistics, lan d/agricu ltu re:
World, Oliver & Boyd. www.defra.gov.uk/sustainable/ (searchable by country or region)
Gee, N. (2005) 'Farm diversifica­ government/ http://faostat.fao.org/site/377/default.
tion ', Geography Review Vol 19 N o.2 UK D epartm ent fo r E nvironm ent, Food aspx#ancor
(November). and Rural Affairs (DEFRA): UN W orld Food Program m e (WFP):
O'Riordan, T. (2007) 'Agriculture and the www. defra.gov.uk/ www.wfp.org/english/
environm ent', Geography Review Vol 21 Union of C oncern ed Scientists (UCS): US D epartm ent o f Agriculture (USDA):
No 11 (September). www.ucsusa.org/globai_warming/ www.usda.gov/
Timberlake, L. (1987) Only One Earth, UN Food and A griculture Organisation W orld Resources Institute: Feeding the
Earthscan/BBC Books. (FAO): W orld:
www.fao.org/ www.igc.org/wri/wri/wri/wr-98-99/
CAP Policy:
UN FAO C om pendium of Food and feeding.htm
www.sustainweb.org/news.php?id=93
Agriculture Indicators: (searchable by
Fam ine and food supply:
cou ntry)
www.ifpri.cgiar.org
www.fao.org/ES/ess/
Farm ing in the UK: com pendium_2006/list.asp
www.defra.gov.uk/environment/statistics

Questions & Activities

A c t iv itie s

Study the map in Figure 16.78. It shows the general

pattern of intensity of farming in Europe.
a i Describe the location of the areas where
average intensity of farming is 75 per cent of
the average, or lower. (2 marks)
ii Choose a named location within the area
described in i and explain why physical
geography makes farming difficult in that area.
(3 marks)
b i Describe the location ofthe area with average
intensity 50 per cent or more above average. (2 marks)
ii Explain how market forces have affected the
development ofthe area of intensive farming
you have described in i. (4 marks)
c Name o n e area of intensive farming that is found
within the peripheral area of Europe.
i Describe the type of farming.
ii Explain why this area of intensive farming has
developed there. (7 marks)
d Name o n e area of low-intensity farming found
within the farming core.
i Describe the type of farming.
ii Explain why this area of low-intensity farming
has developed, despite the favourable market
conditions. (7 marks)

Figure 16.78
Intensity of agriculture in Europe
(after van Valkenburg and Held,
1952)

512 Farming and food supply

 Study Figure 16.79. What do the following terms mean:

a Complete a copy ofthe table below. (4 marks) •extensive farming

b Moorland and woodland both produce low returns •capital-intensive farming

for farmers. •labour-intensive farming? (3 marks)
i Using information from your table, suggest Name o n e area where capital-intensive farming
what is the main physical type of land in this has developed. Explain how market conditions in
sample that is left as: that area have encouraged the development of
•moorland this type of farming. (5 marks)
Name one area where labour-intensive farming
•woodland. (2 marks)
with low capital inputs has developed. Explain how
ii Suggest why each of these types of land is not used physical and social conditions have encouraged
for a type of farming that produces better returns. the development of this type of farming. (5 marks)
(6 marks)

Altitude in metres Angle of slope in degrees

Arable 0 -2 0 0-3
Improved pasture

Rough pasture

Woodland Figure 16.79

Moorland
Relationships between land use,
altitude and slope in south-east Arran

arable im proved rough w o o dlan d m oorland arable im proved rough w o o d lan d m oorland
pasture pasture pasture pasture

land use land use

3 a Modern farming practices threaten the environment c 'I would like to manage my farm in a more eco-
in many ways. Describe one problem that can result friendly way, but I feel that I must farm as intensively
from each ofthe following practices: as modern scientific techniques will allow. Farmers
i increasing use of chemicals on the land (4 marks) like me must produce maximum possible yields in
order to feed the starving millions in poor countries
ii increasing the size of fields (4 marks)
throughout the world.'
iii draining wetlands. (4 marks)
Imagine that a farmer who ran a very intensive
b Choose o n e ofthe problems that you described in a. farm in East Anglia made the statement above. Flow
Explain how changes in the management ofthe land might you reply if you wanted to convince him that
can reduce this problem. (6 marks) he ought to consider a less intensive form of farming?
(7 marks)

Farming and food supply 513

Exam practice: basic structured questions

4 a Physical controls have an important effect on the type
of farming in most agricultural areas. Choose two of
the following physical factors. For each of your chosen
factors, explain how it influences farming. Illustrate each
part of your answer with reference to a named area.
i temperature
ii precipitation
b Name one region where farming mainly for
subsistence is still important. Outline the main
features ofthe farming system and explain why
subsistence farming is still important there. (8 marks,
c With reference to one or more crops, discuss the
strengths and weaknesses ofthe plantation system
of agriculture. (lOmarks

iii soil. (8marks) 6 a Name a less economically developed country (LEDC)

b The use of technology can reduce the farmer's that has suffered / is suffering from famine. Explain the
dependence on physical factors. Explain how this has causes of the famine. You should refer to both natural
happened in: and human causes. (lOmarks
i a named farming region in a more economically b 'Famine and food shortage are likely to increase in
developed country (5marks) future.'Give two reasons why this is likely. (5 marks
ii a less economically developed country where c i With reference to one or more named case studies,
intermediate technology has been used. (5 marks) explain how land reform can improve total food
c Explain what is meant by'organic farming'and explain why production in LEDCs. (5 marks
it has grown in importance in recent years. Illustrate your ii With reference to one or more case studies,
answer by reference to one or more case studies. (7marks) explain how appropriate technology (intermediate
technology) can help increase agricultural yields
5 a Name one region where commercial grain production in LEDCs. (5 marks
makes an important contribution to the world's food
supply and describe the main features of agricultural
production in that area. (7marks)

Exam practice: structured questions

7 Two ofthe biggest causes of problems of food supply in less

economically developed countries (LEDCs) are:
•the need for land reform
•the need for access to improved technology.
a Explain why each of these presents problems for farmers
in LEDCs. Refer to one or more examples that you have
studied. (9 marks)
b Describe a scheme to improve land tenure in a named
LEDC, and assess how successful that scheme has been.
(8 marks)
c Describe a scheme to improve the level of technology
available to farmers in a named LEDC, and assess how
successful that scheme has been. (8 marks)

8 a i Outline three of the basic aims of the European

Agriculture in the Li
Union's (EU) Common Agricultural Policy (CAP).
Valley, near Guilin
(3 marks)
ii Why did the CAP lead to overproduction and
surpluses in the 1980 and 1990s? (5marks)
b Recent reforms ofthe CAP have led to the introduction of
a number of schemes that are designed to improve the
rural environment.
i Describe the policy of'set-aside'and explain its role in
improving the environment. (5 marks)
ii Explain how improvements in the rural environment
in the UK can be brought about by either the
introduction of Environmentally Sensitive Areas
(ESAs) or Stewardship schemes. (12 marks)

9 Study the photographs in Figure 16.80.They were both

taken near Guilin in China.

514 Farming and food supply

 a i Describe evidence in photograph B which shows
thatfarming is intensive in this area. (4marks) 180 -
ii Two crops per year can be taken from farmland in
photograph A. Suggest how the land is kept fertile,
even though the people cannot afford inputs of
artificial fertiliser. (4 marks)
iii Land in the background of photograph A is not
farmed. Suggest why not. (4 marks)
b •Before the revolution in 1949, farming in this part of
China was mostly subsistence farming. Farms were
small and fragmented and tenants had to give up to
half their produce to absentee landlords.
•After the revolution, land was divided amongst the
peasants, but most plots were too small to support
the families who worked them.
distance from market (km)
•After several experiments the government created
'people's communes'in which around 15 000 people
Figure 16.81
pooled their land and labour to run the farm.
•Since 1979 individual farmers have been given more Net profit curve for market gardening
responsibility, and now they are allowed to sell surplus around atown on a uniform plain
crops at local markets, and to keep the profits.
Suggest why yields are higher under the present 11 Study Figure 16.82.
system than they have been under any ofthe a Explain how the Common Agricultural Policy of
previous systems. (13 marks) the European Community (now the European Union)
led to the development of surpluses like those shown
10 a On a copy of Figure 16.81 add:
in the table. (6 marks)
i net profit curves for dairying and wheat when
b Explain how these surpluses were reduced during
locational rent for:
the period from 1986. (7 marks)
•dairying is £120 at the market and £0 at 60 km
c Increasing intensification of farming in the UK and
•wheat is £80 at the market and £0 at 80 km. (6 marks) other parts ofthe European Union has damaged
ii labelsto show: the environment in several ways.
•the margin of transference from market gardening Evaluate methods that have been introduced by
to dairying the EU and the UK government to encourage the
sustainable development of farming. (12 marks)
•the margin of transference from dairying to wheat
•the margin of cultivation for wheat. (3 marks)
January 1986 January 1992
b Explain why land use changes at the margins of
transference. (4 marks) Commodity (figures in thousand tonnes unless otherwise stated)
c i Explain why von Thunen's model is difficult to apply Butter 1400 300
to agricultural patterns in the modern world.
Skimmed mild powder 800 0
ii In what ways is von Thunen's model still useful to an
understanding of modern agricultural geography? Beef 500 800
(12 marks) Cereals 15000 7000
Wine/alcohol 4000 (hectolitres) 2500 (hectolitres)

Figure 16.82

EUfood surpluses
Exam practice: essays

12 'Modern agri-business is not a sustainable form of farming.'
Discuss this statement using the following headings:
•What is the nature of modern agri-business?
•Is modern agri-business sustainable?
•Can agri-business be made less damaging to the
environment? (25 marks)
13 'As farming becomes more modernised the influence of
economic factors increases while the influence of physical
factors decreases.'
Discuss this statement with reference to farming in regions
at varying levels of development. (25 marks)
14 'Since the 1950s increased food production has meant
increased food security for most of the world's people,
but there are exceptions to this pattern. Moreover, food
production cannot go on increasing for ever.'
Discuss this statement, with reference to countries at
different stages of development. (25 marks)
15 Evaluate the outcomes of the Green Revolution and
consider how the lessons from this should influence the
introduction of modern developments such as GM crops.
(25 marks)

Farming and food supply 515

 Rural land use
• • ® ® •
rN or rural sights a lo n e , b u t rural sou n ds, e x h ila ra te the
spirit , '
William Cowper
'I see th e rural virtues lea v e the la n d . '
Oliver Goldsmith
T he term ru ra l refers to th o se less densely
populated parts o f a co u n try w h ich are recog ­
nised by th e ir visual 'co u n try sid e' co m p o n en ts.
Areas defined by th is perception will depend
u p on w h eth er a tte n tio n is directed to eco n o m ic
criteria (a h ig h d ep end en ce upon agriculture for
in co m e), social and d em ograp hic factors (the
'rural way o f life' and low p o p u latio n density) or
spatial criteria (rem oteness from urban centres).
U sually it is im possible to give a single, clear
d efin itio n o f rural areas as, in reality, th ey o ften
m erge in to u rban centres (th e ru ral-u rb an
fringe) and differ betw een cou ntries. A lthough
generalisations m ay lead to ov er-sim p lifications
(Fram ew ork 11, page 3 4 7 ), it is useful to id en tify
th ree m a in types o f rural area.
1 Instead,
W here th ere is relatively little dem and for th ere is usually a gradual gradation
land, certain rural activities can be carried
ou t on an extensive scale, e.g. arable farm ing
The urban-rural i n th e C an adian Prairies and forestry o n th e
continuum C an ad ian Shield.
(a b s o lu te u rb a n ity ) shadow
516 Rural land use
2 In m an y areas, especially in e co n o m ically
d eveloping cou n tries, th ere is considerable
pressure up on th e land w h ich results in its
in ten siv e use. W here h u m an co m p etitio n for
land use b eco m es to o great to sustain every­
one, th e area is said to be overpopulated
(page 3 7 6 ). This o ften leads to rural depopula­
tio n , e.g. th e m o v e m e n t to urban centres in
Latin A m erican cou ntries (page 366).
3 In m an y e co n o m ica lly developed countries,
co m p etitio n for land is greater in urban th an
in rural areas. The resu ltan t h ig h land value?
and d eclin in g quality o f life are leading to
a rep op u latio n o f th e cou ntryside (urban
d ep opu lation), e.g. m ig ration out o f New
York and L ond on (page 3 6 5 ).
The urban-rural continuum
It is now un usual to find a clear d istin ctio n
b etw een w here urban settlem en ts and land use
end and rural settlem en ts and land use begin.
show ing a decrease in urban characteristics
w ith in creasin g d istance from th e city centre
Figure 1 7 .1 ). This is know n as th e u rb a n -ru ra l
c o n tin u u m (page 3 9 3 ).
a g ric u ltu ra l (a b s o lu te ru ra lity)
 index of rurality for England and Wales (after Cloke, 1977)
The urban-rural con tin u u m includes th e rate at
Characteristics in
w h ich rural settlem ents expand or decrease as Indices rural areas
people m ove ou t o f or in to nearby cities; changes
Population per ha Low
in the socio-econ o m ic base as services and other
: : change in population Decrease
Figure 173 fu n ction s are transferred to th e countryside; and
changes in land use resulting from increased pres­ : ototal population: over 65 years High
Rurality in England
sure exerted o n rural areas by nearby urban areas. % total population: male 15-45 years Low
and Wales
% total population: female 15-45 years Low

Occupancy rate: % population at 1.5 per room Low

Households per dwelling Low

% households with exclusive use of (a) hot water High

(b) fixed bath (c) inside WC

%in socio-economic groups: 13/14farmers High

% in socio-economic group: 15 farmworkers High

% residents in employment working outside the Low

rural district

% population resident < 5 years Low

% population moved out in last year Low

% in-/out-migrants Low

Distance from nearest urban centre of 50 000 High

Distance from nearest urban centre of 100 000 High

Distance from nearest urban centre of 200 000 High

T here are a n u m ber o f m easures o f th e in te n ­

sity o f ch an g e over d istance, o f w h ich th e best
know n is Cloke's in d e x o f ru ra lity (Figure 17.2).
T h e in d ex is o b tain ed by co m b in in g a range
o f so cio -e co n o m ic m easures or variables, w ith
absolute u rban ity at on e extrem e and absolute
rurality at th e other. U sing his in d ex o f rurality,
Cloke th e n produced a m ap w ith a five-fold
classificatio n to show rurality in England and
e x tre m e rural W ales (Figure 17.3).
in te rm e d ia te rural Figure 1 7 .4 show s som e o f th e m a jo r co m p et­
itors for land in a rural area. In m any parts o f th e
in te r m e d ia te no n-rural
world, farm ing takes up th e m a jo rity o f th e land
e x tre m e non-rural
and, especially in d eveloping cou ntries, em ploys
u rb a n d is tricts m o st o f th e p o p u latio n .

RURAL LAND USE

Farming
C h a p te r 16
Mining and quarrying
C h a p te rs 8 a n d 17
Water supply
C h a p te r 3
Conservation 1
C h a p te r 20
1
m a jo r user e x tra c tio n o f ra w m a te ria ls N a tio n a l Parks, n a tu re ru b b ish
o f rural lan d res e rv e s , b ird
s a n c tu a r ie s ____
Military training Forestry Recreation Transport Settlements
C h a p te r 17 C h a p te r 20 C h a p te r 21 C h a p te r 14
grounds
n a tu ra l a n d m a n y u ses in c o m p e titio n a irp o rts, road s h a m le ts a n d
c o m m e rc ia l w ith o th e r la n d uses v illa g e s
Need for rural
management

Figure 17.4

Competition for rural land use R u ra l la n d u s e 517

and the need for management
ofrural resources
 Forestry
In Britain
N e o lith ic farm ers began th e clearan ce o f B ritain's
prim eval forests ab ou t 3 0 0 0 years ago. Aided
by th e d ev elop m en t o f axes, som e clearances
m ay have b een o n a scale n o t dissim ilar to th a t
in parts o f th e tro p ical rainforests o f today. In
1 9 1 9 , w ith less th a n 4 per cen t o f th e UK covered
in trees, th e Forestry C o m m ission was set up to
b eg in a co n tro lled rep lan tin g schem e. Since th e n
th e p o licy has b een to lo o k towards an e co n o m ic
profit over th e lon g term and to try to p ro tect th e
e n v iro n m en t. By 2 0 0 8 , 11 per cen t o f th e UK was
classified as w oodland, b u t th is still rem ained
one o f th e low est p ro p ortio n s in th e EU.
Deciduous trees are m ore suited to England
w here th e relief is lower and th e lo catio n m ore
southerly, whereas conifers are better adapted to
Scotland w ith its high er relief and m ore n orth erly
latitude.
Coniferous Deciduous
England 32% 68%
Scotland 78% 22%
UK 58% 42%
M uch o f Britain's surviving, established w oodland
is deciduous while m ost o f th e 20 th -cen tu ry
forest planted by th e Forestry C om m ission was
coniferous. This is m ain ly because conifers, being
softwoods, have a m u ch greater com m ercial
Figure 17.5
Advantages
The case for and
Socio-economic
against forestry in
Britain (o/ferWarren, N a tio n a l t im b e r n e e d s - t h e U K su p p lie s o n ly 1 3 % o f its
Geography Review, o w n t im b e r a n d has a larg e a n n u a l im p o rt bill fo r w o o d
March 1998) p ro d u c ts.
P ro v id e s e m p lo y m e n t, e s p e c ia lly as lo c a te d in th o s e rural
a re as w h e r e jo b s are in s h o rt su p p ly.
A p o sitiv e m e th o d o f usin g set-aside land.
Non-market/environmental
T rees are a r e n e w a b le re so u rc e if c a re fu lly m a n a g e d
an d , b y p la n tin g in t h e U K , re d u c e s p ressu re s o n tro p ica !
fo re sts (s u s ta in a b le d e v e lo p m e n t).
T rees re p la c e o x y g e n in t h e a tm o s p h e re a n d so h e lp
c o u n te rb a la n c e t h e in c re a s e o f c a rb o n d io x id e a n d its
e ffe c ts o n g lo b a l w a rm in g .
Fo rests re d u c e w a t e r ru n o ff (p a g e 63).
Fo re sts c o n trib u te to b io d ive rsity , p ro v id in g h a b ita ts fo r
a ra n g e o f fa u n a a n d flora, e.g. red d e e r a n d red squirrels.
Fo rests o ffe r o p p o r tu n itie s fo r re cre a tio n , a n d tre e s m a k e
a n a e s th e tic c o n trib u tio n to t h e c o u n try s id e .
S o m e p e o p le a rg u e th a t fo re sts are p a rt o f Britain's
tra d itio n a l la n d sc a p e .
518
value th a n deciduous trees. This is partly due to
th eir greater range o f use, ranging from paper
to furniture, and partly because, regardless of
w heth er th ey are grown naturally or have been
replanted, as there are fewer species w ithin a given
area th a n in a deciduous w oodland, selection and
felling o f trees is m ade easier.
Softwoods growing in th e poor soils and harsh
clim ate o f northern Britain take betw een 4 0 and
6 0 years to mature and so afforestation was always
looked upon as an investm ent for future gen­
erations. M ost o f the p re-1980 plantations were
neither attractive for hu m an recreation nor as
a habitat for wildlife (Figure 17.5). Since then, a
strong conservation lobby has ensured that modem
plantations are carefully landscaped while a more
sustainable forest m anagem ent aims to provide
social and environm ental advantages, to m ain­
tain an econom ically viable forestry sector and to
protect w oodlands for future generations. In the last
tw o or three decades, the previously all-important
econom ic factor has given way to a broader range of
objectives th at include am enity landscaping, wild­
life m anagem ent and recreation, while forest opera­
tions have moved towards smaller-scale practices
th a t are environm entally and aesthetically more
sensitive (Figure 17.6). Such has been the m ove­
m ent away from w hat had been virtually a m ono­
culture, w ith perhaps on ly one, or two at the m o st
species of conifer being planted over a large area,
th at betw een 2 0 0 4 and 2 0 0 8 , 84 per cent of newly
planted trees w ithin the UK were deciduous.
Disadvantages
Landscape
Ea rly p la n ta tio n s w e r e v is u a lly in tru siv e w ith th e ir rigid
g e o m e tric p attern s, a n d w ith n o re g ard fo r n atu ral
fe atu re s.
O ft e n a 'b la n k e t a f fo r e s t a t io n ',u s in g ju s t o n e s p e c ie s r
tree, c r e a te d a m o n o c u ltu re w it h a u n ifo rm ity o f heig--
a n d colour.
T h e y tra n s fo rm e d th e la n d s c a p e a n d o b lite ra te d v ie v s
C o n c e rn o v e r t h e sp e e d a n d sc ale o f re p lan tin g .
Environmental
In tro d u c tio n o f n o n - n ativ e sp e cie s, su ch as t h e N o n *
A m e ric a n S itk a s p ru c e a n d lo d g e p o le p in e, as th e y
fa s te r- g ro w in g th a n in d ig e n o u s sp ecies.
D e s tru c tio n o f v a lu e d e n v ir o n m e n ts su ch as th e FI c
C o u n try w e t la n d s o f C a ith n e s s a n d S u th e rla n d , an d
m o o r la n d s e ls e w h e r e in u p la n d Britain.
A d v e rs e im p a c ts o n flo ra a n d fa u n a , e.g. m o o rla n d fc
a n d plants.
C o n c e rn s o v e r w a t e r q u a lity as a ffo re sta tio n led to
in c re a s e d a c id ific a tio n o f lakes a n d rivers, a n d d is r„
runoff.

Figure 17.6 In developing countries
■‘anaging an upland C om m ercial forestry is a relatively new venture
British forest (Kielder)
in th e tropics. It is usually controlled by trans­
n ation als based overseas w hich look for an im m e­
diate eco n o m ic profit and have little th o u g h t for
th e long-term future or th e en viron m en t. The
UN suggests th a t over h a lf o f th e world's forests
were cleared during th e last m illen n iu m and
th a t the present rate o f clearance is 1 0 2 0 0 0 km 2
annually. O f this, 9 4 0 0 0 km 2 is in developing
countries located in th e tropical areas o f Africa,
Latin Am erica and South-east Asia where rates of
replantin g are o ften m inim al.
The underlying causes of deforestation in devel­
oping countries are varied. Key issues, according
to the World W ide Fund for Nature, include
unsustainable levels o f consum ption; th e effects
o f national debt; pressure for increased trade and
developm ent; poverty; patterns of land ownership;
and growing populations and social relationships.
It is also usual to blam e forest destruction on the
poor farmers o f these countries rather th an on the
resource-consum ing developed countries.
s u m m its left c le a r fo r h e a th e r m o o rla n d s
w h ic h p ro v id e a h a b ita t fo r g ro u s e an d
g o ld e n e a g le s
m a tu r e w o o d la n d fo rm s a h a b ita t fo r
t a w n y o w ls a n d p ro v id e s fo o d fo r s h o r t­
e a re d o w ls
tre e s p la n te d a t d iffe re n t tim e s as
d iffe re n c e s in h e ig h t a re s c e n ic a lly m o re
a ttra c tiv e
a v a r ie ty o f s p e c ie s a n d a lo w e r d e n s ity o f
tre e s re p la n te d : h e lp s to e n c o u ra g e m o re
b ird life w h ic h fe e d s o n in se cts a n d so
re d u c e s th e n e e d fo r p e s tic id e s p ra y in g
o n ly sm all a re a s c le a re d a t o n e
tim e to r e d u c e 'scars'
g ra s sla n d p ro v id e s a h a b ita t fo r s h o r t­
e a re d o w ls a n d fo o d fo r t a w n y o w ls
w in d in g fo re s t road
la n d b e s id e ro a d s/tra cks c le a re d to a
w id th o f 100 m a n d le ft as g rass or
p la n te d w ith a ttra c tiv e d e c id u o u s tre e s
p o n d s c re a te d
c le a re d fo re st: b ra n c h e s left to rot; it
ta k e s 10 y e a rs fo r th e n u trie n ts to b e
re tu rn e d to th e soil
la n d n e x t to riv e r le ft c le a r fo r m ig ra tin g
a n im a ls s u ch as d e e r
D uring com m ercial operations the forest is
totally cleared by chainsaw , bulldozer and fire:
there is no selection o f trees to be felled. The sec­
ondary succession (page 3 1 8 ) is o f poorer-quality
trees, as little restocking is undertaken. W here
afforestation o f hardw oods does take place, there
is often in su fficient m o n ey for fertiliser and pes­
ticide. The hop e for th e future m ay lie in ag ro ­
forestry, where trees and food crops are grown
alongside each other. Forest soils, n orm ally rated
unsuitable for crops, can be im proved b y growing
legum inous tree species. C om m ercial forestry
is m ore difficult to operate in developing co u n ­
tries as they are distant from world m arkets, the
dem and for hardw ood is less th an for softwood,
and althou gh there are several hundred species in
a small area on ly a few are o f eco n o m ic value.
The th rea t o f th e d estru ction o f th e rain fo r­
ests has b eco m e a m a jo r global co n c ern . Som e of
th e con seq u en ces o f d eforestation are described
in Places 76 and Case Study 11.
Rural land use 519
 Ethiopia, A m a zo n ia and Malaysia: forestry
Places 76
in developing countries
Ethiopia c lim a tic re p e rc u s s io n s - c o u ld t h e A m a z o n B a sin

E a r ly in t h e 2 0 th c e n t u r y , 4 0 p e r c e n t o f E t h io p ia b e c o m e a n o t h e r E t h io p ia ? T h e r e is a m u c h g r e a te r

w a s fo re s te d . T o d a y t h e fig u r e is 11 p e r c e n t . In n e e d fo r sustainable lo g g in g .
1901, a t r a v e lle r d e s c r ib e d p a r t o f E t h io p ia as b e in g

'm o s t fe r t ile a n d in t h e h e ig h t s o f c o m m e r c ia l Malaysia: a model for the future?

p r o s p e r it y w it h t h e w h o le o f t h e v a lle y s a n d lo w e r
M a la y s ia h a s s e v e r a l t h o u s a n d s p e c ie s o f tre e ,
s lo p e s o f t h e m o u n t a in s o n e v a s t g r a in fie ld . T h e
m a in ly h a r d w o o d s , w it h t im b e r a n d lo g s b e in g
n e ig h b o u r in g m o u n t a in s a re still w e ll- w o o d e d .T h e
t h e c o u n t r y 's th ird - la rg e s t e x p o rt. H o w e v e r , t h e
n u m e r o u s s p rin g s a n d s m a ll riv e rs g iv e a m p le w a t e r
g o v e r n m e n t h a s im p o s e d s tric t c o n tro ls , a n d t h e
fo r d o m e s t ic a n d irrig a tio n p u rp o s e s , a n d t h e w a t e r
F o r e s t r y D e p a r t m e n t 'm a n a g e s t h e n a tio n 's fo re s t
m e a d o w s p r o d u c e a n in e x h a u s t ib le s u p p ly o f g o o d
a re a s to e n s u r e s u ffic ie n t s u p p ly o f w o o d a n d o t h e r
g ra s s t h e w h o le y e a r.'A c e n t u r y later, t h e s a m e a re a
fo r e s t p r o d u c e a n d m a n a g e s a n d im p le m e n t s fo re s t
w a s d e s c r ib e d a s 'a v a s t b a rre n p la in w it h e d d ie s o f
a c t iv it ie s t h a t w o u ld h e lp to s u s ta in a n d in c r e a s e
s p ira llin g d u s t t h a t w a s o n c e t o p s o il.T h e m o u n t a in s
t h e p r o d u c t iv it y o f t h e f o r e s t ' (Malaysia Official
w e r e b a re o f v e g e t a t io n a n d t h e riv e r c o u r s e s dry.'
Year Book, 2 0 0 7 ). T h e D e p a r t m e n t in sists t h a t tre e s
A s t h e t re e s a n d b u s h e s w e r e c le a re d , less ra in fa ll
re a c h a s p e c ific h e ig h t , a g e a n d g ir th b e fo re t h e y
w a s in t e r c e p t e d a n d s u r fa c e r u n o ff in c re a s e d ,
c a n b e fe lle d (F ig u re s 17.7 a n d 17.8). L o g g in g
re s u ltin g in less w a t e r f o r t h e s o i l, a n im a ls a n d
c o m p a n ie s a re g iv e n c o n t r a c t s onVy o n a g r e e m e n t
p la n t s .T h e r e h a s b e e n lit t le a t t e m p t to t r e a t t h e
t h a t t h e y w ill r e p la n t t h e s a m e n u m b e r o f tre e s
fo re s t as a sustainable re s o u rc e .
as t h e y r e m o v e . M a n y n e w ly p la n t e d h a r d w o o d s

a re r e a d y fo r h a r v e s t in g w it h in 2 0 - 2 5 y e a r s
Amazonia d u e to t h e fa v o u r a b le lo c a l g r o w in g c o n d itio n s .

T h e c le a r a n c e o f t h e ra in fo r e s ts m e a n s a loss o f F u r t h e r e x p e r im e n t s a r e b e in g m a d e w it h a c a c ia s

h a b it a t t o m a n y In d ia n trib e s , b ird s, in s e c ts , r e p tile s a n d ra tta n , b o th o f w h ic h g r o w e v e n faste r.

a n d a n im a ls . O v e r h a lf o f o u r d ru g s , in c lu d in g o n e C o n s e q u e n tly , h a lf o f M a la y s ia is still fo r e s t e d a n d as

fro m a s p e c ie s o f p e r iw in k le w h ic h is u s e d to t r e a t m o s t o f t h e re m a in in g th ird is u n d e r t r e e c r o p s su ch

le u k a e m ia in c h ild re n , c o m e f r o m th is re g io n . It as r u b b e r, o il p a lm a n d c o c a (P la c e s 68, p a g e 483

is p o s s ib le t h a t w e a re c le a r in g a w a y a p o s s ib le sto c k s a r e b e in g s u c c e s s fu lly m a in t a in e d . E v e n so,

c u r e fo r A ID S a n d o t h e r as y e t in c u r a b le d is e a s e s . M a la y s ia 's ra p id in d u s t r ia lis a t io n (P la c e s 91, p a g e

(D e s p it e t h e ra in fo re s ts b e in g t h e w o r ld 's ric h e s t 5 7 8 ) is c a u s in g in c r e a s e d d e f o r e s t a t io n , e s p e c ia lly

re p o s it o r y o f m e d ic a l p la n ts , o n ly 2 p e r c e n t h a v e so a r o u n d t h e c a p it a l o f K u a la L u m p u r . A t t e m p t s h a v e

fa r b e e n s t u d ie d fo r p o t e n t ia l h e a lt h p r o p e rtie s .) b e e n m a d e to m a k e lo g g in g sustainable.

W it h o u t t re e co ve r, t h e fra g ile so ils a re ra p id ly

le a c h e d o f t h e ir m in e ra ls , m a k in g t h e m u se le ss
fo r c ro p s a n d v u ln e r a b le to e ro s io n

(F ig u re 1 2 .8 ).T h e A m a z o n fo re s t

s u p p lie s o n e - th ird o f t h e w o rld 's

o x y g e n a n d sto re s o n e - q u a r te r
o f t h e w o rld 's fre sh w a t e r - b o th

w o u ld b e lo s t if t h e re g io n w a s

to t a lly d e f o r e s t e d .T h e b u rn in g

o f t h e fo re s t n o t o n ly r e d u c e s t h e

a m o u n t o f o x y g e n g iv e n off, b u t

in c re a s e s t h e re le a s e o f c a r b o n

d io x id e (a c o n t r ib u t o r y c a u s e o f

g lo b a l w a r m in g ). It has a ls o b e e n

s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e d e c re a s e
in e v a p o t r a n s p ir a t io n , a n d

s u b s e q u e n tly rain fall, c a u s e d b y

d e fo r e s ta tio n c o u ld a lso h a v e se rio u s

 South-east Asia: forest fires
F ro m S e p t e m b e r 199 7 t o J u n e 1998, m u c h o f S o u t h ­
e a s t A s ia w a s b la n k e t e d b y a t h ic k s m o k e h a z e , in
r e a lity s m o g , c a u s e d b y t h o u s a n d s o f u n c o n tr o lle d
fo r e s t fire s, m a in ly in S u m a t r a a n d B o r n e o (F ig u r e
17.9). A t its p e a k t h e s m o k e h a z e c o v e r e d a n a re a
t h e siz e o f w e s t e r n E u r o p e a n d c a u s e d v is ib ilit y to
b e r e d u c e d to 50 m . Its e ffe c t s w e r e v a rio u s :
• H um an T h e A ir P o llu t io n In d e x o n S a r a w a k
r e a c h e d 851 (3 0 0 is c o n s id e r e d 'h a z a r d o u s '
fo r h u m a n life), c h ild r e n a n d h ig h - risk g r o u p s
a lr e a d y s u ffe rin g fro m r e s p ir a t o r y o r c a r d io ­
v a s c u la r d is e a s e s (P la c e s 99, p a g e 6 2 1 ) w e r e
p r o n e to m a jo r h e a lt h p r o b le m s , a n d s c h o o ls o n
S u m a t r a w e r e c lo s e d .
• Eco n o m ic A ir p o r t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e g io n
w e r e c lo s e d (a n a ir lin e c ra s h in S u m a t r a a n d a
s h ip c o llis io n in t h e S t r a it o f M a la c c a w e r e b o th
a t t r ib u t e d to t h e h a z e ), lo g g in g o p e r a t io n s w e r e
s u s p e n d e d a n d fa r m c r o p s d e s tr o y e d .
• En viro n m en ta l A n e s t im a t e d 90 p e r c e n t o f
c a n o p y tr e e s w e r e lo s t in S u m a t r a a n d B o r n e o ,
a n d t h e ra te o f s e c o n d a r y s u c c e s s io n w o u ld
b e s lo w ; so ils w e r e s e r io u s ly d e g r a d e d ; a n d
w ild lif e h a b it a t s w e r e lo s t (in c lu d in g t h o s e fo r
s u c h e n d a n g e r e d s p e c ie s as t h e o ra n g - u ta n ,
S u m a t r a n r h in o c e r o s a n d S u m a t r a n tig e r, a n d
a n ir r e p a r a b le loss in b io d iv e r s it y ).
M a n y In d o n e s ia n s , a c c u s to m e d to t h e h u m id c lim a te
a n d w ith little e x p e rie n c e o f d r y w e a th e r, still a d h e r e
t o fire-using tra d itio n s. Fire has lo n g b e e n u s e d as a
: igure 17.9 q u ic k a n d c h e a p m e th o d o f la n d c le a ra n c e b y farm ers,
a n d b y p la n ta tio n a n d fo re stry - c o n ce ssio n o w n e rs.
'aximum extent of
In 1997 t h e m o n s o o n rain s fa ile d a n d t h e re s u lta n t
5Tioke haze in 1997
and 2006 p ro lo n g e d d ro u g h t, b e lie v e d t o h a v e b e e n trig g e re d
George
_ Town,
BRUNEI
• Medan
• Kuala l)umpur
Sarawak
Kuching
SINGAPORE
• Pekanbaru
Pontianak
Jakarta
area affected
by the haze
b y t h e El N in o e v e n t (C ase S t u d y 9A), t o g e t h e r w ith th e
p re v a ilin g lan d use a n d lan d m a n a g e m e n t c o n d itio n s ,
p ro v e d id e a l c o n d itio n s fo r t h e s p re a d o f fo re st fires
o n a n u n p r e c e d e n te d s c a le .T h e re m o te n e s s o f t h e
fires a n d t h e lack o f reso u rces, o rg a n is a tio n an d
e x p e rtis e c o m b in e d to m a k e fire -co n tro l im p o ssib le .
S a te llite im a g e r y s u g g e s te d th a t, a lth o u g h t h e b la m e
fo r m o s t o f t h e fires w a s a p p o r t io n e d to t h e m a n y
sm all farm ers, 80 p e r c e n t o f t h e fires w e r e d u e to
larg e c o m p a n ie s . B y t h e t im e t h e rains d id c o m e , in
M a y 1 9 9 8 ,1 0 m illio n ha o f fo re st h a d b e e n b u rn t.
L e sso n s w e r e n o t le a rn e d , h o w e v e r, a n d fires a n d t h e
re s u lta n t s m o k e h a z e k e p t re tu rn in g e a c h y e a r until,
in 2006, th e c o n s e q u e n c e s w e r e a lm o s t as b a d as
in 1997-98. A s in 1997, t h e fires fo llo w e d a s u m m e r
d r o u g h t a s s o c ia te d w it h a n El N in o e v e n t (C ase
S t u d y 9A ). M o s t o f t h e o ut- of- co n tro l fires w e re , as in
p re v io u s years, o n t h e In d o n e s ia n islan d s o f S u m a tr a
a n d K a lim a n ta n (In d o n e s ia n B o r n e o ).G o v e r n m e n t
o fficials a c c u s e d t h e m a n y sm all fa rm e rs w h o c le a r
th e ir la n d a n n u a lly b y fire, w h e r e a s e n v ir o n m e n ta lis ts
c la im e d 80 p e r c e n t o f t h e fires w e r e b e g u n b y larg e
c o m p a n ie s c le a rin g lan d o n b ig p la n ta tio n s , t im b e r
e s ta te s a n d p ro te c te d areas. B y J u ly o v e r 100 fires
w e r e s p o tte d b y sate llite , b y w h ic h t im e m a n y p e o p le
w e r e a lr e a d y e x p e rie n c in g b re a th in g difficulties.
D u rin g t h e first w e e k o f O c to b e r, v is ib ility in P o n tia n a k
(K a lim a n ta n ) w a s re d u c e d to less th a n 50 m fo r se ve ral
d ays, a n d m a n y flig h ts fro m t h e to w n 's a ir p o rt w e r e
e ith e r d e la y e d o r c a n c e lle d . A ir p o llu tio n w a s said to
b e a t a 'd a n g e r o u s 'le v e l a n d p e o p le w e r e a d v is e d to
w e a r p ro te c tiv e fa c e m ask s if t h e y w e n t o u t o f d o o rs.
S c h o o ls r e m a in e d clo se d . A th ic k haze, b lo w n b y a
s tro n g w in d fro m S u m a tra , p r o m p te d S in g a p o r e to
w a r n p e o p le a g a in s t v ig o ro u s o u ts id e ac tivitie s, w h ile
in a d ja c e n t M a la ysia ,
K u ala L u m p u r
re c o rd e d 'u n h e a Ith y
a ir q u a lity '.T h e e v e n t
Sabah la ste d se v e ra l m o n th s.
In 2007, t h e In d o n e s ia n
Borneo
g o v e r n m e n t p le d g e d
to r e d u c e fo re st fires
w h ile a d m ittin g to
its n e ig h b o u rs th a t it
m ig h t b e in c a p a b le
Sulawesi o f to ta lly e ra d ic a tin g
th e m . W it h M a la ysia n
co - o p e ratio n ,
p e rs o n n e l w e re
b e in g tra in e d in fire
p re v e n tio n , fire co n tro l
Lombok
a n d p u b lic e d u c a tio n .
Rural land use 521
 Mining and quarrying
Even sin ce th e N e o lith ic (w hen flin t was e x ca ­
vated from ch alk pits), Bronze and Iron Ages,
quarrying and m in in g have b een an integral
part o f civ ilisatio n . It was th rou g h th e e x tra ctio n
and processing o f m inerals th a t m an y o f today's
'd eveloped ' cou ntries first becam e industrialised,
w hile to som e 'd evelo p in g ' cou ntries th e exp ort
of th eir m ineral w ealth provides th e o n ly hop e
of raising th eir standard o f living. T h e m odern
world depends up on 8 0 m a jo r m inerals, o f w h ich
18 are in relatively short supply, in clu d in g lead,
sulphur, tin , tu n g sten and zinc.
M inerals are a fin ite, non -ren ew able resource
w h ich m eans th at, a lth ou g h n o essential
m ineral is exp ected to run ou t in th e im m ed iate
future, th eir reserves are co n tin u a lly in d ecline.
R esources are th e to tal a m o u n t o f a m in eral in
th e Earth's crust. T h e q u a n tity and q u ality are
determ ined by geology. Reserves are th e am o u n t
of a m ineral th a t can be e co n o m ica lly recovered.
A lthough m an y item s in our daily lives
origin ated as m inerals extracted from th e
ground, n o m ineral can be quarried or m ined
w ith o u t som e cost to local co m m u n ities and th e
en v iro n m en t. Extractive industries provide local
jo b s and create n a tio n a l w ealth, b u t th e y also
cause in co n v en ie n ce, landscape scars, w aste tips,
loss o f natu ral hab itats, and various form s and
levels o f p o llu tion .
T h e m ost co n v e n ie n t m etho d s o f m in in g are
o p e n -ca st and q u a rry in g . In op en -cast m in in g ,
all th e v eg etation and to p soil are rem oved, thu s
d estroying w ildlife h ab itats and p reventing
Figure 17,10
o th er types o f e co n o m ic activity such as farm ing
Opencast mining for (Places 79). Sand and gravel are extracted from
coal, West Virginia,
depressions w h ich , a lth o u g h shallow, o ften
USA
reach dow n to th e w ater tab le, as in th e Lea
valley in n o rth -ea st L on d on. C oal and iro n ore
are o ften ob tain ed from deeper depressions
using drag-line excav ators w h ich are capable of
rem ov in g 1 5 0 0 to n n es per hou r (Figure 17.10).
O ften, th e w orst scars (eyesores) result from
quarrying in to hillsid es to ex tract 'hard rocks'
such as lim esto n e and slate (Figure 1 7 .1 1 and
Places 78). T here is usually greater e co n o m ic and
p o litical pressure for op en -cast co alm in in g th an
to quarry an y oth er resource: it is th e cheapest
m eth o d o f o b ta in in g a strategic energy resource
b u t n o n e generates greater social and e n v iro n ­
m en ta l op p ositio n . The increased dem and for
aggregates for road b u ild in g and ce m e n t m an u ­
facture has led to th e go-ahead b ein g given for
superquarries to be op ened up in m any different
parts o f th e world, in clu d in g th a t at D ehra Dun
in n o rth e rn India (Case Study 8).
M in in g involves th e c o n stru ctio n o f either
h o riz o n ta l a d it m in es, w here th e m ineral is
exposed on valley sides, or vertical sh aft m in es
w here seam s or veins are deeper.
D eep m in in g still affects local com m u nities
and th e en v iro n m en t e ith er by th e p iling up o:
rock w aste to form tips - o f coal in Sou th Wales
valleys (Aberfan, Case Study 2B ) and ch in a c l a y
in C ornw all, for exam p le - or by cau sing su rta x
subsid ence - as in som e C h esh ire saltw orkincs
W aste can also be carried in to rivers w here it car
cause flo o d in g by b lo ck in g ch an n els and, w hen
it co n ta in s poison ous substances, can kill fish
and p lants and co n ta m in a tse d rinking water
supplies. This was highlighted in early 1992 when
floodw aters from Cornw all's last w orking tin
m ine, W heal Ja n e , flowed in to rivers and to the
coast, carrying w ith th em arsenic and cadmium
 N orth W ales: slate quarrying
T h e O a k le y s la te q u a r r ie s w e r e firs t w o r k e d in 1818.
B y t h e 1840s, t h e m o s t e a s ily o b t a in e d s la te h a d
b e e n w o n a n d m in in g b e g a n .T h e in t r o d u c t io n o f
s te a m p o w e r a n d t h e b u ild in g o f t h e F fe s tin io g
r a ilw a y le d to t h e e x p o r t o f 52 m illio n s la te s
fro m P o r t h m a d o g in 1873. A t t h e q u a r r y 's p e a k
p r o d u c t iv it y , 2 0 0 0 m e n a n d b o y s w e r e e m p lo y e d
FjqUre 17 12 o n s e v e n d iffe r e n t le v e ls . E a c h le v e l w a s s t e e p ly
in c lin e d in t o t h e h ills id e s a n d w a s w o r k e d t o a
Spoil heaps above
Blaenau Ffestiniog, d e p t h o f 5 0 0 m . A p a r t fro m fa r m in g , t h e s la te
Gwynedd m in e s w e r e t h e s o le p r o v id e r s o f e m p lo y m e n t ,
Malaysia: tin mining
M a la y s ia (2 0 0 8 ) is t h e w o rld 's s e v e n t h m a jo r
p r o d u c e r o f tin o re b u t w h e r e a s it w a s t h e w o rld
le a d e r u n til 1993 a n d in 1970 w a s p r o d u c in g 40 p e r
c e n t o f t h e w o rld 's o u t p u t , n o w its c o n t r ib u t io n is
o n ly 1 p e r c e n t. E a rly tin m in in g w a s t y p ic a l o f t h e
c o lo n ia l t r a d e p e rio d (p a g e 6 2 4 ). B ritis h s e ttle rs
b r o u g h t in t h e c a p ita l, m a c h in e r y a n d t e c h n o lo g y ;
s u p e r v is e d t h e m in in g ; a n d o r g a n is e d t h e e x p o rt
o f tin fo r re fin in g . M a la y a , as it w a s t h e n k n o w n ,
r e c e iv e d f e w a d v a n t a g e s . M o s t tin w a s o b t a in e d b y
o p e n c a s t m e t h o d s a n d t h e u se o f h y d r a u lic jets.
A fte r in d e p e n d e n c e , w h e n t h e m in e s w e r e
n a tio n a lis e d a n d o p e r a t e d u n d e r t h e M a la y s ia n
Figure 17.13 g o v e r n m e n t , tin p la y e d a m a jo r ro le in t h e c o u n try 's
Disused tin mine, e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t a n d its e m e r g e n c e as o n e o f
Malaysia t h e 'A s ia n t ig e r s '(p a g e 578). H o w e v e r , s in c e t h e n th e
a n d B la e n a u F fe s tin io g 's p o p u la t io n p e a k e d a t
12 000. W o r k in g in c a n d le lig h t in d a m p a n d d u s t y
c o n d it io n s fo r u p t o 12 h o u rs a d a y , a n d w it h ro c k
fa lls c o m m o n (p re s s u r e re le a se , p a g e 4 1 ) t h e life
e x p e c t a n c y o f m in e rs w a s s h o rt. B y t h e t u r n o f t h e
c e n t u r y , t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f c la y r o o f tile s h e r a ld e d
t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e in d u s t r y 's d e c lin e a n d in
1971 t h e m in e a t B la e n a u c lo s e d . A d e c a d e later,
r e n a m e d G lo d d fa G a n o l, t h e u n d e r g r o u n d g a lle r ie s
w e r e r e - o p e n e d to to u ris ts , s o m e o f w h o m a rriv e
v ia t h e n a r r o w - g a u g e F fe s t in io g r a ilw a y .
A s t h e m in e s c lo s e d , p e o p le b e c a m e e ith e r
u n e m p lo y e d o r w e r e fo r c e d to m o v e t o s e e k w o r k
- t h e p r e s e n t p o p u la t io n o f B la e n a u is u n d e r 500.
T o d a y t h e s la te m in e s a re a to u ris t a t t r a c t io n a n d
h a v e a g a in b e c o m e t h e to w n 's la rg e s t e m p lo y e r .
A b o v e t h e ro w s o f t h e fo r m e r m in e r s 'c o t t a g e s t o w e r
t h e la rg e a n d u n s ig h t ly sp o il h e a p s (F ig u re 17.12) as
fo r e v e r y t o n n e o f u s a b le slate , te n t o n n e s o f w a s t e
w a s c r e a t e d - t h o u g h t h e s e sp o il h e a p s s e e m m o r e
s t a b le t h a n t h e c o a l tip s w h ic h a ffe c te d A b e r fa n
(C a s e S t u d y 2 B ). S o m e o f t h e o ld b u ild in g s h a v e
b e e n re s to re d as t o u ris t a t t r a c t io n s a n d t h e r e is little
e v id e n c e o f s u b s id e n c e as in o t h e r m in in g are as.
to ta l o u t p u t a n d t h e n u m b e r o f w o r k e rs h a v e fa lle n
r a p id ly d u e t o t h e d e p le t io n o f re s e rv e s (e s p e c ia lly
th o s e o f t h e h ig h e s t- q u a lity ), t h e lo w m a r k e t p ric e s
a n d t h e rising c o s ts o f e x tr a c tio n . M a n y o f t h e
fo r m e r m in e s h a v e b e e n le ft as la n d e ith e r c o v e re d
in m in in g sp o il (F ig u re 17.13) a n d p o llu t e d lak e s o r
w it h a b a n d o n e d o v e r h e a d 'railw ays', m a c h in e r y a n d
b u ild in g s . T h e re is ta lk o f re - o p e n in g s o m e o f t h e
m in e s in P e ra k in t h e n o rth - w e s t o f t h e c o u n t r y d u e
to a re s u rg e n c e in w o r ld p rices.
O n e o f t h e la rg e s t a b a n d o n e d m in e s lies 15 km
s o u th o f K u a la L u m p u r in a n a re a o f r a p id ly
g r o w in g h o u s in g a n d h ig h - te c h in d u s try . It h as
b e e n c o n v e r t e d in to a t h e m e p a rk w it h t h e w o rld 's
lo n g e s t a e ria l r o p e w a y , t o g e t h e r w it h w a t e r slid e s
a n d v a r io u s w a t e r s p o r ts (F ig u re 1 7 .1 4 ).
 Framework 17 Standard error calculations
H a v in g c o m p le t e d a n y s a m p lin g e x e rc ise
(F r a m e w o r k 6, p a g e 159), it is im p o r t a n t to
r e m e m b e r t h a t p a tte r n s e x h ib ite d m a y n o t
n e c e s s a rily re fle c t t h e p a r e n t p o p u la t io n . In o t h e r
If w e w a n t e d to b e m o r e a c c u r a t e , o r t o r e d u c e t h e
r a n g e o f erro r, t h e n w e w o u ld n e e d to t a k e a la rg e r
s a m p le . H a d w e ta k e n 100 v a lu e s in t h e a b o v e
e x a m p le , w e w o u ld h a v e h a d :

w o rd s , t h e re su lts m a y h a v e b e e n o b t a in e d p u re ly

b y c h a n c e . H a v in g d e t e r m in e d t h e m e a n o f t h e 0.4 0.4 (to tw o

SE = -= = ---- = 0 .0 4 decim al
s a m p le size, it is p o s s ib le to c a lc u la t e t h e d iffe r e n c e V l0 0 10.00 places)
b e t w e e n it a n d t h e m e a n o f t h e p a re n t p o p u la t io n b y
w h ic h m e a n s w e c a n n o w s a y w it h 6 8 p e r c e n t
a s s u m in g t h a t t h e p a r e n t p o p u la t io n w ill c o n fo r m to
c o n f id e n c e t h a t t h e m e a n d ia m e t e r size w ill lie
t h e n o rm a l d is tr ib u tio n c u r v e (F ig u re 6 .37). H o w e v e r,
b e t w e e n 2.7 c m ± 0.04 c m (i.e. 2.6 6 t o 2.7 4 c m ).
w h ile t h e s a m p le m e a n m u s t b e lia b le to s o m e e rro r
O f c o u r s e , t h is a ls o m e a n s t h e r e is a 32 p e r c e n t
as it w a s b a s e d o n a s a m p le , it is p o s s ib le t o e s t im a t e
c h a n c e t h a t t h e m e a n o f t h e p a r e n t p o p u la t io n is
th is e rro r b y u s in g a fo r m u la w h ic h c a lc u la t e s t h e
not w it h in t h e s e v a lu e s .T h is is w h y m o s t s ta tis tic a l
standard error o f the m ean (S E).
t e c h n iq u e s in g e o g r a p h y r e q u ir e a n s w e r s a t t h e

95 p e r c e n t c o n f id e n c e le v e l.

T h is s ta n d a rd e rro r fo rm u la is a p p lic a b le o n ly w h e n

w h e re : x = m e a n o f t h e p a r e n t p o p u la t io n
s a m p lin g a c t u a l v a lu e s (interval or m easured data
If w e w is h to m a k e a c o u n t to d is c o v e r t h e fr e q u e n c y
o = s ta n d a rd d e v ia t io n o f p a r e n t p o p u la tio n
o f o c c u r r e n c e w h e r e t h e d a ta a re binom ial (i.e. t h e y
V n = s q u a r e r o o t o f n u m b e r o f s a m p le s c o u ld b e p la c e d in to o n e o f t w o c a te g o rie s ), w e h a v e

W e c a n t h e n s ta te t h e r e lia b ilit y o f t h e r e la t io n s h ip
to u se t h e binom ial stan d ard error. Fo r e x a m p le ,

w e m a y w is h to d e t e r m in e h o w m u c h o f a n a re a o f
b e t w e e n t h e s a m p le m e a n a n d t h e p a r e n t m e a n
s a n d d u n e is c o v e r e d in v e g e t a t io n a n d h o w m u c h
w it h in t h e t h r e e c o n f id e n c e le v e ls o f 68, 95

a n d 99 p e r c e n t (F r a m e w o r k 6). U n fo r tu n a t e ly ,
is not c o v e r e d in v e g e t a t io n . W h e n u s in g b in a r y

d a ta , t h e s a m p le p o p u la t io n e s tim a te s a re g iv e n as
w h e n s a m p lin g , t h e s t a n d a r d d e v ia t io n o f t h e
p e r c e n ta g e s , n o t a c tu a l q u a n t it ie s - i.e. x p e r c e n t o f
p a r e n t p o p u la t io n is n o t a v a ila b le a n d so t o g e t
p o in ts o n t h e sa n d d u n e w e re c o v e r e d b y v e g e t a t io n
t h e s t a n d a r d e rro r w e h a v e t o u s e t h e s ta n d a r d

d e v ia t io n o f t h e s a m p le , i.e. u s in g s r a t h e r t h a n 0 .
x p e r c e n t o f p o in ts o n t h e s a n d d u n e were not
c o v e r e d b y v e g e t a t io n .
A lt h o u g h th is in t r o d u c e s a m a r g in o f erro r, it w ill

b e s m a ll if n is la rg e (n s h o u ld b e a t le a s t 30). T h e fo r m u la fo r c a lc u la t in g s t a n d a r d e rr o r u s in g

b in o m ia l d a t a is:
F o r e x a m p le : a s a m p le o f 50 p e b b le s w a s ta k e n

fro m a s p it o ff t h e c o a s t o f e a s t e r n E n g la n d . T h e

m e a n p e b b le d ia m e t e r w a s fo u n d to b e 2.7 c m

a n d t h e s t a n d a r d d e v ia t io n 0.4 c m . W h a t w o u ld b e w h e r e : p = t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f o c c u r r e n c e o f p o in ts
t h e m e a n d ia m e t e r o f t h e t o ta l p o p u la t io n (all t h e in o n e c a t e g o r y
p e b b le s ) a t t h a t p o in t o n t h e s p it? q = th e p e r c e n t a g e o f p o in t s n o t in

th a t c a te g o ry
0.4 0.4 n = t h e n u m b e r o f p o i n t s i n t h e s a m p le .
SE = ___ = ---- = 0 .0 6 (to tw o decimal places)
A/50 7.07
A r a n d o m s a m p le o f 5 0 p o in t s w a s ta k e n o v e r an

T h is m e a n s w e c a n say: a re a o f s a n d d u n e s s im ila r t o t h o s e fo u n d a t M o r fa

H a r le c h (F ig u r e 6.33). O f t h e 50 p o in ts , 32 la y o n
1 w it h 68 p e r c e n t c o n f id e n c e , t h a t t h e m e a n
v e g e t a t io n a n d 18 o n n o n - v e g e t a t io n (s a n d ) w h ic h
d ia m e t e r w ill lie b e t w e e n 2.7 c m ± 0.0 6 cm ,
e x p re s s e d as a p e r c e n t a g e , w a s 6 4 p e r c e n t a n d
i.e. 2.6 4 t o 2.7 6 c m
3 6 p e r c e n t r e s p e c t iv e ly . H o w c o n f id e n t c a n w e b e
2 w it h 95 p e r c e n t c o n f id e n c e , t h a t t h e m e a n a b o u t t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e s a m p le ?
d ia m e t e r w ill lie b e t w e e n 2.7 c m ± 2 x SE
(2 x 0.0 6 = 0.12 c m ), i.e. 2.58 to 2.82 c m
SE = r 4 x 36 = V 4 6 .0 8 = 6.79
3 w it h 99 p e r c e n t c o n f id e n c e , t h a t t h e m e a n

d ia m e t e r w ill lie b e t w e e n 2.7 c m ± 3 x SE

(3 x 0 .0 6 = 0.18 c m ), i.e. 2.52 to 2.88 cm .

524 Rural land use

 A s t h e s a m p le f o u n d 6 4 p e r c e n t o f t h e s a n d d u n e s

to b e c o v e r e d in v e g e t a t io n a n d k n o w in g t h e

s t a n d a r d e rro r t o b e ± 6 .7 9 , w e c a n say: W e d e t e r m in e d e a r l i e r t h a t s (s t a n d a r d d e v ia t io n o f

1 w it h 68 p e r c e n t c o n fid e n c e , t h a t t h e v e g e t a t e d
t h e s a m p le ) fo r t h e p e b b le size w a s 0.4, a n d so b y
s u b s t it u t io n w e g e t:
a re a w ill lie b e t w e e n 6 4 p e r c e n t ± 6.79, i.e.

b e t w e e n 57.21 a n d 7 0 .7 9 p e r c e n t

2 w it h 95 p e r c e n t c o n fid e n c e , t h a t it w ill lie

b e tw e e n 64 p e r ce n t ± 2 x SE (2 x 6.7 9 = 13.58),

i.e. b e t w e e n 50.4 2 a n d 7 7 .5 8 p e r c e n t w ill i.e. 12 = V n

b e v e g e ta te d
n = 122
3 w it h 99 p e r c e n t c o n fid e n c e , t h a t it w ill lie

b e tw e e n 64 p er c e n t ± 3 x SE (3 x 6.7 9 = 20.37), n = 144

i.e. b e t w e e n 4 3 .6 3 a n d 8 4 .3 7 p e r c e n t.
W e w o u ld n e e d , t h e r e fo r e , t o m e a s u r e t h e d ia m e t e r

o f 144 p e b b le s t o g e t a n e s t im a t e o f t h e p a r e n t
Minimum sample size p o p u la t io n a t t h e 9 9 p e r c e n t c o n f id e n c e le v e l.
It s e e m s o b v io u s t h a t t h e larg e r t h e size o f th e
For b in o m ial data: H o w m a n y s a m p le v a lu e s a re
sam p le , t h e g re a te r is th e p ro b a b ility th a t it a c c u ra te ly
n e e d e d to e s t im a t e t h e a r e a o f s a n d d u n e s w h ic h is
reflects t h e d is trib u tio n o f t h e p a re n t p o p u la tio n .
v e g e t a t e d , w it h a n a c c u r a c y w h ic h w o u ld b e w it h in
It is e q u a lly o b v io u s th a t t h e la rg e r t h e sa m p le , th e
5 p e r c e n t o f t h e a c t u a l a re a (i.e. a t t h e 95 p e r c e n t
m o re c o stly a n d tim e - c o n s u m in g it is lik ely to b e to
c o n f id e n c e le v e l)?
o b ta in . T h e re is, h o w e v e r, a m e th o d to d e te rm in e th e

m in im u m s a m p le size n e e d e d to g e t a sa tisfa cto ry

d e g re e o f a c c u ra c y fo r a sp e cific task, e.g. to fin d th e

m e a n d ia m e te r o f p e b b le s o n a spit, o r t h e a m o u n t o f
(SE)2
A g a in b y s u b s t it u t io n w e g e t:
v e g e ta tio n c o v e r o n san d d u n e s .T h is is a c h ie v e d b y

re ve rsin g t h e t w o s ta n d a rd e rro r ca lc u la tio n s. 64x36

For m easured data: Im a g in e y o u w is h to k n o w th e

m e a n d ia m e t e r o f p e b b le s a t a g iv e n p o in t o n a s p it
n = 92.16
t o w it h in + 0.1 c m a t t h e 99 p e r c e n t c o n fid e n c e level.
W e w o u ld t h e r e fo r e h a v e t o t a k e a s a m p le o f 93
T h e 99 p e r c e n t c o n f id e n c e le v e l is 3 x SE.
v a lu e s to a c h ie v e re s u lts w it h in 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e
p a r e n t p o p u la t io n .

i.e. 3s = 0.1 'in

3s

The need for rural management
As was show n on Figure 17.4, there is often consid­
erable com petition for land in m ost rural areas and,
therefore, there is a need, in m ost people's opinion,
for careful m anagem ent. In Britain, this m anage­
m ent m ay be the task o f national, local or volu n­
tary organisations such as the D epartm ent of the
Environm ent, the various N ational Parks Planning
Boards (Places 92, page 592) and th e C ouncil for
the Protection o f Rural England (CPRE). Pressures
on rural areas increase towards large urban areas
where there is a greater dem and for housing, shop­
ping, business parks and recreational facilities
(Figure 1 4 .2 0 and pages 4 3 3 and 567). Pressure on
the land m ay be even greater in econom ically less
developed countries where the need to improve
people’s basic standard of living is likely to take
preference over m anagem ent schemes.
O ne attem pted m an ag em en t schem e in a
developing co u n try is described in Places 80. It
draws together several topics discussed in this
book, i.e. an island (C hapter 6) with in terre­
lated ecosystem s (C hapter 11) offering altern a­
tive, rural land use possibilities (C hapter 17),
w here th e p o p u latio n is increasing (C hapter 13)
and w ishing to im prove its standard o f living
(C hapter 2 1 ), thu s p u tting pressure o n natural
resources (C hapter 17).

Rural land use 525

 Mafia Island,Tanzania: rural m anagem ent
O v e r tw o - th ird s o f T a n z a n ia 's 9 0 0 km lo n g c o a s t lin e
c o n s is ts o f t h r e e fr a g ile e c o s y s t e m s - a fr in g in g
c o ra l reef, s e p a r a t e d fro m m a n g r o v e s w a m p s o n t h e
m a in la n d b y a la g o o n . M a fia Isla n d , w h e r e t h e co ra l
re a c h e s a b o v e se a - le ve l, is a n a t io n a l m a r in e p ark.
A n isla n d m a n a g e m e n t p la n w a s p u t f o r w a rd in t h e
1990s t o t r y to m a in t a in e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t ,
to c o n s e r v e re s o u rc e s fo r fu tu r e g e n e r a t io n s a n d to
a v o id c o n flic t b e t w e e n d iffe r e n t la n d u se s a n d users.
S o m e o f t h e v a rio u s e c o n o m ic a c tiv itie s t h r e a te n in g
t h e fra g ile isla n d e c o s y s t e m s in c lu d e t h e fo llo w in g :
• Coral m in in g T h e r e m o v a l o f liv e c o ra l fo r t h e
to u ris t a n d c u r io tr a d e , a n d o f fo s s ilis e d co ra l
r o c k f o r b u ild in g p u r p o s e s (P la c e s 37, p a g e 302).
F o r lim e , t h e ro c k is b u r n t o v e r fire s m a d e fro m
lo c a lly c o lle c t e d w o o d .
• Fishe rie s A t all s c a le s fro m s u b s is t e n c e to
c o m m e r c ia l, t a k in g fin - fish , o c t o p u s , c r a y fis h
a n d e d ib le s h e llfis h .
• D yn am ite fish in g T h e ille g a l u se o f d y n a m it e
t o s tu n a n d kill fis h .T h is d e s tr o y s t h e p h y s ic a l
s t r u c t u r e o f t h e r e e f a n d kills v ir t u a lly e v e r y
o r g a n is m w it h in 15 m o f t h e b last.
• Seaw eed fa rm in g Im p o r t a n t as a m e a n s
o f d iv e r s ify in g in c o m e b u t s u ffe rs fro m t h e
p r o b le m s a s s o c ia t e d w it h c a s h c r o p s a n d c o u ld
le a d to b io d iv e r s it y loss t h r o u g h t h e c r e a t io n
o f m o n o c u lt u r e (p a g e 501).
• Sait p ro d u ctio n B y e v a p o r a t io n : h y p e r- s a lin e
s e a w a t e r is b o ile d u s in g lo c a l m a n g r o v e w o o d
fo r fu e l, a c r u d e p ro c e s s t h a t c a n c a u s e t h e
d e n u d a t io n o f la rg e a r e a s o f m a t u r e tre e s.
• Tourism A r a p id ly g r o w in g in d u s t r y a n d
o n e t h a t t h e g o v e r n m e n t is k e e n to p r o m o t e .
C o a s ta l to u r is m in c lu d e s g a m e - fis h in g ,'s e a -
safaris', d iv in g , s n o r k e llin g a n d b e a c h a c t iv it ie s .
T o u rists, p e r c a p it a , a re m a jo r c o n s u m e r s o f
re s o u rc e s (d r in k in g w a te r , f u e l a n d fo o d s ), c a n
d a m a g e t h e n a tu ra l e n v ir o n m e n t ( n e w h o te ls ,
d e s t r u c t io n o f t h e r e e f) a n d c a n c a u s e c u ltu ra l
c o n flic ts (d re s s c o d e in a M u s lim c o u n t r y ).
• O ff-shore g a s e xtraction F ro m t h e sm a ll
S o n g o - S o n g o g a s fie ld .
• Farm ing P e s tic id e s e n t e r in g t h e la g o o n b e h in d
t h e r o o f a re k illin g co ra l.
A new management approach
T h is a im s t o s a tis fy e c o n o m ic , s o c ia l a n d
e n v ir o n m e n t a l o b je c t iv e s in o r d e r t o e n s u r e :
• t h e m a x im u m s u s t a in a b le e c o n o m ic b e n e fit
fro m t h e lo n g - te rm u s e o f n a t u r a l r e s o u rc e s
526 Rural land use
• t h e m a in t e n a n c e o f t h e c o n d it io n s a n d
p r o d u c t iv it y o f t h e n a tu ra l e n v ir o n m e n t
• t h e a llo c a t io n o f re s o u r c e s b e t w e e n c o m p e t in g
u s e s a n d users.
T h e s e a im s a r e o ft e n s e e n as c o n t r a d ic to r y ,
a n d t h e m a in p r o b le m is h o w t o c o p e w it h t h e
d iv e r s e r e q u ir e m e n t s o f t h e d iffe r e n t u s e r- g ro u p s,
e s p e c ia lly t h o s e w h o u tilis e fin it e re s o u rc e s .
Developing a management model
'To a c h ie v e a n u n d e r s t a n d in g o f t h e n a t u r e
a n d c o n d it io n s o f t h e re s o u rc e s in a p r o p o s e d
m a n a g e m e n t a re a , t h e f o llo w in g c o n s id e r a t io n s
s h o u ld b e e x p lo re d :
• P o litical fa cto rs W h a t is t h e s c a le a n d
s t r u c t u r e o f t h e a r e a ? Is it s t a b le ? W h o w ill p a y ?
C a n it p r o v id e f in a n c e o r s e c u r e f u n d in g ? W h o
w ill a d v is e ? A r e t h e r e p o w e r f u l in t e r e s t g r o u p s
e it h e r fo r o r a g a in s t ?
• Ph ysical fa cto rs W h a t a re t h e m a in p h y s ic a l
f e a t u r e s ? A r e t h e s e s t a b le ? A r e t h e r e a n y n a tu ra l
h a z a rd s ?
• B io lo g ical facto rs W h a t b io lo g ic a l
c o m m u n it ie s e x ist? In w h a t c o n d it io n a re t h e y ?
A re t h e r e r e c o rd s o f c h a n g e o r o v e r u s e o v e r a
p e rio d o f t i m e ? A re t h e r e s p e c ie s o f e n d a n g e r e d ,
c u ltu ra l o r c o m m e r c ia l im p o r t a n c e ?
• S o cio -e co n o m ic W h a t a r e t h e c u r r e n t u se s o f
t h e a r e a ? W h o u se s it? A r e t h e y t r a d it io n a l o r
lo c a l u s e s ? H a v e t h e y a c o m m e r c ia l in te r e s t?
H o w a re t h e re s o u rc e s e x p lo it e d ? A r e t h e s e
p r a c t ic e s s u s t a in a b le o r d e s t r u c t iv e ?
O n c e a n a re a h a s b e e n c h o s e n , fo u r s ta g e s c a n le ad
t o a p r a c t ic a l p la n fo r its c r e a t io n a s a m u lti- u se r
m a n a g e m e n t schem e:
1 T h e d e fin itio n o f m a n a g e m e n t g o a ls - n o rm a lly
in c lu d in g c o n s e r v a t io n , s u s ta in a b le re s o u rc e
u s e a n d e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t (F r a m e w o r k 16.
page 499).
2 T h e e s ta b lis h m e n t o f a n a d m in is tra tiv e a u t h o r it y -
t h e p ro c e ss o f h u m a n re p re s e n ta tio n .
3 T h e f o r m u la t io n o f a m a n a g e m e n t s t r a t e g y a n c
o b je c t iv e s - a n a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e p h y s ic a l a n d
h u m a n c h a r a c t e r is t ic s o f t h e w h o le a re a a n d ,
w it h in it, su b - z o n es.
4 T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f le g is la t io n - t o a c h ie v e th e
o b je c t iv e s .
B u t r e m e m b e r - n o p la n s h o u ld b e c o n s id e r e d as
fin a l - it is s im p ly a n i m p r o v e m e n t o n w h a t w a s
d o n e b e fo re .
 Rural conflicts in south-western USA

Figure 17.15

National Parks and Recreation

Areas in south-western USA

O R E G O N
Y e llo w s to n e N P
""■ " S '. I D A H O
C ra te r La k e N P

G ra n d T e to n s N P
Redw ood NP

G re a t S a lt Lake
H I La ss e n N P
20 0 km
_i
Reno
S a lt L a k e C ity
lv Rocky
<77
vj , D in o s a u r N M M o u n ta in s
Lake Tahoe
D enver
S a n Fra n c is c o / 'A Y o s e m it e N P D C a p ito l .
Reef Np A rc h e s
C a n y o n R e enf N P n rS n NP C O L O R A D O

-res a re 60 0 km radii NP ©
- 'om S a n Fra n c isc o , C a n y o n la n d s N P
q D e a th V a lle y
.o s A n g e le s a n d K in g s C a n y o n N P
Salt L a k e C ity NP Las m CSlen C a n y o n
Vegas NRA R .s a n J^
S e q u o ia N P
La ke Q N E W M E X I C O
M ead
G ra n d C a n y o n N P
N P - N a tio n a l Park

S a n ta M o n ic a N R A □ N M - N a tio n a l M o n u m e n t

□ N R A - N a tio n a l R e c re a tio n A re a

M V N T P - M o n u m e n t V a lle y N a v a jo
T rib a l Park

T h e s c e n e ry o f t h e m o u n ta in state s o f w ith t h e N a tio n a l Park th e re a re n o p e r m a ­

w e s te rn U S A is s p e c ta c u la r a n d varie d . It n e n t re sid e n ts w it h in t h e parks. (T his is a

n c lu d e s s o m e o f t h e c o u n try 's h ig h e s t m a jo r d iffe re n c e fro m N a tio n a l Parks in t h e

peaks, as w e ll as e x te n s iv e d e s e r t an d U K w h e r e fa rm e rs a n d o t h e r re sid e n ts live

w ild river s c e n e ry . Y e llo w s to n e w a s se t up o n t h e lan d t h r o u g h o u t t h e year.) L o d g e s,

in 1872, an d is a rg u a b ly t h e w o rld 's b est hotels, to u rist v illa g e s a n d re g u la te d

k n o w n N a tio n a l Park w it h its v a rie ty o f c a m p in g g ro u n d s are p ro v id e d , t o g e t h e r

m o u n ta in a n d v o lc a n ic sc e n e ry , g e ysers, w ith w e ll- m a d e ro ad s a n d tracks to t h e d if­

h o t sp rin g s, c a n y o n s , lava flo w s an d w ild ­ fe re n t s c e n ic a ttra c tio n s .T h is c o n trib u te s to

life in c lu d in g bear, e lk a n d b u ffa lo (b iso n ). v isito r p ressu re o n 'h o n e y p o t 's it e s s u ch as

Tourists fro m all o v e r t h e w o rld n o w flo ck O ld Faith ful in Y e llo w s to n e w h e r e p e o p le

to t h e re g io n to visit t h e larg e n u m b e r o f w a it fo r t h e g e y s e r to b lo w o n c e e v e r y 85

d e s ig n a te d N a tio n a l Parks, M o n u m e n t s an d m in u te s (F ig u re 17.16).T h e re are traffic ja m s

R e c re a tio n Areas. F ig u re 17.15 in d ic a te s th e as cars s to p to w a t c h a n im a ls s u ch as b iso n

a c c e s s ib ility o f t h e m o s t p o p u la r a ttra c tio n s g raz in g o r he rd s o f e lk c lo s e to t h e road

fo r visito rs fro m m a jo r citie s an d in te rn a ­ (F ig u re 17.17). R o a d s are c lo s e d b y ran g e rs

tio n a l airp orts. O v e r 30 m illio n p e o p le live if p ressu re is c o n s id e r e d t o o g re at.

w ith in 500 km o f t h e m a jo r N a tio n a l Parks V isito r n u m b e r s to t h e Parks an d

an d R e c re a tio n Areas. R e c re a tio n A re as in t h e m o u n ta in states

T h e N a tio n a l Parks w e r e set u p t o p re ­ h a v e c o n t in u e d to incre ase . M a n y c o m e in

se rve a n d p ro te c t t h e e n v ir o n m e n t for p riv a te cars, c a m p e r v a n s a n d buses. Park

fu tu re g e n e ra tio n s . Visito rs are e n c o u r a g e d a u th o ritie s are w o rk in g to p r o v id e b e tte r

to stay, b u t a p a rt fro m w o rk e rs a ss o c ia te d traffic m a n a g e m e n t , w h ic h in c lu d e s v e h ic le

 Rural conflicts in south-western USA

restriction.The m ost popular'round tour' I I I II T

Figure 17,17
of parks includes those located in Utah
and n eig hb ou ring Arizona. O f these, by far Yellowstone National Park: bison
grazing on the verge; the vegetation is
th e m ost popular are the Grand Canyon
recovering from a brush fire
National P a rk w ith 4 .4 million visitors in
2007 (Figure 7.19) and th e G len Canyon r a i l l l l

National Recreation Area w ith 1.9 million S M 'V w & i

visitors (Figures 17.22 and 17.23). Both of
these areas stretch along th e sides of the
C olorado River but their access and uses are
very different, as m ost visitors to th e Grand
Canyon travel to the North or South Rim to
look d o w n at th e river flow ing 1.6 km b elo w
them , w hereas at Glen C anyon p eo p le have
access to Lake Pow ell w h ich w as created by
d am m in g the river.
At present m ost visitors to the Grand
Canyon go to th e South Rim, mainly
because it has easier access, more facili­
ties and better panoram ic vistas although
th e North Rim, w h ich is closed by sn o w in
winter, is b ecom ing increasingly popular.
The C anyon itself continues to attract
Figure 17.18 I
rafting and canoeing enthusiasts but their
num b er is strictly limited to protect the The Hoover Dam g
natural habitat along th e river banks. At the
western (dow nriver) end o f the National
Park is the Lake M ead National Recreation
Area w h ich has taken ad vantage of the lake
created by th e construction o fth e Hoover
Dam (Figure 17.18).This dam, known as the
Boulder Dam w h en it was built in the 1930s,
has created a lake w hich has a shoreline of
over 1 100 km and w h o se w ater is used for
irrigation, to provide hydro-electricity for
the local area and recreation opportunities
for lake cruising, boating and swim m ing.
The dam is only half an hour aw ay from the
'bright-lights'of Las Vegas.
The num bers visiting Utah's five National
Parks of Arches (Figure 17.19), Bryce Canyon, lodges and small hotels have been built, been rapid in-migration to the region,
Canyonlands, Capitol Reef and Zion tog ether with housing for'retirees'wishing particularly to the largerurban a j j j s o f S
doubled b etw een 1982 and 2007.These to m ove aw ay from large urban areas. Lake City, P h oenix and Las Vegas. These =
■•
parks, to g eth e r w ith smaller protected areas Rainfall is low in the Basin and Range other smaller towns, are growing as r :
such as G oosenecks State Park (Figure 17.20) province lying b etw een the Sierra Nevada, people d ecid e to m ove here partly f c r r
and, straddling the border with Arizona, w h ich forms the border w ith California to clim ate and partly as th e y choose to v. r
M o n u m en t Valley NavajoTriba Park the west, and the Rocky M ountains in the from h om e using com puters and o th e '
(Figure 7,25), offer som e o fth e world's east. Although the states in this region now electronic equipm ent.
m ost spectacular desert and river-eroded rely upon tourism as their m ajor source Increasing am ounts of expensive w a id
(canyon) scenery. Visitors using m otor cara­ of em ploym ent, the rural eco n o m y also are taken by canal and pipeline to fill r e
vans, 4x4s or tourist buses can m anage to dep end s on ranching, irrigation and mining. sw im m ing pools of n ew houses a n d : :
visit all of these attractions in a week, but for In an area that is naturally short of water, w ork the fountains of Las Vegas.This e>:
those w h o are more energetic, tw ice that and w h ere the problem has been a ccen tu ­ w ater means there is less for a g ricu ltt'e s
tim e is preferable. At places like St George, ated by recent droughts, it is not surprising farming itself needs more as the extra " .
near to Zion National Park, and Moab, close that there should be conflicts over its use. and vegetables d em an d ed by both ne.v
to Arches National Park, m any holiday In the last three or four decades there has residents and tourists can only be g rc .\ '

528 Rural land use

 Rural conflicts in south-western USA

j n d e r irrigation. Irrig a tio n is also n e c e s s a ry

close to cities w h e r e g o o d - q u a lity p astu re

an d is n e e d e d if d a iry c o w s are to b e reared

*'or th e ir milk, b u tte r a n d c h e e s e , as w e ll as in

m o re re m o te are as w h e r e it h e lp s p ro d u c e

:n e silag e for b e e f c a ttle (Fig u re 17.21).

T h e re are also w a t e r d is p u te s b e t w e e n

n d ivid u a l states.

T rad itionally, several o f t h e so u th -w estern

states w e re im p o rta n t m in eral prod ucers,

e sp e c ia lly o f co p p e r, silver an d g o ld . M u c h o f

th e easily o b ta in e d an d h ig h e r- q u ality ores

n a v e a lre a d y b e e n used, w h ile falling w o rld

o ric e s a n d rising e x tra ctio n co sts h a v e fo rce d

th e clo su re o f all b u t t h e m o st p ro fitab le o f

m ines, le avin g scars o n th e lan d scap e .

Glen Canyon National

Recreation Area
T his R e c re a tio n A re a is b a se d o n Lake
P o w e ll (n a m e d a fte r M a jo r P o w e ll w h o
led t h e first e x p e d itio n d o w n 1600 km o f
■"apids in t h e C o lo ra d o R iver), w h ic h is th e
c o u n try 's s e c o n d larg e st artificial reservoir.
a sh o re lin e o f 3000 km d u e to its z ig z a g ­
g in g t h ro u g h 96 m a jo r c a n y o n s . H ig h
w a ter, re a c h e d in t h e m id-1980s w h e n t h e
lake w a s o v e r 125 m d e e p , is m a rk e d b y
a w h it e ring e tc h e d in to t h e red c a n y o n
w alls. S in c e t h e n t h e o n s e t o f n u m e ro u s
in to s o m e o f t h e trib u ta ry ca n y o n s . It also
m e a n t t h e e x p o s u re o f h u g e areas o f m u d
at t h e h e a d o f t h e d ra w n - d o w n re se rvo ir
an d t h e c lo s u re o f m arin as, as a t H ite. S in c e
t h a t t im e t h e w e t w in t e r o f 2005 a n d re co rd
s n o w fa lls in 2008 h a v e s e e n t h e le ve ls o f

D e s p ite a hard fig h t b y c o n s e rv a tio n is ts , d ro u g h t ye a rs has re su lte d in a d ro p in t h e Lake P o w e ll rise b y 15 m - e q u a l to h a lf its

th e G le n C a n y o n D a m w a s b e g u n in 1956, lake level, b y 2005 o f o v e r 30 m , an d its p re v io u s fall.
c o m p le t e d in 1963 a n d t h e re se rvo ir h a d v o lu m e has d e c re a s e d b y o n e - th ird .T h e T h e lake is id e al fo r w a t e r sp o rts s u ch as
filled b y 1972. W h e n full t h e lake - w h ic h fall in le ve l r e v e a le d p e tro g ly p h s (in d ia n c a n o e in g , w a t e r b o a rd in g , w ater-skiing ,
a c c o u n ts for o n ly 13 p e r c e n t o f t h e to ta l ca rvin g s, c o m p a r e F ig u re 7.7) a n d e n a b le d w in d - su rfin g , s c u b a d iv in g an d fishin g.

R e c re a tio n A re a - is 300 km lo n g an d has visitors to w a lk (ra th e r t h a n visitin g b y b o a t) M o s t to u rists hire h o u s e b o a ts w h o s e

Rural land use 529

(L E S S E E S ! Rural conflicts in south-western USA

le n g th s ra n g e fro m 15 to 25 m a n d w h ic h

c a n c o s t u p to $14 000 a w e e k to hi re. T h e

late st h o u s e b o a ts , w h ic h c a n s le e p 8 to

12, c o m e w ith a h o t tu b , a w e t b ar a n d a

12 0 cm flat-scre e n T V . A ro u n d t h e sh ores o f

Lake P o w e ll are six m a rin a s (Fig u re s 17.22

a n d 17.23) w ith th e n a m e s o f Bullfrog,

H ite, W a h w e a p , Hall's C ro ssin g , D a n g lin g

R o p e a n d (th e latest) A n t e lo p e Po in t. O n

lan d t h e re are w ild e rn e s s trails an d back-

c o u n t r y ro ad s w h ic h c a n o n ly b e use d b y

fo u r- w h e e l- d rive v e h ic le s , b u t w h ic h g iv e '

ac c e s s t o iso la te d g e o lo g ic a l, histo rical an d

a rc h a e o lo g ic a l sites, su ch as t h e R a in b o w
A rc h M o n u m e n t Park.
Figure 17.23
E n v iro n m e n ta l d a m a g e is e v id e n t a lo n g
Glen Canyon National
t h e b usiest stre tch e s o f shoreline.'A dopt-a-
Recreation Area
C a n y o n 'h a s b e c o m e a slo gan, e n c o u ra g in g

visitors to ta k e o u t e v e ry th in g t h e y tak e Salt Lake City

in. W a t e r q u a lity is c o n s ta n tly te ste d an d 473 km
water-skiiers are d e s ig n a te d t o sp e cific areas.

S u m m e rs ca n b e e x tre m e ly h o t - u p to 4 3 °C
- w h ile w in ters, w h e n fishin g is a lm o s t th e

so le re crea tio n a l activity, are v e ry cold. R a n g e r sta tio n ,

Marina,
A s u rv e y o f visitors in 2007 s h o w e d th a t m a rin a , stores,
h o te l ra n g e r stati
48 p e r c e n t w e re a g e d in th e 41-65 a g e store
g ro u p ; 78 p e r c e n t had

visited before; p e o p le

c a m e fro m 4 8 states
B a c k c o u n tr y M a rin a , c a m p s ite s
c a m p in g a n d tra ile r v illa g e
an d 21 co u n trie s; an d
h o n e y p o t area s h ik in g (c a m p e r a n d
m o st c a m e for e ith e r
c a ra v a n site)
th e s c e n e ry o r for
s ta te b o u n d a r y
H all's C ro ssin g
m o to rise d b o a tin g . W a te r ski-ing,
O v e r 85 p e r c e n t fo u n d M a in vis ito r cen tre, sailin g
th e q u a lity o f services, m a rin a ,
lo d g e , shops,
facilities an d re crea­
tra ile r v illa g e
tio n al o p p o rtu n itie s as Fish in g ,
'v e r y g o o d 'o r'q o o d '. Las Vegas c a m p in g
420 km R a in b o w A r c h '
W ajsW e aj J N a tio n a l M o n u m e n t UTAH
G le n C a n y o n ARIZONA
D am
Los Angeles To Phoenix
700 km 450 km

Further reference
Pickering, K.T. and O w en, L.A. (1 9 9 7 ) Council for the P rotection of Rural ForestW orld:
A n In tro d u c tio n to G lo b a l E n v iro n m e n ta l England: http://forestw orld.com /
Issues, R outledge. w w w .cpre.org.uk N atural England:
W ilso n , J . (1 9 8 4 ) S ta tistics in G e o g ra p h y fo r Finnish Forest Association: w w w .n atu ralenglan d .org.uk
A Level S tu d e n ts, Sch o field & Sim s. w w w .m etla.fi/ forestfin/ intro/ eng.index. UN Food and Agriculture Organisati -
h tm Forestry:
Forestry Com m ission of Great Britain: www.fao.org/forestry/hom e/en /
w ww.forestry.gov.uk/

530 Rural land use

 Questions & Activities
Activity
'F o r e s t r y is n o t u s u a lly e c o n o m ic a lly v ia b le in d e v e lo p e d
c o u n t r ie s u n le s s s u p p o r t e d b y t h e s ta te w it h su b sid ie s.'
E x p la in t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f f o r e s t r y in ru ra l a re a s o f t h e
U n it e d K in g d o m , g iv in g :
i t w o s o c io - e c o n o m ic a d v a n t a g e s (4marks)
ii t w o e n v ir o n m e n t a l a d v a n t a g e s . (4 marks)
i Ex p lain w h y s o m e p e o p le th in k th a t c o m m e rc ia l
fo re s try p la n ta tio n s h a v e c a u s e d e n v iro n m e n ta l
d a m a g e in s o m e p a rts o f t h e U n ite d K in g d o m . (4marks)
Exam practice: basic structured question
Figure 17.24
Exam practice: structured question
a 'In t h e la st d e c a d e ... fo r e s t o p e r a t io n s h a v e b e e n
t r a n s fo r m e d , w it h a s h ift t o w a r d s s m a lle r- s c a le p r a c t ic e s
w h ic h a re m o r e e n v ir o n m e n t a lly a n d a e s t h e t ic a lly
s e n s itiv e .'
W it h r e f e r e n c e t o a n a m e d a re a o f f o r e s t r y in t h e U n it e d
K in g d o m , e x p la in h o w t h e c h a n g e s re fe rre d to a b o v e
h a v e a lt e r e d fo r e s t m a n a g e m e n t p r a c tic e s . E x p la in h o w
th is h a s b e n e f it e d t h e e n v ir o n m e n t . (10 marks)
Exam practice: essay
4 S t u d y F ig u r e 17.24.
'T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e t o u r is t in d u s t r y c a n b rin g b o th
b e n e fits a n d p r o b le m s fo r c o m m u n it ie s a n d t h e e n v ir o n m e n t
o f ru ra l areas.'
ii 'In t h e la s t d e c a d e ... fo r e s t o p e r a t io n s h a v e b e e n
t r a n s f o r m e d , w it h a s h ift t o w a r d s s m a lle r - s c a le
p r a c t ic e s w h ic h a re m o r e e n v i r o n m e n t a l ly a n d
a e s t h e t i c a l ly s e n s it iv e .'E x p la in h o w t h e c h a n g e s
in f o r e s t m a n a g e m e n t r e fe r r e d t o a b o v e h a v e
im p r o v e d t h e ru ra l e n v i r o n m e n t in p a r t s o f t h e
U n it e d K in g d o m . (5 marks)
W it h re fe r e n c e to a n a m e d t r o p ic a l c o u n t r y , e x p la in h o w
c o m m e r c ia l fo r e s t r y in t h e r a in fo r e s t c a n b e a fo r m o f
s u s t a in a b le d e v e lo p m e n t . (8 marks)
S t u d y F ig u r e 17.24. It s h o w s h o w c o n flic ts m a y a ris e in a
ru ra l a r e a w h e r e r e c r e a t io n a n d t o u r is m a re im p o r t a n t ,
a N a m e a ru ra l a re a in a m o r e e c o n o m ic a lly d e v e lo p e d
c o u n t r y w h e r e r e c r e a t io n a n d to u r is m a re im p o r t a n t , a n d
w h e r e t h e ir d e v e l o p m e n t h a s c a u s e d c o n flic ts w it h lo c a l
p e o p le a n d c o n s e r v a t io n is t s . D e s c r ib e c o n flic ts in t h a t
a re a b e t w e e n :
i t o u ris ts a n d t h e lo c a l c o m m u n it y
ii t o u ris ts a n d c o n s e r v a t io n
iii t h e lo c a l c o m m u n it y a n d c o n s e r v a t io n . (8 marks)
b E x p la in h o w m a n a g e m e n t o f t h e a re a is a t t e m p t in g
t o r e d u c e t h e c o n flic ts d e s c r ib e d in a above. (7 marks)
c C a n t o u r is m e v e r le a d to s u s t a in a b le d e v e l o p m e n t
in ru ra l a re a s in less e c o n o m ic a lly d e v e lo p e d
c o u n t r ie s ? Illu s tr a te y o u r a n s w e r w it h re fe r e n c e to
o n e o r m o r e c a s e s tu d ie s . (10 marks)
b i H o w h a s c o m m e r c ia l f o r e s t r y c a u s e d e n v ir o n ­
m e n t a l d a m a g e in t r o p ic a l r e g io n s ? (7 marks)
ii S u g g e s t h o w c o m m e r c ia l f o r e s t r y in t r o p ic a l
re g io n s c a n b e m a n a g e d so t h a t it is a
s u s t a in a b le fo rm o f d e v e lo p m e n t . (8 marks)
D is c u s s th is s t a t e m e n t w it h re fe r e n c e t o e x a m p le s fro m
m o re e c o n o m ic a lly d e v e lo p e d a n d less e c o n o m ic a lly
d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r ie s . (25marks)
Rural land use 531
 Energy resources
• • • •

in nt commer- R eserves are kn ow n resources w h ich are

consid ered exp loitab le under cu rrent econ om ic
i the world finding
and te ch n o lo g ica l co n d itio n s. For exam ple,
i in t f n N orth Sea oil and gas needed a new tech n o lo g y
Im agin e w h at consum ing th at w ould do to the greenhouse and h ig h global prices before th e y could be
effect, n ot to m ention its effect on oil an d order reserves.' b rou g h t ashore; in con trast, tidal power still lacks
MarkTully - 1 th e tech n olog y , and o ften th e accessibility to
m arkets, th a t are needed to allow it to be devel­
What are resources? oped on a widespread, com m ercial scale.

Resources have been defined as com m odities that Energy resources

are useful to people although the value and im por­
tance of individual resources m ay differ betw een
cultures. Although the term is often taken to be
synonym ous w ith n atu ral resources, geographers
and others often broaden this definition to include
h u m a n resources (Figure 18. f). Natural resources
can include raw materials, clim ate and soils.
Hum an resources m ay be subdivided into people
and capital. A further distinction can be made
betw een n on-renew able resources, w hich are
finite as their exploitation can lead to the exhaus­
tion of supplies (oil), and renew able resources,
w hich, being a 'flow ' of nature, can be used over
and over again (solar energy). As in any classifica­
tion, there are 'grey' areas. For example, forests and
soils are, if left to nature, renewable; but, if used
A classificationcarelessly by people, they can be destroyed (defor-
of resources estation, soil erosion).
T he sun is th e prim ary source of th e Earth's
energy. W ith o u t energy, n o th in g can live and
n o w ork can be d one. Coal, oil and natural
gas, w h ich acco u n t for an estim ated 88 per
ce n t o f th e global energy consu m ed in 2 0 0 7
(Figure 18 .2 ) com pared w ith 8 5 .5 per ce n t in
19 9 6 , are form s of stored solar energy produced
over th ou sand s o f years, by p h o tosy n th esis in
green plants. As these th ree types o f energy,
w h ich are referred to as fossil fuels, take long
periods o f tim e to form and to be replenished,
th ey are classified as n on -ren ew able. As will be
seen later, these fuels have b ee n relatively easy 1
develop and cheap to use, b u t th ey have beco r
m a jo r polluters of th e en v iro n m en t. Nuclear
energy is a fo u rth n on -ren ew able source but, as
uses uranium , it is n o t a fossil fuel.

resources

human resources

non-renewable (finite) renewable if renewable

rJ
population capital
carefully managed (e.g. numbers, (e.g. buildi"
(e.g. forests, soils)

I technology, politics) transport

non-recyclable recyclable
r
flow continuous
(e.g. fossil fuels) (e.g. metallic ores) (e.g. crops, water) (e.g. wind power,
tides, waves)

532 Energy resources

 Region
Total world Note: wind, solar and geothermal
Australasia consumption: energy met only 1.5 per cent of
11 099 mtoe _ j n a tu ra i gas global demand in 2007.
World energy Africa
_ j coal
consumption:
by region, Latin America _ nuclear energy
2007
_ hydro-electricity
Middle East
35,<
mtoe = million tonnes
Former USSR/ ' of oil equivalent 28.6
Eastern Europe

Western Europe 23.8%

m
North America

Asia
1 I I I I I I I ! I 1 I I I
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390 420
mtoe

Renewable sources o f energy are m ainly forces of 83 per ce n t o f people liv in g in th e 'd evelop ing'
nature w hich can be used continually, are sustain­ cou n tries consu m e o n ly 4 7 per ce n t o f th e total
able and cause m inim al environm ental pollu­ energy supply.
tion. They include running water, waves, tides, A lthough recen tly th e co n su m p tio n o f
wind, the sun, geotherm al, biogas and biofuels. energy in 'd eveloped ' cou ntries has begu n to
At present, w ith the exception o f running water slow dow n, due partly to indu strial d ecline and
(hydro-electricity), th e wind and biom ass, there are e n v iro n m en ta l co n cern s, it has b ee n in creasing
econ om ic and tech n ical problem s in converting m ore rapidly in 'd evelo p in g ' cou ntries w ith
their potential in to form s w h ich can be used. th eir rapid p o p u latio n grow th and aspirations
to raise th eir standard o f living (C h in a's energy
co n su m p tio n doubled betw een 1 9 9 7 and 2 0 0 7 ).
World energy producers and This led to a c o n flic t o f in terest b etw een groups
consumers o f cou ntries at th e 1 9 9 2 Rio Earth Sum m it c o n ­
It has b een estim ated th at, annually, th e world ference. The 'industrialised' cou ntries, w ith on ly
con su m es an a m o u n t o f fossil fuel th a t to ok 17 per ce n t o f th e w orld's p o p u latio n yet c o n ­
natu re about 1 m illio n years to produce, and th a t sum ing 53 per ce n t o f th e total energy, wished to
Figure 18.3
th e rate o f co n su m p tio n is co n sta n tly increasing. see resources conserved and, belatedly, th e e n v i­
World energy This co n su m p tio n o f energy is n o t evenly d istrib­ ro n m e n t protected . T h e 'd evelo p in g ' cou ntries,
resumption: by w h ich blam e th e industrialised cou n tries for
uted over th e globe (Figure 18.2). At present, th e
type, 1982-2007
m o st o f th e world's p o llu tio n and d ep letion o f
resources, consid ered th a t it was now th eir tu rn
— to use energy resources, o ften regardless o f the
r—1 en v iro n m en t, in order to develop e co n o m ically
and to im prove th eir way o f life.
9
T he world's relian ce up on fossil fuels
mF (Figures 1 8 .2 and 18 .3 ) is likely to co n tin u e well
in to th is century. However, w hile th e e c o n o m i­
I—.mi t cally recoverable reserves o f coal rem ain high
—m (Figure 18 .4 ), th e sim ilar life exp ectan cies o f oil
and natural gas are m u ch shorter (coal: about
2 0 0 - 4 0 0 years; oil: about 5 0 years; natural gas:
ab ou t 1 2 0 years). The d istribution o f recoverable
fossil fuels is spread very un evenly across the
globe, w ith th e form er USSR b ein g w ell endow ed
w ith coal and natu ral gas; N orth A m erica and
parts o f Asia w ith coal; and th e M iddle East w ith
- oil and natural gas (Figure 18.5). As these p ro ­
ducers are n o t always m ajor consum ers, th ere is
82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 00 01 02 03 04 05 06 07
a consid erable world m o vem en t of, and trade in,
fossil fuels (Figure 18 .6 ).
I | oil j j nuclear energy I I coal
] natural gas | | hydro-electricity

Energy resources 533

 World regions Countries
1 Africa 9 Abu Dhabi 17 Kuwait 25 Saudi Arabia
2 Asia 10 Algeria 18 Malaysia 26 S. Africa
3 Australasia 11 Canada 19 Mexico 27 USA
4 Latin America 12 China 20 Netherlands 28 USSR
5 Middle East 13 Germany 21 Norway 29 former USSR
6 N. America 14 India 22 Nigeria 30 Venezuela
7 former USSR and E. Europe 15 Iran 23 Poland
8 W. Europe 16 Iraq 24 Qatar

a coal reserves b gas reserves c oil reserves

5
300 70-
100-
60-
£ 250 19thousand million tonnes
24 80
50-

.9 200
40- 60
25
27 30
150
14 40
20 29

100
12 10
2
6 4
20 4 1
10 « ■ _ 6_
:— i 84 ' j '■ -
26 22 30
0 0 te i m

Figure 18.4
■ Natural gas —
World reserves of World producers
1 China 41.1 20.6 Saudi Arabia 12.7
coal, natural gas of coal, natural gas
and oil, 2007 and oil, 2007 2 USA 18.7 USA 18.8 Russian Fedn 12.6

3 Australia 6.9 Canada 6.2 USA 8.0

4 India 5.8 Iran 3.8 Iran 5.4

5 South Africa 4.8 Norway 3.0 China 4.8

LD oilfields 6

7
Russian Fedn

Indonesia
4.7

3.4
Algeria

Saudi Arabia
2.8

2.6
Mexico

Canada
4.4

4.1
oil movements
8 Poland 2.0 UK 2.5 UAE 3.5

H natural gas fields Figure 18.6 9 Germany 1.6 China 2.4 Venezuela 3.4

Location and 10 Kazakhstan 1.4 Indonesia 2.3 Kuwait 3.3

gas movements
movement ofthe Others 9.6 Others 35.0 Others 37.8
m coal production
world’s fossil fuels

coal movements G ^SS

h

~ “ j less developed
countries
 $147/barrel July 2008 Crude oil prices,
1970-2008

UK energy consumption
The UK has always b een fortunate in having
$ 100/barrel I abund ant energy sources. In the M iddle Ages,
January 2008 fast-flow ing rivers were used to turn w ater-wheels
while, in th e early 1 9 th century, th e use o f steam,
from coal, enabled Britain to b eco m e th e world's
Iranian
Gulf War j Asian financial first industrialised country. Ju st w hen the acces­
Revolution
\ I j crisis sible and cheapest supplies o f coal began to run
short, natural gas (1 9 6 5 ) and oil (1 9 7 0 ) were dis­
Arab- covered in th e N orth Sea, and im provem ents in
Israeli War tech n olog y enabled the controversial production
' oil
price crash
of nuclear power. Looking ahead to a tim e w hen
th e UK's reserves o f fossil fuels beco m e less avail­
970 1980 198b 2000 2005 §2010
o
able and th eir use en viron m en tally unacceptable,
Britain's seas and w eather have th e p o ten tial to
provide renew able sources of energy using the
wind, waves and tides. Even so Britain is, for the

Recent global trends first tim e, having to rely on energy im ports.

T h e to tal energy co n su m p tio n in th e UK rose
Energy co n su m p tio n rose b y an average o f nearly from 1 5 2 .3 m to e (m illion to n n es o f oil equ iva­
3 per cen t per a n n u m for th e decade up to 2 0 0 8 len t, a standard m easure for com p arin g energy
(Figure 1 8 .3 ). T h e A sia-Pacific region accou n ted co n su m p tio n ) in 1 9 6 0 to 2 3 3 .5 m to e in 2 0 0 4 ,
for tw o-thirds o f th is total grow th, w ith C h in a sin ce w h en it has fallen back a little, to 2 2 6
averaging over 8 per ce n t (Places 82, page 54 4 ) m to e in 2 0 0 7 . O f th a t, 9 7 .5 per ce n t still cam e
and India recen tly exceed ing 6 per cen t. In from fossil fuels and n u clear energy and only
com p arison, N orth A m erica had o n ly a slight 2 .5 per ce n t from renew ables, in clu d in g h yd ro­
rise, w hile Ja p a n and th e EU saw a decrease. O f e lectricity and w aste, despite pledges to increase
th e five m ain sources o f prim ary energy, coal renew ables to 2 0 per ce n t by 2 0 2 0 (Figure 18.8).
again, despite its co n trib u tio n to clim ate change, Energy co n su m p tio n by fin al user co n tin u es
saw th e biggest grow th. The year 2 0 0 8 m ay be to see a d eclin e b y indu stry (34 per c e n t in 1 9 8 0
rem em bered as th e year w hen th e price o f oil to 21 per ce n t in 2 0 0 7 ), w ith d om estic (28 per
The UK's changing
doubled th a t o f its previous peak (Figure 18.7) cen t) and services (1 2 per cen t) rem ain in g fairly
sources of energy, before falling alm ost as rapidly w ith th e on set of steady, and a rise by tran sp ort (25 per ce n t in
1950-2007 a global recession. 1 9 8 0 to 3 9 per ce n t in 2 0 0 7 ).
a 1950-2000
\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \
& x
1950 1
j f__ coal _ nuclear energy
k \ \ \ \ \ \ v \ 1W oil ] hydro-electricity
1960 1 H natural gas renewables
... 1. and waste

\---- \ ^ V
1970 b 2007 hydro-electricity 0.4%
I 1 I I :

J IL
nuclear energy 6.4 I i---- renewables and waste I. 1
\ \---- \~

coal
18.1%

1990
natural gas
39.8%
\ \ \ \ \ \
2000
S 1..
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
energy type used (%)

Energy resources 535

 Sources of energy
D ecisions by cou ntries as to w h ich source, or
sources, o f energy to use m ay depend upon
several factors. These inclu de:
i Availability, quality, lifetim e and sustainability
o f th e resource.
■ C ost o f harn essing, as w ell as tran sp ortin g
(im p o rtin g or w ith in th e cou n try ), th e source
o f energy: som e types o f energy, such as oil,
m ay be to o expensive for less w ealthy c o u n ­
tries; w h ile others, such as tides, m ay as yet
be u n eco n o m ica l to use.
■ T ech n olog y needed to harness a source o f
energy: like costs, th is m a y b e bey on d som e
o f th e less developed cou n tries (nu clear
energy), or m ay yet have to be developed
(wave energy).
■ D em ands o f th e fin al user: in less developed
cou ntries, energy m ay be needed m a in ly for
d om estic purposes; in m ore developed c o u n ­
tries, it is needed for tran sp ort, agriculture
and industry.
m Size, as well as the affluence, of th e local market.
: Accessibility of the local m arket to th e source.
P olitical d ecisions: for exam p le, w h ich type
o f energy to u tilise or to develop (nuclear),
or w h eth er to d en y its sale to rival cou n tries
(em bargoes).
■ C o m p e titio n from oth er form s o f available
energy.
m E n v iron m en t: th is m ay be adversely affected
b y th e use o f specific types o f energy, such as
coal and nu clear; it m ay o n ly b e p ro tected if
th ere are stron gly organised local or in te rn a ­
tio n a l con serv atio n pressure groups such as
Friends o f th e Earth and G reen peace. M ore
recen tly there has b een grow th in carbon
trad ing (page 6 3 9 ) and th e co n c ep t o f our
ecolog ical fo o tp rin t (page 3 7 9 ).
These factors w'ill be consid ered in th e n e x t
sectio n , w h ich discusses th e relative advantages
and disadvantages o f each available or p o ten tia l
source o f energy.
Non-renewable energy
Coal
C oal provided the basis for the Industrial Revolu­
tio n in Britain, W estern Europe and th e USA.
D espite its exp loitation for alm ost tw o cen tu ­
ries, it still has far m ore econ om ically recover­
able reserves th a n any o f th e other fossil fuels
(Figure 18.4). Im proved tech n o lo g y has increased
th e output per worker (Figure 17 .1 0 ), has allow ed
536 Energy resources
deeper m in in g w ith fewer workers, and has made
conversion for use as electricity m ore efficient.
In B ritain, b o th p ro d u ction and em p loym ent
reached a peak in th e early 1 9 50s. Betw een then
and 2 0 0 7 , th e nu m ber o f deep m ines decreased
from 9 0 1 to 6 (plus 2 5 op en cast), th e nu m ber
em ployed from 691 0 0 0 to 6 0 0 0 (4 0 0 0 in deep
m ines) and p ro d u ction fro m 2 0 6 m illio n tonnes
to 2 0 m illio n to n n es (9 .6 m illio n from deep
m ines). T h e social and e co n o m ic consequences
esp ecially in form er single-indu stry c o a l-m in in ;
villages, were d evastating, alth ou gh people
in these areas a gen eratio n or tw o later seem
to have little desire to retu rn to th o se earlier
tim es (Figure 18 .9 a ). Sim ilar p roblem s were
created in o th er old m in in g co m m u n ities such
as in Belgium , th e Ruhr (G erm any) and the
A ppalach ians (USA).
There are m any reasons for th is decline. The
m ost easily accessible deposits have been used
up, and m an y o f th e rem aining seams are dan­
gerous, due to faulting, and u n eco n o m ic to work.
Costs have risen due to expensive m achinery
and increased wages. The dem and for coal has
fallen for industrial use (the d ecline o f such heavy
industries as steel), d om estic use (oil- and gas-fire;
central heating) and power stations (now prefer­
ring gas). British coal has had to face increased
co m p etitio n from cheaper im ports (USA and
Australia), alternative m ethods o f generating
electricity (gas-fired) and cleaner form s o f energy
P olitical decisions have seen subsidies paid to the
nu clear pow er industry and a greater investm ent
in gas rather th a n coal-fired power stations (the
'dash for gas' policy - page 53 8). G reen pressures
have also led to a d ecline in coal m ining, w hich
creates dust and leaves spoil tips; and in the use
o f coal to produce electricity, as this releases
sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide w hich are
blam ed for acid rain and for global w arm ing
(Case Study 9B). However, coal m ay still have an
im p o rta n t future (Figure 1 8 .9b ) as alternative
sources o f energy run ou t - globally th ere are
an estim ated 155 years o f h ig h -q u ality coal left
w hereas oil and natural gas o n ly have 45 and 65
years respectively. In th e sh o rt term , coal is seen
by em erging cou ntries, such as C h in a and India
w ith th e ir large reserves (Figure 1 8 .5 ), as th e
m a in source for th eir increased energy consum p­
tio n (Places 82, page 5 4 4 ); in th e lon g term some
cou n tries will be d ep en d en t o n th e developm ent
o f 'cle a n coal tech n o lo g ie s' (as in G erm any) and
coal will be in co m p etitio n w ith renew ables.
 New Opencast Mine Bid
Anger erupted after planners backed a new opencast pit in Northumber­
land - 12 months after saying it should be rejected. Hundreds of people
have opposed UK Coal's bid to dig up 250 hectares of countryside on the
edge of Ashington, in a six-year operation, only a year after the county
council recommended the scheme be thrown out'as opencasting would
harm vital regeneration efforts' Ashington, once one ofthe largest
colliery towns in Britain, lies in an official'constraint area'where county
council policy says'there is a strong presumption against opencast
mining close to towns'The planners appear to have changed their minds
after the government gave permission for an opencast mine to be
developed a few kilometres away at Cramlington, which is also in a
'constraint area', and since fears were raised that Britain may not, in the
near future, have sufficient energy to 'keep its lights on'.
Abridged from the Ashington Journal , October 2008
Figure 18.9
Oil
What is the future Oil is th e world's largest business, w ith co m m e r­
for coal? cial and p o litical in flu en ce tran scen d in g n atio n al
bound aries. Indeed, several o f th e largest tra n s­
n a tio n a l enterprises are oil com p anies. O il, like
o th er fossil fuels, is n o t even in its d istrib u tion
(Figure 18 .6 ), and is o ften found in areas th a t
are e ith er d istan t from w orld m arkets or have
a h o stile e n v iro n m en t, e.g. th e A rctic (Alaska),
trop ical rainforests (N igeria and Ind onesia),
deserts (Algeria and th e M iddle East) or under
storm y seas (N orth Sea). This m eans th a t oil
exp lo ra tio n and e x p lo ita tio n is expensive, as is
th e cost o f its tran sp ort by pipelin e or tanker to
w orld m arkets. O il, w ith its flu ctu atin g prices,
has b ee n a m a jo r drain on th e fin a n cia l reserves
o f m an y developed cou ntries and has been
b eyond th e reach o f m o st developing cou n tries.
C o u n tries w here o il is at present exp loited can
o n ly exp ect a short 'e co n o m ic b o o m ' as, apart
from several states in th e M iddle East w here p ro ­
Figure 18.10 d u ctio n m ay co n tin u e for a little longer, m ost
Milford Haven world reserves are pred icted to b eco m e exh au sted
oil refinery w ith in 45 years.
Kingsnorth Coal-fired Power Station
The Cabinet is split over whether or not to approve a controversial plan
for a £1 bn coal-fired power station at Kingsnorth on the Thames estuary
in Kent. If the scheme went ahead it would be the first coal-fired station
to be built in Britain for many years. The issue is, on one hand, the need
to safeguard Britain's electricity supplies in the near future and, on the
other, a test of the government's green credentials and assurances to
reduce emissions.
E.ON UK, which has made the application, is hoping that the EU will
choose this power station as part of their carbon capture experiment
under which carbon emissions would be'captured'and stored under the
sea. A decision on the successful applicants is not expected for nine
months. Environmental protest groups are not convinced with the
assurance that, even if not selected, emissions from the power station
would be lower than existing coal-fired stations.
Abridged from the The Independent, September 2008
New tech n olog y has had to be developed to
tap less accessible reserves. Before oil could be
recovered from under th e N orth Sea, large c o n ­
crete platform s, capable o f w ithstanding severe
w inter storm s, had to be designed and co n ­
structed. Each platform , supported by four towers,
had to be large enough to accom m od ate a drilling
rig, process plant, power plant, h elicopter landing-
pad and living and sleeping quarters for its crew.
The towers m ay either be used to store oil or m ay
be filled w ith ballast to provide extra anchorage
and stability. Two 9 0 cm trunk pipelines were laid,
by a specially designed pipe-laying barge, over an
uneven sea-bed to Sullom Voe on Shetland. Since
th en , production has spread northw ards to even
deeper and storm ier waters west of Shetland. In
2 0 0 7 the UK had 211 offshore oilfields although
p roduction from these had decreased by over 40
per cen t since 1997.
On a global scale, oil produ ction and distribu­
tio n are affected by political and m ilitary deci­
sions. OPEC (Figure 2 1 .3 4 ) is a m ajor in flu en ce
in fixin g oil prices and determ in in g produ ction -
althou gh even it is helpless in the face o f in tern a­
tion al con flicts such as Suez (1956), th e Iran-Iraq
W ar (early 1980s) and th e G u lf War (1 9 9 1 ). Closer
to hom e, recent British and EU fuel policies have
favoured th e gas and nuclear industries at the
expense o f oil. Oil is used in power stations, by
industry, for central h eatin g and by transport.
A lthough it is considered less harm ful to th e envi­
ro n m en t th a n coal, it still poses m any threats.
Oil tankers can run aground during bad w eather
(Braer, 1993) releasing th eir co n ten ts w hich
pollute beaches and kill wildlife (Exxon Valdez,
1989) or be hijacked by pirates (Som alia, 2 0 0 8 ),
w hile explosions can cause th e loss o f hu m an
life (Alpha Piper rig, 19 8 8 ). To try to reduce th e
dangers of possible spillages and explosions, oil
refineries have o ften b een b u ilt on low-value land
ad jacen t to deep, sheltered tidal estuaries, well
Energy resources 537
 away from large centres of population (Figures N uclear energy uses uraniu m as its raw
1 8 .1 0 and 18.12). Oil produ ction is b eco m in g m aterial. Com pared w ith fossil fuels, uranium
increasingly con cen trated in a few countries, all is o n ly needed in relatively sm all am ounts
of w hose current levels of production have b een (50 to n n es of uranium a year, com pared w ith
affected by geopolitics, b o th in ternal and external 5 0 0 to n n es o f coal per hou r for coal-fired power
(Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, M exico, Nigeria, stations). U ranium has a m u ch longer lifetim e
Russia and Venezuela). th a n coal, oil or gas and can be m oved m ore
easily and cheaply. However, th e d evelopm ent
Natural gas
o f nu clear energy, w ith its new technology, spe­
N atural gas has b eco m e th e fastest-grow ing
cially designed power stations and essential safety
energy resource. It provides an alternativ e to
m easures, has been very expensive. As a result, it
coal and oil and, in 2 0 0 7 , it com prised alm ost
has generally b een adopted b y th e m ore w ealthy
a quarter o f th e w orld's prim ary energy c o n ­
cou n tries, and even th e n on ly by those (Figure
su m p tion. Latest estim ates suggest th a t global
18 .1 1 ) lacking fossil fuels (Japan) or w ith signifi­
reserves will last a n o th er 65 years. Gas is o ften
ca n t energy deficits (UK, USA and France). As a
fo u n d in close p ro xim ity to oilfields (Figure
source o f electricity, it is fed in to th e N ational
18 .6 ) and therefore exp erien ces sim ilar p ro b ­
Grid; but, as a source o f energy, it ca n n o t be
lem s in term s of p ro d u ction and tran sp ort costs
used by transp ort or for h eatin g. The d ecision to
and requ irem ents for new tech n olog y . In 2 0 0 8 ,
develop nu clear power has been , universally, a
Russia, Iran and Q atar an n o u n ced an O PEC-type
p olitical decision.
cartel th a t will co n tro l 6 0 per ce n t o f th e world's
At its peak in th e early 1990s, nuclear energy
gas, a d ecisio n n o t w elcom ed by th e EU w h ich
provided th e UK w ith 3 0 per cen t o f its energy
feared it cou ld lead to a price rise and a m eans
needs from 2 2 power stations. Since th e n plans
o f ach iev in g p o litical goals. T he UK had, in the
for new stations have b een dropped, and the plan
latter part o f th e last century, a surplus o f gas
for a fast-breeder reactor has been abandoned. Bv
from its N orth Sea fields w h ich resulted in th e so-
2 0 0 8 , on ly ten stations rem ained open (Figure
called 'dash for gas' b y th e electricity com panies.
18 .1 2 ) and, by 2 0 1 5 , these will be reduced to four
By 2 0 0 7 , N orth Sea gas p ro d u ction h ad halved
W h ile their closure will please the anti-nuclear
in ten years and th e UK is now a n et im porter,
lobby, it does n o t explain from where Britain is to
som e via a pipeline from N orw ay (2 0 0 6 ) and
get th e replacem ent energy. This question has led
an in creasin g a m o u n t from Russia. At present
to th e governm ent having to review its nuclear
natu ral gas is consid ered to be th e ch eap est and
policy, especially w hen, w ith global w arm ing an 2
clean est o f th e fossil fuels.
clim ate change so h ig h on th e environm ental
Nuclear energy agenda, th e nuclear industry can claim th at the
D uring th e 1950s, nuclear energy, w ith its slogan energy it produces is 'clean ' and th at im prove­
'atom s for peace', was seen by m an y to be a sus­ m ents in tech n o lo g y have m ade it 'safer and mo:
tainable, inexpensive and clean energy resource affordable' th a n in the past. In 2 0 0 8 , th e govern­
and by others as a p o ten tially dangerous m ilitary m ent, partly also in an attem pt to reduce Britain
weapon and a threat to th e en v ironm ent. increasing reliance on im ported energy, opened
th e way for up to ten new stations to be built bv
Figure 18.11
Amount used (mtoe) Proportion of total energy 2 0 2 0 , th e first by 2 0 17 .
Major users of nuclear use (%) A lthough n u clear power stations produce
energy, 2007
USA 192 France 76.8 fewer greenhou se gases th a n th erm al (coal-, oi
France 100 Lithuania 64.4 and gas-fired) pow er station s, th ey do present
p o ten tia l risks in th ree m ain areas: routine
Japan 63 Slovakia 54.3
em issions o f radioactivity, w aste disposal, and
Russia 36 Belgium 54.0
rad ioactive co n ta m in a tio n accid ents. Routine
Germany 32 Ukraine 48.1 em issions have b een linked - w ith o u t proven
South Korea 32 Sweden 46.1 evidence - w ith clusters o f increased leukaem ia
esp ecially in ch ild ren , around several power
Canada 22 Armenia 43.5
station s (n o ta b ly Sellafield and D ounreay).
Ukraine 21 Slovenia 41.6
R adioactive waste has to be stored safely, e ith i
Sweden 15 Switzerland 40.0 deep un derground or at Sellafield. Every radic-
China 14 Hungary 36.8 active substance has a 'h a lf-life', i.e. th e tim e
UK 14 South Korea 35.3
it takes for h a lf of its rad ioactivity to die away

Spain 13 Bulgaria 32.1

538 Energy resources


Iod ine, w ith a h alf-life o f 8 days, b ecom es 'safe'
Power stations in the relatively quickly. In con trast, p lu to n iu m 2 3 9 ,
UK with 50 MWor produced by n u clear reactors, has a h alf-life of
more capacity, 2008
2 5 0 0 0 0 years and m ay still be dangerous after
5 0 0 0 0 0 years. T h e tw o w orst radioactive a cci­
d ents resulted from th e m elt-d ow n o f reactor
cores at Three M ile Island in the USA (1 9 7 9 ) and
at C h ern ob y l in U kraine (1 9 8 6 ). F ortu n ately
th ere was n o such leak w hen th e world's largest
nu clear power p lan t was forced to close follow in g
an earthquake in Ja p a n in 2 0 0 7 . It was m a in ly for
e co n o m ic and safety reasons th a t B ritish nu clear
pow er station s (Figure 1 8 .1 2 ) were b u ilt o n coasts
and estuaries w here th ere is w ater for co o lin g
and cheap, easily reclaim ab le land well away
from m a jo r centres o f p o p u latio n . However, the
B ritish g ov ern m en t had to agree in 1 9 9 8 , fo l­
low ing renew ed calls from several EU cou ntries,
to m ake a large red u ction in discharges in to th e
Irish Sea from Sellafield.
Renewable energy
W ith th e d epletion o f oil and gas reserves during
th e early years o f th e 2 1 st century and the u n fa­
vourable publicity given to all types o f fossil fuels,
especially regarding th eir con trib u tio n towards
global warm ing, renew able energy resources are
likely to becom e increasingly m ore attractive.
They are likely to beco m e m ore cost-com petitive,
offer greater energy diversity, and allow for a
cleaner en v iron m ent. As show n in Figure 18.1,
there are two types o f renew able energy:
C o n tin u o u s so u rces are recurren t and will
never run ou t. T h ey inclu d e ru n n in g w ater
(for h y d ro-electricity ), w ind, th e sun (solar),
tides, waves and g eoth erm al.
Flow sources are sustainable providing that
th ey are carefully m anaged and m aintained
(Framework 16, page 49 9 ). Biomass, in cluding
the use o f fuelwood, is sustainable in th a t it has
a m axim um yield beyond w hich it will begin
to becom e depleted.
Hydro-electricity
H yd ro-electricity is th e m o st w idely used co m ­
m ercially produced renew able source o f energy
(fuelw ood is used b y m ore people and in m ore
cou ntries). Its availability depends o n an assured
supply o f fast-flow ing w ater w h ich m ay be
ob tain ed from rainfall spread evenly th ro u g h ­
ou t th e year, or by b u ild in g dams and storing
w ater in large reservoirs. T h e in itia l in v estm en t
costs and levels o f te ch n o lo g y needed to build
new dam s and pow er station s, to in stall tu rbines
and to erect pylons and cables for th e tran sp ort
o f th e e lectricity to o ften -d ista n t m arkets, are
hig h . However, o n ce a schem e is operative, th e
'natu ral, co n tin u a l, renew able' flow o f w ater
m akes its e lectricity ch eap er th a n th a t produced
by fossil fuels.
Although th e production o f hydro-electricity is
perceived as 'clean ', it can still have very dam aging
effects upon th e environ m en t. The creation of
reservoirs can m ean large areas o f vegetation being
cleared (Tucurui in Am azonia), wildlife habitats
(Kariba in Zimbabwe) and agricultural land (Volta
in G hana) being lost, and people being forced to
m ove hom e (Aswan in Egypt and th e Three Gorges
D am in C h in a - Places 82, page 544). W here new
reservoirs drown vegetation, the resultant lake is
likely to becom e acidic and anaerobic. Dams can
be a flood risk if th ey collapse or overflow (Case
Study 2B), have been linked to increasing th e risk
of earthquake activity (Nurek Dam in Tajikistan)
and can trap silt previously spread over farm land
(Nile valley, Places 73, page 4 9 0 ). Despite these
negative aspects, m an y countries rely on large,
som etim es prestigious, schem es or, increasingly in
Energy resources 539
 less developed countries, on smaller projects using However, British environm entalists are now
m ore appropriate levels o f technology less supportive o f wind power th a n they original
(Case Study 18). were. This is partly because m an y o f th e actual
and proposed wind farm s are in areas o f scenic
Wind
attractio n, w here th ey are visually intrusive, or
W in d is th e m ost successful o f th e new renew ­
to o close to im p ortan t wildlife habitats. In an
able te ch n o lo g ies. W in d farm s are b est suited to
attem p t to m ake th em m ore efficient, turbines
places w here winds are strong, steady and reli­
are b eco m in g increasingly tall - over 50 m on
able and w here th e landscape is eith er h ig h or,
onsh ore w ind farm s and even higher o n those
as o n coasts, exposed. A lthough expensive to
located offshore, w here som e could be taller thaj
bu ild - w ind farm s co st m ore th a n gas or coal-
th e C anary W h arf tower. Elsewhere, local resi­
fired pow er stations - th ey are cheap and safe to
dents com p lain of noise and im paired radio an c
operate. M ost o f Britain's new w ind farm s are to
TV reception, w hile others claim th at th e rotatin
be located offsh ore w here, a lth ou g h m ore costly
blades are a danger to birds, th e turbines can
to co n stru ct, winds are m ore reliable th a n on
affect airport radar system s, and th a t electricity
land. As w ind farm s are m a in ly p o llu tio n free,
costs are high er than for power from fossil fuel?
th e y do n o t co n trib u te to global w arm ing or acid
and nuclear energy. As yet, electricity com panies
rain and th e y should sig n ifican tly co n trib u te to
ca n n o t store surplus power for tim es w hen w ine
w orld co m m itm e n ts to reduce carbon d ioxide
pow er ca n n o t be produced, i.e. during calm s c :
em ission s b y 6 0 per ce n t b y 2 0 5 0 . W inds, espe­
w hen th e w ind is less th a n about 15 km/hr w h i;
cially in W estern Europe and C aliforn ia, are
could be during very cold w inter an ticy clo n ic
strongest in w inter w h en dem and for electricity
con d ition s (page 2 3 4 ); or during gales w hen
is h ig h est. W ind farm s ca n provide extra in co m e
winds are over 55 km/hr and wind farm s must
for farm ers w ho could earn m ore from th e m
shut dow n for safety reasons. B oth eventualities
th a n th e y could from grow ing a crop on th e
are tim es w hen dem and is likely to be greatest.
sam e-sized plot. W ind farm s also create extra
A lthough th e first large-scale w ind farms w a
jo bs for people living in rural areas and in th e
, , . . , , . located in C aliforn ia (Figure 1 8 .1 3 ) and th e US;1
e lectricity gen eratio n supply ch a in . As fossil fuels ,, , °
, , ., , , , still has over one-quarter o f th e world's capactr.
b eco m e less available, cou n tries will have to r
, . i . . . , th e fastest grow th is in th e EU, n o tab ly in Spain
b eco m e in creasin gly d ep end ent on renew ables , ^ ° , 1 h
. . , and G erm any, and th e em erging countries of
such as w ind. , , 0 0
C h in a and India.

California and the U K : wind farm s

California
M o s t w in d fa rm s in t h e U S A h a v e b e e n d e v e lo p e d e le c t r ic u tilitie s. A t p re s e n t, 90 p e r c e n t o f t h e USAs
b y p r iv a t e c o m p a n ie s . T h e d e v e lo p e rs , w h o u se c a p a c it y c o m e s fro m C a lifo rn ia . C alifo rn ia 's w in d
e ith e r t h e ir o w n o r le a s e d la n d , sell e le c t r ic it y to fa rm s a re in a n id e a l lo c a tio n m a in ly b e c a u s e p e a k

w in d s o c c u r a b o u t t h e s a m e t im e o f y e a r as d o e s
p e a k d e m a n d fo r e le c t r ic it y in t h e la rg e c itie s n e a rb .

A p p r o x im a t e ly 16 000 t u r b in e s w it h in t h e s ta te

p r o d u c e e n o u g h e le c t r ic it y to s u p p ly a c it y t h e size

o f S a n F ra n c is c o . T h e t h r e e la rg e s t w in d fa rm s a re

a t A lt a m o n t Pass (e a s t o f S a n F ra n c is c o ), T e h a c h a p

( b e t w e e n t h e S a n Jo a q u in V a lle y a n d t h e M o ja v e

D e s e rt) a n d S a n G o r g o n io (n o r th o f P a lm S p rin g s:.

T h e A lt a m o n t Pa ss, w it h 7 0 0 0 tu r b in e s , is o n e o f

t h e la r g e s t w in d fa r m s in t h e w o r ld (F ig u r e 18.13 .

T h e a v e r a g e w in d s p e e d a v e r a g e s b e t w e e n 20 a n c

37 k m / h r .T h e la n d is still u s e d fo r c a t t le g ra z in g as

t h e r e is o n ly o n e t u r b in e fo r e v e r y 1.5-2 ha.

Wind farm at Altamont Pass,

California

540 Energy resources

 The UK
B rita in 's first w in d fa rm w a s o p e n e d

in 1991 n e a r C a m e lfo rd in C o r n w a ll.

T h e fa rm , o n m o o r la n d 2 5 0 m a b o v e

se a- le ve l a n d w h e r e a v e r a g e w in d

s p e e d s a re 27 km /hr, g e n e r a t e s

e n o u g h e le c t r ic it y fo r 300 0 h o m e s .

In 200 8 , B rita in h a d 188 o p e r a t io n a l

w in d fa rm s, 7 o f w h ic h w e r e o ffsh o re ,

b u t t h e s e in to ta l p r o v id e d less t h a n

1 p e r c e n t o f t h e c o u n tr y 's e n e r g y

n e e d s (F ig u re 18.14). W it h a n o t h e r

43 u n d e r c o n s t r u c t io n (8 o ffs h o re )

■ tfV V m C a n d 130 p r o je c t e d (8 o ffs h o re ), t h e

V .. 1
g o v e r n m e n t h o p e s t h a t, b y 2010,

10 p e r c e n t o f B ritain 's e n e r g y w ill

c o m e fro m r e n e w a b le s (6 0 p e r c e n t
t
fr o m t h e w in d ); a n d , b y 2 0 2 0 ,2 0 p e r

c e n t.T o a c h ie v e this, a n o t h e r 4 00 0

o n s h o r e tu r b in e s a n d 3 0 0 0 o ffs h o re

■r w in d fa rm s (w it h 11 0 0 0 t u r b in e s )

w ill b e re q u ire d .

'tSSpBSj

j
• te rre s tria l w in d farm
• o ffsh o re w in d farm Figure 18.14

200 km Wind farms in the

UK, 2007

Solar energy In 2 0 0 8 , Sou th Korea opened th e world's

T he sun, as stated earlier, is th e prim ary source largest solar power plant. It covers th e equ iv alent
o f th e Earth's energy. Estim ates suggest th a t th e o f 9 3 fo o tb a ll stadium s and provides electricity
annu al energy received from th e sun (in solatio n ) for 1 0 0 0 0 0 hom es.
is 15 0 0 0 tim es greater th a n th e cu rren t global
energy supply. Solar energy is safe, p o llu tion -free,
Wave power
W aves are created by th e transfer o f energy from
efficie n t and o f lim itless supply. U nfortunately,
winds w h ich blow over th em (page 140). In
it is expensive to co n stru ct solar 'sta tio n s',
western Europe, w inter storm waves from the
alth ou g h m an y individual hom es have had solar
A tlantic O cean transfer large am ounts of energy
panels added, esp ecially in clim ates th a t are
towards the coast where it has th e potential to
w arm er and su n n ier th a n in B ritain. It is hoped,
generate th e same am ount o f energy for th e UK as
globally, th a t future im p rovem en ts in te c h ­
wind does now. At present there are tw o experi­
n o lo g y will result in reduced p ro d u ction costs.
m ental schem es off th e Scottish coast, m aking it
This would en able m an y d eveloping cou ntries,
ten years behind wind power. T he first, LIMPET,
esp ecially th o se lying w ith in th e tropics, to rely
is a 5 0 0 kW shoreline oscillating water colum n
in creasingly o n th is type o f energy. In B ritain,
in Islay; th e second is th e 7 5 0 kW Pelamis sea
th e solar energy o p tio n is less favourable partly
snake - a hinged contou r device - in O rkney (the
due to th e greater am o u n t o f cloud cover and
Portuguese are now using Pelamis com m ercially).
partly to th e lo n g hours o f darkness in w inter
w h en d em and for energy is at its high est.

Energy resources 541

 across th e Severn estuary, w h ich has th e w orld ’s
Shoots
Sw an sea barrage
second h ig h est tidal range, and oth er estuaries
such as th e M ersey and Solw ay Firth. It to o k until
N e w p o rt
2 0 0 8 for th e first electricity from tides to be co n ­
B rid g e n d nected to th e N ational Grid (at Eday in O rkney
Swansea Bay
tida: energy C a rd iff © and Strangford Lough in N orth ern Ireland).
lagoon
Two form s o f tech n olog y , each o f w hich
Russell tidai
Bristol Channel energy lagoon exploits th e tidal range, are at presen t being
assessed for th e Severn estuary (Figure 18.15):
Lynmouth tidal W e s to n - su p e r- m a re
Cardiff-Weston
current array tidal barrage and tidal lagoon. A tidal barrage is
barrage
w h en th e in co m in g tide turns a tu rbin e w hose
L y n m o u th blades can be reversed to harness th e ou tgoing
Ilfra c o m b e
tide. As it is in effect a dam across th e estuary, it
Barrages Lagoons restricts shippin g access and inu nd ates an e xten ­
sive area. A tidal lagoon involves a rock-walled
A Severn barrage 'J Cardiff-Weston Shoots Russell
or tidal lagoons? im p ou n d m en t, sim ilar to a breakwater, enclosing
Cost £15 bn £1.5 bn est. £10 bn
an area o f shallow water. W ater is trapped at h i ;r
UK's energy supply 5% 0.75% 7% tide in th e lag oon and released as th e tide recede
Generation cost 5p kW/hr ? 2 -2 .5p kW/hr th rou g h a b an k o f electricity -g en eratin g turbir.
w ith in th e im p o u n d m en t w alls. This m eth o d is
Impounded areas 480 km2 very little 300 km2
less extensive, less e n v iro n m en tally dam aging
Length of barrage/ 16 km 4 km 100 km
does n o t ob stru ct shipping access and would
walls
provide b o th m ore and ch eap er electricity. If
Environment low carbon; loss of low carbon; less loss low carbon; little
constru cted , it w ould be th e world's first such
feeding grounds for of feeding grounds loss of feeding
schem e (it is favoured by Friends o f the Earth
up to 50 000 birds grounds
Cym ru (W ales)).

TidaI energy Geothermal energy

O f all th e renew able resources, tidal energy is
th e m o st reliable and pred ictable b u t to date
m a jo r schem es are lim ited to th e Ranee estuary
in n orth -w est France (1 9 6 0 s), th e Bay o f Fundy
in eastern C anada, Kislaya in Russia and Jia n g x ia
in C h in a . For over tw o decades Britain has talked
ab ou t (and is still debating) erecting a barrage
gi re 18.16
Wairakei geothermal power
Several cou ntries, especially th ose located in
active v o lcan ic areas, ob tain energy from heatez
rocks and m o lten m agm a at depth under the
Earth's surface, e.g. Iceland, New Zealand, Kenvs.
and several cou ntries in central Am erica (Figure
1 8 .1 6 ). It is also derived from h o t springs and
by tapping aquifers w h ich co n ta in naturally
h o t water. Cold water (Figure 18.17) is pum pec
dow nwards, is heated natu rally and is th en
returned to th e surface as steam w h ich can gen­
erate electricity. G eoth erm al energy does pose

A geotherr
generating •

■ ‘- I - M
c o ld 10°C 1oo°c h o t w a te r is
w a te r is p ip e d up
It ta k e s 40 kg
pum ped
o f w a te r to
down
c o n d e n s e 1 kg
o f stea m
c irc u la tin g
w a te r is h e a te d
b y c o n ta c t
2 0 0 °C h o t m ass o f
w ith h o t rock
ig n e o u s rock

542 Energy resources

 en v iro n m en ta l problem s as carb on dioxide and
hydrogen sulphide em issions m ay be high, the
w ater supply can b eco m e saline, and earth m ove­
m en ts can dam age power stations.
Biomass
Biomass, also know n as biofuels and bioenergy,
is th e d om in an t form o f energy for m ost o f the
world's population w ho are living in extrem e
poverty (page 6 0 9 and Figure 18 .1 9 ) and w ho use
it for cooking and, w hen necessary and if suffi­
cien t is available, for heating. It is obtained from
organic m atter, i.e. crops, plants and anim al waste,
o f w h ich the m ost im portant to those living in
the least developed countries, especially in Africa,
is fuelw ood. Trees are a sustainable resource, pro­
viding th at those cut dow n are replaced, w hich
costs m oney, or allowed to regenerate, w hich takes
tim e - but m oney and tim e are w hat these people
do n o t have. As n earby supplies are used up, c o l­
lectin g fuelw ood b eco m es an in creasin g ly tim e-
con su m in g task; in extrem e cases, it m ay take all
day (Figure 1 8 .1 8 and Case Study 18). M an y o f
these cou n tries have a rapid p o p u latio n grow th,
w h ich adds greater pressure to th eir o ften meagre
resources, and lack th e capital and te ch n o lo g y
Collecting fuelwood,
to develop or buy altern ativ e resources. In places
£ub-Saharan Africa
p o p u la tio n g ro w th :
in c re a s e d d e m a n d for
f u e lw o o d
e v e n s m a ll b u s h e s a n d m o re tre e s cu t
s cru b used : n o d o w n : soil
v e g e ta tio n le ft cycle of exposed
environmental
deprivation
p e o p le h a v e fu rth e r fe w e r m a tu re tre es: soil
to w a lk fo r w o o d e ro sio n in cre ase s;
p o s s ib le d e s e rtific a tio n
The cycle of environ­
mental deprivation
w here th e dem and for fuelw ood outstrips the
supply, and w here th ere is n e ith er th e m o n ey to
rep lan t nor th e tim e for regen eration, th e risk
o f d esertificatio n and irreversible dam age to the
en v iro n m en t increases - i.e. th e cycle o f en v iro n ­
m en ta l dep rivation (Figure 1 8 .1 8 ).
T he use o f biom ass is generally considered
to be a 'ca rb o n n eu tral' process as th e carbon
d ioxid e released in th e g en eratio n o f energy
b alan ces th a t absorbed by plants during th eir
grow th. This is n o t, how ever, applicable to those
parts o f Africa w here an im al dung is allow ed
to ferm en t to produce m e th a n e gas. W h ile th e
m e th a n e , a green hou se gas, provides a vital
d om estic fuel, it m ean s th a t th e dung c a n n o t be
spread as a fertiliser o n th e fields.
Biom ass can also b e used to produce b iofu els
(b ioen ergy), th e first b ein g used in Brazil where
sugar can e was allow ed to ferm en t to produce
b io -eth a n o l w h ich was th e n used as a v eh icle fuel
th a t was cheap er th a n petrol. M ore recently, and
m ore w idely used, biod iesel com es from oil palm ,
a use th a t has led to increased forest clearan ces
for th a t crop in M alaysia; in th e EU oilseed rape,
and in th e USA m aize, are b ein g grow n for th e
sam e purpose. G ov ern m en ts are view ing th e use
o f th is renew able resource as a way o f reducing
th eir carb on em ission s w ith o u t foreseeing th at
th eir increased grow th, at th e expense o f food
crops, will lead to food shortages and rising
g lobal food prices.
It has beco m e apparent th a t the sustainable
use o f bioenergy requires a b alan cin g o f several
factors, inclu d ing th e com p etition betw een food
and energy security, th e effects o n rural devel­
o p m en t and on agricultural m arkets and food
prices, as well as th e effects o n th e environm ent.
In 2 0 0 7 , biom ass accou nted for 8 2 per ce n t o f th e
UK's renew able energy sources (wind 9 per cent,
and hyd ro-electricity 8 per cent), th e m ajority of
w h ich was derived from landfill gas and waste
com bu stio n . It is also th e fastest-grow ing renew ­
able in th e EU w hile its use in th e USA is said to be
equal to th e output o f ten nuclear power stations.
Hydrogen
Hopes are h ig h for th e d ev elop m en t o f a fuel cell
in w h ich a ch em ica l rea ctio n takes place th a t
generates electricity from h yd rogen. T he reaction
produces clean, efficie n t energy in a process th a t
releases n o th in g m ore dam aging to th e e n v iro n ­
m e n t th a n w ater vapour. A lthough developed
cou n tries see th e petrol-free hyd rogen car as a
m a jo r b reak th rou g h in tran sp ort, fuel cells hold
p o ten tia l for developing cou n tries to o as th e y are
equ ally e co n o m ic o n a sm all scale and require
little m a in ten a n ce.
Energy resources 543
 Energy conservation through
greater efficiency
O ne of th e UN's m ain objectives since th e first
'Earth Sum m it' on the environm ent (Rio de Janeiro
1992) has b een to try to get countries to agree to set
global lim its and tim escales in reducing harm ful
em issions from vehicles, factories and power sta­
tions and to seek m ethods o f greater energy effi­
ciency. Since then, progress has been lim ited partly
due to opposition from vested interests and, until
m ore recently, a lack o f political will. However,
there have been som e successes. Several indus­
tries, including the steel industry, have improved
their techniques, reducing th e am ount o f energy
needed; factories have m ade savings by reducing
to a single source o f electricity needed for heating
lighting and operating m achinery; and the numbc
of coal- and oil-fired power stations has been
reduced in favour o f gas (a cleaner greenhouse
gas). At hom e, heat loss has been reduced through
roof and wall insulation and double glazing, while
for lighting th e EU is trying to enforce the use of
energy-saving bulbs.

China: changes in energy production and consum ption

Figure 18.20 In t h e e a r ly 1990s, C h in a 's e n e r g y in d u s t r y w a s
2000
Energy consumption d o m in a t e d b y c o a l (F ig u r e 18.20), w h ic h w a s n o t
1800
in China, 1992-2007 s u rp r is in g s in c e t h e c o u n t r y w a s p r o d u c in g n e a r ly
~ 1600 tw o - fifth s o f t h e w o r ld 's t o ta l (F ig u r e 18.5). C o a l
C
is m in e d in m o s t p a rts o f t h e c o u n t r y , a lt h o u g h
£ 1400
p r o d u c t io n is lo w e r to t h e s o u t h o f t h e Y a n g tz e
If 1200
R iv e r a n d le a s t in t h e m o u n t a in s t o t h e w e s t
° 1000 (F ig u r e 18.21). W it h in d u s tr y , t r a n s p o r t a n d h o m e s
C
§ 800 ■mm all so re lia n t u p o n t h e b u r n in g o f c o a l in o n e f o r m

o r a n o t h e r , m a n y C h in e s e c itie s e x p e r ie n c e d s e v e re
J 600
a t m o s p h e r ic p o llu t io n (F ig u r e 18.22), a n d C h in a
£ 400 w a s b la m e d fo r r e le a s in g a n n u a lly 10 p e r c e n t o f

200 t h e w o r ld 's g r e e n h o u s e g a s e s . T h e r e m a in d e r o f

C h in a 's e n e r g y b u d g e t w a s m a d e u p fro m oil, in

0
1992 1997 2002 2007 w h ic h it w a s s e lf- s u ffic ie n t, a n d h y d r o - e le c tric ity .
year
T h e f a c t t h a t t h e c o u n t r y c o u ld p r o v id e s u ffic ie n t

coal natural gas hydro-electricity e n e r g y fo r its n e e d s w a s b e c a u s e , d e s p it e h a v in g

oil nuclear energy s u c h a la rg e p o p u la t io n , t h e c o u n t r y 's s t a n d a r d o f

liv in g a n d c o n s u m p t io n o f e n e r g y w a s l o w a n d it

h a d y e t to e m b a r k o n t h e ra p id e c o n o m ic

d e v e l o p m e n t s e e n in t h e la te 19 90s
coal [ | hyd ro-electricity
1 (^P7hnuha a n d e a r ly 21 st c e n t u r y . E v e n so, in 1995

C h in a w a s ra n k e d s e c o n d in t h e w o r ld fo r
g e n e r a t e d e n e rg y , m a in ly fr o m its t h e r m a l

a n d h y d r o - e le c t r ic p o w e r s ta tio n s , a n d

g e n e r a t in g c a p a c it y .

S in c e t h e tu rn o f th is c e n t u r y a n d as C h in a

h a s b e c o m e , e c o n o m ic a lly , t h e w o rld 's

m o s t r a p id ly e m e r g in g c o u n t r y , t h e r e has

b e e n a h u g e in c r e a s e in b o t h its e n e r g y

p r o d u c t io n a n d c o n s u m p t io n , e s p e c ia lly

o f c o a l, h y d r o - e le c t r ic it y a n d im p o r t e d

o il (F ig u r e 1 8 .2 0 ).T h is e m e r g e n c e

( C h a p t e r 2 1 ) h a s h a d a m a jo r e ffe c t o n t h e

g lo b a l e c o n o m y .

Figure 18.21

Energy resources
in China

544 Energy resources


C hina’s dependence on coal
continues amid the incidence o f
accidents - 16 miners were
killed and 4 6 injured in a mine
blast last week - and claim s o f
inefficient mining methods and
high levels o f pollution. In the
last few years more than 18 00 0
small mines have either been
closed, or merged with larger
ones, but 14 0 0 0 are still
operating. This number will be
reduced further to 10 0 0 0 by
2010. Two effects o fth e merging
o f small mines have been a
doubling in coal production and
a drop in fatalities. In 2007,
when 2 9 0 0 died - 4 5 0 fewer
than in the previous year - for
every million tonnes o f coal
produced, the death toll at small
mines was eight times that o f the
larger state-owned ones as the
latter are believed to pay more
attention to safety.
O ctober 2008
Figure 18.22
Atmospheric pollution
over Chengdu
China, now the w orld’s second
biggest gas consum er, plans to
boost its own production by 50
per cent by 2 0 1 0 by w hich tim e
gas will have increased its share
o f the nation’s total energy
consum ption from 3.5 per cent
to 5 .3 per cent. However, China
will still have to import a
significant amount w hich it will
do through a second w est-e ast
pipeline at present being built to
conn ect the Central A sian
countries, notably Turkm eni­
stan, w ith the energy-thirsty
eastern and southern regions
that include Shanghai and
Guangdong.
November 2007
C o al still a c c o u n ts fo r 70 p e r c e n t o f C h in a's e n e r g y
c o n s u m p t io n (F ig u re 18.20), d e s p ite its k n o w n e ffe c t
o n g lo b a l w a r m in g a n d t h e p o llu tio n it ca u se s in
C h in e s e cities. P ro d u c tio n a lm o s t d o u b le d b e t w e e n
2 00 2 a n d 2007 to m e e t t h e g r o w in g d e m a n d , d e s p ite
a c o n t in u a lly h ig h rate o f m in in g a c c id e n ts a n d
re s u lta n t d e a th s (F ig u re 18.23a). A s th e co u n try 's
ro a d a n d a ir t r a n s p o r t s y ste m s d e v e lo p , a n in c re a sin g
a m o u n t o f oil h as to b e im p o r te d , m a in ly fro m t h e
M id d le Ea st.T h is in c re a s e w a s p a rtly to b la m e for
a w o rld s h o r ta g e o f oil in 2008 th a t led t o th e
re co rd h ig h g lo b a l p ric e p e r b arrel (F ig u re 18.7).
T h e first nuclear power reactor T h e last generator o f
to be built in China (early C h in a’s T hree G orges
1990s) was at Qinshan in Dam went online
Z hejiang Province to the south yesterday, m eaning that
o f Shanghai. S in ce then six the w orld's largest
m ore reactors have been added hydropower plant has
to the com plex. A second site is becom e fully operational
at D aya Bay (2 0 0 2 ) in - five years after the first
Guangdong Province where o f the 26 turbines in the
two reactors now provide p ro ject’s original plan
energy fo r Shenzhen and began producing energy.
G uangzhou, w hile a third at T he Three G orges is now,
Lianyungang (2 0 0 7 ) in Jiangsu in 2 0 0 8 , producing 58 per
Province, equidistant betw een cent o f the country’s total
Shanghai and B eijin g , also has hydro-electricity. T he
two reactors. A ll these reactors original plan has since
are second-generation, but been expanded to include
w ork has ju s t begun near six m ore generators
Q inshan on a new third- w hich will be com pleted
generation type reactor. by 2 012.
O ctober 2 0 0 8
June 2008
Figure 18.23
Changes in coal, natural
gas, nuclear power and
hydro-electric power,
adapted from China Daily
In c o m p a ris o n , c o n s u m p tio n o f n a tu ra l g as a n d
n u c le a r p o w e r is sm all b u t b o th s h o w an in c re a s e
(F ig u re 18 .2 3 b a n d c). O f t h e r e n e w a b le so u rc e s o f
e n e rg y , h y d ro - e le c tric ity is b y far t h e m o st im p o rta n t
a n d is e x p e c te d to b e c o m e e v e n m o re so a sfo ss il
fu els, as t h e y ru n o u t, c a n n o t g o o n satisfy in g C h in a's
rising n e e d s fo r e n e r g y a n d as t h e c o u n t r y lo o k s for
c le a n e r o p tio n s . S c h e m e s s u ch as t h e T h r e e G o r g e s
(F ig u re s 18 .23d an d 18.24) a re p re d ic te d to a c c o u n t fo r
28 p e r c e n t o f C h in a's to ta l p o w e r g e n e ra tio n b y 2015.
Figure 18.24
TheThree Gorges Damon
the Yangtze River
Energy resources 545
 Development and energy
consumption
To m a n y people, esp ecially in developed c o u n ­
tries, e co n o m ic d ev elo p m en t is lin k ed to th e
w ea lth o f a cou ntry , w ith w ea lth b ein g m eas­
ured b y GDP per ca p ita (page 6 0 6 ). O f several
o th e r variables th a t c a n be used to m easure
d ev elo p m en t, o n e is en erg y c o n su m p tio n per
cap ita - i.e. how m u ch energy, o fte n given
in to n n e s o f co a l or o il e q u iv a len t, th a t each
p erson in a co u n try uses per year. C o n seq u e n tly
a c o rre la tio n b etw een th e w ealth o f a c o u n try
and energy co n su m p tio n m ig h t be exp ected
(Fram ew ork 19, page 6 1 2 ).
T h e log-log graph in Figure 18.25 seems to
show th a t there is a good, positive correlation
betw een th e two variables, i.e. as the w ealth of
a cou ntry increases, so to o does its energy c o n ­
sum ption. T he huge gap in energy con su m p tion
betw een th e developed and th e developing world
is show n in Figure 1 8 .2 6 . N ote also th a t those
countries above th e lin e in Figure 1 8 .2 5 tend to
have m ore natural energy reserves (Russia - gas,
Saudi Arabia - oil; Zam bia - hydro-electricity)
th an those below th e line (Italy Peru).
Energy is the driving force behind m ost hum an
activities, so it is fundam ental to developm ent.
Energy allows people to m ake greater use of the
resources th a t they have. According to Practical
Action (Case Study 18 and Places 90, page 577):
'reliable, accessible and affordable energy sup­
plies ca n play an im p o rta n t role in im proving
living co n d itio n s in th e d eveloping world.
T hey provide lig ht and h eat for hom es, and
power w orkshops th a t create jo b s and genera
w ealth. Poor people in developing countries
face particu lar problem s in securing energy
for th eir daily needs. T his is a pressing issue
in rural areas w here m o st people live. M ore
th a n h a lf th e w orld's p o p u la tio n relies upon
b iom ass fuel (usually w ood b u t also charcoal
crop residues or an im al dung). Poor people
c a n n o t afford alternativ e fuels such as gas oi
kerosene. N ation al grids m ain ly serve urban
areas, or large industrial op eration s; it is pro­
hibitiv ely expensive to exten d th e m far intc
th e cou ntrysid e. In places w here th ere are
renew able energy resources such as th e sun
w ind and water, co m m u n ities o ften lack the
know ledge, expertise and capital needed to
in stall th e m o st appropriate system .'

Correlation between GDP (US$) Energy consumption per capita in the

and energy consumption, 2008 developed and developing worlds

60.0 - .... 1 Tanzania

2 Niger
40.0 - .... 3 Bangladesh
4 Kenya
5 India
6 Zambia
20.0 -
7 China
8 Egypt
9 Peru
10.0 - 10 Mexico 5-
8.0 - 11 Brazil
6.0 - 12 Malaysia
13 Saudi Arabia
4.0 - 14 Argentina
15 UK
16 Australia
17 Italy 3-
o 2.0 -
18 Russia
Q. 19 USA
20 Germany
1.0 - 21 Japan
0.8
0.6
1-
0.4

0.2 - oo co co co co co 00 CO 00 CO 00 CO
CO O' o 00 a\ o CO O'* O 00 ON o
o> o^ o <J\ o On O' O Oi O'
fN —
0
o o o o
o
^
o o o
VO CO o N o rth A m e ric a 1
i- - - - fo rm e r
E u ro p e I--- S o v ie t U n io n | | w o r|d
G D P p e r c a p ita (U S $ )

546 Energy resources

‘An Appropriate Technology is exactly what it
says - a technology appropriate or suitable to the
situation in which it is used [page 576]. If that
situation is a highly industrialised urban centre
the appropriate technology may well be “high
tech”. If, however, the situation is a remote
Nepalese village “appropriateness” will be
measured in the following terms:
•Is it culturally acceptable?
•Is it what people really want?
•Is it affordable?
•Is it cheaper or better than alternatives?
•Can it be made and repaired with local material,
by local people?
•Does it create new jobs or protect existing ones?
•Is it environmentally sound?
Practical Action and m icro-hydro in Nepal
‘The small Himalayan kingdom of Nepal ranks
as one of the ten poorest countries in the world.
Around 90 per cent of its 19 million people earn
their living from farming, often at a subsistence
level. The Himalaya mountains offer Nepal one
vast resource - the thousands of streams which
pour down from the mountains all year round.
Nepali people have harnessed the power in these
rivers for centuries, albeit on a small scale
[Figure 18.27],
Cross-section of a traditional
Nepali water mill
chute delivering the water to the
paddles ofthe wheel
grain hopper (basket)
device to keep the grain moving
metal piece to lock top of shaft in
upper millstone
grinding stones
metal shaft
thick wooden hub
wooden horizontal wheel, with
obliquely set paddles attached to hub
metal pin and bottom piece
lifting device to adjust gap between
millstones
For many decades “Aid” meant sending out the
same large-scale, expensive, labour-saving
technologies that we use: huge hydro-electric
schemes, coal-fired power stations, diesel-powered
generators. In some cases, for example towns and
industrial areas, these have been appropriate. But
such schemes do not reach the poorer
communities in the rural areas. What was needed
was some way of using local resources
appropriately, and best of all some way of using
renewable resources to decrease the need for
reliance on outside help. Wind, solar and biogas
energy are possibilities, but another resource
widely available and already in use for thousands
of years is water. Water is attracting much
attention in the search for renewable sources of
About 20 years ago, two local engineering
workshops began to build small, steel,
hydro-power schemes for remote villages. These
turbines have the advantage of producing more
power than the traditional mills, as well as being
able to run a range of agricultural processing
machines [Figure 18.28]. Practical Action first
became involved in Nepal’s micro-hydro sector
in the late 1970s when the local manufacturers
asked for help in using their micro-hydro schemes
to generate electricity.
energy. However, despite continuing public
outrage at the devastating impact of large
hydro-electric schemes on people’s livelihoods
and the environment [page 539 and Places 82],
vast sums of money continue to be pumped into
big dams and other inappropriate power
generation plans. On the other hand, the
intermediate approach, through small-scale
hydro, has no negative impact on the
environment, offers positive benefits to the local
community, and uses local resources and skills.’
Practical Action
In the mid-1980s, Practical Action ran two
training courses on micro-hydro power aimed at
improving the technical ability of the nine new
water turbine manufacturers that had been
established in Nepal. These courses were very
successful and prompted an agreement between
Practical Action and the Agricultural
Development Bank (the agency which funds
micro-hydro power in Nepal) to collaborate on
the development of small water turbines for
rural areas. This work not only improved and
extended the range and number of micro-hydro
schemes in Nepal, but also established Practical
Action as a leader in the field. In 1990 Practical
Action was included in a government task force
investigating the whole area of rural
electrification: and in 1992 Practical Action was
asked by the government to help establish an
independent agency to promote all types of
appropriate energy in rural areas of the country.’
Practical Action
Energy resources 547
 Vriate techn^i
Chn°lo g y: micro

'Water power, harnessed using water

wheels or ghattas, has been used for
centuries for grinding corn. The
micro-hydro system in the village now
has improved the efficiency of milling,
so that what used to take a woman four
hours to grind by ghatta can be done in
fifteen minutes. The power can also be
used for dehusking rice and extracting
oil from sunflower seeds [Figure IS.29].
The mechanical power produced by
Ghandruk’s micro-hydro system is also
converted to electric power, which is
distributed to every house in the village.
Apart from the obvious benefit of
lighting, many households are starting to
use electric cookers or bijuli dekchis,
which work like slow cookers [Figure
18.29],
Women are turning to bijuli dekchis
because they reduce smoke levels in the
kitchen, they save time by reducing the
amount of firewood the family needs to
collect, and they are more convenient
and cook faster than traditional stoves.
In a country ravaged by deforestation -
villagers spend up to 12 hours on a
round trip to collect wood - fuel saving
is becoming more and more important.
Micro-hydro schemes like the one in
Ghandruk work because the community
has “ownership” ofthe scheme by
participating in its planning, installation
and management; because the machinery
needed can be made and maintained by
local manufacturers using local materials
available in the country; and because
production and consumption are linked
within a community.
The lives of villagers all over Nepal are
literally being lit up by micro-hydro
schemes, and the country could serve as
a model for decentralised, sustainable
energy production. Already, 700
mechanical and 100 electrical schemes
have been installed.
Much of the impetus for the develop­
ment of hydro in Nepal initially
stemmed from the absence of fossil fuel
reserves to exploit. However, if the
Government can resist the temptations of
big dam schemes and the dollars being
thrown at them by the big, international
donor agencies, it could have the last
laugh watching the rest of the world
scrabble for the last of fossil fuel
reserves.’ Practical Action

Practical Actioi
w ° rk in Nepal

resources

comes from
s,n9'e kerosene
Appropriate technology: micro-hydro in Nepal IE 3 S 3 S S 3 ©

G rin d in g e n o u g h c o rn to fe e d a fa m ily fo r ju s t
3 d ays ta k e s 15 h o u rs w h e n it is d o n e b y h a n d .

B y ta k in g c o rn to t h e g rin d e r in th e m ill- h o u se
- u su a lly a p o p u la r m e e tin g p la c e for villa g e rs -
3 d a y s' w o r t h o f c o rn c a n b e g ro u n d in ju s t 1S
m in u tes.

F o r th o u s a n d s o f w o m e n , th e s u p p ly o f p o w e r
rele a s e s th e m fro m th e m a n y la b o u r- in te n s iv e
a n d tim e - c o n s u m in g tasks th e y p re v io u s ly had
to c a rry o u t b y h a n d .

V illa g e rs c a n n o w hull th e ir rice m e c h a n ic a lly

w ith th is 3 k W m ill, d riv e n b y a m ic ro - h yd ro
tu r b in e .T im e is s a v e d a n d q u a lity a n d
p ro d u c tiv ity in cre a se d .

C o o k in g on a n o p e n fire b u rn s u p a g re a t d e a l
o f w o o d (w h ic h is b e c o m in g in cre a sin g ly scarce)
a n d g ive s o ff a lo t o f th ic k sm oke. As a result, th e
villa g e rs n o t o n ly h a ve to w a lk lo n g d is ta n c e s to
c o lle c t th e ir fuel, b u t m a n y w o m e n a n d c h ild re n
su ffer fro m s erio u s lu n g d iso rd ers.

Pra ctica l A c tio n is h e lp in g to d e v e lo p tw o lo w - w a tta g e

e le c tric c o o k e rs w h ic h h a v e b e e n s p e c ific a lly d e s ig n e d
to m a k e use o f 'o ff- p ea k' e le c tric ity .T h e b iju li
d e kch i h e a ts w a te r d u rin g off-p eak tim e s for use
in c o o k in g later on, w h ile th e h e a t sto ra g e co o k e r
s to re s th e e n e rg y a v a ila b le d u rin g o ff-p eak
pe rio d s a n d releases it a t m e a ltim e s fo r coo kin g .
B o th s a ve f u e lw o o d a n d h e lp to re d u c e
d e fo re s ta tio n .

K ero se n e la m p s a re co s tly to run, a n d th o s e w h o

c a n affo rd th e m h a v e to c o lle c t fu el in cans from
to w n s w h ic h a re u su a lly several d a y s 'w a lk a w a y

W ith e le c tric lig h t, c h ild re n a n d a d u lts can

im p ro v e th e ir e d u c a tio n b y le a rn in g to read an d
w rite in th e even in g s. Ele ctric lig h t is also cheap er,
c le a n e r a n d b rig h te r th a n k e ro sen e.
 Further reference
Blades, H. (2 0 0 7 ) 'C a n a d a ’s b la ck gold',
Geography Review Vol 2 0 N o 3 (January).
Clark, N.A. (2 0 0 6 ) Tidal Barrages and Birds,
Ibis.
M id d leto n , N .J. (2 0 0 8 ) The Global Casino:
An Introduction to Environmental Issues,
H odder A rnold.
P atterson , W . (2 0 0 7 ) Keeping the Lights On:
towards sustainable electricity, E arth scan .
P ickerin g, K.T. and O w en, L.A. (1 9 9 7 )
An Introduction to Global Environmental
Issues, R outledge.
Sin d en , G. (2 0 0 7 ) 'W in d pow er',
Geography Review Vol 21 N o 1
(Septem ber).
BP A m oco Statistical Review of W orld Renewable energy:
Energy: ww w .berr/gov.uk/energy/index.htm l
w w w .bp.com / produ ctlan ding.d o? w w w .bbc.co.uk/clim ate/adaptation/
ca te g o ry ld = 6 9 2 9 & c o n te n tld = 7 0 4 4 6 2 2 renew able_energy. sh tm l
British W ind Energy Association: UK Energy policies and statistics:
w w w .bw ea.com www.berr.gov.uk/whatwedo/energy/
Energy consum ption: in d e x .h tm l
w w w.un.org/Pubs/CyberSchoolBus/ US D ep artm en t of Energy's Efficiency
in d e x .sh tm l and Renewable Energy Network:
w w w .w orldenergy.org www. eere.energy, gov/
In tern ation al A tom ic Energy Agency US Energy In fo rm atio n A dm inistration:
(IAEA): www. e ia .d o e.gov/
www.iaea.org/ W orld Com m ission on Dams:
In tern ation al Energy A gency (IEA), www.dams.org/
W orld Energy Outlook: W orld Energy Council:
w w w .w orldenergyoutlook.org/ www. w orldenergy. org/

Questions & Activities

Activities
W h at are'natural resources'?
W h at is the difference betw een renewable
and non-renewable resources?
Name a renewable source of energy that is
used commercially. State where it is produced
and explain w hy conditions in that area are
suitable.
Explain w hat will happen to the am ount of
reserves of a fuel such as natural gas if:
•the market price of gas goes up
R ate o f w o rld •new technology is developed, allowing deeper
e n e rg y usage in wells to be drilled. (4 marks)
te ra w a tts (TW )
(7 mark) b Study Figure 18.30.
i Describe the main trends shown by the graph. (4 marks
(2 marks) ii During the 1990s the use of energy resources
by the more econom ically developed countries
did not increase, and may even have fallen. At the
same tim e the am ount used by less econom ically
(3 marks) developed countries increased.
Explain this situation. (4 marks
c Describe the main features of the world trade in
any one fuel. (7 marks
a Fuelwood is an im portant source of pow er in m any
remote regions in less econom ically developed
countries (LEDCs). Name an exam ple of a region
where fuelw ood is w idely used and:
i explain w hy people in that region rely on
fuelwood. (3 marKs
ii describe some of the problems caused for the
econom y and the environm ent by the reliance
on fuelwood. (5 marks
b Large hydro-electric pow er schemes are seen as the
solution to the energy shortages of m any LEDCs.
i Suggest w hy some people see such schemes as
a w elcom e developm ent for that country. (5 marks
ii Suggest w hy other people see such schemes as
being unwelcom e. (5 marks
c Recent conferences on global warm ing have concludec
that more econom ically developed countries should
share theirtechnological knowledge with the LEDCs.
How m ight such sharing help to reduce global warming
in future? (7 marks

550 Energy resources

Exam practice: basic structured questions
In m any less econom ically developed countries a W h at is m eant by the term'fossil fuel'? (2 marks)
fuelw ood is the main source of energy for heating
b Choose one country that has im portant reserves
and cooking. Explain how this can cause: of coal.
i dam age to the environm ent i Describe the distribution of coal reserves in that
ii social problems. (10marks) country. (4 marks)
b i W h at does'appropriate techn olog y'm ean ? (2 marks) ii Explain the econom ic factors that are influencing
ii Appropriate technology can be used by poor decisions about w hether those reserves should
people in remote areas to harness energy supplies. be exploited a tth e present time. (9marks)
Describe one such scheme in a named region of iii Name one environmental problem caused by the
the world. (5 marks) use of coal as a fuel. Describe the problem. Explain
iii Explain how the scheme described in b ii brings how good management can reduce the problem.
social and economic benefits to the people who (10 marks)
use it. (8 marks)

Exam practice: structured questions

5 L a c k o fa suitable power supply is holding back b Should the UK increase its use of nuclear energy
developm ent in m any rem ote areas of the world. over the next 10 years?
Fora nam ed area:
Justify your answer. (10marks)
a explain how shortage of power has caused
econom ic and social problems. (12 marks) Study the tw o graphs in Figure 18.31.
b explain how the problems are being reduced by a Describe the major changes in France's energy
provision of an appropriate power supply. (13 marks) supply between 1971 and 2005. (6 marks)
b Com pare France's energy mix in 2005 with the
6 Study Figure 18.31a.
energy mix of the UK. (4 marks)
a i Describe the major changes in the UK's energy c W hich of the tw o countries has the better mix in
mix betw een 1971 and 2005. (5 marks) terms of:
ii Account for the decline in the use of coal and •energy security
the increase in the use of natural gas over this
•minimising environm ental dam age?
period. (10 marks)
Justify your answer. (15 marks)

Total e n e rg y s u p p ly in th e coal oil gas nuclear | hydro combined renewables & waste
U K a n d France, 1 9 7 1 -2 0 0 5

Exam practice: essays

8 Evaluate the arguments for and against the developm ent 10 Choose any tw o of the following sources of renewable
of new coal-fired power stations, such as the one that energy.
is proposed at Kingsnorth. (25 marks) •wind -solar

9 Discuss the benefits and problems that would be •waves -tidal power
involved in an increased reliance on biomass as a • geotherm al
major source of energy supply. (25 marks) Discuss the economic, environm ental and technological
issues that are involved in the developm ent of each of your
chosen sources. (25marks)

Energy resources 551

 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
'Science fin ds, industry ap p lies, m a n co n firm sd
A n o n , Chicago W orld Fair 1933
'W e n eed m eth o d s a n d eq u ip m en t w inch are ch ea p en ou gh
so th a t th ey are a c c e ss ib le to virtu ally everyon e; su ita b le fo r
s m a ll-s c a le p rod u ctio n ; a n d c o m p a tib le w ith m an's n eed for
creativity. O ut o f th ese three ch a racteristics is born n o n ­
v iolen ce a n d a rela tio n sh ip o f m an to n atu re w h ich g u ar­
a n tees p erm a n en c e. I f o n e o f th ese three is n eglected, firings
are b o u n d to g o w ron gd
E. F, Schum acher, Sm all is Beautiful , 1974
W h at is m ean t by industry? In its widest and
m ore trad ition al sense, th e word industry is
used to cover all form s of eco n o m ic activity:
p r im a r y (farm ing, fishing, m in in g and forestry);
s e c o n d a r y (m anufacturing and con stru ction );
te r t ia r y (back-up services such as ad m inistration,
retailing and transport); and q u a te r n a r y (high-
tech n olog y and inform ation services/knowledge
econom y ). In this chapter, the use of th e term
'industry' has b een con fin ed to its narrow est
1900
1800 1850
2%
1950 2000 2007
Figure 19.1
Tow ards a p o s t-in d u s tria l prim ary
e co n o m y: e m p lo y m e n t secondary
s tru c tu re in th e UK, tertiary
1800-2007
552 Manufacturing industries
a
d efinition , i.e. m anufacturing. M anufacturing
industry includes the processing o f raw m aterials
(iron ore, tim ber) and of sem i-processed m aterials
(steel, pulp), together w ith - where necessary - the
assem bling o f these products (cars, com puters).
It needs to be pointed out, however, that while
this definition m ay be convenient, it does create
several m ajor problem s. Not the least of these prob­
lems has been the unprecedented transform ation of
the global econom y in the last 2 0 or so years. This
change has included rapid deindustrialisation and a
growth of th e service sector w hich has caused some
advanced econom ies to view 'm anufacturing' as
alm ost peripheral com pared w ith their increasing
reliance, until the shockwaves of 2008, on banking
and finance. At present, only some 27 per cent
of the UK's working population are employed in
m anufacturing, a trend that is repeated across most
of the developed market econom ies. This shift
from an industrial to a post-industrial society is
shown in Figure 19.1. In reality, it is also unrealistic
to draw boundaries betw een 'm anufacturing' and
'services'. Not only are the two integrated in reality
through linkages (page 568 and Figure 19.2), buyer-
supplier relations, etc., but m any people w ho are
officially classified as working in the manufacturing
sector also have occupations th at are service based
(salespeople, administrators, accountants and
financial advisers as well as those in research and
developm ent) w ithin 'm anufacturing' sector firms
It can be argued, with m uch justification, that it is
conceptually (and empirically) unrealistic to sever
m anufacturing from services. This distinction
becom es particularly problem atic w hen discussin;
for exam ple, high-tech developm ents along the M4
(Places 86, page 566) as, by their nature, m any firm
are 'inform ation-intensive' and knowledge based
rather th an production or materials based; or when
describing the differences betw een the ‘form al’ and
'inform al' sectors in less econom ically developed
less industrialised countries (page 574). Finally, the
world financial events of 2 0 0 8 showed countries
regardless of their level o f econom ic developm ent
just how1interdependent the process of globalisa­
tion has made them (page 605).
 P rim ary in d u stry P rim a ry m a n u fa ctu rin g
in d u stry
raw materials
a farm ing (dairying) first processing stage
b m ining (iron ore)
c forestry (tim ber) (cream ery, iron and steel,
d fishing pulp mills)
I
S e co n d a ry m a n u fa ctu rin g
in d u stry
O ther facto rs a ffe ctin g
m a n u fa ctu rin g in d u stry I fu rther processing and/or
assem bly o f co m p on en t
p ow er supplies, capital,
parts
markets, labour, transport,
go ve rn m e n t policies
(cheese m anufacture, cars,
new spapers)
Figure 19.2
L inkages b e tw e e n
v a rio u s s e ctio n s a nd
Traditional locations of industry
ty p e s o f in d u s try T h e processes w h ich co n trib u te to d eterm ine
th e lo ca tio n and d istrib u tion o f ind u stry are
m ore com p lex and d yn am ic th a n th o se affectin g
agriculture. T his m eans th a t th e m ak ing o f gen­
eralisations b eco m es less easy and th e dangers
o f stereotypin g increase. R easons for th is c o m ­
p lexity include:
■ Som e lo ca tio n s were ch o sen before the
Industrial R evolution and m an y m ore during
it. In itial factors favou rin g a lo ca tio n m ay n o
longer apply today. For exam p le, th e original
raw m aterials m ay now be exh au sted (iron
ore and coal in Sou th W ales - Places 8 7 , page
5 7 0 ) or replaced by new in n o v atio n s (co tto n
by sy n th e tic fibres) and sources o f energy
(w ater pow er by electricity).
■ New lo ca tio n a l factors w h ich were n o t appli­
cab le last cen tu ry inclu d e cheap er and m ore
e fficien t tran sp ort system s, th e m o v em en t
o f energy in th e form o f electricity, a u to m a ­
tio n and new tech n o lo g ies such as em ail, th e
In te rn e t and m o bile p h o nes.
■ Som e industries have developed from older
industries an d are lin ked to th ese form er p a t­
terns o f p ro d u ction even w h en th e m odern
product is d ifferen t (in Ja p a n th e M azda Car
C o rp o ratio n b eg an as a cork -m ak in g and
th e n a m a ch in e-to o ls firm ).
■ Before the 2 0 th century, industry was usually
financed and organised by individual e n tre ­
p ren eurs w ho initiated and organised, usually
for a profit, an enterprise or business; this
included risk-taking, deciding w hat goods
would be produced or services provided, the
scale o f p rodu ction, and m arketing. Nowadays
Se rv ice in d u stry
ss zsssm m (transport to markets,
i.e. distribution; retailing,
i.e. selling; garages,
i.e. sales and m aintenance;
adm inistration)
these decisions are o ften taken far away
from the site o f a factory, originally by the
state, now usually by tra n sn a tio n a ls (m u lti­
n atio n als, page 57 3 ).
■ M an y factories now produce a single co m p o ­
n e n t and th erefore are a part o f a m u ch larger
o rg an isation w h ich th e y supply.
■ T h e sites o f som e early factories were ch o sen
b y individ ual preference or by ch a n ce , i.e. th e
found er o f a firm ju st happened to live at, or
to like, a particular lo ca tio n (U nilever at Port
S u n lig h t and Row ntree at York).
Factors affecting the location of
manufacturing industry
Raw materials
Ind ustry in 1 9 th -cen tu ry B ritain was o ften
located close to raw m aterials (ironw orks near
iron ore), sources o f pow er (coalfields) or ports
(to process im ports), m a in ly due to th e im m o b ­
ility o f th e raw m aterials w h ich were heavy
and co stly to m ove w h en tran sp ort was th e n
expensive and in efficie n t. In con trast, today's
industries are rarely tied to th e lo ca tio n o f raw
m aterials and so are described as fo o tlo o se (see
post-Fordism , page 5 6 1 ). There is now a greater
e fficien cy in th e use o f raw m aterials; pow er is
m ore m o bile; tran sp ort o f raw m aterials, fin ish ed
products and th e w orkforce is m ore e fficien t
and relatively cheaper; co m p o n e n ts for m an y
m od ern , and esp ecially h ig h -tech , industries are
relatively sm all in size and lig h t in w eight; and
som e firm s m ay sim ply rely o n assem bling co m ­
p o n en t parts m ade elsew here. A lo ca tio n close to
m arkets, labou r supply or o th er linked firm s has
b eco m e in creasin gly im p ortan t.
Manufacturing industries 553
 Industries th a t still need to be located near
to raw m aterials are th o se u sing m aterials w h ich
are heavy, bulky or perishable; w h ich are low
in value in relatio n to th eir w eight; or w h ich
lose w eight or bulk during th e m an u factu rin g
process. Alfred W eber, w hose th eo ry o f ind u s­
trial lo ca tio n is referred to later, in trod u ced th e
term m a te ria l in d e x or MI.
to ta l w eight o f raw m aterials
MI =
total weight of finished product
Th ere are th ree possible ou tcom es.
1 If th e M I is greater th a n 1, th ere m u st be
a w eight loss in m anu factu re. In th is case,
th e raw m aterial is said to be gross and the
indu stry should be located n ear to th a t raw
m aterial, e.g. iron and steel:
6 to n n es raw m aterial
MI =
1 to n n e fin ish ed steel
2 If th e M I is less th a n 1, th ere m u st be a gain in
w eigh t during m an u factu re. This tim e
th e indu stry should be located near to th e
m arket, e.g. brew ing:
1 to n n e raw m aterial
Ml = =
5 to n n es beer
3 W here th e MI is exactly 1, th e raw m aterial
m ust be pure as it does n o t lose or gain w eight
during m anufacture. This type o f industry
could therefore be located at th e raw m aterial,
th e m arket or any interm ediate point.
Industries th at lose weight during m anufacture
include food processing (butter has only one-fifth
the weight o f milk, refined sugar is only one-eighth
th e w eight o f th e cane), sm elting o f ores (copper
ore is less th an 1 per cen t pure copper, iron ore has
a 3 0 -6 0 per cen t iron con ten t; Places 84, page 563)
and forestry (paper has m uch less mass th an trees;
Places 83, page 562). Industries th a t gain weight in
m anufacture include those adding water (brewing
and cem ent), and those assem bling com p onent
parts (cars, Places 85, page 565; and electrical
goods, Places 86, page 566). In these cases, the end
product is m ore bulky and expensive to m ove th a n
its m an y sm aller c o n stitu e n t parts.
Source of power Examples of location
e a rly iro n in d u s try charcoal w o o d e d areas (th e W e ald , th e Forest o f D ean)
la te r iro n in d u s try w a te rw h e e ls fa s t-flo w in g rivers (R iver D on, S h e ffie ld )
e a rly steel in d u s try coal c o a lfie ld s (S o u th W ales, n o rth -e a s t E ng la nd )
p re s e n t-d a y steel in d u s try e le c tric ity coastal (P o rtT a lb o t)
Figure 19.3
P ow e r s u p p ly a nd th e lo ca tio n
o f iro n a nd s te e lw o rk s
554 Manufacturing industries
Power supplies
Early in d u stry ten d ed to be lo cated near to
sources o f pow er, w h ich in th o se days cou ld n o t
be m oved . How ever, as new er form s o f pow er
were in tro d u ced and th e m ean s o f tran sp o rtin g
it were m ade easier an d cheaper, th is lo ca tio n a l
fa cto r b eca m e less im p o rta n t (Figure 1 9 .3 ).
D uring th e m edieval period, w hen w ater was
a prim e source o f power, m ills had to be b u ilt
alongside fast-flow ing rivers. W h en steam power
to ok over at th e b eg in n in g o f th e Industrial
R evolu tion in B ritain, factories had to be built
on or near to coalfield s, as co a l was bulky and
expensive to m ove. W h e n canals and railways
were con stru cted to m ove coal, new industries
were located alon g tran sp ort routes. By th e mid-
2 0 th century, oil (relatively cheap before th e
1 9 7 3 M iddle East War) was b ein g increasingly
6.0 used as it cou ld be tran sp orted easily by tanker
or p ip eline. T his began to free industry from
th e coalfield s and to offer it a wider ch o ice of
lo ca tio n (excep t for such oil-based industries as
p etro ch em icals). Today, oil, coal, natu ral gas,
nu clear and h y d ro-electric pow er can all be used
to produce electricity to feed th e N ational Grid.
0.2 Electricity, in ad d ition to its clean lin ess and
flexibility, has th e advantage th a t it can be tran s­
ferred e co n o m ica lly over consid erable distances
eith er to th e long-establish ed industrial areas,
w here activ ity is m a in ta in ed by g e o g ra p h ica l
in e rtia , or to new areas o f grow th.
Transport
T ransp o rt costs were o n ce a m a jo r co n sid era ­
tio n w h en lo ca tin g an industry. W eber based
his in d u stria l lo c a tio n th e o ry o n th e prem ise
th a t tra n sp o rt costs were d irectly related to
d istan ce (co m p are v o n T h iin e n 's assu m p tio n s,
page 4 7 1 ). S ince th e n , new form s o f tran sp o rt
have b e e n in tro d u ced , in clu d in g lorries (for
d o o r-to -d o o r d elivery), railw ays (preferable for
bulky goods) and air (w here speed is essen tial).
M ean w h ile, tra n sp o rt netw orks have im proved,
w ith th e b u ild in g o f m otorw ays, and m eth o d s
o f h a n d lin g goods have b eco m e m ore e fficie n t
th ro u g h c o n ta in e risa tio n . For th e average
B ritish firm , tra n sp o rt costs are n ow o n ly
2 - 3 per c e n t o f th e ir to ta l exp en d itu re. C o n ­
sequ ently, raw m aterials ca n be tran sp orted
fu rth er and fin ish ed goods sold in m ore d istan t
m arkets w ith o u t an y co n sid erab le in crease in
costs. T h e in cre a sin g relia n ce, sin ce th e late
1 9 9 0 s, o n em ails, th e In te rn e t and m o b ile
p h o n es (page 6 4 2 ) has speeded up th e tran sfer
o f data, in clu d in g orders and p ay m en ts, b o th
w ith in and b etw een firm s - a m a jo r facto r in the
process o f g lo b a lisa tio n (page 6 0 5 ).

Total U K e m p lo ym e n t b P art-tim e/fu ll-tim e em p lo ym e n t
3 es females
1.5 m illion 13.6 million
:?%) (50%)
Earn in g s an d h ou rs o f w o rk
m ales fe m ale s
-. erage w eekly earnings (£) 498 394
- erage w orking w e e k (hours) 39 37
- : urly pay (£) 11.96 10.46
females
Figure 19.4 T h e fu n ctio n in g o f th e presen t w orld depends
UK e m p lo y m e n t upon a range o f sp a ce -sh rin k in g te ch n o lo g ie s
data, 2007 th a t c o n n e ct firm s, workers, g ov ernm ents and
consu m ers (i.e. co m m o d ity ch ain s, page 64 3 ).
Two im p o rta n t types o f space-sh rinking
tech n o lo g ies are tra n s p o rt system s, exam ples
o f w h ich are com m ercial je t aircraft and con-
tain erisatio n (page 6 3 6 ), and c o m m u n ic a tio n
system s, w h ich inclu d e satellite and op tic-fibre
technolog y , th e In tern et, m o bile p h o n es and th e
e lectro n ic mass m edia (radio and TV).
Today, th e pull o f a large m arket is m ore
im p ortan t th a n th e lo ca tio n o f raw m aterials and
pow er supplies; indeed, it has b ee n suggested
th a t flex ib ility and rapid response to ch an g in g
m arket signals are perhaps th e m o st im p o rtan t
d eterm in an ts o f lo ca tio n .
Industries w ill lo ca te near to m arkets if:
■ th e product b ecom es m ore bulky w ith m an u ­
facture or th ere are m an y linkage industries
involved (the assem blin g o f m o to r vehicles)
■ the product becom es more perishable after
processing (bread is m ore perishable th a n flour);
it is sensitive to changing fashion (clothes); or it
has a short life-span (daily newspapers)
■ th e m arket is very large (n o rth -eastern states
o f th e USA, sou th-east England, or global)
■ th e m arket is w ealthy
■ prestige is im p o rta n t (pu blish ing).
Labour supp/y
L abour varies spatially in its cost, availability and
quality.
In the 19th century, a huge force of sem i­
skilled, m ainly m ale, workers operated in large-
scale 'heavy' industries doing m anual jobs in
steelworks, shipyards and textile mills. Today, there
are fewer semi-skilled and m ore highly skilled
workers operating in small-scale 'light' industries
w hich increasingly rely upon m achines, com puters
and robots. The cost o f labour, especially in E U
countries, can be high, accou nting for 1 0 -4 0 per
cen t o f total production costs. Three consequences
of this have been th e introduction of m echanisa­
tion to reduce hum an inputs, the exploitation
of fem ale labour, and the use of 'cheap' labour in
developing countries.
T rad ition ally, labou r has b e e n relativ ely
im m o b ile . A lth o u g h th ere was a d rift to th e
tow ns during th e In d ustrial R ev olu tion ,
sin ce th e First W orld W ar B ritish p eop le have
exp ected resp ectiv e g o v ern m en ts to b rin g jobs
to th e m rath er th a n th e y th em selv es h av in g to
m ove for jo b s. C erta in in d u stries o fte n located
in a sp ecific area or p lace to take ad vantage
o f lo ca l skills (cu tlery at S h effield , e le ctro n ics
aro u n d C am brid ge) b u t as tra n sp o rt im p ro v e­
m e n ts allow ed greater m o b ility , firm s were able
to lo ca te , and th e ir w orkforce to travel, m ore
freely. In em erg in g e c o n o m ie s in d u stries o ften
lo ca te in large coastal cities w h ere th e y can
a ttra ct large n u m bers o f u n sk illed w orkers from
su rrou n d in g rural areas (in C h in a , Places 41,
page 3 6 3 ), w h ile in m ore developed co u n tries
sp ace-sh rin k in g te ch n o lo g ie s have allow ed a
greater n u m b er o f p eop le, b o th em p loyees and
self-em p loyed , to w ork from h o m e.
Similarly, the roles o f w om en and trade unions
have b o th changed. At the turn o f th e 21st century,
half of Britain's workforce were w om en (Figure
19.4a), w ith an increasing num ber either seeking
career jobs or prepared to work part-tim e (Figure
19.4b), even flexi-tim e, although m any still have
to accept a lower salary than males (Figure 19.4c).
The role of trade unions has declined significantly
as their m em bership num bers have fallen with the
decline of the large 'heavy' industries.
Capital
C ap ital m ay be in th ree form s.
1 W o rk in g ca p ita l (m oney) w h ich is acquired
from a firm 's profits, shareholders or financial
in stitu tio n s such as banks. M o n ey is m obile
and can be used w ith in and exchanged
betw een cou n tries. L ocation is rarely c o n ­
strained by w orking capital unless m o n ey is
to be borrow ed from th e g ov ern m en t w h ich
m ig h t direct industry to certain areas (see
below ). In B ritain, capital is m ore readily
available in th e C ity o f Lond on, where m ost
o f the fin an cial in stitu tio n s are based.
2 P h y sical or fix e d c a p ita l refers to build ings
and equ ip m en t. T his form of capital is n o t
m obile, i.e. it was invested for a specific use.
Manufacturing industries 555
 3 S o c ia l c a p ita l and cultural am en ities are
linked to th e w orkforce's out-of-w ork needs
rath er th a n to th e facto ry or office itself.
Houses, hospitals, schools, shops and recrea­
tio n a l am en ities are social capital w h ich m ay
attract a firm , particu larly its m an ag em en t, to
an area.
Government policies
G o v ern m en t policies a ttem p t to even out dif­
ferences in em p loy m en t, in co m e levels and
in v estm en t. In B ritain, th is was in itia lly by th e
B ritish g ov ern m en t; now it is th rou g h th e EU.
At presen t, areas can o n ly receive fin a n cia l aid if
th e y co n fo rm to EU guidelines. U nder th e latest
guidelines, w h ich cam e in to effect in 2 0 0 7 , th e
p ro p ortio n o f th e UK p o p u latio n covered by th e
A ssisted A reas will be 2 3 .9 per cen t (Figure 19.5)
com pared w ith th e previous 3 0 .9 per cen t. This
red u ction in coverage reflects partly th e EU's
o b je ctiv e to reduce areas o f state aid am o n g st
lon g er-stan d in g m em bers so as to help new,
poorer m em b er states, and partly due to th e UK's
ow n sustained (u n til 2 0 0 8 ) e co n o m ic success.
As Figure 19.5 shows, th e Assisted Areas in the
B ritish Isles can be divided in to tw o groups.
8 7 (3 )(a )
87(3)(a) reviewed 2010
87(3)(c)
For explanation, see text
556 Manufacturing industries
■ A rticle 8 7 (3 )(a ) o f th e Treaty provides aid to
p ro m ote e co n o m ic d ev elop m en t in areas
w here th e standard o f liv ing is ab norm ally
low or w here there is serious u n d erem ­
p loy m en t. These areas, according to th e
EU C o m m ission , have a Gross D om estic
Product per capita, m easured in pu rchasing
pow er parity term s (page 6 0 7 ), o f less th a n
75 per ce n t o f th e C o m m u n ity average. This
inclu des C ornw all and th e Isles of Scilly, West
W ales and th e Valleys and, u n til its status is
review ed in 2 0 1 0 , th e S co ttish H ighlands and
Islands.
■ Article 8 7 (3 )(c) perm its aid to certain regions
providing th a t it does n o t affect th e w orking
o f th e single m arket. In th is in stan ce, m em ber
states can designate regions th a t th e y feel
are disadvantaged w ith in th eir ow n country,
su b ject to a p o p u latio n ceilin g set by th e EU.
N orth ern Ireland, to g eth er w ith sm aller lo ca ­
tio n s in England, S cotlan d and W ales, fit this
category.
Land
In the 19th century, extensive areas o f flat land
were needed for the large factory units. Today,
althou gh m odern industry is usually sm aller in
term s o f land area occupied, it prefers cheaper
land, less congested and cram ped sites and
im proved accessibility, as are to be found on
greenfield sites on th e edges o f cities and in
sm aller tow ns. Now, partly due to pressure from
en viron m en tal and in flu en tial local groups,
attem pts are being made to attract new industry,
inclu ding service industries, to derelict and under­
used brow nfield sites (page 44 1), or to form er
industrial premises (page 4 3 9 ), where existing
infrastructures still exist.
Environment
The latter part o f th e 2 0 th cen tury saw an
increasing dem and by b o th m anagers and
em ployees to live and w ork in an attractive envi­
ro n m en t. This led to firms m oving away from
large urban areas and relocating either in smaller
tow ns th a t have easy access to the cou n try ­
side, or on new science and business parks w ith
landscaped green areas and ornam ental lakes
(Places 86, page 566).
Figure 19.S
Assisted Areas in
th e UK, 2 0 0 7 -1 3
Changing approaches to
industrial geography
The term 'm anufacturing industries' does n ot refer
to a discrete, bounded, measurable entity, but is
dynam ic w ith profound cultural, social and polit­
ical dim ensions. This can be illustrated through the
follow ing brief evolution o f industrial geography.
1 Location theory and the neoclassical
approach
T he 1960s was th e era o f th e 'q u an titativ e revolu­
tio n ' w hen established deductive theories about
th e world (m ainly G erm an) were tested to see if
th ey could be used to accurately predict spatial
patterns, e.g von T h iin en 's rural land use (put
forward in 1 8 2 6 - page 47 1 ), W eber's industrial
lo catio n (in 1909 - below ) and Christaller's central
place (in 1933 - page 4 0 7 ). This approach has
b een classically illustrated by the study o f Henry
Ford's car industry (hen ce the term 'Fordism ',
Figure 19 .1 3 ) w ith its assem bly-line organisation.
It has regained som e credence since th e late 1990s
('M cD onald isation ').
2 Behaviouralism (late 1960s to early
1980s)
This exam in ed th e role o f cog n itiv e in fo rm a tio n
and personal c h o ice in d eterm in in g d ecisio n ­
m ak ing and lo ca tio n a l ou tcom es. W h ile still
fo cu sin g o n lo ca tio n a l issues and spatial b eh av­
iour, it co n cen tra ted m ore on detailed surveys
and avoided th e m a th em a tica l m o d ellin g th a t
d om in ated th e n eoclassical approach.
3 Political economy (mid-1970s)
W riters such as D avid Harvey focused less on
th e idealised assum p tions o f ration al e co n o m ic
m an and perfect know ledge and m ore o n how
global p o litical and e co n o m ic forces (capitalism )
shaped th e space econom y . T his saw a sh ift in
th e m a in focus away from spatial p attern s o f
indu strial lo ca tio n tow ards structures o f social
relatio n s. By 1 9 9 0 , th is ap p roach m anifested
itself in th e p o st-F o rd ism debate (Figure 1 9 .1 3 )
at a tim e w h en indu stry was show ing greater
flex ib ility b o th in p ro d u ction te ch n iq u es and
b etw een in stitu tio n s and indu strial districts.
4 Cultural economic interpretations
(post mid-1990s)
An even m ore recen t 'cultural tu rn ' has focused
on h ith erto neglected d im ensions, such as gender
(Places 9 6 , page 608), w h ich has placed a greater
em phasis on th e m eanings o f term s such as pro­
d uction, industry and labour.
Space here on ly perm its a study o f on e indus­
trial lo catio n m odel - W eber's - and a com parison
betw een Fordism and post-Fordism .
Theories of industrial location
It has already b een seen th a t 'm odels form an
integral and accepted part o f present-day geo­
graphical th in k in g ' (Framework 12, page 352).
M odels, as in m an y b ranches o f geography, have
b een form ulated in an attem pt to try to explain,
in a generalised, sim plified way, som e of the co m ­
plexities affecting industrial location. The m ost
com m on ly quoted is th a t by W eber (1 909) w ho
based his m odel o n th e industrialist w ho seeks the
low est-cost lo ca tio n (LCL). Before looking m ore
closely at this m odel, it m ust be rem em bered that
it is an abstract fram ew ork w hich m ay be difficult
to observe in th e real world, but against w hich
reality can be tested. It should also be pointed
out th a t this m odel has a 'trad ition al' approach
to industrial lo ca tio n applicable to a particular
m o m en t in tim e (history) and th a t there have,
on oth er occasions, b een alternative theories.
Weber's model of industrial location
Alfred W eber was a G erm an 'spatial e co n o m ist'
w ho, in 1 9 0 9 , devised a m odel to try to explain
and pred ict th e lo c a tio n o f industry. Like vo n
T h iin e n before h im and C h ristaller later, W eber
tried to find a sense o f order in apparent chaos,
and m ade assum p tions to sim plify th e real world
in order to produce h is m odel. T hese assum p­
tio n s were as follow s:
■ T here was an isolated state w ith flat relief,
a un iform tran sp ort system in all d irections,
a u n iform clim ate, and a u n ifo rm cultural,
p o litical and e co n o m ic system .
m M ost o f th e raw m aterials were n o t evenly dis­
tribu ted across th e p lain (this differs from von
T h iin e n ). T h o se th a t were even ly distributed
(water, clay) he called u b iqu itou s m a terials.
As these did n o t have to be transp orted , firm s
using th e m cou ld locate as near to th e m arket
as was possible. T h ose raw m aterials th a t were
n o t even ly distributed he called lo calised
m a te ria ls. He divided these in to tw o types:
gross and pure (page 5 5 4 ).
■ The size and lo ca tio n o f m arkets were fixed.
9 Transport costs were a fu n ctio n o f th e mass
(w eight) o f th e raw m aterial and th e d istance
it had to be m oved. This was expressed in
to n n es per k ilom etre (t/km).
■ Labour was found in several fixed lo catio n s
on th e plain. At each p o in t it was paid the
sam e rates, had equ iv alen t skills, was im m o ­
bile and in large supply. Sim ilarly, en trep re­
neurs had equal know ledge, related to their
industry, and m o tiv atio n .
■ Perfect com petition existed over the plain (i.e.
markets and raw materials were unlim ited)
Manufacturing industries 557
 w h ich m eant th a t no single m anufacturer tran sport is unnecessary as it is already found
could influence prices (i.e. there was no at th e m arket. If a pure m aterial gains mass
m onop oly ). As revenue would therefore be on m anufacture th e n it is cheaper to m ove it
sim ilar across the plain, th e best site would be rather th a n the finished product and so again
the one w ith the m inim al produ ction costs th e LCL will be at th e m arket (Figure 19.7b).
(i.e. th e least-cost lo catio n or LCL). O ne pure localised raw m aterial. If this
n e ith er gains n or loses w eight during m an u ­
Possible least-cost locations facture (MI = 1 ), th e LCL can be eith er at the
W eber produced tw o types o f lo ca tio n a l diagram .
m arket, at th e lo ca tio n o f th e raw m aterial, or
A straight lin e was su fficien t to show exam ples
at any in term ed iate p o in t (Figure 19.7c).
w here on ly on e of th e raw m aterials was lo ca l­
Two ubiquitous (gross or pure) raw materials. As
ised (it could be pure or gross). However, w h en
these are found everywhere, they do n o t have to
tw o localised raw m aterials were involved, he
be transported and so the LCL is at the market.
introduced the idea o f th e lo c a tio n a l tria n g le .
Two raw m aterials: one ub iqu itou s and one
Figure 1 9 .6 sum m arises th e n in e possible varia­
pure and localised. T he LCL is at th e m arket
tio n s based on th e type o f raw m aterial involved.
because th e ub iqu itou s m aterial is already
1 O n e gross localised raw m aterial. As th ere is
th ere and so on ly th e pure localised m aterial
w eig h t loss d uring m a n u fa ctu re (th e m a te ­
has to be tran sp orted (Figure 19.8a). It will be
rial in d ex for a gross raw m aterial is m ore
cheap er to m ove o n e raw m aterial th a n the
th a n 1) th e n it is ch eap er to lo ca te th e
m ore cu m bersom e fin al product.
fa cto ry at th e source o f th e raw m a teria l -
Two raw m aterials: on e ub iqu itou s and the
th ere is n o p o in t in paying tra n sp o rt costs
oth er gross and localised. T he ubiqu itous
if som e o f th e m a teria l will be left as w aste
m aterial is available at every lo catio n . As the
after p ro d u ction (Figure 1 9 .7 a ).
gross m aterial loses w eight, th e LCL could
2 a O ne ubiquitous raw m aterial or b one pure
th eo retica lly be at any in term ed iate p o in t
localised raw m aterial gaining w eight o n m a n ­
b etw een its source and th e m arket. However,
ufacture (MI less th an 1). If the raw7 m aterial
if th e m ass o f th e product is greater th a n that
is found all over the plain (ubiquitous) th en

Figure 19.6
Lea st-cost lo ca tio n s
d e p e n d e n t on ty p e s
o f ra w m a te ria l
Type(s) of raw material (RM) LCL at any intermediate
Ml = material index LCL at raw material point LCL at market
1 one gross lo ca lise d F >1
2 one RM g a in in g w e ig h t o r o ne
u b iq u ito u s RM M l < 1

3 one p ure loca lise d RM M l = 1

4 tw o u b iq u ito u s RMs (pu re o r gross)

5 tw o RMs (on e u b iq u ito u s , o n e pure )

6 tw o RMs (on e u b iq u ito u s , o n e gross) (co u ld be a n y s ite , acco rdin g

to a m o u n t o f w e ig h t loss)

7 tw o RMs (b o th p ure)

8 tw o RMs (on e pure, one gross) ( ifb ig ( if a sm a ll

w e ig h t loss) w e ig h t loss)

9 tw o RMs (b o th gross) (a t RM w ith {equal

g re a te s t w e ig h t loss) w e ig h t loss)

Figure 19.7 a RM g ro ss and lo calised : Ml > 1 b RM eith er u b iq u ito u s or g a in in g c RM p ure a n d lo calised : Ml = 1

(case 1, F ig u re 19.6) w e ig h t in m an u factu re: Ml < 1 (case 3, F igu re 1 9 .6 )
Lea st-cost lo ca tio n s
(case 2, F ig u re 19.6)
w ith one ra w m a te ria l

m
I'm ! |M j |RM |

RM = raw material |~M~] = market least-cost location

558 Manufacturing industries


Figure 19.8
L e a st-cost lo c a tio n s w ith
tw o ra w m a te ria ls , o n e o f
w h ic h is u b iq u ito u s
a o n e u b iq u ito u s + o n e p u re RM
(ca s e 5, F ig u re 19.6)
U m aterials and o f th e final product.
b o n e u b iq u ito u s + o n e g ro ss R M
(ca se 6, F ig u r e 19.6)
o f th e localised raw m aterial, th e LCL is at the
m arket: if it is less, th e LCL is at th e lo ca tio n
o f th e raw m aterial: and if it is th e sam e, th e
LCL is at th e m id -p oin t i Figure 1 9 .8 b i.
Two raw m aterials: b o th localised and pure.
In th e u n lik ely event o f th e tw o raw m ater­
ials lying to th e sam e side o f and in lin e w ith
th e m arket, th e LCL w ill be at th e m arket.
If th e m aterials do n o t co n fo rm w ith this
arran gem ent bu t form a triangle w ith th e
m arket (Figure 19 .9 ), th e LCL is at an in te rm e ­
diate p o in t near to th e m arket. This is because
th e w eight and therefore th e tran sp ort costs
o f th e raw m aterial are th e sam e as, or less
th a n , th o se o f th e product.
Two localised raw m aterials: one pure and one
gross. In this case, th e indu stry will locate at
an interm ediate p o in t (Figure 19 .1 0 a ). The
greater th e loss o f w eight during produ ction,
th e nearer th e LCL will be to th e source o f the
gross m aterial.
W e b e r 's in d u s tr ia l t ria n g le : th e c o n cep t is illustrated by
th ree pieces o f string, tied at o n e end b y a knot and having
a w eig h t to represent th e w eights o f each o f th e raw
|market|
9 Two raw m aterials: b o th localised and gross.
If b o th raw m aterials have an equal loss o f
w eight, th e LCL will be equ id istan t betw een
these tw o sources b u t closer to th em th a n to
th e m arket (Figure 1 9 .1 0 b l). However, if one
raw m aterial loses m ore m ass th a n th e other,
th e indu stry is m ore likely to be located closer
to it (Figure 1 9 .1 0 b 2 ).
W eber claim ed th a t four factors affected produc­
tio n costs: th e cost o f raw m aterials and the cost
of transporting th em and th e finished product,
together w ith labour costs and agglomeration/
deglom eration econ om ies (page 560).
Spatial distribution of transport costs
As transport costs lay at th e heart o f his m odel,
W eber had to devise a tech n iq u e th a t could b oth
m easure and m ap th e spatial differences in these
costs in order to find th e LCL. His solu tion was
to produce a m ap w ith tw o types o f contou r-type
lines w h ich he called isotim s and isodapanes.
An i s o t i m is a line jo in in g all places w ith equal
transport costs for m oving eith er th e raw m aterial
(Figure 9.1 1 a ) or th e product (Figure 9 .1 1 b ). An
i s o d a p a n e is a line jo in in g all places w ith equal
total transport costs, i.e. the sum o f th e costs o f
transp orting th e raw m aterial and th e product
(Figure 19.11c).
Figure 1 9 .1 1 a shows th e costs o f tran sp orting

U 1 to n n e o f a raw m aterial (R) as co n c en tric circles.

A t th e market, th e tw o
In th is exam ple, it will cost 5 t/km (tonne/kilo­
pure raw m aterials are m etres) to transp ort th e m aterial to th e m arket.
m an ufactu red into a
_ localised raw p ro d u ct w eighin g Figure 1 9 .1 1 b shows, also b y co n cen tric circles,
' material
2 tonnes. As th e final
_ ubiquitous raw p ro du ct is heavier, it
th e cost o f tran sp orting 1 to n n e o f th e finished
material
drags th e knot nearer product (P). T he to tal cost o f m oving th e product
to th e m arket indicating

_ least-cost th e m arket to b e th e from th e m arket to th e source o f th e raw m aterial

location
Figure 19.9
Lea st-cost lo c a tio n s w ith tw o loca lise d p u re ra w
m a te ria ls, illu s tra tin g W eber's in d u s tria l tria n g le
(case 7, Figure 19.6)
o n e pu re RM + o ne gross
RM (case 8, F ig u re 19.6)
LCL will m ove towards
the source of the gross
material if there is a very
heavy w eight loss
least-cost location.
is again 5 t/km. By superim posing these tw o m aps
it is possible to show th e to tal transp ort costs
(Figure 19.1 lc ).
If a factory were to be built at X (Figure 19.11c),
its transport costs would be 7 t/km (i.e. 2 t/km for
m oving th e raw m aterial plus
b tw o gross RM s (case 9, Figu re 19.6) 5 t/km for th e product). A factory
(1) If both RMs have equal w eight loss b u ilt at Y would have lower trans­
port costs o f 6 t/km (4 t/km for the
raw m aterial plus 2 t/km for the
product). However, the LCL in this
case m ay be at th e source o f the
raw m aterial, th e m arket or any
interm ediate p o in t in a straight line
betw een the two because all these
points lie on the 5 t/km isodapane.

|LRM|= localised raw material

Figure 19.10
[m ] = market
L ea st-co s t lo c a tio n s w ith tw o
® = least-cost location
lo ca lise d ra w m a te ria ls , illu s tra tin g
W eber's in d u s tria l tria n g le

Manufacturing industries 559

 RM raw material

@ market
a iso tim s sh o w in g tra n sp o rt costs o f a raw m aterial, p ure and
-- R 1 - . isotims for RM (pure) lo ca lise d (tonne/km )
- P1 isotims for finished product b iso tim s sh o w in g tra n sp o rt costs o f fin ish e d p ro d u ct (tonne/km )

-T 6 - isodapanes (total cost: raw m aterial + product, in tonne/km ) c iso d a p a n e s sh o w in g total tra n sp o rt co sts (RM + fin ish e d
prod u ct) (tonne/km )

Figure 19.11
Figure 1 9 .1 2 show s th e c ritic a l iso d ap an e for
Is o tim s and isodapanes The effects of labour costs and
three firm s. It would b eco m e profitable for all the
agglomeration economies
firm s to locate w ith in th e cen tral area form ed by
It has b ee n stated th a t W eber consid ered th a t
th e overlapping o f all th ree critical isodapanes. It
four factors affected p ro d u ction costs: we have
m ay be slightly m ore p ro fitable for firm s A and
seen th e effects o f th e costs o f raw m aterials and
B, but less profitable for firm C, to locate w ithin
tran sp ort - let us now look at labou r costs and
th e purple area. However, it w ould n o t be addi­
ag g lom eration econ om ies.
tio n a lly p ro fitable for any firm to m ove if non e
■ L a b o u r co sts W eber consid ered th e qu estion
o f th e isodapanes overlapped. A gglom eration
o f w h eth er an y savings m ade by m oving to
is n ow consid ered by m an y to be probably th e
an area o f cheaper or m ore e fficien t labour
m ost im p o rta n t single facto r in th e lo ca tio n o f a
would offset th e in crease in tran sp ort costs
firm or industry.
incurred by m ovin g away from th e LCL. He
p lotted isodapanes show ing th e increase
Critical isodapanes
in tran sp ort costs resultin g from such a Figure 19.12
for firms A, B and C
m ove. He th e n in trod u ced th e idea o f th e C ritica l isodapanes
c ritic a l iso d a p a n e as b ein g th e p o in t at a n d a g g lo m e ra tio n

w h ich savings m ade by reduced labour costs eco no m ie s

equalled th e losses b rou g h t about by extra Firm A

tran sp ort costs. If th e cheap er labou r lay
w ith in th e area o f th e critical isodap ane, it Firm C
w ould be profitable to m ove away from the
LCL in order to use th is labour.
■ A g g lo m e ra tio n e c o n o m ie s A gglom eration
Firms A and B might agglom erate here, but it
is w h en several firm s ch oo se th e sam e area
w o u ld not be w o rth w h ile for firm C
for th eir lo ca tio n in order to m in im ise th eir (b eyo nd its critical isodapane)
costs. T his ca n be achieved b y linkages
Intersection of 3 critical isodapanes
b etw een firm s (w here several jo in to g eth er to m eans it w o u ld be w o rth the 3
buy in bulk or to train a specialist w orkforce), firms agglom erating in this area

w ith in firm s (individual car c o m p o n e n t

u n its) and betw een firm s and supporting
Criticisms of Weber's mode!
services (banks and th e u tilities o f gas, w ater
The p o in t has already b een m ade w ith previous
and electricity ). D eg lom eratio n , in con trast,
exam ples and on page 5 5 7 th a t no m odel is
is w h en firm s disperse from a site or area, pos­
perfect and all have th eir critics. C riticism s o f
sibly due to increased lan d prices or labour
W eber's indu strial lo ca tio n m od el inclu de:
costs or a d eclin in g m arket.

560 Manufacturing industries

 ■ It n o longer relates to m odern cond itions - global system in w h ich we now live, and in
such as th e present exten t o f governm ent w h ich te ch n o lo g ica l ch an g e is b o th rapid and
interven tion (grants, aid to Enterprise Zones), end em ic. A w hole range o f o rg an isation al and
im provem ents in and reduced costs o f trans­ in stitu tio n a l forces shape e co n o m ic change
port, tech n olog ical advances in processing w ith in a global econom y. T h e real problem is
raw m aterials, the d evelopm ent o f new th e in terco n n ected n ess and co m p le x ity o f th e
types o f industry other th a n those directly various processes at w ork.'
involved in th e processing o f raw materials, the
increased m obility of labour and the increased
com p lexity o f industrial organisation (trans­
Production process technologies
nationals instead o f single-product firms). A ccording to Coe, Kelly and Yeung (2 0 0 7 ), there
a Each co u n try evolves its ow n industrial are th ree d ifferen t kinds o f indu strial system
pattern s and m ay be in d ifferent stages of co -ex istin g in th e presen t global eco n o m y
e co n o m ic d ev elop m en t (pages 6 0 4 -6 0 8 ). (Figure 1 9 .1 3 ). T hese are:
■ There are basic m isco n ce p tio n s in his ori­ 1 F o rd ism - w h ere scale eco n o m ies rem ain
ginal assum p tion s. For exam p le, th ere are crucial, e.g. food processing and e lectro n ic
chan ges over tim e and space in dem and co m p o n en ts. T rad itionally th is was associated
and price; th ere are variations in transp ort w ith mass p ro d u ction (H enry Ford's 1 9 1 0 s car
system s; perfect co m p etitio n is unreal as facto ry in D etroit, USA) and today m ore likely
m arkets vary in size and ch an g e over a period w ith sw eatshops (Case Study 2 1).
o f tim e; and d ecisions m ade b y industrialists 2 P o st-F o rd ism - w here th e ch ie f ch aracteristic
(w ho do n o t all have th e sam e know ledge) is flex ib ility w h ich , b y allow ing th e use of
m ay n o t always be ration al (von T h iin en 's in fo rm a tio n te ch n o lo g y and com p u terisatio n
'e c o n o m ic m a n ', page 4 7 1 ). in m a ch in es and th eir op eration , gives m ore
■ W eber's m aterial index was a crude measure co n tro l over th e p ro d u ction process. It can be
and applicable only to primary processing or to sub-divided in to:
industries w ith a very high or very low index. a flexib le sp e cia lisa tio n , w hen skilled
■ Dr L. Crewe (2 0 0 8 ) claim ed th a t 'trad itio n al workers use flex ible m a ch in e ry to provide
lo ca tio n a l theories, such as th a t o f Weber, a wider range o f produ ct to suit th e sm aller
are b eco m in g in creasin g ly less sig n ifican t. volum es o f high-valu e or specialist goods th at
A lthough labou r costs and agglom eration th ey produce, e.g. shoes and jew ellery
factors are im p o rta n t in d eterm in in g th e b flexib le p ro d u ctio n , orig in atin g in Jap an ,
lo ca tio n o f an e co n o m ic activity, th e y are w h ich co m b in es in fo rm a tio n te c h n o lo ­
hand led far to o sim p listically in our ever gies w ith th e flex ible org an isation o f eith er
in creasin gly co m p le x w orld. Trad ition al workers or co m m o d ity ch ain s (page 643).
m odels o ften c a n n o t cope w ith th e volatile

Figure 19.13
Characteristic Fordism Flexible
P re se n t-d a y in d u s tria l
system s Mass production Specialisation Production
L a b o u r force D ivisio n o f la b o u r: a fe w s k ille d H ig h ly s k ille d . M u lti-s k ille d , fle x ib le w o rk e rs a ll
o rg a n is e rs /m a n a g e rs . Large n u m b e r w ith so m e re s p o n s ib ility . W o rk in
o f s e m i-/u n s k ille d w o rk e rs d o in g te a m s.
re p e titiv e jo bs.

T e ch n o lo g y/m a ch in e s C o m ple x b u t s in g le -p u rp o s e . Hard S im p le , fle x ib le m a ch ine s. N o n ­ H ig h ly fle x ib le m e th o d s . R e la tive ly

to ch a n g e p ro d u c t. M a ch ine s in a sta n d a rd ise d p ro d u cts. easy to change p ro d u cts.
sequence lin k e d by c o n ve yo r b e lt.
S ta n d a rd ise d p ro d u cts.

S u p p lie r re la tio n s h ip A rm 's le n g th . S tocks h e ld in fa c to ry Close c o n ta c t w ith cu sto m e rs a nd V ery close lin k s w ith s u p p lie rs.
to ensure su p p ly, i.e .'ju s t-in -c a s e '. su p plie rs. No store d stock, i.e .'ju s t- in -tim e '
d e live ry.

P ro d u ct (v o lu m e , v a lu e a n d v a rie ty ) V ery h ig h v o lu m e . S m all ra n g e / L o w v o lu m e . W id e v a rie ty . H igh V ery h ig h v o lu m e . W id e ran g e . H igh

sin g le p ro d u c t. L ow v a lu e. va lu e. va lu e.

Manufacturing industries 561

 Industrial location; changing
patterns
Four different types o f industry have been selected
as exemplars to try to dem onstrate how the im por­
tance o f different factors affecting the location of
industry have changed through tim e. Their choice
m ay reinforce th e generalisation, by no m eans true
in every case, th at the m ore im portant locational
factors in th e 19th century were physical, while in
m odern industry they tend to be hu m an and eco­
nom ic. They also show th at while Weber's theory
m ay have had som e relevance in accou nting for
the location o f older industries (rem em bering
th a t it was put forward in 1909), it has less w hen
explaining th e location o f contem porary industry.
T h e four industries are:
1 A prim ary m anufacturing industry where, due
to weight loss, the presence of raw m aterials and
sources o f energy is m ore im portant th an the
market and other econom ic factors (Places 83).
2 A seco n d ary m a n u fa ctu rin g in d u stry in i­
tia lly tied to raw m aterials and sources of
energy b u t in w h ich e c o n o m ic and p o litical
facto rs have b eco m e in crea sin g ly m ore
im p o rta n t (Places 8 4 ). T his is an exam p le of
Fordism w ith its co n v e y o r belt/assem bly line
p ro d u ctio n .
3 A secondary m anufacturing industry where the
nearness of a m arket and labour supply is more
im portant th an the presence o f raw materials
and sources o f energy (Places 85). This illus­
trates flexible production (just-in-tim e).
4 M odern secondary (quaternary) m an u fac­
tu rin g industries w here h u m an and econ om ic
factors are th e m ost im p ortan t (Places 86).
This is an exam p le o f flexible specialisation
(a fo otloose industry).

Sweden: wood pulp and paper

There are three stages in this industry: the felling
of trees, the processing of wood pulp (primary Figure 19.14

processing), and the manufacture of paper Pulp m ill on th e

(secondary processing). In Sweden, most pulp and G u lf o f B othn ia

paper mills (Figure 19.14) are located at river mouths

on the Gulf of Bothnia (Figure 19.15).Timber isa
gross raw material which loses much of its weight
during processing; it is bulky to transport; and it
requires much water to turn it into pulp.Towns
such as Sundsvall and Kramfors are ideally situated
(Figure 19.15): the natural coniferous forests provide
the timber; the fast-flowing Rivers Ljungan, Indals
and Angerman which initially provided cheap water
transport for the logs are a source of the necessary and
cheap hydro-electricity;
and the Gulf of Bothnia tundra Fall line: division b etw e en old resistant rock; r
Baltic Shield and you n g er rocks o f coastal p la r
provides an easy export
Baltic Shield waterfalls p rovide hydro-electric p ow er (HEP
route. Paper has a higher
value than pulpand it is HEP
convenient and cheaper to Glacial lakes p rovide
C oniferous forest m ainly

have integrated mills. consisting of spruce and pine

natural reservoirs for
H EP and w a ter for the
W eber's agglomeration m anufacture o f pulp
economies, together with and paper

Fordism's mass production

techiniques, seem to Bothn.c
operate with the clustering
of so many mills.
export o f w o o d
pulp, newsprint,
H am osand
Figure 19.15 cardboard

Location o f w o o d p u lp • to w n
a nd p a p e r fa c to rie s in
50km V~Y~.. pulp an d /o r p aper mill
ce n tra l Sweden J? 0

562 Manufacturing industries

 Although the early iron and later steel industries of coal. The advantages possessed by South
were tied to raw materials, modern integrated iron W a le s a tth a ttim e are shown in Figure 19.17a.
and steelworks have adopted new locations as the Later, the industry extended into other British
sources of both ore and energy have changed. coalfields. W hen local ores becam e exhausted,
the industry continued in the same locations
• Before AD 1600 Iron-making was originally
because of geographical inertia, a pool of local
sited w here there were surface outcrops of iron
skilled labour, a local market using iron as a raw
ore and abundant wood for use as charcoal
material, im proved techniques reducing the
(the Weald, the Forest of Dean, Figure 19.16a).
am ount of coal needed (2 tonnes per 1 tonne of
Locations were at the source of these tw o raw
final product), im proved and cheaper transport
materials as th ey had a high material index,
systems (rail and canal) which brought
were bulky and expensive to transport, had
distant mined iron ore, and the beginnings of
a limited market and could not be m oved far
agglom eration economies.
owing to the poor transport system.
After 1850 Until the 1880s, the low ore and
• Before AD 1700 Local ores in the Sheffield
high phosphorus content of deposits found
area were turned into iron by using fast-flowing
in the Jurassic limestone, extending from the
rivers to turn waterw heels as w ater provided a
Cleveland Hills to Oxfordshire, had not been
cheaper source of energy.
touched. After 1879, the Gilchrist-Thomas
• After AD 1700 In 1709, Abraham Derby
process allowed this ore to be smelted
discovered that coke could be used to smelt
economically. As iron ore now had a higher
iron ore efficiently. At this time, it took 8 tonnes
material index than coal it was more expensive
Figure 19.16 of coal and 4 tonnes of ore to produce 1 tonne
to move. As a result, new steelworks were
of iron, and so new furnaces were located on
L ocation o f iron opened onTeesside, near to the Cleveland
a nd s te e lw o rk s in
coalfields. One of the first areas to develop
Hills deposits, and at Scunthorpe and Corby,
E ng la nd , S cotland was South W ales w here bands of iron ore
on the ore fields. However, the major markets
a nd W ales (blackband ores) were found betw een seams
remained on the coalfields.

• iron ore term inals (13) m ajor ore term inals (3)

* ironworks (6) integrated iron and

steelworks (3)
small steelworks, not
fully integrated (7)
Teesside (Redcar-
integrated iron and Lackenby)
steelworks (24)

I I coalfields

o □ iron ore
A p p let
Frodingham

D agenham

W eald

Manufacturing industries 563

 a Location of early 19th-century b Disadvantages of these early c Location of only remaining
iron foundries in South Wales locations by 1960 (e.g. Ebbw Vale) integrated steelworks in 2008
Period of time (e.g. Ebbw Vale) (Port Talbot)
Physical Raw m a te ria ls Coal m in e d lo c a lly in va lleys o ld e r m in e s clo sin g little n o w n ee d e d; im p o rte d

Iro n ore fo u n d w ith in th e Coal M easures had to be im p o rte d : lo n g w a y fro m im p o rte d fro m N A frica a n d N A m erica
coast

L im e s to n e fo u n d lo ca lly fo u n d lo c a lly fo u n d lo c a lly

W a te r fo r p o w e r and e fflu e n t: local rivers in s u ffic ie n t fo r c o o lin g fo r c o o lin g : coastal sites

E n e rg y/fu e l charcoal fo r e a rly s m e ltin g , la te r rivers e le c tric ity fro m N a tio n a l G rid e le c tric ity fro m N a tio n a l G rid using
to d riv e m a c h in e ry ; th e n coal coal, o il, n a tu ra l gas, n u c le a r p o w e r

N a tu ra l rou tes m a te ria ls lo ca l; e x p o rt ro u te s v ia th e p o o r; re s tric te d b y n a rro w va lleys coastal sites

va lleys

S ite a nd la nd n a rro w v a lle y flo o r lo ca tio n s cra m pe d sites; little f la t la nd la rg e areas o f fo rm e r sand dun e s

Human and Labour la rg e q u a n titie s o f s e m i-s k ille d la b o u r s till la rg e n u m b e rs o f s e m i-s k ille d s till re la tiv e ly la rg e n u m b e rs b u t w ith b

economic w o rk e rs h ig h e r level o f s k ill; fe w e r d u e to

h ig h -te c h /m e c h a n is a tio n

C apital local e n tre p re n e u rs n o in v e s tm e n t g o v e rn m e n t a nd EU in ce ntives

M a rkets local d iffic u lt to reach M id la n d s a nd p orts tin p la te in d u s try (L la n e lli) a n d th e

M id la n d car in d u s try

T ra ns po rt little n ee d e d; so m e canals; lo w costs p o o r; o ld -fa s h io n e d ; iso la te d M 4 ; p u rp o s e -b u ilt p o rt

G eo g rap h ical n o t a p p lic a b le n o t s tro n g e n o u g h tra d itio n o f h ig h - q u a lity g oods

in e rtia

E conom ies o f n o t a p p lic a b le w o rk e d a g a in s t th e in la n d sites o n e la rg e s te e lw o rk s m o re e conom ica

scale th a n n u m e ro u s s m a ll iro n fo u n d rie s

G o v e rn m e n t n o t a p p lic a b le E bbw Vale k e p t o pen by g o v e rn m e n t h a v in g th e ca p ita l, g o v e rn m e n ts can

p o lic y h e lp d e te rm in e lo c a tio n s a nd closures and
p ro v id e h e a vy in v e s tm e n t

Tech n olo g y sm a ll scale: m a in ly m a n u a l o u t o f date h ig h -te c h n o lo g y : c o m p u te rs, lasers,

etc.

F ig u re 1 9 .1 7
• A fte r 1950 W i t h i r o n o r e s t i l l t h e m a j o r r a w b e c a m e in c r e a s in g ly r e lia n t o n im p o r t e d o re s .
G ro w th , d e c lin e and
ch a n g in g lo c a tio n o f m a t e r i a l ( le s s t h a n 1 t o n n e o f c o a l w a s n o w T h i s m e a n t t h a t n e w in te g ra te d steelw o rk s

iron and s te e lw o rk s needed to produce 1 tonne of steel), but with were located on coastal sites while those inland
in S o u th W ales deposits in the UK largely exhausted, Britain tended to close (Figure 19.16). Since the 1950s
three new elements, unforeseen by Weber,

F ig u re 1 9 .1 8 becam e increasingly im portant in the location

Steel a n d fin is h in g
1 of new steelworks: governm ent intervention,
im proved technology and reduced transport
w o rk s , 2 00 8
costs. It is a now a governm ent/EU decision
as to w here any new steelworks (unlikely in
the present econom ic climate) will be located,
and w hich existing works will either close or
M o therw ell
remain open; improved technology has seen
a reduction in raw materials consum ed and
workers needed; while lower transport costs
Teesside

}
k
Q ^ have aided both imports of raw materials and
exports of finished goods.
Halifax Scu ntho rp e
Even so, the industry still uses complex machines
"Sheffield/ set out in a sequence and linked by a conveyer
D e e sid e *
Rotherham belt system. At the Port Talbot works, raw materials
Birm ingham area , ■Corby
enter one end of the factory, passthrough several
V-lAjL
processing stages, all highly computerised, to
Llanelli
■
■
■SfesC finally em erge, several kilometres away, as a
, ■" *,N e w p o rt
* integrated plants
Port Talbot
(co m bin ed steelm aking Cardiff Sheerness standardised end product.The steelworks is also
and rolling mills)

oth er rolling mills

part of a value added chain in a global industry.
n coating plants

s w ire plants
■ tu b e mills 200 km
 Japan: car assembly
Japan's production of 8.6 million cars in 2006, which had to come from land reclaimed from the sea
was 20.8 per cent of the world's total, kept it as the (Figure 19.20).These new locations, despite the
world leader ahead of Germ any (5.1 m) and the USA high costs of reclamation, make excellent sites
(5.0 m).This has been achieved despite a lack of from which to export finished cars to all parts of
basic raw materials. the world.The large local labourforce contains
both skilled and semi-skilled workers who, as well
Japan has very limited energy resources for,
as being educated and industrious, are very loyal
although it produces hydro-electricity and nuclear
to theirfirm .The car industry, which has received
energy, it has to import virtually all its coal, oil and
considerable governm ent financial assistance, has
natural gas requirements. Similarly, most of the iron
an organisation which centres around teamworking,
ore and coking coal needed to m anufacture steel
worker involvement, total-quality management,
also has to be im ported.The result has been the
and'just-in-time'production (this is w hen various
location of the major steelworks on tidal sites found
com ponent parts arrive just as they are needed
around the country's many deep and sheltered
on the assembly line, thus avoiding the need to
natural harbours. As only 17 per cent of the country
store or to overproduce).The Japanese car industry
is flat enough for econom ic developm ent (for
has a high level of autom ation and uses the most
homes, industry and agriculture), most of the
modern technology: it produces three times the
population also has to live in coastal areas and
number of cars per worker as does western Europe.
around the harbours.The five major conurbations,
The assembled cars are reliable and universally
linked by modern communications, provide both
acceptable in design which means, together with
the workforce and the large, affluent, local markets
the shift from mass production to lean, or flexible,
needed for such steel-based products as cars
production, that the Japanese have gained strong
(Figure 19.19). Within these conurbations are
footholds in world markets.To expand further
numerous firms engaged in making car com ponent
into these markets, the Japanese have either built
parts. This agglom eration of firms limits transport
overseas assembly plants or have am algam ated
costs and conforms with Weber's concept that
with local companies so that more cars can be
industries gaining weight through processing
produced close to the large urban markets within
(car assembly) are best located at the market.
western Europe and the USA, e.g. Honda at Swindon,
As many of the smaller, older and original firms
Nissan at Sunderland, andToyota at Burnaston and
Figure 19.19 have am algam ated into large-scale companies,
Deeside in the UK.
M a jo r in d u s tria l the extra space required for their factories has
areas in Japan

[ ] five m ain industrial areas

• m ajor city Sapp oro

| O'.•-•# :V
H O K K A ID O
| | o ther industrial areas

H O K K A ID O four m ain islands

| | m ountains

Sea o f J a p a n H an sh h
(Kobe- Niigata
Se to u ch i Sendai
Osaka)
(Hiroshim a)
Mazda \ H O N SH U P a c if ic
K ita kyu sh u \ Kyoto
O cean
(Kitakyushu) J \ . • /
*• / 0 200 km
M izusnim a
. SH IK O K U
Nagasaki C h u k yo K eih in (To kyo -
K Y U SH U (N agoya) Kawasaki-Yokoham a)
Toyota Nissan, Mitsubishi, Flonda

Figure 19.20

M azda's H o fu car p la n t, b u ilt on

!and r e t i m e d fro m th e sea

Manufacturing industries 565

 The M4 and Ml 1 corridors: high-tech industries
The term high-technology refers to industries
that have developed within the last 35 years
and whose processing techniques often involve
micro-electronics, but may include medical
instruments, biotechnology and pharmaceuticals.
These industries, which collectively fit into the
quaternary sector (page 552), usually demand
high inputs of information, expertise and research
and developm ent (R&D).They are also said
to be footloose (the modern term is flexible
specialisation) in that, not being tied to raw
materials, they have a free choice of location (Figure
19.13). However, they do tend to occur in clusters in
particular areas, forming w hat W eber would have
called'agglomerated economies', such as along
the M 4and M l 1 corridors in England (also Silicon
Glen in Scotland, Silicon Valley in California and
Grenoble and the Cote d'Azur in France). By locating
(Sunrise Valley) from London to Reading, New bury
('Video Valley'), Bristol (Aztec West) and into South
Wales; and the M 1 1 northwards to Cam bridge
(Figure 19.21 (.Transport is convenient due to the
proximity of several m otorways and mainline
railways, together with the four main London
airports.Transport costs are, in any case, relatively
insignificant as the raw materials (silicon chips) are
lightweight and the final products (computers) are
high in value and small in bulk. Even so, it has been
argued that tw o of the main reasons for high-tech
developm ent in this part of Britain were:
1 the presence of government-sponsored
research establishments at Harwell and
Alderm aston and of governm ent aerospace
contractors in the Bristol area
2 its attractive environm ent, e.g. the valley of the

close together, high-tech firms can exchange ideas Thames and the nearby upland areas of the

and information and share basic amenities such as Cotswolds, Chilterns and Marlborough Downs

connecting motorways. (Figure 19.21), and its proximity to cultural

centres, e.g. London, Oxford and Cardiff.
Two of the major concentrations of high-tech
industries in Britain are along the M4 westwards

u university ■- railway

r research centre — co u nty b oundary

o office airport
Figure 19.21 h high-technology firm to w n
Cam bridge
The M 4 a nd M 1 1 = m o torw ay
C orridors

Many high-tech industries have located around

Bristol, especially at Aztec West at the junction of Oxford
the M4 and M5, where expertise had already
C w m bran Severn developed through such firms as Rolls Royce and
M Bridges British Aerospace

Harwell
M aid enh ead
R ead in g
Sw ind on

Bracknell
iew bury

R W okingham
Alderm aston

Farnborough

The majority of new industries have tended

to locate along the Berkshire section of the
M4 where the nearness to Heathrow Airport
has been a vital extra advantage

566 Manufacturing industries

 Most firms that have located here claim that the
m ajor factor affecting their decision was the
availability of tw o types of labour:
• Highly skilled and inventive research scientists
and engineers, the majority of w hom were
university graduates or qualified technicians.
These specialists, whose abilities were in short
supply, could often dictate areas w here they
wanted to live and work, i.e. areas of high
environmental, social and cultural quality.The
proximity of several universities (Figure 19.21)
provided a pool of skilled labour and facilities for
R&D.
• Female workers w ho either tended to be
plentiful as an increasing num ber of career-
minded w om en were am ong those w ho had
recently moved out of London and into new
towns and suburbanised villages (page 398), or
were prepared to accept part-time/flexi-time
jobs (Figure 19.4).
Science parks are often join t ventures between
universities and local authorities. They are usually
Figure 19.22 located adjacent to universities on edge-of-town
The Cambridge greenfield sites where, because the land is of lower
Science Park
C a m b rid g e Scie n ce P ark
' *
___J building
car parking
f * r trees
Figure 19.23
lake
Layout of the Cambridge
Science Park
value, there is plenty of space for car parking,
landscaping (ornam ental gardens and lakes) and
possible future expansion.
The Cambridge Science Park (Figure 19.22) has
been developed in conjunction withTrinity
College, Cambridge. Opened in 1972, the success
of early firms soon attracted more (agglomeration
economies), so that by 2008 there were 109
companies employing about 5000 people. Existing
companies can be divided into those making
electronics, scientific instruments, drugs and
pharmaceuticals (biomedicinal), with a strong
emphasis on scientific R&D. Only selected firms,
using the high-quality, flexible buildings for specific
purposes, are allowed to locate in the business park.
Almost one-quarter of these firms are medium-sized,
each employing between 20 and 49 workers. Some
70 per cent of the park, which covers 62 ha, is left as
open space with trees, grass and ornamental gardens
with lakes (Figure 19.23). As this, and other business
and science parks in the Cambridge area, continue
to develop, new housing has to be provided, e.g. at
Cam bourne (Case Study 14A), and building pressure
increases on the surrounding transport system and
countryside (Figure 14.22).
0
X
\ /
J
^
, ^
Manufacturing industries 567
 industrial linkages and the multiplier - th e sim ple ch a in in Figure 1 9 .2 4 a . Industrial
linkages m ay result in:
W h en W eber introduced th e term 'agglom eration
■ energy savings
econ om ies', he acknow ledged th a t m any firms
■ reduced tran sp ort costs
made fin an cial savings by locatin g close to, and
■ w aste products from on e indu stry fo rm in g a
lin kin g w ith, oth er industries. T he success o f one
raw m aterial for an oth er
firm m ay attract a range o f associated or sim ilar-
■ energy given o ff by o n e process b ein g used
type industries (cutlery in Sheffield), or several
elsew here
small firm s m ay com bin e to produce co m p o n en t
■ e co n o m ies o f scale w here several firm s buy in
parts for a larger product (car m anufacture in
b ulk or share d istrib u tion costs
Coventry). In d u strial linkages m a y b e divided
■ im proved co m m u n ica tio n s, services and
in to b ack w ard linkages and fo rw ard linkages:
fin a n cia l in v estm en t
b a ck w a rd fo rw a rd ■ h ig h er levels o f skill and fu rther research
link ages link ages ■ a stronger p o litical bargaining p o sition for
to firm s pro­ to firm s further g o v ern m en t aid (th e securing o f EU funding
vid ing raw processing n ow depends u p on h av in g a netw ork o f
m aterials or th e product linked organisations).
co m p o n e n t or using it as Louise Crewe has stressed the 'increasingly critical
parts a co m p o n e n t im portance of local linkages in ensuring co m ­
part petitive success, and th e need to em phasise how
agglom eration is becom ing an increasingly im por­

A m ore d etailed classificatio n o f indu strial lin k ­
ages is given in Figure 1 9 .2 4 . T he m ore ind u stri­
ally advanced a region or cou ntry, th e greater is
th e n u m ber o f its linkages. D evelop ing cou ntries
have few linkages, partly becau se o f th e ir lim ited
n u m ber o f industries and partly because few
industries go beyond th e first stage in processing
Figure 19.24
Types o f in d u s tria l lin k a g e
ta n t factor in explaining industrial location'. In
the fashion quarter o f N ottingham 's Lace Market,
for exam ple, 85 per cent of all firms are linked to
others, e.g. supplier links, m anufacturers, retailers,
local intelligence, and so on. O ther exam ples of
linkages and industrial location include the M otor
Sport valley in O xfordshire and car assem bly in the
West M idlands, together w ith b o th the fashion anc
jewellery agglom erations and the sem iconductor
clusters in California and the UK (Places 86).

a V ertical (or sim p le chain) lin k a g e s b H o rizo n ta l (or m u lti-o rig in ) lin k a g e s

the raw m aterial goes thro u gh several successive processes an industry relies on several other industries to p rovide its
co m p o n e n t parts

new sprint brakes ■

pulp
f gearboxes ---------

electrical equ ipm ent car assem bly pla~:

tyres -------------

mill logging ra d ia to r s -----------

c D ia g o n a l (or m u lti-d e s tin a tio n ) lin k a g e s d T e ch n o lo g ic a l lin k a g e s

an industry makes a co m p o n e n t w h ich can be used su bseq uen tly in a p roduct from one industry is used subsequently as a raw m aterial by
several industries other industries

w atch es and clocks nails

steel
-► car industry steel processed -► screws
washers, nuts processed
-► dom estic appliances wire into -► cable
and bolts into

-► repair workshops/garages -► electric;

wiring

568 Manufacturing industries

 The multiplier effect and Myrdal's Myrdal suggested th a t a new or exp an d ing
model of cumulative causation indu stry in an area w ould create m ore jo bs and
so increase th e spend ing pow er o f th e local
If a large firm , or a specialised type o f industry,
p o p u latio n . If, for exam p le, a firm em ployed
is successful in an area, it m ay generate a m u lti­
a further 2 0 0 workers and each w orker cam e
p lier effect. Its success will attract oth er forms
from a fam ily o f four, th ere w ould be 8 0 0 people
o f e co n o m ic d evelopm en t creating jobs, services
d em and ing hou sing, schools, shops and h o sp i­
and w ealth - a case o f 'success breeds success'.
tals. This would create m ore jobs in th e service
This circular and cum ulative process was used by
and co n stru ctio n industries as w ell as a ttractin g
G u n n a r M yrd al, a Swedish eco n o m ist w riting in
m ore firm s linked to th e original industry. As
th e m id -1950s, to explain w hy inequ alities were
g ro w th p o les, or p oints, develop th ere will
likely to develop betw een regions and countries.
be an in flu x o f m igrants, entrepreneurs and
Figure 1 9 .2 5 is a sim plified version o f his m odel.
Figure 19.25

A s im p lifie d ve rsio n o f in tro d u ctio n o f a new in d u stry or

M yrd al's m o d e l to sh o w the e x p a n sio n o f an e x istin g firm
d e v e lo p m e n t o f an
in d u s tria l region

creates m ore jobs, especially in attraction o f linked invention and

construction and infrastructure, industries, including innovation
and increases purchasing p ow er m ainten ance

im proved pool of
trained labour backw ard forward area b ecom es a
linkages linkages gro w th pole

increased d em and for services

(shops, schools and hospitals)

increased p opulation increased incom e from rates n e w construction activity;

(in-migration); greater and m ore p eo p le increases g ro w th o f tertiary sector;
local w ealth the spending p o w e r available expansion o f public activities

capital, to g eth er w ith new ideas and te c h n o lo g y
M yrdal's m u ltip lier m odel m ay be used to
exp lain a nu m ber o f patterns.
1 The grow th o f 19 th -cen tu ry industrial regions
(South W ales and th e Ruhr) and districts
(cutlery in Sheffield, guns and jew ellery in
B irm ingh am and clo th in g in N ottingham ).
2 The d ev elop m en t o f grow th poles (page 61 7 )
in d eveloping cou ntries (Sao Paulo in Brazil
and th e D am odar V alley in India), w here
increased e co n o m ic activity led, in turn, to
m u ltip lier effects, ag g lom eration eco n o m ies
and an upward spiral resulting in core regions
(Places 8 7 and Places 9 8 , page 6 1 8 ). At the
sam e tim e, cu m u lative cau sation worked
against regions near th e p e rip h e ry where
M yrdal's b a ck w a sh effects inclu ded a lack of
in v estm en t and jo b op p ortu nities.
3 T he creation o f m o d ern g o v ern m en t regional
policies w h ich encou rage th e sitin g o f new,
large, key industries in eith er peripheral,
less developed (Trom betas and C arajas in
A m azonia) or h ig h u n em p lo y m en t (Nissan
and Toyota in England) areas in th e h op e of
stim u latin g e co n o m ic grow th. T h is p o licy is
m ore likely to succeed if th e industries are
labou r intensive.
Industrial regions
M u ch o f B ritain ’s early industrial success
stem m ed from th e presence o f basic raw m ater­
ials and sources o f energy for th e early iron,
and th e later iron and steel, industries; th e mass
p ro d u ction o f m aterials using th e processed
iron and steel; and th e d evelopm en t of overseas
m arkets. D uring th e 1 9 th cen tu ry it was th e co a l­
fields, especially th o se in Sou th W ales, n o rth ern
England and central Scotland, w h ich becam e the
core industrial regions. However, as th e in itial
advantages o f raw m aterials (w hich becam e
exhau sted ), specialised skills and te ch n o lo g y (no
longer needed as th e trad itio n al heavy industries
declined) and th e ability to exp ort m anu factu red
goods (in th e face o f grow ing overseas co m p eti­
tio n ) were lost, these early industrial regions
have b eco m e m ore peripheral. R ecent attem pts
to revive th eir e co n o m ic fortunes have m et w ith
varying success (Places 87).

Manufacturing industries 569

 South Wales: industrial growth, decline and regeneration
Pre-1920: industrial growth creating a
core region
The growth of industry in South Wales was based
on readily obtainable supplies of raw materials
(Figure 19.17a). Coking coal and blackband iron
ore w ere frequently found together, exposed as
horizontal seams outcropping on steep valley
sides.Their proximity to each other m eant that the
area around Merthyr Tydfil and Ebbw Vale (Figure
19.26) was ideally suited for industrial developm ent
(Weber's least-cost location for tw o gross raw
materials, Figure 19.1 Ob). Added to this was the
presence of limestone only a few kilometres to the
north, and the expertise of the local population in
iron-making w here waterwheels, driven by fast-
flowing rivers, had earlier been used to power the
blastfurnace bellows. By the 1860s there w ere 35
iron foundries operating in the Welsh valleys. By
the tim e the more accessible coal had been used
up, mining techniques had improved sufficiently
to allow shafts to be sunk vertically into the valley
floors. W hen local supplies of iron ore became
exhausted, there were ports nearby through which
substitute ore could be imported.
'Thus began the spread of the well-known industrial
landscape of the Valleys. Pits crammed themselves
into the narrow valley bottoms, vying for space
with canals, housing and, later, railways and roads.
Housing began to trail up the valley sides, line upon
line of terraces pressed against the steep slopes
[Figure 19.27], The opening-up of the underground
coal seams resulted in massive immigration, much
of it from rural areas. Working conditions, living
conditions and wages were deplorable while health
and safety standards underground were poor.
Housing was overcrowded as the provision of homes,
financed by the local entrepreneur ironmasters,
lagged far behind the supply of jobs.'
Figure 19.26
Early in d u stria l d e velo p ­ 20 km
m e n t in South Wales
im port o f cop per
(initially from Cornw all and
export
Ireland, later from Chile),
o f coal
tin, nickel and zinc
570
The rapid increase in coalm ining and iron-working
partly resulted from the growth of large overseas
markets as both products were m ainly exported.
Transport to the Welsh ports first involved simply
allowing trucks to run downhill under gravity. Later,
canals and then railways were used to m ove the
bulky materials. W hile Barry, Cardiff and New port
developed as exporting ports, Swansea and Neath
grew as'break of bulk'ports smelting the imported
ores of copper, nickel and zinc. Break of bulk is
when a transported product has to be transferred
from one form of transport to another - a process
that involves tim e and money. It was easier and
cheaper, therefore, to have had the smelting works
w here the raw materials were unloaded, rather than
transporting them inland.
The inter-war and immediate post-war
years: depression and industrial decline
Just as the existence of raw materials and overseas
markets had led to the growth of local industry,
so did their loss hasten its decline. Iron ore had
long since been exhausted and it increasingly
becam e the turn of coal, even though there were
still over 500 collieries em ploying 260 000 miners
in 1925. The steelworks which had replaced the
iron foundries had been built on the same inland,
cramped sites; as they became less competitive
mainly due to rising transport costs, so they became
increasingly dependent on governm ent support
(Figure 19.17b). Overseas markets were lost as
rival industrial regions with lower costs and more
up-to-date technology were developed overseas.
The difficulties of an econom y reliant on a narrow
industrial base, d ependent on an increasingly out-
of-date infrastructure, and unable to com pete with
overseas competition, led to major economic, social
and environm ental problems.
canal
j I coalfield
[ I m ajor iron works
I T | tin plate
© co p p e r smelting
export o f coal;
iron and tin plate
 political view s).The Special Areas Act of 1934
saw the first governm ent assistance which set up
industrial estates atTreforest, MerthyrTydfil and
Rhondda (Figure 19.28), w hile Cwm bran becam e
one of Britain's first new towns (1949). M uch of
the form er coalfield remains an Assisted Area
(Figure 19.5).The last NCB colliery closed in 1994,
although the Tower Colliery, near MerthyrTydfil,
reopened privately betw een 1995 and 2008. At
present coal comes from seven opencast mines,
and a current planning application, if successful,
would make one of those - Ffos-y-Fran, also near
M erthyrTydfil - the largest in Europe (there is
strong local opposition to the scheme).

Two local areas of exceptionally high unemploy­

Figure 19.27
In d u s try , c o m m u n ic a ­
tio n s a n d te rraced
h o u sin g s tru n g a lo n g
th e v a lle y flo o r a nd
lo w e r v a lle y sides:
R hon d d a Fawr,
lo o k in g to w a rd s
Treorchy, m id -
G la m o rga n
Figure 19.28
Recent in d u s tria l
d e v e lo p m e n t in
S ou th W ales
Towards the present: industrial
diversification in a peripheral area
Steel-making and non-ferrous metal smelting have
been maintained, partly due to geographical inertia,
despite a significant fall in output and workers. As the
centre of gravity for steel-making moved to coastal
sites, so too did the location of the two South Wales
integrated works, to Llanwern (closed 2001) and Port
Talbot (Figures 19.17c and 19.28).Tin plate, using local
steel, is produced atTrostre near Llanelli (the Felindre
works near Swansea closed in 1989), while the Mond
nickel works near Swansea is the world's largest
(Figure 19.28).
The major factor to have affected industry in the
region in the last 50 years has been governm ent
intervention (or lack of it, depending on your
ment, Swansea and Milford Haven Waterway, were
designated tw o of Britain's 27 Enterprise Zones
(page 439).The Swansea EZ included five parks
- the Enterprise (commerce and light industry),
Leisure (recreation facilities), Riverside (heritage
and environmental schemes), City (retailing) and
Maritime (housing and cultural) Parks.The Ford Motor
Company took advantage of governm ent incentives
to build tw o plants in the region, one of which, at
Bridgend, has been expanded. It was governm ent
policy that built an integrated steelworks at Ebbw
Vale in 1938, and which closed it in 1979.The future
of Port Talbot is also in governm ent hands. A policy
to decentralise some governm ent departments
has seen vehicle licensing moved to Swansea
and the Royal Mint to Llantrisant (Figure 19.28).
Improvements in communications have included
the M4, the Heads of Valleys Road, the Intercity rail
link, and Cardiff international airport-som e of which
were financed by EU funds.

edge o f fo m er coalfield
Milford H aven to
tlan d arcy
to M 5 0 and □ large industrial estate
M idland car
industries [n7c ] nickel-copper sm elting

□ E b b w Vale CD tin plate

M erth yr o integrated steelw orks (1)

Tydfil Pontypool
E Enterprise Z on e
Rhondda
Llandarcy □ D i C w m bran
G o w e r (Area of . * (petrochem icals) C ^ \ ( n e w tow n)
O utstanding O P o T tJa lb o t
Treforest *'□ N ew po rt
Natural Beauty)
T U a n tris a n t» Q L ..O LIanw ern
(closed 2001)
Bridgend
copper, nickel
and tin ores
20 km

Manufacturing industries 571


Figure 19.29
Swansea E nterp rise
Park, w e s t G la m o rga n
Figure 1930
Sony's CTV European
h e a d q u a rte rs at
P encoed, B rid g e n d ,
occupies a 25 ha site
572 Manufacturing industries
Money has also been spent on landscaping old
industrial areas which had been scarred either by
metal-smelting industries (lower Swansea Valley) or
by slag (Ebbw Vale) and colliery waste tips (Aberfan -
Case Study 2B).The Ebbw Vale Garden Festival (1992),
sited on part of the former steelworks, was part of a
larger scheme aimed at creating new jobs, improving
housing, renovating old properties and improving
the local environment (page 439). Other schemes,
some funded by the W D A (see below), include tourist
and cultural facilities such as the Welsh Industrial and
Maritime Museum in Cardiff's newly created Marina
area and the international sports village in Cardiff Bay.
The Cardiff Bay project, environm entally
controversial, was aimed at improving transport
and housing as well as providing jobs and retailing
and leisure opportunities.
The Welsh Developm ent Agency (W DA) was set up
in 1976'to attract high-quality investment, to help
the growth of Welsh businesses and to improve
the environm ent'(Figure 19.29). It saw as its main
advertising points:
a workforce that was skilled (although it needed
retraining for the new-style high-tech industries)
low labour costs, high productivity and good
labour relations
a well-developed transport infrastructure with
modern road, rail and air links
the availability of advanced factory sites with
quality buildings at com petitive rates
a local market, and access to a national and the
international market
low rates and rents for firms wishing to locate in
either the D evelopm ent or Interm ediate Areas
(Figure 19.5)
lower house prices and cost of living than
south-east England
the University of W ales with its five separate
colleges
the Welsh countryside, including the
Pembrokeshire Coast and Brecon Beacons
National Parks and 500 km of Heritage Coastline
(including the Gower Peninsula), and the
Pem brokeshire Coast footpath.
• the Welsh culture, including music, the
performing arts and sport.
At the beginning of the 21 st century, South Wales
had a more varied and broad economic base than
it had ever had before, with both manufacturing
and inward investment growing at a faster rate than
anywhere else in the UK. Of nearly 500 international
companies that had located here, 150 were from
North America (Ford and General Electric), 60 were
German (Bosch) and 50 were Japanese (Sony,
Figure 19.30; Aiwa, Matsushita and Hitachi). Other
companies have come from France, Italy, Singapore,
South Korea andTaiwan.The major types of new
industry include aerospace and defence (six of the
world's top ten companies including Airbus and
BAE systems), car assembly (Bridgend), chemicals,
electronics, medical devices, optical equipment,
pharmaceuticals and telecommunications. A recent
addition has been the Amazon (books) distribution
centre at Swansea, which is expected to employ 1200
full-time and 1500 seasonal staff.
 Advantages to the country I Disadvantages to the country

B rin g s w o rk to th e c o u n try a nd N u m be rs e m p lo ye d sm a ll in co m ­
uses local la b o u r p arison w ith a m o u n t o f in v e s tm e n t
|— —-| formal sector ||informal
sector
Local w o rk fo rc e receives a Local la b o u r fo rce u su a lly p o o rly
g u a ra n te e d in co m e p a id a n d have to w o rk lo n g hours

.<Y-v Im p ro ve s th e levels o f e d u ca tio n V ery fe w local sk ille d w o rk e rs

a n d te c h n ic a l sk ills o f local p e o p le e m p lo ye d
,0 ^ Informal
A? sector usually B rin g s in w a rd in v e s tm e n t a nd M o st o f th e p ro fits go overseas
v em ploys over
<c°it* fo re ig n cu rre n cy to th e c o u n try ( o u tflo w o f w e a lth )
n: ^ 60 per cent
Z5 O' (and is C o m pa n ies p ro vid e e xpensive M e c h a n is a tio n reduces th e size o f
Q. .E m a c h in e ry a nd in tro d u c e
O CL increasing) th e la b o u r force
Q._o proportion o f working (world m o d e rn te c h n o lo g y
.E ^ p op ulation in the GNP g row s less q u ic kly th a n th a t o f
<cnD-7-3 recession)
inform al sector Increased gross n a tio n a l p ro d u c t/ th e p are n t com pany's headquarters,
CL) <
T3 p erso n a l in co m e can le ad to an w id e n in g th e g ap b e tw e en d evel­
Formal sector
increased d e m a n d fo r c o n su m e r oped and d ev elo p ing countries
usually
>
■ em ploys less go o d s and th e g ro w th o f n e w
Raw m a te ria ls are u su ally e xp orted
than 40 per in d u s trie s a nd services
ra th e rth a n m a n u fa c tu re d lo ca lly,
em p lo ym en t in army, police and professions cent
Leads to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a n d e n e rg y costs m a y lead to a
tim e m in e ra l w e a lth a nd n e w n a tio n a l d e b t
e n e rg y resources
M o n e y p o s s ib ly b e tte r s p e n t on
Figure 19.31 Im p ro v e m e n ts in roads, a irp o rts im p ro v in g h o u sin g , d ie t and

G ro w th in th e
Industry in economically less a nd services s a n ita tio n

in fo rm a l se ctor developed countries
In cities in econ om ically less developed countries,
th e nu m ber o f people seeking work far outweighs
the num ber o f jobs available. As these cities c o n ­
P re stige v a lu e (e.g. V o lta P ro je ct) Big schem es can increase n a tio n a l
d e b t (e.g. B razil)
W ide n s e c o n o m ic base o f c o u n try
D ecisions a re m a d e o u ts id e th e
S om e im p ro v e m e n t in sta n d a rd s
c o u n try , and th e f ir m co u ld p u ll
o f p ro d u c tio n , h e a lth c o n tro l, and
re c e n tly in e n v iro n m e n ta l co n tro l
o u t a t a n y tim e

tinue to grow, eith er through natural increase In s u ffic ie n t a tte n tio n to s a fe ty a nd

or in-m igration, the jo b situation gets co n tin u ­ h e a lth fa c to rs and th e p ro te c tio n o f
ally worse. T h e UN estim ates th a t in developing th e e n v iro n m e n t

countries, on average, on ly about 4 0 per cen t of

those people w ith jobs work in th e fo rm al secto r
(Figure 19.31). These jobs, w h ich are perm anen t
and relatively well paid, include th o se offered
by th e state (police, arm y and civil service) or by
overseas-run tra n s n a tio n a l (m u ltin a tio n a l) c o r­
p o ratio n s, w h ich are a m ajor feature o f globalisa­
tio n (C hapter 21). The rem ainin g 6 0 per cen t - a
figure w hich th e UN claim s is rising - have to seek
work in th e in fo rm a l sector. T he m ain differ­
ences betw een th e form al and in form al sectors are
listed in Figure 1 9 .3 4 .
Transnational (multinational)
corporations
A tra n sn a tio n a l, or m u ltin a tio n a l, corp oration
is on e th a t operates in m an y d ifferen t cou ntries
regardless o f n a tio n a l boundaries. T h e h ead ­
quarters and m ain facto ry are usually located
in an e co n o m ica lly m ore developed country.
A lthough, at first, m an y b ra n ch factories were in
e co n o m ica lly less developed cou ntries, in creas­
ing ly there has b een a global sh ift to th e m ore
afflu en t m arkets o f Europe, N orth Am erica,
Ja p a n and Sou th Korea. T ran snation als (TNCs)
are believed to directly em ploy nearly 5 0 m illio n
people worldw ide and to in d irectly in flu en ce
an even greater num ber. It is estim ated th a t the
largest 3 0 0 TN Cs co n tro l over 70 per ce n t of
Figure 19.32
A dvan ta g e s and d isadvantages o f tra n sn a tio n a l (m u ltin a tio n a l) corpo ra tio ns
w orld trade (com pared w ith on ly 2 0 per cen t
in 1 9 6 0 ) and produce over h a lf o f its m a n u fac­
tured goods. T h e largest TNCs have lon g b een
car m anu factu rers and o il corp oration s b u t these
have, m ore recently, b een jo in e d b y e lectro n ic
and h ig h -tech firm s. Several o f th e largest TNCs
have a hig h er tu rnov er th a n all o f Africa's GNP
in to tal.
Transnationals, w ith th e ir capital and te ch ­
nology, have th e 'pow er' to ch oo se w h at th ey
con sid er to be th e ideal lo catio n s for their
factories. This ch o ice will be m ade at tw o levels:
th e m ost suitable country, and th e m o st suit­
able place w ith in th a t country. T h e ch o ice of
a co u n try usually depends o n p o litical factors.
M ost governm ents, regardless o f th e level o f
e co n o m ic d evelopm en t w ith in their country, are
prepared to offer fin a n cia l in d u cem en ts to attract
tran sn atio n als w h ich th e y see as providers o f jobs
and a m eans o f in creasing exports. (Sony, Figure
1 9 .3 0 , was reputed to have b een offered b etter
in d u cem en ts to locate at Bridgend rath er th a n in
B arcelona.) M any governm ents o f eco n o m ically
less developed cou n tries, due to a greater eco ­
n o m ic need, are prepared to im pose fewer restric­
tion s o n tran sn atio n als because th ey o ften have

Manufacturing industries 573

 to rely on th e m to develop natu ral resources,
to provide capital and te ch n o lo g y (m a ch in ery
skills, tran sp ort), to create jo bs and to gain access
to world m arkets (Places 88). D espite p olitical
independ en ce, m any poorer cou ntries rem ain
eco n o m ica lly d ep en d ent (neo-colon ialism ) on
th e large tran sn atio n als (together w ith in ter­
n atio n al banks and foreign aid). Som e o f the
advantages and disadvantages o f tran sn atio n al
corporation s to developing cou ntries are listed in
Figure 1 9 .3 2 .
Transnationals, h aving selected a country,
th e n have to decide w here to locate w ith in th a t
country. If th e cou ntry is econ om ically devel­
oped, th e location is likely to be where financial
Pune, India: a hub
Figure 19.33
L o cation o f Pune
in In d ia
Pune, a city of 5 million inhabitants, lies 150 km
south-east of Mumbai in the western coastal state of
Maharashtra. It is known as the'Oxford of the East; as
it has nine universities, and'The Detroit of India'due
to the presence of numerous global carTNCs. Its rapid
industrial growth has partly been due to congestion,
pollution, lack of space and exceptionally high
property prices in nearby Mumbai (population 18.2
million), as well as to its own advantages.
Pune has good transport links, especially with the
port and financial centre of Mumbai. It is also on
the'G olden Quadrilateral', a four-lane expressway
that links Bangalore, Chennai, Kolkata, Delhi and
Mumbai, as well as being on a main rail line and
having its ow n airport. Its clim ate is healthier than
The informal sector
A large and grow ing n u m ber o f people w ith
w ork in d eveloping cou ntries have found or
created th eir ow n jobs in th e inform al sector
(Figure 1 9 .3 4 ).
574 Manufacturing industries
indu cem en ts are greatest, land values are low,
transport is well developed, and levels o f skill and
u n em p lo y m en t are high (Japanese com panies in
South Wales, page 57 2 ). If the cou n try is e co n o m i­
cally less developed, th e lo catio n is m ore likely to
be in th e prim ate city (page 4 0 5 ), especially if th at
city is also th e capital or th e ch ief port. A capital
city location , w ith an in tern atio n al airport, allows
quick access to th e com panies' overseas headquar­
ters; and a port lo catio n enables easier export of
m anufactured goods. Should several transnational
com panies locate in the same area, th e m ultiplier
effect (page 5 6 9 ) is likely to result in th e develop­
m en t o f a core region (Places 9 8 , page 618).
for transnationals
that of Mumbai, being 650 m above sea-level, which
makes it less humid, and, lying in the rain shadow
to the east o fth e Western Ghats, it receives only
650 mm of rain a year com pared with Mumbai's
2200 mm (Figure 9.57).
Pune's universities produce large numbers of
skilled graduates and Mercedes-Benz founded
an international school for professional people
from overseas.The state of Maharashtra is viewed
positively as a m anufacturing and commercial
centre as it is less prone to industrial strikes and
corruption which affect other parts of India. Other
favourable factors that are im portant w hen trying
to attract TNCs include its good health care service
and a reliable supply of w ater and electricity.
Pune has also benefited from the setting up, in
1960, of the Maharashtra Industrial Developm ent
Corporation (MIDC) which offers business
incentives that include exem ptions from electricity
duty and stamp duty, refund on Octroi (a tax
applied to goods entering and leaving an area) and
special financial help, together with interest rate
subsidies for the textile industry - incentives that
are not available in Mumbai. Am ong theTNCs that
have located in and around Pune are autom otive
corporations (Daimler-Chrysler, Fiat, General
Motors, Mercedes-Benz, Skoda,Tata Motors and
Volkswagen), electrical companies (Panasonic,
Philips, Siem ens and W hirlpool), technology centres
(Barclays, HSBC and John Deere) and outsourcing
call centres (Next and British Gas).
'This sector covers a wide variety o f activities
m eeting local dem ands for a wide range of gocx
and services. It contains sole proprietors, cottas:':
industries, self-employed artisans and even
m oonlighters. They are manufacturers, traders

E m plo ye e o fa la rg e firm S e lf-e m p lo y e d
O fte n a tra n s n a tio n a l S m a ll-s c a le /fa m ily e n te rp ris e
M u ch c a p ita l in vo lv e d L ittle c a p ita l in vo lv e d
C a p ita l-in te n s iv e w ith re la tiv e ly fe w w o rk e rs; L a b o u r-in te n s iv e w ith th e use o f v e ry fe w to o ls
m e ch an ise d
E xpensive ra w m a te ria ls U sing cheap o r recycled w a ste m a te ria ls
A g u a ra n te e d sta n d a rd in th e fin a l p ro d u c t
O fte n a lo w s ta n d a rd in q u a lity o f goods
R e gu la r h ou rs (o fte n lo n g ) and w a ge s Irre g u la r h o u rs a n d u n c e rta in w a ge s
(o fte n lo w )
Fixed prices Prices ra re ly fixe d a n d so n e g o tia b le (b a rte rin g )
Jobs d on e in fa cto rie s Jobs o fte n d on e in th e h o m e (c o tta g e in d u s try )
o r o n th e stre e ts
G o v e rn m e n t a nd tra n s n a tio n a l h e lp No g o v e rn m e n t a ssistance
Legal O fte n o u ts id e th e la w (ille g a l)
U sually m a les O fte n ch ild re n and fe m a le s
M a n u fa c tu rin g : b o th local a nd tra n s n a tio n a l D is trib u tiv e (s tre e t p e d d le rs and sm a ll sta lls)
co m p an ie s
G o v e rn m e n t-c re a te d jo b s such as th e police , S ervices (sh oe cleaners, s e llin g c lo th e s and
a rm y and civ il service fr u it)
S m a ll-sca le in d u s try (fo o d pro ce ssin g , dress­
m a k in g and fu rn itu re rep a ir)
s Uses so m e s k ille d a n d m a n y lo w -s k ille d E m ploys m a n y th o u sa n d s o f lo w -s k ille d
w o rk e rs w o rk e rs
P rovides p e rm a n e n t jo b s a n d re g u la r w a ge s Jobs m a y p ro v id e so m e tr a in in g a n d skills
w h ic h m ig h t le ad to b e tte r jo b s in th e fu tu re
Produces g oo d s fo r th e m o re w e a lth y (fo o d , A n y p ro fit w ill be used w ith in th e c ity : th e
cars) w ith in th e ir o w n c o u n try so t h a t p ro fits p ro d u c ts w ill be fo r local use by th e lo w e r-p a id
m a y re m a in w ith in th e c o u n try p e o p le
W aste m a te ria ls p ro v id e ra w m a te ria ls fo r th e Uses local a nd w a ste m a te ria ls
in fo rm a l se ctor
Figure 19,34
D iffere n ces b e tw e e n
'fo rm a l'a n d 'in fo rm a l'
sectors
Nairobi, Kenya: jua kali workshops
Jua kali means 'under the hot sun'. Although there are
many smallerjuo/(o//in Nairobi, the largest is near
to the bus station where, it is estimated, over 1000
workers create jobs for themselves (Figure 19.34).
The plot of land on which the metal workshops have
been built measures about 300 m by 100 m. The first
workshops were spontaneous and built illegally as
their owners did not seek permission to use the land,
which did not belong to them . As more workshops
were set up and the site developed, the governm ent
was faced with the option of either bulldozing the
temporary buildings, as governments had done to
shanty settlements in other developing countries,
or encouraging and supporting local initiative.
transporters, builders, tailors, shoemakers,
m echanics, electricians, plumbers, flower-sellers
and m any other activities. The [Kenyan] govern­
m ent have recognised the im portance of these
small-scale ju a kali enterprises [Places 89] and a
few com m ercial banks are beginning to extend
loans to these new entrepreneurs w ho are th e m ­
selves form ing co-operatives. There are m any
advantages in developing these concerns. They
use less capital per worker th an larger firms; they
tend to use and recycle m aterials th a t would
otherwise be waste; they provide low-cost, prac­
tical on -the-job training w hich can be of great
value later in m ore form al em ploym ent; and, as
they are flexible, they can react quickly to market
changes. Their enterprising spirit is a very im por­
tan t national hu m an resource.'
Central B a n k o f Kenya
T he g ov ernm en ts o f several d eveloping co u n ­
tries now recognise th e im p ortan ce o f such local
ventures as Kenya's jua kali w h ich , apart from
creatin g em p loy m en t, provide goods at afford ­
able prices. India, for exam p le, encou rages th e
grow th o f co-operatives to h elp fam ily c o n ­
cerns, un der th e ‘Sm all Industries D ev elop m en t
O rg an isatio n ', b y settin g up d istrict offices th at
offer te ch n ica l and fin an cial advice. U nder its
D ev elop m en t Plans, th e m an u factu re o f 6 0 0
products will be exclusively reserved for sm all
firm s and fam ily enterprises.
C h ild ren, m an y o f w h om m ay be un der th e
age o f 10, form a sig n ifica n t p ro p ortio n o f th e
in form al-secto r workers. Very few o f th e m have
sch oo ls to go to and, from an early age, th ey go
o n to th e streets to try to supp lem ent th e often
m eagre fam ily in co m e. T h ey m ay try to earn
m o n ey b y sh in in g shoes or selling item s such as
sweets, flow ers, fruit and vegetables.
Realising that the informal workshops created jobs in
a city where work was hard to find, the governm ent
opted to help. The Prime Minister himself became
personally involved by organising the erection of
huge metal sheds which protected the workers from
the hot sun and occasional heavy rain.
Groups of people are em ployed touring the city
collecting scrap.The scrap is m elted down, in
charcoal stoves, and then ham m ered into various
shapes including m etal boxes and drums, stoves
and other cooking utensils, locks and w ater barrels,
lamps and poultry w ater troughs (Figure 19.35).
Most of the workers are under 25 and have had
at least some primary education.The technology
Manufacturing industries 575
 they use is appropriate and sustainable, suited to
their skills and the availability of raw materials and
capital. Most of the products are sold locally and at
affordable prices.

It is estimated that there are approximately 600 000

people engaged in 350 000 small-scale jua kali
enterprise units in Kenya.This figure needs to be
compared with the 180 000 recorded as employed in
large-scale manufacturing and the 2.2 million total
in all areas ofth e non-agricultural economy. Ju a kali
form, therefore, a most significant part o fth e total
em ploym ent picture.

Figure 1935

Jua kali w o rk sh o p s

intermediate (appropriate) technology m akes people d ep end ent, b u t th e gift o f know ­

ledge m akes th e m free - provided it is th e right
Dr E.F. Schum acher developed the concept of
kind o f know ledge, o f cou rse.'
in term ed iate tech n o lo g y as an alternative
To illustrate th is he quoted an old proverb:
course for developm ent for poor people in the
'G ive a m an a fish and you feed h im for a day;
1960s. He founded th e Interm ediate Technology
teach h im how to fish and h e can feed h im self
D evelopm ent Group (ITDG) in 1966, now
for life.'
renam ed Practical Action, and published his ideas
The first part o f th is m ig h t be seen as th e trad i­
in a book, Small is Beautiful (1973). Schum acher
tio n a l view o f aid w here 'givin g' leads to d ep end ­
him self wrote:
ency. T h e second part, 'te a ch in g ', is a m ove in
'If you w ant to go places, start from where
th e d irection o f self-su fficiency and self-respect.
you are.
Sch u m ach er added a fu rther d im en sio n to the
If you are poor, start w ith som eth in g cheap.
proverb by saying: 'te a ch him to m ake his ow n
If you are un ed ucated , start w ith som eth in g
fish in g tackle and you have help ed h im to
relatively sim ple.
beco m e n o t o n ly self-supporting but also self-
If you live in a p o or e n v iro n m en t, and
reliant and in d ep en d en t'.
p o v erty m akes m arkets sm all, start w ith so m e­
In m ost d eveloping cou ntries, n o t on ly are
th in g sm all.
h ig h -tech industries to o expensive to develop,
If you are un em ployed , start using labour
th ey are also usually inappropriate to the
power, becau se any produ ctive use o f it is
needs o f local people and th e e n v iro n m en t in
b etter th a n lettin g it lie idle.
w h ich th e y live. Exam ples o f interm ed iate,
In oth er words, we m ust learn to recognise
or a p p ro p ria te te c h n o lo g y as it is now know n
boun d aries o f poverty.
(Places 9 0), include:
A p ro ject th a t does n o t fit, edu cationally and
S labou r-in ten siv e p ro jects; sin ce, w ith so m any
organisationally, in to the environ m en t, will be
people already b ein g eith er u n em p lo yed or
an eco n o m ic failure and a cause for d isruption.'
underem ployed , it is o f little value to replace
In 1 9 8 8 th e ITDG stated th at:
workers b y m ach in es
'Essentially, this alternative course for develop­
■ p ro jects encou rag ing te ch n o lo g y th a t is sus­
m e n t is based on a local, sm all-scale rather th a n
tain able and th e use o f to ols and tech n iq u es
th e n ation al, large-scale approach. It is based on
designed to take advantage o f local resources
m illions o f low -cost w orkplaces where people
o f know ledge and skills
live - in th e rural areas - using technologies that
■ th e d ev elop m en t o f local, low -cost schem es
can be m ade and controlled by the people w ho
using tech n o lo g ies w h ich local people can
use th em and w hich enable those people to be
afford, m anage and con trol rath er th an
m ore productive and earn m oney.'
expensive, im ported tech n iq u es
T hese ideas ch allen g ed th e co n v e n tio n a l views
■ d eveloping p ro jects th a t are in h arm o n y w ith
o f th e tim e on aid. S ch u m ach er said:
th e en v iro n m en t.
'T h e best aid to give is in tellectu al aid, a gift of
useful know ledge ... T he gift o f m aterial goods

576 Manufacturing industries

 Kenya: Practical Action projects
Practical Action (formerly known as ITDG - retains its heat. Soil blocks are replacing the
see page 576) is a British charitable organisation more expensive concrete blocks and industrially
that works with people in developing countries, produced bricks.
especially those living in rural areas, by helping
Other projects have helped to improve
them to acquire the tools and skills needed if
ventilation and lighting in existing houses.
they are to raise them selves out of poverty and
Traditionally, most Kenyan wom en cooked on
m eet the UN's M illennium D evelopm ent Goals
w ooden stoves in houses that had no chim neys
(page 609). Practical Action helps people to meet
and few windows. The result was a smoky and
their basic needs of food, clothing, housing, energy
unhealthy atmosphere. To reduce reliance on
and jobs. It also uses, and adds to, local knowledge
wood and charcoal, which may be difficult and/
by providing technical advice, training, equipm ent
or expensive to obtain, and to im prove living
and financial support so that people can become, conditions, Practical Action has helped to train
in Schum acher's w ords,'m ore self-sufficient and
potters to produce tw o types of improved
indep end ent'fpage 576). Although Practical Action
cooking stoves (Figure 19.37): the mandaleo for
operates globally, the following examples are taken
wood-burning stoves in rural areas, which are
from Kenya. They are all:
m ade from ceramic; and the jiko for charcoal-

• suitable for the local environm ent (local raw burning stoves in urban areas, which are m ade

materials and climate) from recycled scrap metal, often in ju a kali

• appropriate to the wealth, skills and needs of
the local people.
1 Im proved building materials include roofing
tiles that are m ade from a mix of cement, sand
and w ater (and som etim es a pigm ent if a
different colour is required). They are left in their
moulds for a day to cure (but not to dry), placed
in a reservoir of w ater for a w eek and finally
covered with plastic, as a protection against
the hot sun, and allowed to dry slowly for three
weeks. They are cheaper than com m ercially
produced tiles, as they do not need firing, and
lighter (Figure 19.36).
2 In another scheme, lime and natural fibres are
added to soil to produce'soil blocks'. Soil is
im portant because it can be obtained locally,
can easily be compressed and, once heated,
Figure 19.36
workshops (Places 89), to which potters add
a ceram ic lining.The new stoves, based on
traditional designs, reduce smoke, improve
women's health and pay for them selves within
a m onth.They also reduce the am ount of tim e
rural families have to spend collecting firewood
(page 543) and the cost that urban families
have to pay for charcoal, and help to conserve a
rapidly declining natural resource.
Practical Action has also helped the Maasai
improve their houses.This has been done by
adding a thin layer of concrete reinforced with
chicken wire over the old mud roof; adding a
gutter and downpipe which leads to a water
barrel (saving a likely long trekto the nearest river,
Figure 21.11); and adding a small window and
chimney cowl to make the inside ofthe house
lighter and less smoky, which improves health.

R o ofing tile s
Figure 19.37

N e w co o kin g
stoves

Manufacturing industries 577

 Newly industrialised countries ■ encou rag ing th e processing o f prim ary prod­
ucts, as th is added value to th e ir exports
(NICs) ■ in vestin g in m an u factu rin g industry, in itially
Newly industrialised countries (NICs) is a term by d eveloping heavy industries such as steel
applied to a select group of developing countries and shipbuild ing, and later by co n cen tratin g
that, over the last three or four decades, have o n h ig h -te ch products
sustained a high rate of econ om ic growth (Figure ■ encou rag ing tra n sn a tio n a l firm s to locate
19.38). They have out-performed all the m ore w ith in th eir bound aries (m any cou n tries now
developed countries, m ainly due to their com peti­ have th eir ow n TNCs)
Figure 19.38 tive edge in m anufacturing. Although Brazil and m grouping together to form ASEAN (Figure 21.34)
M exico were am ong the first NICs, m ost are located to prom ote, am ong other aims, econom ic
A n n u a l e co n o m ic g ro w th . 4 . „ T
ra te (% ) - NICs in eastern 111 eastern Asia- Encouraged by Japan's success, gov­ growth
Asia and th e e m e rg in g ernm ents in other countries in Asia's Pacific Rim set B hav ing a dedicated w orkforce th a t was reli­
c o u n trie s out to improve their standard of living by: able and, initially, prepared to work long
hours for relatively little pay
1981-90 1991-2000 2001-0S 2007 ■ lon g -term indu strial plan n in g.
NICs H ong K ong T he term 't ig e r e c o n o m i e s ' was first given to
Ind o ne sia 6.3 4.3 4.7 5.6
H ong Kong, Singapore, Sou th Korea and Taiwan
becau se o f th eir ferociou s grow th after 1970.
Japan 4.1 1.3 1.4 2.7
This grow th co n tin u ed during th e 198 0s at a
M alaysia 5.1 7.2 4.5 5.9 tim e w h en e co n o m ic grow th in th e developed
P h ilip p in e s 1.1 3.0 4.7 5.4 w orld was slow ing dow n. Since th en , M alaysia
S in g a po re 7.0 7.7 4.0 7.9 (th e m o st successful, Places 9 1), T h ailan d and,
to a lesser e xten t, Ind onesia and the Philippines,
S ou th Korea 10.1 6.1 4.5 5.0
have also em erged as N ICs. T h e latest, and
Taiw an 5.2 6.5 3.2 4.7
likely to be th e largest if it m a in tain s its present
T h a ila n d 7.6 4.5 5.1 5.0 u n p reced en ted rate o f grow th, is C h in a (Case
China 9.5 10.5 9.5 10.7 Study 19). C h in a and India to g eth er have
b eco m e know n as th e e m e r g in g c o u n tr ie s .
Ind ia 3.1 4.5 5.1 5.0

Malaysia: a newly industrialised country

Until the 1980s, Malaysia's econom y was based
on prim ary products such as rubber and
palm oil (Places 68, page 483), tim ber (Places 76,
page 520), tin (Places 79, page 523) and oil
(Figure 19.39a).The governm ent at that time
proclaimed its vision of Malaysia becom ing a
fully developed and industrialised nation by the
year 2020. Since then the country has em erged
as the leader o fth e second w ave of Asian 'tiger
economies', averaging - betw een 1990 and
Figure 19.39
mid-1997 - an annual growth rate of 8 per cent.
This allowed the World B an k to classify Malaysia
as an'upper middle incom e country', no longera
developing country.This was achieved w ithout
high inflation or unm anageable foreign aid.
Malaysia's econom ic developm ent was based
on its pivotal position as a gatew ay to ASEAN
(Figure 21.34), it being a springboard to eastern
Asia, its affordable land and liberal investm ent rules,

M alaysia's
c h a n g in g e xp o rts, rubber 1.2%
1 970 a n d 2 00 8 tim ber and w ood tin 0 .2 %
palm oil 0 .8 % others 7.9%
products
others tim ber 3.6% textiles and
petroleum 5.2% clothing 1
petroleum
m anufactured and natural
goods 15.2% 4 2 .5 %
gas 12.5%

palm oil and

palm oil
products 7.5%

other
m anufactured
g oods 15.8%

578 Manufacturing industries

Figure 19.40
and its encouragem ent, through tax incentives,
Car a sse m b ly
for transnationals to locate there.The country's
(P ro to n )
industrial strategy emphasised the developm ent
of high-value goods for the dom estic market and
export (e.g. cars) and the encouragem ent of high-
tech industries (e.g. electronics - Figure 19.39b).
In 1985, the governm ent founded the Proton car
company, initially in conjunction with Mitsubishi
(Figure 19.40) and in 1995, the Perodua company, in
partnership with Daihatsu.
During the 1980s and 1990s, industry was confined
to specifically designed areas such as the new town
of Shah Alam.This policy was good environmentally
as only certain tracts of primary forest or farmland
were used, but had the social disadvantage of
concentrating jobs and development within a few
core places (page 617 and Places 98). As firms newly
locating in Shah Alam need not pay taxes for 10 years,
then many ofthe world's better-known transnationals,
together with Proton, located there.
The governm ent had also, during the early 1990s,
invested less m oney in industries that required
large workforces and more in those where the
emphasis was on technology. Its Technology Action
Plan covered micro-electronics, biotechnology and
information technology (Figure 19.41).
The Second Industrial Plan, which operated between
1996 and 2005, focused on the manufacturing sector
and R&D (research and development), together
with the integration of support industries.The plan
concentrated on the production of electrical and
electronic goods (including IT and multimedia),
oleochemicals (from palm oil, tim ber and rubber),
chemicals (petrochemicals and pharmaceuticals),
transport equipment, machinery, and high-value
textiles and clothing.
By the mid-2000s, an extensive road system linked Figure 19.44
Kuala Lumpur (the financial and commercial N e w h ig h -
centre), Putrajaya (the new seat of governm ent), te ch in d u s try ,
Penang
Shah Alam (the industrial new town), Port Klang
(the chief port) and W estport (with its new
deepw ater ocean terminal), Sepang (the new
international airport) and Subang (the old airport
now mainly used for dom estic flights).The country
had also com pleted a series of expensive'prestige'
projects including, in Kuala Lumpur, the twin
PetronasTowers (1998), a three-line light rail transit
system (LRT) and a'linear city'(a 2 km long, 10
storey high structure comprising shopping malls,
hotels, restaurants, apartm ents and offices).
TheThird Industrial Master Plan (IMP3) is to operate
betw een 2006 and 2020. Its main objective is
'to achieve long-term global com petitiveness
through transformation and innovation of
the m anufacturing and service sectors'.The
governm ent has targeted:
• six non-resource based m anufacturing industries
- electrical and electronics, medical devices,
textiles and apparel, m achinery and equipment,
metals and transport equipm ent
• six resource-based manufacturing industries -
petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, wood-based,
rubber-based, oil palm based and food processing
• eight services sub-sectors - logistics, business
and professional, ICT, distributive trade,
construction, education and training, healthcare
and tourism.
The plan was introduced with a predicted average
econom ic growth of 6.3 per cent per annum
(com pare Figure 19.38) and, during that period, a
threefold increase in trade - but that was before the
global recession of 2008.
Manufacturing industries 579
 Special Economic Zones and open coastal cities in China

Opening up to the keep up to date with trends and activity in Pudong

international markets, to expand exporttrade,
outside world to stimulate foreign exchange earnings,to T h e S H fe lo p m e n B fP u d o n g , al' ; 7;V.- f
In 1979 the Chinese governm ent made facilitate participation, in international eco ­ Shenzhen, must rank as the world's fastest-

several m onum ental decisions including nom ic and technologicalco-operation, and growing area, w ith huge commercial,

replacing the com m u n e system w ith the to provide a training ground for scientific and industrial and residential zones together

responsibility system, initially in farming technological personnel specialising in inter­ w ith a m odern transport system (Case

(Places 63, p a g e 468) and then in industry, national econom ics and trade'. Study 15Band Figure 19.44). Since Pudong's

together with the im plem entation of both In 1984, China opened 14coastal cities develrfgm ent w asfw |t a nn o u nc J i n n i " : *-4|

th e one-child policy (Case Study 13) and the to overseas investment.These open cities H h e n it w aM ittle m i l e ffift.arjgjrea c f t i d i jj

'open-door'policy w hich allowed trade with (Figure 19.42), asthey are known, w ere given New Open Economic
fields, it has been a

the outside world.The following year, China the dual role of being 'w indow s'opening to Development Zone. It has em erged, in
established five Special Economic Zones the outside world and'radiators'spre.ading less than tw o decades, as China's financial

(SEZs) in Shenzhen, Zhuhai and Shantou econom ic d evelopm ent inland in an export- and com m ercial hub, being hom e to the

in G uangdong Province, Xiam en in Fujian oriented econom y.The econom ic and tech­ Shanghai World's Financial Centre and

Province and the w hole of Hainan island nological d evelopm ent zones that were set the Shanghai Stock Exchange as well as

(Figure 19.42). According to the China Business up withrn these open c it ie ^ H a m e such hot­ the LujiazuiTrade and Finance Zone, the

Handbook , the SEZs:'integrate science spots for overseas investment that in 1985 the W aigaoqiao FreeTrade Zone, the Jinqiao

and industry with trade,and benefit from state decided to expand the SEZs and open Export Processing Z on e and the Zhangjiang

preferential policies and special econom ic cities to form one continuous coastal belt. Hi-tech Park, Perhaps the most spectacular

managerial systems intended to facilitate Five years later, several additional o pen cities feature of Pudong's growth, at least to

exports.The SEZs also offer preferential condi­ were created along the Yangtze River, as far as the visitor, be it for business or pleasure,

tions to foreign investors by granting them Chongqing (Figure 21.24), W h en the Pudong is the skyline view ed across the river from

more favourable rates than in inland areas, N ew J I B was e s ta b liffe ||p 1Q90 it meant Shanghai itself (Figure 19.43). In 1990 the

and relaxing entry and exit procedures for that, with Pudong acting as the'dragon's head' Chinese saw Pudong as the engine pulling

business people. SEZs aim to attract foreign (reflecting the shape o fth e river), a chain of Shanghai into position as a major interna­

investment, to import advanced techniques, open cities extended up the Yangtze Valley. tional econom ic, financial and trade centre -
a vision that seems to have been fulfilled.

O fficial p lan n in g regions

| | Western
j j Central
j I Eastern coast 1000 km Sp e cial Eco n o m ic Z o n e s (SEZs)

■1 Xiamen
■2 Shantou
■3 Shenzhen
Beijing
■4 Zhuhai
■5 Hainan Island
South Korea M ajor e co n o m ic gro w th regio n s

South Coast
Nanjing Taiwan Straits
Japan
^ (Yangtze) Liaoning
Yangtze river valley
C hongqing (late 1990s)
open city (14)
main city
Taiwan
Figure 19.42
see Figure 19.45
R ecent in d u s tria l
Hong Kong
d e v e lo p m e n t in China

580 Manufacturing industries

 Special Econom ic Zones and open coastal cities in China E 23B SD

Shenzhen
Before 1989, w h e n it b ecam e a Special :
E conom ic Zone, Shenzhen was a g ro u p o f
small fish in g villages s u rro u n d e d by padi
fields (Figure 19.47). It had a p o p u la tio n o f
20 000. By 1997, this p o p u la tio n had risen
to 3.8 m illio n and by 2006 it was given as
8.46 m illio n , m a kin g it th e w orld's 27th
largest city (Figure 19.48).The average age
is u n d e r 30 .The w o rkfo rce can be d ivided
in to tw o polarised groups: those w h o have
had a h ig h level o f e d u ca tio n (20 per c e nt
o f China's PhDs are said to w o rk here), and
th e m ajority, m any o f w h o m are m igrants
fro m s u rro u n d in g rural provinces, w ith little
e d u ca tio n . A d d e d to this are over 7000 daily
co m m u te rs fro m H ong Kong.
Shenzhen was chosen as an SEZ d u e to
its coastal location for trade, its d e e p natural
harbours, its pro xim ity to th e financial and
com m ercial centre o f Flong Kong (then
still a British co lo n y and w ith w h ic h it has a
sim ilar culture), its p le n tifu l s u p p ly o f labour
(w hich is adaptable b u t ch e a p e rth a n in
o th e r Asian NICs) and its lo w land values
(rents are h a lf those in Flong Kong). It has
b enefited fro m financial incentives offered
b y th e Chinese g o v e rn m e n t and fro m over
US$30 b illio n invested byoverseasTN C sfor
th e b u ild in g o f factories and in fo rm in g jo in t
ventures. The SEZ com prises fo u r o fth e seven
districts (397 km 2) th a t make up Shenzhen
(Figure 19.45). Nanshan (164 k m 2), w ith its
Science a n d T e ch n o lo g y Park, is th e focus for
h igh-tech industries and foreign companies.
Futian (78 km 2) is th e tra d in g centre and
includes th e S tock Exchange and th e m u n ic ­
railway
ipal g o v e rn m e n t building. Luohu (79 km 2)
S henzhen Special
to Shan g hai and Shenzhen SE Z is th e financial and com m ercial centre w ith
E conom ic Zone
Guangzhou d istricts
th e n e w People's Bank o f China. Yantian (76
1 Nanshan
k m 2) is th e centre fo r logistics as w ell as being
2 Futian
3 Luohu China's second big g e st and th e w orld's fo u rth
4 Yantian largest d e e p w a te r co n ta in e r term inal.
Shenzhen
Si nee its inception, Shenzhen has focused
on selective industries w h ich include c o m ­
p u te r software, K m ic ro e le c tro n ic s and
Pearl River Dapeng com ponents, video and audio products and
Estuary 0 Bay electro-m echanical integration. M ore recently,
n e w industries, such as pharmaceuticals,
Special
Adm inistrative m edical e q u ip m e n t and biotechnology, have
Region g ro w n rapidly. A t present, electronics and tel­
ecom s e q u ip m e n t is th e largest in d ustry w ith,
Zhuhai SEZ
for example, over 100 m illion handsets for
m obile phones being m anufactured in 2007.
10 km
There are over 200 R&D

Manufacturing industries 581

 Special Economic Zones and open coastal cities in China

organisations within the SEZ, many having

Figure 19.47
strong links with inland universities.TNCs
S henzhen ( 1 9 9 9 ) - th is
located here include Sanyo, Hitachi,
all fa rm la n d in 1980
Matsushita (all Japanese), IBM (American),
Siemens (German) and Great Wall (China)
together with, from the retail sector, over 5000
companies producing goods for Wal-Mart
(Figure 19.46). Shenzhen has the largest man­
ufacturing base in the world as well as being
a powerhouse in the economy of China - and
all in less than 20 years! But success rarely
comes without its problems and Shenzhen
has these in the form of an unreliable elec­
tricity supply, insufficient clean water, difficult
disposal of waste and uneasy labour relations.

Figure 19.46

W a l-M a rt's S henzhen base

Figure 19.48

Wal-Mart is the world’s largest
retailer by far. In 2004, the
company had 4900 stores
worldwide and its 1.6 million
sales assistants sold goods to
some 138 million customers.
But where do the products it
sells come from? For many of
the non-perishable consumer
goods on the store shelves,
such as toys, clothes and
electronics, the answer is
increasingly likely to be China.
In 2004, Wal-Mart sourced
US$18 billion worth of goods
from China, representing 3 per
cent of that country’s exports.
The huge sourcing operation is
run from Wal-Mart’s overseas
procurement office located in
Shenzhen in the southern
Guangdong province, from
which the retailer has
established ongoing supply
relations with over 5000 local Today, S henzhen is a
companies. Individual c ity o f to w e r blocks
companies can do huge
amounts of business with
Wal-Mart. Guangdong’s Yili
Electronics Group, for
example, started supplying
hi-fi systems in 1995, and now
supplies Wal-Mart with over
US$200 million worth of
goods each year, accounting
for half its sales.
Wal-Mart sources its goods
from China because labour
costs there are just 4 per cent of
those in the USA. This means
that a product can be
manufactured in China,
packaged, shipped around the
world, sold to American or
European consumers and still
return a decent profit for both
manufacturer and then retailer
[page 643].

A dapted f r o m E co n o m ic G e o g ra p h y (Blackwell, 2007)

Further reference
Barke, M. and O 'H are, G. (1 9 9 1 ) The Third Assisted Areas in th e UK:
World, O liver & Boyd. www.berr.gov.uk/whatwedo/regional/
assisted -areas/ ind ex.h tm l
C o e, N .M ., K elly P.P. and Yeung, H .W .C.
(2 0 0 7 ) Economic Geography, Blackw ell. CIA W orld Fact Book, em ploym ent
structures:
Malaysia Official Yearbook 2008.
w w w .odci.gov/cia/publications/
Sch u m a ch er, E.F. (1 9 9 3 ) Small is Beautiful, factb oo k / in d ex. html
V intag e.
P ractical A ction:
w w w .itdg.org
Statistics Bureau and Statistics Centre
o fJa p a n :
w w w .stat.go.jp/ english /in dex.htm
Statistics Singapore:
w w w.singstaf.gov.sg/
UK labour m arket statistics,
m an u facturin g:
w w w .statistics.gov.uk/C CI/SearchRes.
asp ?term = m an u factu rin g
UK Office for N ational Statistics
(NOMIS), official labour m arket
statistics: (searchable)
w w w .nom isw eb.co.uk/ D efault.asp
UK steel statistics:
w w w .eef.org.uk/uksteel/publications/
steel/data/public/UK_Steel_Key_
Statistics 2 0 0 8 .h tm
 Questions & Activities

Activities
a i W h at is'm anufacturing industry'? (1 mark) a Study the diagram below. It shows some o fth e
ii 'W ith the shift from an industrial to a post­ factors that influence the location of m anufacturing
industrial society it is som etim es unrealistic to industry.
try to draw clear boundaries between
"m anufacturing"and "services'". Raw materials

Explain the problems that led to this statement.

(2 marks) Power supply —► Factory
\ Labour
iii Explain w h y the proportion o fth e UK's population
in secondary em ploym ent has fallen so sharply in
I
Market
recent years. (6 marks)
b The num ber o f people em ployed in m anufacturing has Give one exam ple of an industry w here the most
not fallen evenly across the country. im portant factor influencing its location is:

i Name an area w here a loss of m anufacturing jobs i raw materials

has caused a serious local unem ploym ent problem. ii power supply
(1 mark)
iii labour supply
ii Explain w hat caused the loss of m anufacturing
iv access to market.
jobs in that area. (3 marks)
For each exam ple you have given, explain w hy that
iii Describe a strategy that has been used to create
factor is so im portant. (12 marks)
new em ploym ent opportunities in that area.
Assess the success o fth e strategy. (6 marks) b i W h at is m eant by:

c The gender structure o fth e workforce in the UK has • footloose industry?

changed rapidly since 1960. Describe and account • greenfield site?
for the changes. (6 marks) ii Nam e an exam ple of a footloose m anufacturing
industry that has located on a greenfield site.
a i W h at are'high-tech industries'? (2marks)
Suggest w h y that site was a suitable location
ii It has been noted that firms involved in high- for that industry. (5 marks)
tech industries often have tw o quite distinct
c i W h at is'inward investm ent'? (1 mark)
parts to their operations.These are:
ii Choose an exam ple of a factory that has been
•research and developm ent
built by a foreign-based com pany investing in
•mass m anufacturing. the UK. Suggest w h y that com pany chose to
Suggest why these tw o separate parts o fth e invest in the UK, and w hy that particular location
industry often locate in different places. (3 marks) was suitable for its investment. (7 marks)
b i Name one area w here a concentration of
research and developm ent centres for high-
tech industry has developed. (1 mark)
ii Explain w h y the area you nam ed in i is attractive
to this industry. (9marks)
c i Name one area where mass production for the
high-tech industry has developed quite separately
from research and developm ent. (1 mark)
ii Explain w hy the area you nam ed in c i is attractive
to this industry. (9 marks)

Exam practice: basic structured questions

Name a region in the UK that has suffered
unem ploym ent as a result o fth e decline of its
traditional m anufacturing industry. (1 mark)
Explain w hy the traditional industry developed
in that area and then declined. (8 marks)
Describe the other social and econom ic problems
that are found in that area as a result o fth e
unem p loym ent that followed the decline o fth e
traditional industry. (6 marks)
b The governm ent has developed several policies
to try to attract new industry into regions that have
suffered the loss of their traditional industry.
Choose any such government initiative, and describe
how it has affected any one area. Assess how successful
the initiative has been in attracting new industry. (10marks)

Manufacturing industries 583


[r m ] raw material
[m] market
--- R 1 —— isotims (for raw m aterial)
--- p 1 ---- isotims (for product)
5 a IntheW eberm odelofindustriallocation.w hatisthe'least
cost location'? Explain w hy it is important. (3 marks)
b Show, with the aid of diagrams, how the least cost location in
Weber's locational triangle may be:
i near to the raw material
ii near to the market
iii midway between the raw material and the
market.
c Study Figure 19.49, which shows an area with one raw
material and one market. Assume two different situations:
X - th e raw material is pure
Y - the raw material loses 50 per cent of its weight
during manufacture.
i Complete a copy ofthe table above to show the
total transport costs (in tonne km) for an industry
located at each ofthe sites A - D.
ii For each situation, X and Y, describe the least
cost location.
Give reasons for your answer.
Exam practice: structured questions
>®@®®®@®#®®@<
8 a Discuss the problems that have been caused by a
high concentration of em ploym ent in a small number
o f industries in the UK. (10 marks)
b Explain how one or more governm ent initiatives
have been used to try to broaden the base of
em ploym ent.
584 Manufacturing industries
Site Total transport Total transport costs if th e raw
costs if the raw material is gross and loses 5 0 % of
m aterial is pure its w e ig h t during m anufacture
Figure 19.49
d How useful is Weber's model to an understanding
of modern industrial location? Justify your answer. (6marks)
6 a i Describe three differences between the formal
and the informal economic sectors in economically less
developed countries. (6marks)
ii Explain whyjua kali workshops are very
important in Kenya's economy. (6 marks)
iii 'If governments wish to encourage development
that will benefit the poorer sections ofthe population,
one ofthe most important actions
they can take is to reduce the rules and regulations which
hinderthe development ofthe informal economy.'
Suggest why this is seen to be important. (4 marks)
b Discuss the advantages and disadvantages for less
economically developed countries of investment by
transnational companies. You should make specific
references to one or more countries that you have studied.
(9 marks)
7 a In Myrdal's model of industrial location he referred to
'cumulative causation'which is also sometimes called
'the multiplier effect( W hat does this term mean? (4 marks)
b With reference to the industrialisation of either South
Wales in the late 19th and early 20th centuries or any other
region with which you are familiar, explain how cumulative
causation helped to cause the development of industry.
(10 marks)
(6 marks) c Myrdal realised that as some areas industrialise this
may cause a 'backwash effect'on other regions in
the country. He named the areas that were affected
'the periphery'. Explain:
i the'backwash effect' (3 marks)
ii the'periphery'ofa country or region. (3marks)
d Name an area which could be regarded as part of
the economic periphery in a country or region that
(4 marks) you have studied.
Describe the features that make this area part of
the economic periphery. (5 marks)
(6 marks)
i ® ® @ ® © @ ® ® 5 Si ®#®®*
Study Figure 19.50.
a Referring to Figure 19.50 and your own knowledge,
explain w hy India has becom e a major centre of
autom obile manufacture. (10marks)
b Discuss the extent to which the recent growth of
(15 marks) India's manufacturing and service economy have
depended on investment by transnational corporations
(TNCs). (15 marks)
 K K ra t m m f?.
The market for cars in India is growing so quickly that it V Figure 19.51 M
seem s likely that it will overtake China’s sales totals soon.
I S olar cookers *
Sales o f passenger cars increased by 12.17% to 1.5 m illion in
the year to M arch 2008.
India’s car industry is concentrated in the region around
Pune, Maharashtra. Plans are that the Pune region w ill employ
2 5 ,0 0 0 people in car making in two years.
Volkswagen, General M otors, Tata M otors,
M ercedes-Benz, Fiat and Peugeot already have plants there
and the local Development Corporation is in discussions with
four or five other m ajor international companies seeking land
for new factories. The cost o f building a factory here is Box cookers
cheaper than almost anywhere else in the world. Box cookers cook at m oderate to high tem peratures and
B ut huge savings are made on manpower - with manual often accom m odate m ultiple pots. W orldwide, they are the
workers in India paid about £ 1 .3 0 a day. As a result, m ajor car most w idespread.There are several hundred thousand in
makers are considering using their India plants for export, India alone.
both for finished cars and components. G M has said it wants
to make India an export hub for small and mid-sized cars
destined to be sold in other emerging markets and Hyundai
plans to m ake India the sole production centre for its new 120
model, even though it will not be sold domestically.

Figure 19.50

10 Study Figure 19.51. It shows details of solar cookers, an

example of appropriate technology.
a Describe the solar cookers shown here and explain
w h y th ey are good examples of appropriate technology Curved concentrator cookers
for use in developing countries of Africa and Asia. Curved concentrator cookers cook fast at high temperatures,
(10 marks)
but require frequent adjustm ent and supervision for safe
b W ith reference to one or more examples, explain how operation. Several hundred thousand exist, m ainly in China.
appropriate technology can be used to im prove the
quality of housing in developing countries. (15 marks)

11 a Describe the main features of Myrdal's theory of

cum ulative causation. (10 marks)
b W ith reference to a nam ed peripheral region in a
country outside the UK:
i explain the problems that have been caused
by its peripheral position (5 marks)
ii describe one schem e that has been tried in an
attem pt to overcom e these problems, and evaluate
its success.
(10 marks)
Panel cookers
Panel cookers are simple and relatively inexpensive to buy
or produce. Solar Cookers International's'CooKit' is the most
w idely used com bination cooker.

Exam practice: essays

12 Changes in technology during the past 30 years have
had a major effect on industrial location throughout the world.
Describe the major changes. Explain w hy they have
taken place and how they have affected the location
14
of industry. (25 marks)
13 Assess the importance of transnational corporations
in the development ofthe global pattern of industrialisation
in the late 20th and early 21 st centuries. You should refer
to their effect in both more and less economically developed
countries. (25 marks)
Account for the development of the'tiger economies'
of South-east Asia and discuss the extent to which they
can be seen as models for the development ofthe economies of
other developing countries. (25 marks)

Manufacturing industries 585


'In the Middle Ages people were tourists because o f their
religion whereas now they are tourists because tourism
is their religion.'
'Travel broadens the mind.'
Figure 20.1
Types a n d lo c a tio n
o f v a rio u s le isure
and to u ris t fa c ilitie s
586 Tourism
Tourism
Robert Runcie, former Archbishop of Canterbury
Proverbs
Tourism is an exam p le o f a service industry and
as such falls in to th e tertiary sector, on e o f th e
four m a jo r sectors in to w h ich eco n o m ies o f
all cou n tries may, for co n v e n ie n ce , be divided
(page 5 5 2 ). Individual services m a y b e grouped
as follow s:
1 P u b lic services, e.g. electricity and w ater
com p anies.
2 P rod ucer services help businesses carry out
their activities, e.g. banking, law and transport.
3 C o n su m e r services are th o se th a t have d irect
c o n ta c t w ith th e consum er, e.g. retailing
(C hapter 15) and leisure, recreatio n and
to u rism .
Leisure, recreation and tourism
Leisure is a broad term associated w ith 'tim e,
free from em p loy m en t, at on e's ow n disposal'.
In developed cou ntries, w ith shorter w orking
weeks and earlier retirem en t, m an y people have
an in creasin g a m o u n t o f 'free tim e ' w h ich allows
th e m to participate in recreatio n al activities.
R e cre a tio n refers to activities, events and
pursuits th a t are u n d ertaken th o u g h ch o ice,
e.g. sport, gardening, fireworks displays, bird
w atching , vid eo gam es. An increase in leisure
tim e generates th e d em and for ad d itional rec­
reation al am en ities such as g olf courses, cou n try
parks, sw im m ing pools and n ig h t clubs. Tourism
involves travel away from h o m e to visit friends
and relations or different places. T h e official
UK d efin itio n is 'a stay away from one's norm al
place o f resid ence w h ich inclu des at least on e
n ig h t b u t is less th a n a year'. T h e W orld Tourism
O rganization (U N W TO ), how ever, does n o t
stipulate th e 'o n e n ig h t away' so its d efin itio n
includes day visitors as tourists, as well as 'b u si­
ness to u rism '.
T h e UK travel and tou rist ind u stry consists of
a wide variety o f com m ercial and n o n -co m m er­
cial org anisation s th a t in te ra ct to supply prod­
ucts and services to tourists. This o ften m akes
it d ifficu lt to d ifferen tiate leisure and tourism
from o th er form s o f em p loy m en t, e.g. a fish and
chip shop proprietor in B lackpool sells to b oth
tourists and residents, w hile farm ers o n a Greek
or W est Ind ian island sell th eir produce to both
local people and hotels.
People w ith lim ited in co m e, access to tran s­
port or leisure tim e tend to seek recreational
am enities and activities th a t are n ear their
hom es. As th e m a jo rity o f B ritish people live in
tow ns and cities, th e n m ost am enities are located
w ith in or n ear to u rban areas (Figures 2 0 .1 and
2 0 .2 ). People w ith m ore leisure tim e tend to
travel furth er afield to scen ic rural areas, espe­
cially those w ith added am en ities (coasts, m o u n ­
tains and N ation al Parks), to large u rban areas
(historical tow ns and cultural centres), and to
places outside th e UK.
As in oth er areas o f th eir su b ject, geogra­
phers have tried to classify aspects o f tourism
(Fram ew ork 7, page 167). O ne suggested classifi­
ca tio n is:
m by natu re o f attractio n , e.g. coastal, m o u n ­
tains, rivers and lakes, clim ate, w oodland,
flora and fauna, h isto ric heritage buildings
and sites, cruises, retailing, activity centres,
urban and rural
■ by len g th o f sta y e.g. w eekend break, annual
tw o-w eek h olid ay
m b y travel w ith in or beyon d n a tio n a l, borders,
e.g. d om estic and in te rn a tio n a l
co n su m er's av a ila b le le isure tim e
Figure 20.2
The re c re a tio n /to u ris m
sp a tia l c o n tin u u m
■ by type o f tran sp ort, e.g. caravan, bicycle,
can al b oat, cruise lin er
■ by type o f acco m m o d a tio n , e.g. cam ping,
safari lodge, b ea ch village.
The growth in tourism
The Rom ans m ust rank am ongst the earliest tour­
ists, as m any of their m ost w ealthy fam ilies used
to m ove to their cou ntry villas during the hot,
dry summers. By the 18th and 19th centuries,
affluent British people were either visiting spa
tow ns w ithin England or m aking th e 'Grand
Tour' of Classical Europe, while the less wTell-off
were beginning to popularise local seaside resorts.
Today tourism has becom e part o f everyday life
and a m ajor source of em ploym ent in m any
developed countries. Here, the rapid growth of
the tourist industry in th e last half-centu ry can be
linked to num erous factors such as greater afflu­
ence (wealth), increased mobility, im provem ents
in accessibility and transport, m ore leisure tim e,
paid holidays, product d evelopm ent and innov a­
tions, im provem ents in technology, changes in
lifestyles and fashion, an increased awareness
of other places and, m ore recently, the need for
'green' (sustainable) tourism (page 597). These
factors are sum m arised in Figure 2 0 .3 .
0.25
0.75 “
Tourism 587
 - P eople in e m p lo y m e n t e arn h ig h salaries and th e ir d isp o sa b le in co m e is m u ch g re a te r th a n it w as several decades ago.
Greater affluence
- People in fu ll- tim e e m p lo y m e n t also receive h o lid a y w ith pay, a llo w in g th e m to ta k e m o re th a n o ne h o lid a y a ye a r a nd to tra ve l fu rth e r.

Greater mobility - The increase in car o w n e rs h ip has g ive n p e o p le g re a te r fre e d o m to choose w h e re and w h e n th e y g o fo r th e day, o r fo r a lo n g e r p e rio d . In
1951, o n ly 1 U K fa m ily in 20 had a car. By 2 0 0 8 ,7 5 p e r c e n t had a t le ast o n e car.
- C h a rtere d a irc ra ft have red u ce d th e costs o f overseas tra v e l; w id e -b o d ie d je ts can c a rry m o re p e o p le a n d can tra v e l fu rth e r, b rin g in g
eco no m ie s o f scale.

Improved accessibility and trans­ - Im p ro v e m e n ts in roads, e s p e c ia lly m o to rw a y s a n d u rb a n by-passes, have red u ce d d riv in g tim e s b e tw e e n places and e ncou ra ge p e o p le to
port facilities tra v e l m o re fr e q u e n tly a n d g re a te r d istances.
- Im p ro ve d a nd e n la rg e d in te rn a tio n a l a irp o rts (a lth o u g h m a n y a re s till co n ge sted a t p e a k p e rio d s ). Faster tra in s , e.g. Eurostar. R educed a ir
fares. Package h o lid a ys.

More leisure time - S h o rte r w o rk in g w e e k (a lth o u g h th e UK's is s till th e lo n g e s t in th e EU) a n d lo n g e r p a id h o lid a y s (on ave ra g e 3 w e e k s a year, co m p are d w ith
1 w e e k in th e USA).
- F le x i-tim e , m o re p e o p le w o rk in g fro m h om e , a nd m o re firm s (espe cia lly r e ta ilin g ) e m p lo y in g p a r t-tim e w o rk e rs.
- An a g e in g p o p u la tio n , m a n y o f w h o m are s till a ctive .

Technological developments - Je t a irc ra ft, c o m p u te ris e d re s e rva tio n syste m s, use o fth e In te rn e t.

Product development and innova­ - H o lid a y and beach v illa s , lo n g -h a u l d e s tin a tio n s , p acka ge to u rs.
tion

Changing lifestyles - P eople are r e tirin g e a rly a nd a re a b le to ta k e a d v a n ta g e o f th e ir g re a te r fitn e ss.

- P eople a t w o rk n eed lo n g e r/m o re fre q u e n t re s t p e rio d s as pressure o f w o rk seem s to increase.
- C h an g in g fa sh io ns , e.g. h e a lth resorts, fitn e s s h o lid a ys, w in te r sun.

Changing recreational activities - S l i g h t d e c lin e in th e 'b e a c h h o lid a y '- p a r t ly d u e to th e th r e a t o f skin cancer.

- Increase in a c tiv e h o lid a y s (s k iin g , w a te r s p o rts ) a n d in s e lf-c a te rin g .
- M o s t rap id g ro w th since m id -1 9 9 0 s has been in cruise h olid a ys.
- Im p o rta n c e o f th e m e parks, e.g. A lto n T ow ers, T h o rp Park, C enter Parcs.
- Large n u m b e r o f c ity breaks.

Advertising and TV programmes - H o lid a y p ro g ra m m e s, film and TV sets, m a g a zin e s a n d b ro ch u res p ro m o te n e w and d iffe re n t places a n d a c tiv itie s .

'G re e n 'o r s u s ta in a b le to u ris m - Need to b e n e fit local econom y, e n v iro n m e n t and peo p le w ith o u t sp o ilin g th e a ttra ctiven e ss a nd a m e n itie s o fth e places v isite d (ecoto urism ).

Figure 20.3

Factors causing
g ro w th in to u ris m
Global tourism
In 2 0 0 8 , th e travel and tourism indu stry
r 1 France
Arrivals (millions)

8 1.9
% world total

9.1

accou n ted for 8 .4 per ce n t (2 3 8 m illio n ) o f th e 2 Spain 59.2 6.6

world's to tal e m p lo y m en t and con trib u ted 9 .9
3 USA 56.0 6.2
per c e n t o f its GDP. O f to ta l tou rist receipts,
71 per c e n t was earned b y cou n tries in N orth 4 C hina 5 4.7 6.1
A m erica and Europe (Figure 2 0 .4 ), alth ou g h
5 Ita ly 4 3.7 4.8
th is on ly gave th e m a very sm all tra v e l a c c o u n t
su rp lu s. In con trast, th e travel a cco u n t b alan ce 6 UK 30.7 3 .4

for d eveloping cou n tries has show n a persist­ W o rld 9 03 .0

Figure 20.4
e n tly h ig h , and w idening, surplus (unlike th eir
trade b alan ce, page 6 2 4 ), m a in ly becau se th e y are
visited b y w ealthy tourists from developed c o u n ­
■ 1 USA
Earners (US$ million)

96.7
% world total

11.3
G ro w th in
tries w hereas few o f th eir resid ents can afford
g lo b a l to u ris m , 2 Spain 5 7.8 6 .8
1 9 6 0 -2 0 2 0
holidays in developed cou n tries (Figure 2 0 .5 ).
3 France 54.2 6.3

4 Ita ly 42.7 5.0

5 China 4 1.9 4.9

6 UK 3 7.6 4.4

W o rld 8 56 .0

Spenders (US$ million) % world total

1 G erm a ny 8 2.9 9.7

2 USA 76.2 8.9

3 UK 72.3 8 .4

2020 4 France 36.7 4.3

5 China 29.8 3.4

Figure 20.5
6 Ita ly 27.3 3.2
588 Tourism L ea d ing to u ris t
W o rld 8 5 6 .0
co u n trie s, 2 007

Figure 20.7
Factors a ffe c tin g th e
g ro w th o fth e h o lid a y
in d u s try in th e UK
Factor
1 T ra n s p o rt a nd
a c ce ssib ility
2 Scenery
3 W e a th e r
4 A c c o m m o d a tio n
5 A m e n itie s
6 E co to urism and
s u s ta in a b ility
T h e travel and tourism industry is d ynam ic,
hav ing to ch an g e co n tin u a lly to m eet con su m er
dem ands and p ercep tions. Its key features at
presen t inclu de th e follow ing:
■ It has a com p lex structure co n sistin g o f a
wide variety o f interrelated com m ercial and
n o n -co m m ercia l org anisations (Figure 2 0 .6 ).
■ It is p red om in an tly private-sector led.
■ It is d om in ated by relatively few large, often
tra n sn a tio n a l, firm s, e.g. tour operators
(Kuoni, G oing Places Leisure Travel, Th om as
C ook, T h o m so n ), h o tel ch ain s (M arriot,
Sheridan, H oliday In n ), th em e parks (D isney)
and air operators (BA, A m erican A irlines).
D espite this, th e m a jo rity o f enterprises are
sm all and m edium -sized, o ften caterin g for
th e local m arket.
a There is an exten sive use o f new7 tech n olog ies
in clu d in g data h and ling, advertising, advance
b ookings and th e In tern et.
■ There was an increase in th e n u m ber and
range o f d estin ation s betw een 1950, w hen
th e top 15 attracted 9 8 per ce n t o f in te rn a ­
tio n a l arrivals and were m ain ly based o n 'sun,
sand and sea', and 2 0 0 7 , w h en th e top 15 des­
tin a tio n s on ly received 57 per ce n t o f arrivals.
This reflects th e em ergence o f new location s,
especially in d eveloping cou ntries, and a
d em and for a greater range o f activities and
experien ces. At present, th e fastest em erging
tourist areas are C h in a and th e M iddle East.
■ It is vu ln erable to external pressures such as
cu rren cy flu ctu ation s, fuel charges, govern­
m e n t leg islation and in te rn a tio n a l terrorism .
Specific examples
• Early resorts (sta g e -co a ch ), spa to w n s
• W a te r tra n s p o rt (1 8 th c e n tu ry )
• R ailw ays
• Car a nd coach
• Plane
• S andy coasts
• Coasts o f o u ts ta n d in g b e a u ty
• M o u n ta in s , lakes and rivers
• H o t, d ry , su n n y s u m m e rs
• S now
• H otels and b o a rd in g house resorts
• H o lid a y cam ps
• Caravan parks and cam p site s
• C u ltu re and h is to ric (castles, ca th e dra ls,
b irth p la c e s )
• A ctive a m e n itie s (s a ilin g , g o lf, w a te r-s k iin g )
• Passive a m e n itie s (s h o p p in g , cin e m as)
• Them e parks
• W ild life co n s e rv a tio n areas
• H e rita g e sites
Figure 20.6
S tru c tu re o fth e to u ris t in d u s try
■ It has b o th a positive and a negative effect on
UK tourism
■ N u m b er o f to u rists. In 2 0 0 7 , B ritain received
Example of area or resort
B ath
M a rg a te
B la ckpo o l, B rig h to n
C o rn w a ll, S co ttish H ig hla n ds
C hannel Islands
M a rg a te , B la ckpo o l
P em broke, A n trim
Lake D is tric t, S n o w d o n ia
M a rg a te
A viem o re
M a rg a te , B lackpool
M in e h e a d , P w llh e li
N a tio n a l a nd fo re s t parks
Y ork, E din b urg h
K ielder, St A n d re w s
M o s t resorts
A lto n Tow ers, C h essing ton
SSSIs, n a tu re reserves
York
transportation tourist d eve lo p m e n t and
(land, sea, air) promotions (tourist boards,tourist
inform ation,g uid in g services)
7
S T R U C TU R E
tourist
O FTH E
travel agents attractions
T O U R IST
(multiples,
IN D U ST R Y
(natural, built)
ind ependents) [~ ^
acco m m o datio n and catering tour operations
(serviced, self-catering) (mass market, specialist)
h o st co m m u n ities (econ o m ic, social and cu l­
tural) and local en v iron m en ts (Figure 2 0 .8 ).
3 2 .4 m illio n visitors from overseas w hile
at th e same tim e 6 6 .4 m illio n UK residents
to o k th eir holidays, or a break, outside the
country. Over o n e-th ird of B ritish tourists
still w ent to Spain (1 4 .4 m illio n ) and France
(1 0 .9 m illion ) b u t th is p ro p ortio n con tin u es
to d ecline as people look for d ifferen t places
to visit and activities to do. T h e sam e year
saw B ritain receiving it h ig h est ever nu m ber
o f tourists and business visits. N early 8 0 per
ce n t of these cam e from th e EU, alth o u g h the
USA rem ained th e largest single co u n try of
origin o f visitors. A record n u m ber also cam e
from Poland - presum ably friends and rela­
tives o f m ig ran t workers (Places 4 4 , page 369).
■ C o n su m e r sp en d in g. In 2 0 0 7 , LTK residents
spent £.72.3 m illio n overseas (£ 7 .3 m illio n in
1 9 8 7 ) com pared w ith overseas residents w ho
spent £ 1 6 .0 m illio n in th e UK (£ 6 .3 m illio n
in 19 8 7) - a d eficit on the travel a cco u n t of
£ 5 6 .3 m illio n (£ 1 .0 m illio n in 19 8 7 ).
■ N u m b er e m p lo y e d a n d ty p e o f job. O fficial
figures show th a t 1.45 m illio n people were
directly em ployed in th e tourist industry in
Britain in 2 0 0 7 , w ith an estim ated further
h a lf m illio n engaged indirectly. T h e wide
range o f jo bs inclu ded h o tel and catering,
travel agents, coach operators, in e n te rta in ­
m e n t and as tour guides. A pproxim ately
132 0 0 0 o f these jo b s were classified as self-
em ployed.
Tourism 589
 Positive effects/benefits
Economic
Increases gross d o m e s tic p ro d u c t d ire c tly and in d ire c tly v ia th e m u ltip lie r
e ffe c t (see M y rd a l, p ag e 5 69 ).
Taxes on to u ris m increase g o v e rn m e n t revenue.
Increased fo re ig n exch a ng e e a rn in g s.
Foreign in v e s tm e n t.
Creates e m p lo y m e n t, in c lu d in g in u n s k ille d o ccu p a tio n s; la b o u r-in te n s iv e .
Helps fu n d n e w in fra s tru c tu re , i.e. roads, a irp o rts a n d fa c ilitie s w h ic h local
p eo p le can also use.
S tim u la te s and d ive rs ifie s e co n o m ic a c tiv ity in o th e r sectors - local c ra ft
re v iva l, m a n u fa c tu re rs , services a nd a g ric u ltu re (th e m u ltip lie r e ffe c t).
M ay a ct as a seedbed fo r entrep re ne u rship , w ith s p in -o ffs in to o th e r sectors.
Im p ro ve s b a la n ce o f p a y m e n ts th ro u g h increased tra d e .
Social
C u ltu ra l e xch a ng e s tim u la te d w ith b ro a d e n in g o f h o rizo n s a n d re d u c tio n o f
p re ju d ic e s a m o n g s t to u ris t v is ito rs a nd h o s t p o p u la tio n .
M a y e nh a n ce ro le a nd sta tu s o f w o m e n in so cie ty, as o p p o r tu n ity fo r g oals in
to u ris m is cre ate d a n d o u tlo o k w id e n e d .
E ncourages e d u c a tio n .
Encourages tra v e l, m o b ility a nd social in te g ra tio n .
Im p ro ve s services (e le c tric ity a nd h e a lth ), tr a n s p o rt (n e w roads, a irp o rts )
a nd w id e n s ran g e o f shops a n d le isure a m e n itie s .
Cultural
M a y save aspects o f in d ig e n o u s c u ltu re due to to u ris t in te re s t in th e m .
, ,
C o n ta ct w ith o th e r c u ltu re s m a y e n rich d o m e s tic c u ltu re th ro u g h n e w ideas
and cu sto m s b e in g in tro d u c e d .
Encourages c o n ta c t and h a rm o n io u s re la tio n s b e tw e e n p e o p le o f
d iffe re n t cu ltu res.
Increases in te rn a tio n a l u n d e rs ta n d in g .
Environment
Im p ro ve d la n d sca p in g and a rc h ite c tu ra l s ta n d a rd s in re s o rt areas, in c lu d in g
increased local fu n d in g fo r im p ro v e m e n t o f local h o u sin g , etc.
P ro m o te s in te re s t in m o n u m e n ts and h is to ric b u ild in g s , a nd e ncourages
fu n d in g to con se rve a n d m a in ta in th e m .
M a y in d u ce tig h te r e n v iro n m e n ta l le g is la tio n to p ro te c t e n v iro n m e n t, i.e.
la nd sca p e , h e rita g e sites, w ild life .
E sta b lishm e n t o f n atu re reserves and N atio na l Parks; g ro w in g to u ris t in te re st
and awareness protects areas fro m e conom ic and b u ild in g encroachm ent.
Poor b u ild in g a n d in fra s tru c tu re d e v e lo p m e n t - to u ris t c o m p lexe s d o n o t
in te g ra te w ith local a rc h ite c tu re .
Figure 20.8
P ositive and n e g a tive e ffe cts o f m ass g lo b a l to u ris m
590 Tourism
Negative effects/problems
M ay d iv e rt g o v e rn m e n t e xp en d itu re fro m o th e r needy areas o fth e econom y.
R equires g o v e rn m e n t e x p e n d itu re on to u ris m .
O ve r-d e p e n d e n ce on o u ts id e a gencies a nd som e e x te rn a l co n tro l on
th e e conom y.
Incom e reduced b y external leakages o r o u tflo w s, e.g. im p o rte d fo o d fo r tourists.
P ro fits m a y go overseas.
O verstretch es in fra s tru c tu re .
Spread e ffe c ts lim ite d a nd m a y th e re fo re increase re g io n a l in e q u a litie s
b e tw e e n to u ris t g ro w th areas a nd less d e v e lo p e d p e rip h e ry (pa g e 6 1 7 ).
D ive rts la b o u r a n d resources a w a y fro m n o n -to u ris t re g io n s and m a y
(p a rtic u la rly ) a ffe c t p e rip h e ra l areas, le a d in g to o u t-m ig ra tio n to to u ris t
re s o rt o p p o rtu n itie s (Places 4 2 , p age 3 6 6 ).
L ab o u r u n s k ille d a n d seasonal.
Foreign p e rso n n e l a n d firm s d o m in a te m a n a g e ria l and h ig h e r-p a id posts,
re d u cin g o p p o rtu n itie s fo r local p e o p le .
In fla te d prices fo r la n d , h o u sin g , fo o d and clo th e s.
M a y cause p o la ris a tio n b e tw e e n p o p u la tio n in a d v a n cin g to u ris t re g io n s and
less d e v e lo p e d areas, c re a tin g a 'd u a l society'.
Increases r ift b e tw e e n 'ric h 'a n d 'poor'.
B re a kd o w n o f tr a d itio n a l fa m ily va lu e s creates m a te ria l a s p ira tio n s.
B re a kd o w n o f fa m ilie s d ue to stress b e tw e e n y o u n g e r g e n e ra tio n , w h o are
a ffe c te d by im p o rte d c u ltu re , and o ld e r m e m b e rs o f h ou se h o ld - ca lled th e
n e g a tive d e m o n s tra tio n e ffe ct.
Social p a th o lo g y , in c lu d in g an increase in p ro s titu tio n , d ru g s a nd
p e tty crim e .
Increases h e a lth risk, e.g. AIDS.
Im p a c t o f c o m m e rc ia lis a tio n m a y lead to p s e u d o -c u ltu ra l a c tiv itie s to
e n te rta in to u ris ts a n d , a t e x tre m e , m a y cause d isa pp e ara n ce o r d ilu tio n o f
jn (| cu |tu re _ k n o w n a s-c o m m o d ific a tio n -
Mass to u ris m m a y create a n ta g o n is m fro m h o s t p o p u la tio n w h o are
con ce rn e d fo r tr a d itio n a l values, e.g. dress, re lig io n .
W e ste rn isa tio n o f c u ltu re , fo o d (M cD o na ld s) and d rin k (C oca-Cola).
D e stru ctio n o f n a tu ra l e n v iro n m e n t a n d w ild life h a b ita t - m a rin e , coastal
a nd in la n d .
Excessive pressure leads to a ir, la n d , noise, visu a l and w a te r p o llu tio n , and
b re a k d o w n in w a te r s u p p lie s, etc.
Tra ffic c o n g e s tio n and p o llu tio n .
Clearance o f n a tu ra l v e g e ta tio n , loss o f ecosystem s.
Ad ap ted from a W orld Tourism O rganization classificatic -
 Tourism and the environment ■ oth er visitors w ishing to pursue different
recreatio n al activities, e.g. w ater skiers, w in d ­
As th e dem ands for recreatio n an d tourism surfers, anglers and bird w atchers all visiting
increase, so to o w ill th e ir im p act o n oth er socio­ th e sam e lake.
e co n o m ic structures in society, scen ic areas and The d evelopm ent o f recreation and tourist facili­
w ildlife h ab itats. Tourists will com p ete for space ties creates pressure o n specific places and envir­
and resources w ith: on m en ts in b o th urban and rural areas. Places w ith
m local people liv ing and w orking in th e area, special interest or appeal th a t are very popular
e.g. farm ers, quarry workers, foresters, water w ith visitors and w h ich tend to b eco m e over­
and river au th ority em ployees (Figure 17.4) crowded at peak tim es are know n as h o n ey p o ts.
H oneypots m ay include, in urban areas, concert
halls (Albert Hall), m useum s (M adam e Tussaud's),
National Parks
and historic buildings (Tower o f Lond on); and,
Areas o f O utstanding in rural areas, places o f attractive scenery (Lake
Natural B ea u ty (AO N B)
D istrict), th em e parks (Alton Towers), and places
(England, W ales and
Northern Ireland) o f historic interest (Stonehenge). The problem o f
National Scen ic Areas overcrow ding w ith in certain A m erican N ational
(Scotland)
Parks (Yellow stone), together w ith congestion on
Speyside
H eritage Coasts access roads, has b eco m e so acute th a t perm its are
(England and W ales)
W ay
needed for en try and quotas are im posed on areas
Designated National
Park
th a t are ecologically vulnerable (Case Study 17).
C A IR N G O R M S
Som etim es p lanners encourage th e d evelop­
Long Distance Routes
Zest Highland (Scotland ) and m e n t o f h on ey p o ts, especially in B ritish N ational
National Trails
Parks and A frican safari parks, to ensure th a t
(England and W ales)
such sites have adequate visitor am en ities (car
SCOTLAND
parks, p icn ic areas, to ilets, a cco m m o d a tio n ). It is
Sguthern
j/pland / now w idely accepted th a t leisure am en ities and
way J N O R T H U M B ER LA N D tou rist areas need to be carefully m anaged if the
Pennine m axim u m n u m ber o f people are to o b ta in th e
m axim u m am o u n t o f e n jo y m e n t and satisfac­
NORTH YORK M O O R S
^ an g fo rd tio n (Figure 2 0 .9 ).
Lough
^YORKSHIRE'
Wo\ds W a y
It is possible to id en tify th ree levels o f recrea­
D A LES
tio n and tourism in rural areas.
PEAK
1 H ig h -in ten sity areas w here recreatio n is th e
DISTRICT m a jo r co n c ern (th em e parks such as A lton
Towers, h o n ey p o ts such as at Bow ness on
SN O W D O N IA , P e d d a rs 'W a y a n d \ W inderm ere, an d resorts such as Aviem ore).
Norfolk Coast P a t h \ B R 0 ^

ENGLAND Suffolk Coast

2 A verage-intensity areas w here th ere needs to
P EM B R O K ESH IR E
COAST
and H eaths J be a b alan ce b etw een tourism and o th er land
j | e m bro kesjgjj^
.Coast P a t w f § | Rid gew ay users, and b etw een recreatio n and conserv a­
BEACO N!
tio n (Peak D istrict N ation al Park, Places 92).
3 L ow -in ten sity areas, usually o f h ig h scen ic
So u th Dow ns value, w here co n serv atio n o f th e landscape
So u th W est
Peninsula
and w ildlife is given to p priority (upland
So u th Dow ns
J Isle o f W ig h t
Coast Path (d esignated) parts of Snow d onia and th e C airngorm s -
Places 94, page 5 9 5 ).
150 km R ecen tly there has b een a grow th in e c o to u ris m
(Places 95, page 5 9 8 ), w h ich aim s at safeguarding
12 N a tio n a l Parks + 1 d e s ig n a te d in E ng la nd a n d W ales, 2 in S co tla nd b o th natu ral and b u ilt en v iro n m en ts, b ein g sus­
P ro te cte d areas 3 6 AONBs in E ng la nd , 9 in N o rth e rn Ire lan d , 4 in W ales, 1 in E ng la nd and ta in a b le (Fram ew ork 16, page 4 9 9 ), and en ab lin g
in th e UK W ales local people to share in th e e co n o m ic and social
45 N a tio n a l S cenic Areas in S co tla nd
b en efits.

15 N a tio n a l Trails in E ng la nd a n d W ales + 4 Long D istance R outes in

S cotland

32 Heritage Coasts in England and Wales

Tourism 591
 T h e Peak D istrict: a National Park
Following the passing ofThe National Parks and
Access to the Countryside Act in 1949, the Peak
District becam e the first National Parkin 1951
(Figure 20.9).The Environm ent Act of 1995, which
set up a National Park Authority to administer the
affairs of each o fth e National Parks, defined the
purposes of National Parks as:
• conserving and enhancing the natural beauty,
wildlife and cultural heritage, and
• prom oting opportunities for the understanding
and enjoym ent of their special qualities.
National Parks must also foster the econom ic and
social well-being of local communities. They are
also required to pursue a policy of sustainable
developm ent by w hich they must aim to im prove
the quality of people's lives w ithout destroying the
environm ent (Fram ework 16, page 499). Despite
their often spectacular scenery, National Parks
are not ow ned by the nation nor m anaged purely
Figure20.10
for their landscapes and wildlife.They are, rather,
The W h ite Peak:
mainly farmed areas w here m any people live
L a th k ill Dale
N a tu re Reserve
(38 000 within the Peak District) and work.
Figure 20.11
The D ark Peak:
K in d e r Scout
592 Tourism
Land use
There are some 800 farms in the Peak District
National Park (PDNP), most of them under
40 ha. Som e are ow ned by the National Trust, water
companies and large landowners, with 70 per cent
run by farmers who need incom e from a second
job. The PD N P m anages4580 ha of woodland.
There are 55 reservoirs, w hich supply w ate rto
large urban areas such as Manchester, Leeds and
Sheffield located on the Park's fringes, and 10
quarries, mainly for limestone and fluorspar.
Tourism
About 15.7 million people live within 100 km ofthe
PDNP and, with over 30 million day visits each year, it
is the world's second most visited National Park (after
Mount Fuji in Japan).The Park is divided, scenically,
into tw o - th e attractive'White Peak'consisting of
Carboniferous limestone (page 196 and Figure 20.10)
and the Dark Peak, which is a Millstone Grit moorland
(page 201 and Figure 20.11 ).The result of an earlier
survey asking people why they visited the Peak District
and which were their favourite attractions, is given
in Figure 20.12. Estimates suggest that tourism here
directly provides 500 full-time, 350 part-time and 100
seasonal jobs, as well as many others indirectly (people
working in shops and other service industries).
S ce n e ry /la n d s c a p e /s ig h ts e e in g 61
O u td o o r a c tiv itie s /w a lk in g 56
E njoyed p re vio u s v is it 39
Peace a nd q u ie t 31
Easy to g e t to 26
N e w place to v is it 17
S pe cific e v e n t/a ttra c tio n 16
Com e e ve ry year 9
O w n second h o m e /ca ra va n in area 6
O thers 14
M o s t p o p u la r areas o fth e Peak D is tric t N a tio n a l Park are:
• Bakewell, w ith in te re s tin g b u ild in g s a n d a busy m a rk e t.
• (hatsworth, h o m e o fth e D uke o f D evonshire.
• Dovedale, a sp e cta cu la r lim e s to n e dale.
• Hartington village a n d Eyam, th e p la g u e v illa g e .
• Goyt Valley a n d its reservoirs.
• Hope Valley an d th e v illa g e o f C a stle to n .
• Upper Derwent and th e L a d y b o w e r a n d D e rw e n t Reservoirs.
Figure 20.12
W h y p e o p le v is it th e Peak D is tric t N a tio n a l Park
 Conservation
National Parks were set up with the specific
purpose of protecting areas of natural beauty
in the countryside. Today, although facilities for
suitable types of recreation (walking, climbing and
fishing) are an im portant part o fth e National Parks,
the aims of conservation have to take priority. By
conservation, the National Parks mean 'keeping
and protecting a living and changing environment',
which, in the case o fth e Peak District, is:
• The Nearly Natural Landscapes which include the
gritstone moorland o fth e Dark Peak and the
limestone heaths and dales o fth e W h ite Peak.
These areas include Sites of Special Scientific
Interest (SSSIs), which cover 35 p ercen t o fth e
National Park, and National Nature Reserves
(NNRs), both m anaged by English Heritage, as
well as Environm entally Sensitive Areas (ESAs)
which are supervised by DEFRA (Figure 16.54),
and farms engaged in the Environm ental
Stewardship Schem e (ESS) (page 496).
• The Not So Natural Landscapes w hich have
resulted from farming and mineral extraction.
• The Built Landscape which includes villages,
hamlets, listed buildings and archaeological
sites.The PDNP Authority has control over the
erection of new properties, the range of building
materials and the ability to create Conservation
Enhancement Project Areas in villages that include places of historic or
in Eyam Square architectural interest (Figure 20.13).
Figure 20.14
The PD N P M a n a g e m e n t
Plan , 2006-11
The PDNP has identified four main land use c o n flic t
to which it has suggested ways forward
• conservation and farming - farmers to n a-arre
land in traditional ways and be given grants for
conservation work
• conservation, w ater supply and recreation
- limit fishing, sailing and other activities to
specific reservoirs
• conservation and tourism - more robust
footpaths and use of former railway tracks; new
footpaths, cycle tracks and bridleways; siting of
car parks to spread visitors over a w ider area
• conservation and mineral extraction -
screening and restoration to be part o fth e
mining process.
The latest PDNP M anagem ent Plan is for 2006-11.
Its vision is underpinned by tw o main principles:
• partnership working
• sustainable developm ent.
The headings and sub-headings for this plan, which
can be seen in full on the PD N P website, are listed in
Figure 20.14.
A Social drivers
a T he need to build cohesive co m m u n itie s
b Listening to, in vo lvin g an d en g ag in g co m m u n itie s
c The need for p eo p le to h ave d e cen t an d a ffo rd ab le ho m es
d Bein g p roactive in p rovid in g o p p o rtu n itie s fo r recreation
e The need fo r p eo p le to a d o p t h e a lth ie r lifestyles
f T he need for su sta in a b le im p ro vem e n ts to travel
B Technological drivers
a M o b ile ph o ne o perators an d co nsu m er d e m an d
C Environmental drivers
a UK and local Biodiversity Plans
b Climate change
c The changing historical nature of air pollution
d Mineral extraction
e The changing patterns of land use and ownership
D Economic drivers
a Changes to farm payments system
b Delivering the outcomes ofthe Peak District Rural Action
Zone
c Changing nature of sources of funding
d Developing a sustainable tourism economy
E Political drivers
Local government and legislative changes
Tourism 593
 The tourist resort/area are designed. To survive, tourist places have to
keep re-inventing them selves by, for exam ple,
life-cycle model inclu d ing new attractions or ch an g in g their ori­
Despite som e o f the obvious disadvantages of en tation to a wider or new clien t group. Places
tourism , th e nightm are scenario for any tourist- th a t fail, such as som e older British seaside resorts
d ependent country, region or resort, is th a t people and spa tow ns, begin to w ither away. Places that
will find som ew here else to visit and to spend m anage to adapt, such as Blackpool, con tin u e
th eir m oney. New resorts develop; old resorts to be successful. O n this basis, Butler produced a
m ay b eco m e run-dow n; fashions change; places useful life-cycle m odel (Fram ew ork 12, page 352)
m ay receive a bad press; eco n o m ic recessions for tourist resorts (Figure 2 0 .1 5 ); th is m ay also be
occur; currency rates alter and new activities applied m ore widely to tourist regions (Places 93).

Figure 20.15
6 Rejuvenation Exploration: small num ber of visitors attracted by natural beauty or cultural
4 characteristics - numbers are limited and few tourist facilities exist, e.g. Chile.
T o u rist a re a /re s o rt
5 Stagnation/ ' or
life -c y c le m o d e l Involvement: lim ite d involvem ent by local residents to provide some facilities fo r tourists -
(iafter B u tle r) recognisable to u rist season and m arket areas begin to emerge, e.g. Guatemala.
'6 D ecline
•4 C onsolidation Development: large num bers o f tourists arrive, control passes to external organisations, and there
is increased tension between local people and tourists, e.g. Florida.
Consolidation: tourism has become a m ajor p art o fth e local economy, although rates o f visitor
g ro w th have started to level o ff and some older facilities are seen as second-rate, e.g. earlier
3 D evelo p m en t
Mediterranean coastal resorts.
Stagnation: peak numbers o f tourists have been reached. The resort is no longer considered
fashionable and turnover of business properties tends to be high, e.g. Costa del Sol (Places 93).
Decline or rejuvenation: attractiveness continues to decline, visitors are lost to other resorts, and
2 Invo lvem en t
the resort becomes m ore dependent on day visitors and weekend recreationalists from a lim ited
1 Exploration_______
geographical area - lo ng -te rm decline w ill continue unless action is taken to rejuvenate the area
tim e
and m odernise as a tourist destination, e.g. Blackpool, British spa to w n s and older coastal resorts.

T h e Spanish ‘costas’: the life-cycle of a tourist area

Figure 20.16
L ife -c y c le o f a h o lid a y
area: to u ris ts fro m th e
UK to th e Costa del
Sol, 196 0 s—2000s
In the 1950s, Benidorm on the Costa Blanca was still had reached Butler's stage of consolidation, when the
a small fishing village (compare the Costa del Sol in carrying capacity was reached. By the early 1990s it
Figure 20.16). During the 1960s, the introduction had begun to stagnate and to decline. Since then the
of cheap air travel began to attract visitors from Spanish government has tried to rejuvenate the area
northern Europe and enabled resorts to develop, with by encouraging the refurbishment of hotels, reducing
their sandy beaches, warm seas and hot, dry, sunny VAT in luxury hotels and ensuring that both beaches
summers. By the 1970s it had turned into a sprawling and the sea have become cleaner (Spain has the most
modern resort with high-rise hotels and all the 'Blue Flag'beaches in the EU).
amenities expected by mass tourism. By the 1980s it

1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s and 2000s

Tourists from UKto Spain 1 960 = 0 .4 m illio n 1971 = 3 . 0 m 1 984 = 6 .2 m 1 988 = 7.5 m 1 99 0 = 7 .0 m 2 00 0 = 7.3 m

State of, and changes in, v e ry fe w to u ris ts ra p id increase in to u ris m ; c a rry in g c a p a c ity rea ch e d ; to u r ­ d e c lin e (w o rld recession); prices
tourism g o v e rn m e n t e n c o u ra g e m e n t ists o u ts trip resources, e .g .w a te r to o h ig h ; c h e ap e r u p p e r-m a rk e t
s u p p ly a n d se w e ra g e h o te ls e lse w h e re ; g o v e rn m e n t
in te rv e n tio n to re ju ve n a te to u ris m

Local employment m a in ly in fa rm in g a n d fis h in g c o n s tru c tio n w o rk e rs ; jo b s in m a in ly to u ris m : up to 7 0 p e r ce n t u n e m p lo y m e n t increases as

h o te ls , cafes, shops; d e c lin e in in so m e places to u ris m d e c lin e s (30 p e r c e n t);
fa rm in g and fis h in g fa rm e rs use w a te r fo r irrig a tio n

Holiday accommodation
Infrastructure (amenities and
activities)
lim ite d a c c o m m o d a tio n ; v e ry fe w
h o te ls and a p a rtm e n ts ; som e
h o lid a y co tta g e s and ca m p site s
lim ite d access a nd fe w a m e n itie s ;
p o o r roads; lim ite d s tre e tlig h tin g
and e le c tric ity
la rg e h o te ls b u ilt (u s in g breeze
blocks and co n cre te ); m o re
a p a rtm e n t b locks a n d v illa s
so m e road im p ro v e m e n ts b u t
c o n g e s tio n in to w n s ; bars, discos,
re s ta u ra n ts and shops a dded
m o re la rg e h o te ls b u ilt, also a p a rt­
m e n ts, tim e -s h a re a nd lu x u ry
villa s
E340 o p e n e d : 'th e H ig h w a y o f
D e a th '; m o re co n g e stio n in to w n s ;
m a rin a s a n d g o lf courses b u ilt
o ld e r h o te ls lo o k in g d ir ty a n d run
d o w n ; fa ll in house prices; o n ly
h ig h -c la s s h o te ls a llo w e d to be
b u ilt; g o v e rn m e n t o versees th e
re fu rb is h m e n t o f h o te ls
b a rs/ca fe s clo sin g ; M a lag a
b y - p a s s a n d n e w a ir te rm in a l
o p e n e d ; re -in tro d u c tio n o f local
fo o d s a nd cu stom s

Landscape and environm ent
cle a n, u n s p o ilt beaches; w a rm sea
w ith re la tiv e ly little p o llu tio n ;
p le a s a n t v illa g e s ; q u ie t w ith little
visu a l p o llu tio n
fa rm la n d b u ilt u po n ;
w ild life frig h te n e d aw ay;
beaches a n d sea less clean
m o u n ta in s h id d e n b e h in d h ote ls;
litte r on beaches; p o llu te d seas
(se w a g e ); c rim e (d ru g s ,v a n d a lis m ,
m u g g in g s ); n oise fro m tra ffic
a nd to u ris ts
a tte m p ts to clean u p beaches and
sea (EU B lue Flag beaches); n e w
p u b lic parks a nd g ard e ns ope n e d;
n a tu re reserves
 At a co n feren ce on 'su stainab le m o u n ta in devel­
o p m en t', o n e speaker claim ed : 'M o u n ta in s are
suffering an u n p reced ented en v iro n m en ta l
crisis. W herever you go in th e world, you can
T h e Cairngorm s: a mountainous area under threat
The Cairngorm range, which includes four of
Britain's five highest mountains, becam e part of
the Cairngorms National Park in 2003.The arctic-
alpine plateau is a fragile ecosystem which includes
mosses, lichen and dw arf shrubs (page 333) and
which provides an irreplaceable habitat for rare
birds such as the golden eagle, ptarmigan, snow
bunting and dotterel (Figure 20.17). It includes
three SSSIs (page 593) and a National Nature
Reserve. It also receives the heaviest, and longest
lying, snowfall in Britain, making it ideal for
downhill and cross-country skiing as well as other
winter sports.These advantages have led to conflict
betw een developers and environmentalists.
In the 1990s, the Cairngorm Chairlift Company, now
Cairngorm M ountain Ltd, having tw ice failed to get
planning permission to extend its skiing facilities
into nearby Lurcher's Gully, put forward a plan
which included a 2 km funicular railway that would
go to within 150 m o fth e sum m it.The plan also
included a new chairlift, three new ski tows and four
additional ski runs. At the top, the underground
terminus to the railway would give access to a
250-seater restaurant, an interpretative exhibition
and a retail outlet.The railway would get visitors
Figure 20.17
The C a irn g o rm a rc tic /
a lp in e e n v iro n m e n t
find th e same sym ptom s - landscapes wrecked
by roads; forests cleared for, and slopes shredded
by, skiing; v eg etation w orn away by walkers; and
litter left by to u rists.'
to the summit in three minutes, would be able to
operate, unlike the old chairlift, in high winds and
could increase the num ber of sum m er visitors
from 60 000 to 225 000. It was this increase in the
prospect o fth e extra num ber of feet tram pling the
fragile summit plateau during the short growing
and nesting season that caused most alarm to
conservationists.They feared plants would be
crushed, birds disturbed and the landscape eroded.
W h at swung the decision the developers'w ay was
their proposal to operate a 'closed system 'which
w ould confine everyone to the visitor centre with
its indoor view ing area.This m eant an end to the
50 000 visitors who, until then, could tram ple
w ithout restriction over the summit area. The
funicular railway began running at Christmas 2001
and the visitor centre was formally opened the
following May. At that opening, it was said that the
funicular project dem onstrated how it is possible
to balance environm ental concerns with projected
econom ic benefits.
M eanw hile skiers in the Cairngorms face a greater
threat - global warm ing is reducing both the
am ount of snowfall and the period of snow cover.
Tourism 595
 O th e r types oftourism
Heritage
According to th e World Heritage C onvention
(WHC), created by UNESCO, 'Heritage is our legacy
from the past, what we live w ith today, and what
we pass on to future generations. Our cultural and
natural heritage are both irreplaceable sources of
life and inspiration.' Cultural h eritage includes
m onum ents, groups of buildings and sites such as
the Pyramids, the Acropolis, the Taj M ahal (Figure
20.18a), M achu Picchu, C h ichen Itza (Figure 20.23)
and The Great Wall of China. N atural heritage
includes landscape and wildlife sites such as the
Barrier Reef and Tanzania's Serengeti N ational Park
(page 311). There are, at present, over 8 0 0 World
Heritage Sites.
Theme parks and purpose-built resorts
T hem e parks and pu rpose-built resorts have
b eco m e centres of mass tourism in th e last two
or th ree decades. T hey inclu d e D isney W orld
(Florida - Figure 2 0 .1 8 b ), D isneyland (Paris),
Legoland (D enm ark), Seaworld (Q ueensland)
and A lton Towers (England).
Wildlife
There has been a steady increase in the num ber of
people wishing to see wildlife in its natural envi­
ronm ent. The m ost popular is the African 'safari'
in w hich tourists are driven around, usually in
small minibuses with adjustable roofs to allow for
easier viewing (Figure 20.18c). Kenya, South Africa,
Figure 20.18
Types o f to urism
a H eritage:
Taj M a h al
b T h em e parks:
D is n e y W o rld
c W ild life parks:
B o ts w an a
d W ild ern e ss:
M t M cK in le y
in Dynali
N atio n al Park
T ourism
Tanzania and Zimbabwe are all able to capitalise
on their abundance of wildlife. O ther tourists may
go whale-w atching (New Zealand), visit marine
reserves (Places 80, page 526), view threatened
wildlife such as the giant panda and the m ountain
gorilla, or go to places w ith a unique ecosystem
(Madagascar and the Galapagos Islands).
Wilderness holidays
These are popular in America: one or two people
set off in to largely uninhabited areas such as Alaska
to 'live and com pete w ith nature' (Figure 20.18d ).
City breaks
G lobally m ore people take city breaks - often
lasting ju st a few days - th a n any oth er type
of holiday. In B ritain in 2 0 0 7 , 8 7 per ce n t of
adults visited a city for at least on e day, th e vast
m ajo rity - over 11 m illio n - trav ellin g to L ond on
to take advantage of its cu ltu ral am en ities (the
N ational Gallery), theatres (Drury Lane), historic
buildings (St Paul's C athed ral), sporting venues
(W em bley Stadium ), shops (O xford Street)
and businesses (C anary W h arf). Eight o f the
top ten m ost visited d estin ation s in B ritain are
cities (in clu d in g over 2 m illio n visits a year to
M anch ester and Birm ingh am ) w hile m an y other
tourists take city breaks in Europe and beyond.
Religious centres
Religious cen tres to w h ich people m ake a pil­
grim age inclu d e M ecca, T h e V atican, Jerusalem .
Salt Lake C ity and Varanasi (Benares).
 Cruises
Cruising has b een th e fastest-grow ing section
o f th e world's tourist industry for tw o decades.
M ore, and larger, liners are b ein g b u ilt each year
(Figure 2 0 .1 9 ) w hile th e nu m ber o f passengers
has increased from under 4 m illio n in 1 9 9 0 to
alm ost 13 m illio n in 2 0 0 8 . Cruise holidays are
o ften an excuse for people to relax and en jo y the
sun and th e life aboard ship, as seen by over one-
th ird o f all passengers op tin g for th e C aribbean
(Figure 2 0 .2 0 ). O ther tourists m ay take a cruise
th a t follow s a th em e, such as visiting historical/
Figure 20.19
archaeological sites (M editerranean), capital cities
Cruise lin e rs in th e (Baltic), scenic coasts (Norway, Figure 2 0 .1 9 ) or
G eira ng e r Fiord, w h ale-w atchin g (Alaska). W h ile th e scores of
N o rw a y
Britain 2.0%
Caribbean-Baham as
/Berm uda 38.6%
Figure 20.20
Cruise d e s tin a tio n s , 2007
Ecotourism
E cotourism , som etim es know n as 'green
to u rism ', is a sustainable form o f tourism
(Fram ew ork 16, page 4 9 9 ) th a t is m ore appro­
priate to d eveloping cou ntries th a n th e mass
tou rism associated w ith Florida and certain
M ed iterranean areas. E cotourism includes:
■ visiting places in order to appreciate th e
natu ral e n v iro n m en t, ecosystem s (page 29 5 ),
scenery and w ildlife, and to un derstand their
culture
■ creatin g e c o n o m ic o p p ortu n ities (job s) in an
area w hile at th e sam e tim e p ro tectin g natu ral
resources (scenery and w ildlife) and th e local
way o f life.
Com pared w ith m ass tourists, ecotourists
usually travel in sm all groups (low -im pact/low-
d en sity tourism ), share in specialist interests
(bird-w atching, p ho tog rap h y ), are m ore likely
to behave responsibly and to m erge and live
passengers create jo b s for tou r guides and shop
assistants and generate in co m e for bus com p a­
nies, taxi drivers, and local craft industries, th ey
rarely spend large am o u n ts o f m o n ey w hile on
land as th ey eat and sleep o n board ship. Also,
their large num bers - up to 3 6 0 0 o n th e latest
super cruise liners - m ay swamp local co m m u n i­
ties and disrupt th eir way o f life.
Certain rivers are also popular for cruising
- w ith th e added bonus o f calm water! People
sail along th e Nile (to see an cien t tem ples), the
Mississippi (on paddle boats), the Yangtze (Three
Gorges), th e Am azon, Rhine and D anube. Canal
holidays are a self-catering form o f cruising.
Northern Europe 8 .3 %
South-east Asia-
Far East 1.2%
1980:150 liners - average 800 berths
2008:280 liners - average 1250 berths
w ith local co m m u n ities, and to appreciate local
cultures (rather th a n to stop, take a p h o to , buy
a souvenir and th e n m ove on). T h ey are likely
to visit N ation al Parks and gam e reserves w here
th e landscape and w ildlife w h ich attracted th em
th ere in th e first place is p rotected and m anaged.
Places visited inclu de Brazil (rainforests), th e east
coast o f Belize and M exico (coral reefs - Places
95), N epal (m ou n tain s), Burundi (m ou n tain
gorillas) and th e A rctic (polar bears).
Even so, ecoto u rists usually pay for m o st of
th eir h olid ay in advance (spend ing little in th e
visited cou ntry), are n o t all e n v iro n m en tally
educated or con cern ed , ca n cause local prices to
rise, congregate at prim e sites (h o n ey p ots), and
m ay still cause co n flict w ith local people. There
is a real danger th a t to u r operators, b y adding
'e co ' as a prefix, give certain holidays un w ar­
ranted respectability.
Tourism 597
I

X ca re t, Mexico: ecotourism
T h e X c a re t E c o - a rc h a e o lo g ic a l P a rk (F ig u re 20.21)

in M e x ico 's Y u c a ta n P e n in s u la w o n , b a c k in 1999, Figure 20.21

t h e S u n d a y T im e s R e a d e r s 'A w a r d fo r w h a t t h e y Xcaret

c o n s id e re d to b e t h e m o s t su cc e s sfu l p ro je c t in
p ro te c tin g , o r im p ro v in g , t h e q u a lit y o f a local

e n v ir o n m e n t . X c a re t is lo c a te d (F ig u re 20.22) 70 km

s o u th o f t h e m ass to u ris t re s o rt o f C a n c u n (M e x ico 's

a n s w e r t o M ia m i) a n d 2 7 0 km e a s t o f t h e fo rm e r

M a y a n s e t t le m e n t o f C h ic h e n Itza, n o w a W o r ld

H e rita g e S ite (F ig u re 20.23).

In 1990, fiv e fa m ilie s s e t u p t h e X c a r e t v e n t u r e w it h

t w o a im s : to s u p p o r t M e x ic a n re s e a r c h p r o g r a m m e s

in t o b io d iv e r s it y a n d t o e n c o u r a g e e c o t o u r is m ,

t h e la t t e r b y a llo w in g v is ito r s t o re la x in b e a u t ifu l

X c a r e t a ls o h a s a w ild - b ird b r e e d in g c e n t r e t h a t
s u r r o u n d in g s a n d to le a rn , a lm o s t b y a c c id e n t ,
c a te r s fo r e n d a n g e r e d s p e c ie s , a b u t t e r f ly p a v ilio n ,
t h e v a lu e o f t h e e c o s y s t e m o n s h o w t o g e t h e r w it h
a b o t a n ic a l g a r d e n a n d a c o ra l r e e f a q u a r iu m .
t h e s c ie n t ific w o r k b e in g c a r rie d o u t. V is ito rs a re
H o w e v e r , t h e v e n t u r e is n o t w i t h o u t its c ritic s , s o m e
e n c o u r a g e d to tra v e l b y b u s o r tax i, n o t car, a n d ,
o f w h o m c ite t h e fa c t t h a t t h e u n d e r g r o u n d rive rs
o n a rriv a l, a re a s k e d to h a n d in a n y s u n t a n lo tio n
w e r e b la s te d a n d r e m o d e lle d w h i le o t h e r s p o in t
(w h ic h p o llu t e s s e a w a t e r ) a n d , in re tu rn , a re g iv e n
t o t h e t h r e a t t h a t s n o r k e llin g p o s e s t o t h e r e e f a n d
a b o t t le o f e c o - f r ie n d ly lo t io n ( t h o u g h le ss e f f e c t iv e
t h e p r e s e n c e o f a m o c k M a y a n v illa g e . Y e t g e n e r a lly ,
as a s u n b lo c k ).T h e in le t, w it h its w a r m , c r y s ta l- c le a r
a n d b y b a n n in g h ig h - rise b e a c h c o m p le x e s , X c a r e t
w a t e r t h a t is h o m e to t h o u s a n d s o f m u lt ic o lo u r e d
h a s s h o w n t h a t it is p o s s ib le fo r p e o p le to e n jo y
fish a n d c o n t a in s a s e a - tu rtle r e s e r v e , is id e a l fo r
t h e m s e lv e s w i t h o u t h a r m in g t h e e n v ir o n m e n t .
s w im m in g a n d s n o r k e llin g .T w o u n d e r g r o u n d
rive rs, lit b y s u n lig h t s t r e a m in g t h r o u g h o p e n in g s J a n e D o v e , in Geography Review, d e s c rib e s t w o
in ro c k h o le s , a llo w t o u r is t t o e x p lo r e u n d e r g r o u n d m o re s u s ta in a b le e x a m p le s o f e c o to u ris m n e a rb y .
c h a n n e ls . First b e in g w a r n e d t h a t t o u c h in g c o ra l A t t h e S ia n K a 'an B io s p h e re , v is ito rs a re ta k e n o n
c a n kill it (P la c e s 80, p a g e 5 2 6 ), p e o p le a re ta k e n to w a lk in g to u rs to s e e la g o o n s, m a n g ro v e s a n d tro p ic a l
o ffs h o r e re e fs w h e r e t h e y c a n s w im w it h b o t t le n o s e ra in fo re s t.T h e y s le e p in te n ts, u se c o m p o s t in g to ile ts
Figure 20.22
d o lp h in s . A t n ig h t, a s h o w in t h e o p e n - a ir t h e a t r e a n d o b ta in w a t e r t h a t is h e a te d b y s o la r a n d w in d
M e xico 's to u ris t
e n d s w it h a p e r f o r m a n c e o f a f a m e d f o lk lo r ic b a lle t. p o w e r .T h e M a y a n v illa g e o f P a c C h e n lim its a c c e s s to
sites
80 to u ris ts a d a y. H e re t h e y a re s e rv e d lo c al fo o d , are

s h o w n a s w a llo w h o le in t h e lim e s to n e (p a g e 196)

a n d visit a M a y a n ru in (th e M a y a n c iv ilis a tio n w a s

b e t w e e n A D 9 9 0 a n d 1 2 0 0 ).T h e in c o m e g e n e r a t e d

has h e lp e d to b u ild a lo c al s c h o o l a n d a clinic.

Figure 20.23

C hichen Itza

598 Tourism
Framework 18 Personal investigative study
T h e p e rs o n a l in v e s tig a tiv e stu d y, o r e n q u iry , is a n
im p o r t a n t p a r t o f t h e e x a m in a tio n a s s e s s m e n t fo r
A S a n d A 2 G e o g ra p h y . It p ro v id e s a n o p p o r t u n it y fo r
y o u to d e v e lo p y o u r in d iv id u a l in te re sts in a p a rtic u la r
p a rt o f t h e s p e c ific a tio n , to m a k e u se o f fie ld w o r k an d
to b e c o m e a n 'e x p e r t 'o n a sm all in v e s tig a tio n .
Choosing your study
• C h o o s e a t o p ic in w h ic h y o u h a v e p e rs o n a l
in t e r e s t .T h is w ill m a k e it e a s ie r to s tu d y .
• C h e c k in lo c a l p a p e rs fo r c u r r e n t is s u e s w h ic h
c o u ld p r o v e a u s e fu l t o p ic to in v e s t ig a t e . C o lle c t
as m u c h b a c k g r o u n d in fo r m a t io n as y o u c a n
b e f o r e s e t t in g u p y o u r t o p ic .
• S t u d ie s c a n in v o lv e c o m b in e d fie ld w o r k u n d e r ­
ta k e n a t fie ld c e n tre s . H o w e v e r, y o u r c o n c lu s io n s
m u s t b e in d iv id u a l, e v e n t h o u g h t h e d a ta
c o lle c t io n m a y h a v e b e e n d o n e as a g ro u p .
• C h o o s in g a t o p ic c o v e r in g a h u m a n /
e n v ir o n m e n t a l t h e m e m a y a llo w w o r k in
d iffe r e n t s e c t io n s o r m o d u le s o f t h e c o u r s e to
b e lin k e d to a n in v e s t ig a t io n .
• A v o id a to p ic t h a t w ill m e a n tra v e llin g lo n g
d is ta n c e s to c o lle c t d a ta a n d to d o fie ld w o rk .T h is
c a n b e e x p e n s iv e in te rm s o f b o th t im e a n d m o n e y ,
an d it w ill n o t b e e a s y to m a k e re tu rn visits.
• C a re fu l p la n n in g is e s s e n tia l - p a r t ic u la r ly t h e
S c h e d u le fo r y o u r e n q u ir y .
Collecting your data
• It is i m p o r t a n t t o b e g in p r e lim in a r y c o lle c t io n o f
id e a s a n d m a t e r ia ls as e a r ly as p o s s ib le .
• P r im a r y d a t a is t h e b a sis o f a s tu d y , a n d
c o lle c t in g t h e d a t a h a s to b e c a r e fu lly p la n n e d ,
in v o lv in g s u rv e y s , q u e s t io n n a ir e s , in t e r v ie w s ,
use o f a n n o ta te d p h o to g ra p h s a n d m ap
c o n s t r u c t io n . M a k e s u re t h a t y o u c h o o s e
a p p r o p r ia t e d a t e s a n d t im e s fo r y o u r f ie ld w o r k .
• Q u e s t io n n a ir e s n e e d to b e s u c c in c t a n d to t h e
p o in t - y o u n e e d to k n o w t h e t y p e s o f a n s w e r s
t h a t y o u re q u ire . Y o u s h o u ld m a k e s u re t h a t
y o u h a v e a la r g e s a m p le in o r d e r t o h a v e w e ll-
f o u n d e d re su lts.
• T ak e as m a n y p h o t o g r a p h s as p o s s ib le o f t h e
s t u d y a re a . C a re fu lly a n n o t a t e a n d la b e l t h e m ,
a n d m a k e su re t h e y a re r e le v a n t to y o u r e n q u iry .
B e a r in m in d t h a t y o u w ill n e e d to s e le c t o n ly t h e
m o s t r e le v a n t p h o t o g r a p h s in y o u r fin a l re p o rt.
• If y o u are visitin g a n o rg a n is a tio n o r re q u e stin g
in fo rm a tio n it is a lw a y s useful to w r ite a p o lite
le tte r b e fo re h a n d , o u tlin in g w h a t y o u w is h to
fin d o u t a n d g iv in g t im e fo r a n a n sw e r. P e o p le are
a lw a y s b usy, so b e p re p a re d to w a it a f e w d ays
b e fo re te le p h o n in g to m a k e a n a p p o in tm e n t.
S e c o n d a r y d a t a c o lle c t io n w ill m e a n v is its
t o lo c a l lib ra rie s , r e s e a r c h in g n e w s p a p e r s
fo r b a c k g r o u n d , a n d u s in g t h e In t e r n e t (s e e
F r a m e w o r k 1, p a g e 22 ). O ld m a p s w ill s h o w
c o n d it io n s a t p r e v io u s t im e s ( p a g e 3 9 6 ). K e e p a
d e t a ile d re c o rd o f all y o u r s o u rc e s .
Writing your report
• P la n t h e s t r u c t u r e o f y o u r r e p o r t b e f o r e y o u
s ta rt w r it in g . Y o u m a y fin d t h e f o llo w in g o u t lin e
u s e fu l: In t r o d u c t io n - A im s - D a ta C o lle c t io n -
D a ta A n a ly s is - E v a lu a t io n - C o n c lu s io n .
• D a t a t h a t y o u c o lle c t w ill h a v e to b e a n a ly s e d
a n d d is p la y e d in m a p s a n d s ta tis tic a l fo rm .
A lt h o u g h b a r c h a r t s a n d p ie c h a r t s a re c le a r
a n d e a s y t o d is p la y , t r y t o u s e a v a r ie t y o f fo r m s
o f p r e s e n t a t io n . M o s t e x a m b o a r d s r e q u ire
t h a t y o u a re a b le t o u s e s ta tis tic a l m e t h o d s
e f f e c t iv e ly in y o u r s t u d ie s .T h is h e lp s y o u to
e v a lu a t e a n d t h e n t o e x p la in t h e re s u lts o f y o u r
in v e s t ig a t io n . S o m e o f t h e m o s t u s e fu l m e t h o d s
a r e S p e a r m a n 's r a n k c o r r e la t io n a n d c h i- s q u a re d
(s e e F r a m e w o r k 19, p a g e 6 12).
• C a re fu l d e t a ile d a n a ly s is o f y o u r s ta tis tic s a n d
d ia g r a m s is v it a l - d o n o t a s s u m e t h a t t h e
e x a m in e r o r m o d e r a t o r w ill a u t o m a t ic a lly
u n d e r s ta n d w h a t is s e t o u t.
• T h o u g h t f u l a n d d e t a ile d e v a lu a t io n is a v e r y
im p o r t a n t p a r t o f y o u r s tu d y . Y o u m a y h a v e
c o lle c t e d t h e o p in io n s o f a n u m b e r o f d iffe r e n t
g r o u p s in y o u r in v e s t ig a t io n s a n d y o u m u s t s e t
t h e s e o u t c le a r ly a n d b a la n c e u p t h e d iffe r e n t
v a lu e s w h ic h m a y b e a p p a r e n t . D o n o t f o r g e t to
in c lu d e y o u r o w n id e a s .
• A n e x t e n d e d c o n c lu s io n w ill c o m p le t e t h e
stu d y , d r a w in g t o g e t h e r t h e d iffe r e n t o p in io n s
a n d v a lu e s , w e ig h in g u p t h e o p t io n s a n d
p r o b a b ly p u t t in g f o r w a r d a n y a lt e r n a t iv e
p ro p o s a l y o u m a y c o n s id e r to h a v e v a lu e .
Remember...
• P r e s e n t a t io n is im p o r t a n t . M a k e y o u r r e p o r t
lo o k g o o d - u s e IC T w h e r e p o s s ib le .
• D ia g r a m s m a y b e c o m p u t e r - g e n e r a t e d
b u t m a p s s h o u ld b e h a n d - d r a w n a n d n o t
p h o t o c o p ie d .
• C h e c k t h a t a l l m a p s , d ia g r a m s a n d p h o t o g r a p h s
a r e la b e lle d a n d a n n o t a t e d .
• A c k n o w le d g e a n y q u o t a t io n s a n d d r a w u p a
c le a r b ib lio g r a p h y o f y o u r re fe re n c e s , in c lu d in g
a n y m a te r ia l s o u rc e d fro m t h e In te rn e t.
• N u m b e r a ll th e p a g e s a n d w h e re n e c e ssa ry
c r o s s - re fe re n c e d ia g r a m s a n d te x t.
Tourism 599

20 ^
a sp "
'H a lfw a y d o w n India's w est coast is th e tin y
state o f Goa. A u n iq u e blend o f Indian and
Portuguese cultures w ith m iles o f long, sandy
beaches, em erald-green paddy fields and
gleam ing, w h ite -w a sh e d P ortuguese-style
churches peering o u t over extensive palm
groves.'This is h o w th e form e r tin y Portuguese
enclave o f Goa, w h ich becam e p a rt o f India
in 1962 and an in d e p e n d e n t state in 1987, is
described in a Kuoni travel brochure.
Goa has b eco m e a m ajor to u ris t centre
for b o th d om e stic and international visitors.
Tourism in Goa, India
As Figure 20.24 shows, d o m e stic arrivals
increased by 35 per c e n t b e tw e e n 1986 and
2006 and international arrivals by 26 per ce n t
d u rin g th a t same period, w ith th e n u m b e r
o f d o m e stic visitors d o u b lin g since 2000 and
international visitors since 1998. Especially
since th e increase in internal low -cost airlines,
Goa has been po p u la r w ith Indian tourists
fro m th e large cities o f M u m bai and Delhi
and, m ore recently, Bangalore. W hereas Goa
is 12 hours by road or rail fro m M u m bai w ith
its p o p u la tio n o f 16 m illion, it is o n ly a one-
h o u r flig h t aw ay (400 km). M ost international
arrivals arrive by air on charter flights, w h ich
have increased fro m 25 in 1986 to 720 in
2006. O f these recent arrivals, 42 p e rc e n t
cam e fro m the UK, fo llo w e d by 8.5 p e rc e n t
fro m Russia and 6.2 per c e n t fro m Germany.
However, in th e last decade and w ith th e
increasing p o p u la rity o f cruising (page 597),
m ore visitors have been arriving by sea -
18 cruise ships in 1996 and 72 in 2006.

Figure 20.24 Figure 20.25

Goa's d o m e s tic a nd in te rn a tio n a l a rriva ls, 1 9 8 6 -2 0 0 6 Goa’s beaches

Beach

Domestic International
Total
arrivals arrivals
1986 736548 97533 834081

to M u m b a i
888914 237216 1126130
4 0 0 km
2098654 380414 2479068 a n d D e lh i
1550km

Goa's beaches
Goa's beach resorts can roughly be divided into
fourtypes from north to south (Figure 20.25).

The extrem e north

The m ost n orth e rly beaches at Keri and
A ram bol are, by and large, undeveloped,
and te n d to attract day visitors and those
w ishing to find cheap a ccom m odation,
foo d and drink.They are o n ly reached along
narrow w in d in g roads by in frequent local
buses and, until a year or so ago, Keri had no Indian Ocean
a c com m od ation at all and o n ly a fe w beach to B a n g a lo re Figure 20.26
500 km
shacks th a t sold sim ple refreshm ents (Figure A ra m b o l, one
20.26a). A ram bol has becom e m ore accessible o fth e less-

since th e o p e nin g o fa road b ridge o v e rth e S o u th G o a d e v elo p ed

resorts on
river estuary to th e south b u t has insufficient
10 km G oa’s n o rth e rn
a c com m o dation to cater fo r those w ish in g to beaches
stay fo r lo nger than a day (Figure 20.26b).

The northern beaches

V a g a to ra nd Anjuna, b e in g nearer th e state
capital o f Panaji, are m ore p o p u la r.T h e y have
small hotels as w e ll as bars and restaurants,
m any o f w h ic h are still fa m ily o w n e d . M ost
o f th e shops fall in to th e in fo rm a l sector
(page 574), som e o n ly o p e n seasonally.

600 Tourism
 Tourism in G oa, India

Benefits a n d problem s
The southern beaches
The m ain northern beaches T o urism is c o n c e n tra te d m a in ly a lo n g a
T h is is t h e area fo r t h e larg e five-star b e a c h
T h e lo n g stre tch e s o f san d c o n tin u e s o u th ­ n a rro w co astal z o n e w h e r e it h as h a d a
re so rt c o m p le x e s w h ic h h a v e o p e n e d u p at
n u m b e r o f p o sitive b en e fits in c lu d in g h ig h e r
w a rd s t o t h e b e a c h e s o f B a g a ,C a la n g u te
B e n a u lim , C o lv a a n d M o b o r (F ig u re 20.27).
a n d C a n d o lim . B e in g n e a re r b o th t h e airp o rt in c o m e s , in c re a se d e m p lo y m e n t, im p ro v e d
T h e s e a re m o re lik ely to a ttra c t a n o ld e r
local t ra n s p o rt a n d g re a te r fo re ig n e x c h a n g e
a n d t h e m a in lin e ra ilw a y statio n, th e s e are
g ro u p o f o v e rs e a s a n d p a c k a g e h o lid a y ­
earn in g s. H o w e v e r, to u rism has also cre a te d
th e p la c e s fo r th o s e arrivin g fro m M u m b a i
m a k e r a n d t h e b etter-off, p ro fe ss io n al
s o c io - e c o n o m ic an d e n v iro n m e n ta l
a n d D e lh i o r b y c h a rte r fro m Eu ro p e . E ve n
In d ia n w o rk e r.T h e b e a c h reso rts are se t
so, m a n y o f t h e o ld e r hotels, bars, restau ran ts p ro b le m s d u e to a larg e ly u n c o n tro lle d ,
in la rg e g ro u n d s fu ll o f c o c o n u t p alm s,
u n p la n n e d d e v e lo p m e n t, m u c h e m p lo y ­
a n d sh o p s are re la tiv e ly sm all an d fa m ily
tro p ic a l p la n ts a n d sh rub s, e a c h w it h t h e ir
m e n t b e in g seaso n al, d r u g d ea lin g , t h e c o n ­
o w n e d (Fig u re 20.26c). B a c k fro m t h e b e a c h
o w n g a rd e n s, s w im m in g p oo ls, b ars a n d
c e n tra tio n a n d s u b s e q u e n t c o n g e s tio n o f
are t h e larg er hotels, w ith m o re b e in g built.
restau ran ts, s p o r tin g a m e n itie s a n d s tre tc h
p e o p le a n d attra c tio n s a lo n g a n a rro w strip,
T h is rapid d e v e lo p m e n t has a lre a d y ca u s e d
o f b each . a n d t h e d e s tr u c tio n o f local e co sy ste m s.
c o n s id e ra b le d a m a g e t o t h e san d d u n e e c o ­

sy ste m th a t runs b e h in d t h e b ea ch es.

L E E L A P A LA C E

Location: In so u th G o a s o m e 90 m in u te s '
d riv e fro m t h e a irp o rt, th is s u p e r b h o te l is
set in 75 acre s o f c o c o n u t g ro v e s in g ro u n d s
full o f tro p ic a l p la n ts a n d shrubs, la g o o n s
a n d w a t e r w a y s le a d in g d o w n t o t h e so ft
sa n d s o f b e a u tifu l M o b o r b e a ch .

j OA R E N A IS SA N C E Facilities: A larg e s w im m in g p o o l w ith

Location: Set in 23 acres of gardens on the southern coast is the Goa p o o ls id e bar, ch ild re n 's p oo l, te n n is co u rts,
; enaissance.The hotel is 75 minutes'drive from the airport with gardens 9-hole g o lf co u rse, g y m , sh o p s a n d h e a lth
eading down over the sand dunes to the wide expanse of Colva beach. sp a. A u n iq u e ly d e c o r a te d o p e n lo u n g e

Figure 20.27 b a r is p o p u la r fo r pre- o r p o st- d in n e r d rin ks

Facilities: A spacious, open-plan lobby with attractive lobby bar
a n d d in in g is a g a s tro n o m ic d e lig h t w it h a
averlooks the gardens; there is also a main restaurant, an informal From a Kuoni c h o ic e o f tra d itio n a l In d ia n , in te rn a tio n a l
:offee shop and an outdoor barbecue terrace with regular live travel brochure a n d Ita lian cu isin es. F ro m its o w n
entertainment.The hotel has a large freeform swimming pool with
w a te r s p o rts c e n tre o n t h e b e a c h is sailing,
swim-up bar and a fitness centre with a sauna,jacuzzi, massage and
oeauty parlour. Windsurfing from the beach, and there is table tennis, p a ra sa ilin g an d w a t e r skiing.

chess, floodlit tennis courts as well as a 9-hole pitch and putt course. A ccom m odation: 137 ro o m s

A c c o m m o d a tio n : 202 rooms

Further reference www.ecotourism.org

Wyne, M. (2007) 'M odelling tourism ',
Chapman, R. (2007) 'Sustainable Geography Review Vol 20 No 3 (January), www.geog.nau.edu/tg/
tourism', Geography Review Vol 20 No 3 UK National Parks:
j Kenya's Tourism and National Parks:
(January). www.nationalparks.gov.uk
www.tourism.go.ke/wildlife_ministry.
Chapman, R. (2007) 'Ecotourism', nsf/ministryparks UN World Tourism Organization
Geography Review Vol 20 No 4 (March). (WTO), global tourism facts:
Peak District National Park: www.unwto.org/facts/eng/highlights.htm
Dove, J. (2004) Tourism and Recreation, www.peakdistrict.org
Hodder & Stoughton.
Sustainable tourism:
Dove, J. (2007) 'Tourism: impact on the www.peopleandplanet.net/doc/
Yucatan Peninsula', Geography Review php?id=1110
Vol 20 No 5 (May).
Activities

1 a W h a t is t o u r is m ? (1 m ark)
b i G iv e fo u r fa c t o r s t h a t h a v e h e lp e d c a u s e t h e
g r o w t h o f w o r ld t o u r is m s in c e 1960. (4 marks)
ii F o r e a c h o f y o u r a n s w e r s in i, e x p la in w h y th is
f a c t o r le d to a g r o w t h o f t o u ris m . (4 marks)
c W it h re fe r e n c e to a n a m e d re s o rt o r t o u r is t a re a
t h a t y o u h a v e s tu d ie d , e x p la in h o w t h e g r o w t h o f
t o u r is m h a s b r o u g h t b o th :

i b e n e fits a n d

ii p ro b le m s to t h e p e o p le w h o live in t h e a re a . ( 10marks)
d If t o u r is m s ta rts to d e c lin e in a n a re a it c a n c a u s e
s e rio u s e c o n o m ic p r o b le m s . N a m e a t o u r is t a re a
w h e r e t h e in d u s t r y h a s s ta rte d to d e c lin e . D e s c r ib e
h o w t h e a re a has a d a p t e d to t r y t o s to p t h e d e c lin e .
(6 marks)

2 S t u d y F ig u re 20.28.

a Fo r e a c h p h o to g ra p h :
i D e s c r ib e t h e a t t r a c t io n s o f t h e a re a t h a t m a k e
it a s u it a b le to u r is t d e s tin a t io n . (6 marks)
ii S u g g e s t w h ic h s e c t o r o f t h e h o lid a y s m a r k e t
th is a re a w ill p a r t ic u la r ly a p p e a l to . (3 marks)
iii S u g g e s t h o w t o u r is m h a s b r o u g h t a d v a n t a g e s
a n d d is a d v a n t a g e s to t h e p e o p le o f t h e a re a . (6 marks)

b In m a n y t o u r is t a re a s t h e n a tu ra l e n v ir o n m e n t is
a m a jo r a t t r a c t io n fo r to u ris ts . U n f o r t u n a t e ly t h e
p re s s u re o f t o u r is m t h r e a t e n s to d e s tr o y t h e n a tu ra l
e n v ir o n m e n t .

F o r a n a m e d t o u r is t a re a , e x p la in h o w m a n a g e m e n t
s t r a t e g ie s h a v e b e e n , a re b e in g , o r c o u ld b e d e v e lo p e d
t o a llo w to u r is m to c o n t in u e w i t h o u t d e s tr o y in g t h e
e n v ir o n m e n t . (10 marks)

W h a t is 'e c o t o u r is m '? (1 m ark)

ii N a m e a n e x a m p le o f a p la c e in a less e c o n o m ic a lly
d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r y w h e r e e c o t o u r is m h a s b e e n
d e v e lo p e d . (1 m ark)
iii D e s c r ib e t h e a t t r a c t io n s fo r e c o t o u r is t s o f t h e
a re a t h a t y o u n a m e d in ii. (4 marks)
iv E x p la in h o w e c o t o u r is m h a s b r o u g h t s p e c ific
b e n e fits to t h e p e o p le a n d t h e e n v ir o n m e n t in t h e
a re a . (6 marks)
b W it h re fe r e n c e t o t h e C a ir n g o r m s o r a n o t h e r
m o u n t a in o u s a re a in t h e U K t h a t is b e in g d a m a g e d
b y in c r e a s e d t o u r is t p re s s u re :

i e x p la in w h y t h e n u m b e r o f to u ris ts h a s in c r e a s e d
in r e c e n t y e a rs (4 m arks)
ii e x p la in h o w t h e to u r is t p re s s u re is d a m a g in g
t h e e n v ir o n m e n t (4 marks)
iii d e s c r ib e o n e m a n a g e m e n t s t r a t e g y t h a t a im s
Figure 20.28
t o r e d u c e t h e d a m a g e b e in g d o n e , a n d e x p la in
h o w t h e s t r a t e g y is in t e n d e d to w o rk . (5 marks) a Spain, b Nepal, c Greece

602 Tourism
Exam practice: basic structured questions

S t u d y F ig u re 20.28.
C a rib b e a n & L a tin A m e ric a 2 %
a D e s c rib e t h e to u rist a ttra c tio n s o f e a c h o f th e
A fric a 3 %
are as s h o w n in t h e p h o to g ra p h s . (6 marks) \ A u stra lia & N e w Z e a la n d 1 %
b Butler's m o d e l o f th e life c y c le o f a to u rist reso rt N o rth A m e ric a 6 % --- \ \
\ . \ n
s h o w s t h e fo llo w in g stages:

•e x p lo ra tio n
O th e r E u r o p e 1 5 % -
• in v o lv e m e n t S p a in 2 8 %
•d e v e lo p m e n t
•c o n s o lid a tio n B e lg iu m /
L u x e m b o u rg 2 % -
•s ta g n a tio n
00
<U F ra n c e 1 8 %
• re ju v e n a tio n o r d eclin e . N e th e rla n d s 3 % " u
<V
S u g g e s t, w ith reasons, w h ic h s ta g e h as b e e n
Irish R e p u b lic 3 % '
re a c h e d b y e a c h o f t h e to u rist are as s h o w n in th e
p h o to g ra p h s . (12 marks)
c N a m e a to u rist re so rt th a t has re a c h e d t h e later G e rm a n y 3 % [
sta g e s o f t h e m o d e l, an d e x p la in w h a t is b e in g
P o rtu g a l 4 %
d o n e to re ju v e n a te t h e to u rist in d u s try th e re . (7marks)
Figure 20.29
a R efer to F ig u re 20.29. N a m e t h e m o st p o p u la r d e s tin a tio n s
fo r to u rists fro m t h e U K in : Foreign holidays taken
i E u ro p e by UK residents
ii re g io n s o u ts id e E u ro p e . (2marks)
b i W it h re fe re n c e o n ly to h o lid a y s ta k e n in E u ro p e I Region of origin Millions % change 2005/06 I
b y re sid e n ts o f t h e UK, d e s c rib e a n d a c c o u n t fo r
Africa 24.5 12.1
t h e d is trib u tio n o f t h e m a in h o lid a y d es tin atio n s.
(5 marks) Americas 142.2 3.7
ii T h e n u m b e r o f U K re sid e n ts ta k in g h o lid a y s in
Asia & Pacific 166.5 7.7
E u ro p e in F e b ru a ry is fairly sm all. S u g g e s t, w ith reasons,
h o w t h e d is trib u tio n o f h o lid a y d e s tin a tio n s is lik ely t o b e Europe 473.7 4.7
d iffe re n t fro m t h a t s h o w n o n Fig u re 20.29. (6marks) Figure 20.30
c S t u d y F ig u re 20.30. D e s c rib e a n d e x p la in t h e p a tte rn s s h o w n Middle East 24.8 8.9 International
b y t h e d a ta o f to u rism fro m t h e d iffe re n t w o rld regions. arrivals to UK,
World 846.0 5.4
(12 marks) 2005/06

E xam p ractice; s tru c tu re d q u e s tio n s

6 T h e P e a k Pa rk A u th o rity issu ed a re vise d M a n a g e m e n t P la n f o r t h e P e a k P a rk c o u ld h e lp to m a n a g e a n d re d u c e

P la n for 2006-11. lan d u se co n flict.
T h e t w o m a in p rin cip le s u n d e rp in n in g t h a t p la n are: Y ou m u s t m a k e re fe re n c e to sp e cific co n flic ts
•p a rtn e rs h ip w o rk in g in n a m e d p laces. (18marks)
•s u s ta in a b le d e v e lo p m e n t.
7 S t u d y t h e ta b le b e lo w F ig u re 20.9 o n p a g e 591.
R e fe rrin g to t h e P e a k D istrict N a tio n a l Pa rk o r to a n y
a T h e re has re c e n tly b e e n a n in c re a se in th e n u m b e r
o th e r to u rist are a t h a t y o u h a v e stu d ie d :
o f p ro te c te d areas in t h e UK. Ex p lain w h y . (10marks)
a D e s c rib e h o w c o n flic ts ca n arise b e t w e e n d iffe re n t g ro u p s
b W it h re fe re n c e to o n e o r m o re su ch areas, e x p lain
a n d in d iv id u a ls w h o u se t h e lan d in t h e Park. (7marks)
h o w t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f p ro te c te d a re as is a ffe c tin g
b D iscu ss h o w t h e aim s an d p rin cip le s o f t h e M a n a g e m e n t to u rism . (15marks)

E xam p ractice: essays

E x p la in h o w t o u r is m c a n b rin g b o t h a d v a n t a g e s D is c u s s th is w it h r e fe r e n c e to e x a m p le s t h a t y o u
a n d d is a d v a n t a g e s to t h e p e o p le a n d e n v ir o n m e n t h a v e s tu d ie d . (25 marks)
in a re a s w h e r e it d e v e lo p s . M a k e r e f e r e n c e to c o u n t r ie s
a t d iffe r e n t s t a g e s o f d e v e lo p m e n t . (25 marks) 10 A c c o u n t f o r t h e re c e n t ra p id g r o w t h o f t o u r is m in G o a
(o r in a n y o t h e r t o u r is t r e s o rt in a le ss d e v e lo p e d c o u n t r y
C a n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t o u r is m le a d to s u s t a in a b le t h a t y o u h a v e s t u d ie d ). (25 marks)
d e v e l o p m e n t in p o o r, r e m o t e a re a s o f t h e w o r ld ?

Tourism 603
 Development and
globalisation
'One world, one dream .' D e fin itio n of term s
Beijing O lym pics, 2008
Terms such as 'developed' and 'developing' have
'.D evelopm ent is m ore than m ere econom ics.' been used for several decades to indicate the
M arkTully, No FullStops in India, 1991 economic conditions of a group of people or a
country. By the 1980s, the term 'developing' had
The concept of economic come to be regarded as a stigma and was replaced
development by the concept of the 'South' (Brandt Report, 1980)
and, with increasing popularity, the 'Third World'
Frequent references have been made in earlier
(Figure 21.1). By the 1990s, with the growing reali­
chapters to the inequalities in world development
sation and appreciation that poverty is relative, not
and prosperity. Gilbert, in his book An Unequal
absolute, the terms more econom ically developed
World, began by stating that:
countries (MEDCs) or 'advanced economies', and
'Few can deny that the world's wealth is highly
less econom ically developed countries (LEDCs)
concentrated. The populations of North America
or 'developing economies' became increasingly
and Western Europe eat well, consume most
acceptable. Even more recently the nations that
of the world's fuel, drive most of the cars, live
had, a decade or two earlier, been grouped together
in generally well serviced homes and usually
as belonging to the 'developing economies' had
survive their full three score years and ten. By
now shown among themselves a widening spread
contrast, many people in Africa, Asia and Latin
of wealth and living standards, for example the
America are less fortunate. In most parts of these
growing gap between the NICs (newly industrial­
continents a majority of the population lack bal­
ised counties, page 578) and, today, the emerging
anced diets, reliable drinking water, decent serv­
countries (BRIC - Brazil, Russia, India and China)
Figure 21.1
ices and adequate incomes. Many cannot read or
with those of sub-Saharan Africa.
write, many are sick and malnourished, and too
Term s used in re la tio n All these definitions (summarised in
many children die before the age of five.'
to w o rld d e v e lo p m e n t Figure 21.1) were based on, and overemphasised,
econom ic growth. To those living in a Western,
development
____ l_____ industrialised society, econom ic development
(o ften fo rm e r colonial (o ften fo rm e r co lo n ies) tends to be synonymous with wealth, i.e. a coun­
p o w e rs) try's material standard of living. This is measured
i
'e c o n o m ic a lly d e v e lo p e d ' 'e co n o m ic a lly d e v e lo p in g '
as the gross dom estic product (GDP) per capita
(d e v e lo p e d co u n trie s - (d e v e lo p in g co u n trie s -
and is obtained by dividing the monetary value of
a d v a n c e d ec o n o m ie s ) d e v e lo p in g e c o n o m ies) m a in ly b ased u p o n all the goods and services produced in a country
I . i ,
e c o n o m ic w e a lth by its total population. W hen trade figures for

r th e N o rth

cap italist or
m a rke t
—
cen tra lly p la n n ed
o r socialist
th e S o u th

th e T h ird W o rld '

(G D P a n d G N P )
'invisibles' (mostly financial services and deals)
are included, the term gross national product
(GNP) is used. It is possible to use either term -
e c o n o m ie s e c o n o m ie s GDP is preferred by the EU, and GNP by the UN
until 1990 (our usual source of data) and the USA - as both
f b ased u p o n aim to measure the wealth of a country and to
m o re d e v e lo p e d n e w ly less d e v e lo p e d e c o n o m ic w e a lth
co u n trie s (M D C s) in dustrialised (N ICs) cou n tries (LD Cs)
show the differences in wealth between coun­
a n d social w e ll­
and e m e rg in g co u n trie s b e in g tries. GDP and GNP figures need to be treated
cautiously due to problems with exchange rates,
high HD I and ra p id ly in creasing lo w HD I and b a sed u p o n social
h u m a n rights PQ LI a n d HD I h u m a n rights differences between countries in their methods of
w ell-being
in d ices in dices in dices calculation, and difficulties in evaluating services.
Note: For consistency, the terms 'econom ically more developed' or 'developed', and 'econom ically less
developed' or 'developing' are mainly used in this book.

604 Development and globalisation

 Recently, an increasing number of definitions,
often involving cultural development, social well­
being and political rights, have been suggested as
alternatives to those previously based solely upon
economic criteria - i.e. they emphasise 'quality
of life' in contrast to 'standard of living'. In the
early 1990s, the UN introduced the term Human
Development Index (HDI) - see page 606.
Development is not just the difference between
the developed, rich and powerful countries and
those that are less developed, poor and subordinate.
Each country has areas of prosperity and poverty;
contains people with different standards of living
based on variations in job opportunities (Shanghai
and Sichuan in China), race or tribe (Hutu and Tutsi
in Rwanda), religion (Sunnis and Shi'ites in Iraq),
language (Dutch-speaking Flemings and French-
speaking Walloons in Belgium), or social class (caste
in India). Taken a step further, it is also possible to
identify differences in development within cities
(Places 52 and 58) and inequality between genders.
The difference in wealth and standard of living
between the world's richest and poorest countries is
referred to as the development gap. Despite some
attempts to the contrary (aid - page 632), this gap
continues to widen (debt - page 608), particularly as
globalisation puts increasing power into the hands
of the most wealthy countries and organisations.
What is meant by globalisations?
Globalisation is a relatively new term. It has a wide
range of meanings but generally refers to proc­
esses that extend globally to affect or integrate
people across the entire world. From a geographer's
point of view, it includes any process of change
Figure 21.2
tra d e - g lo b a l m a rk e t
R eferences to (2 1 )
g lo b a lis a tio n
fo o d s u p p lie s
T N C s/N IC s/e m e rg in g
c o u n trie s (19 a n d 21)
d e v e lo p m e n t g a p
( 21)
cultural/
e th n ic ity
(13)
p o p u la tio n g ro w th
(13)
m ig ra tio n
(13)
h e a lth - H IV /A ID S
(21)
m u s ic a n d s p o rt (P re m ie r
L e a g u e fo o tb a ll te a m s,
O ly m p ic G a m e s )
that occurs at a world scale and which has world­
wide effects. These processes may be considered
to be physical (e.g. rising sea-level), human and
economic (e.g. trade) or a combination of both
(e.g. global warming) but they are considered to
be essentially geographical in that they affect the
Earth's environment and its people.
The links created by globalisation are
increasing both in range and scale, and are devel­
oping at an ever increasing pace. These links,
w hich may be considered to be environmental,
economic, technological, cultural, sociological
or political, can have - often depending on your
own viewpoint - either beneficial or detrimental
effects. Some would argue that globalisation
spreads wealth, knowledge and personal contacts
across the world; others that it is creating an unfair
world in which rich countries and large organisa­
tions exploit the world's poorest peoples which
increases, rather than reduces, the 'development
gap'. Figure 21.2 is one of several possible sche­
matic diagrams showings topics related to glo­
balisation that appear within this text, e.g. trade,
transport, tourism, migration, aid, health, finance
and technology.
Development v. globalisation
It is not straightforward to try to link devel­
opm ent and globalisation. Development has
conventionally been understood as something
that happens, or fails to happen, to countries.
Globalisation is increasingly being regarded as a
process that disintegrates national economies and
constitutes new spatial patterns, e.g. trading blocs,
innovative regions, international banking.
tra n s p o rt - q u ic k e r tim es, te c h n o lo g y - e m a ils / In te rn e t,
s h o rte r d is ta n c e s (21) m o b ile p h o n e s (21)
(16)
fa sh io n
economic ( 21 ) e n e r g y su p p lie s
( 18)
U N o rg a n is a tio n s
(U N E S C O , U N IC E F,
W TO, W H O )
GLOBALISATION political (2 1 )
social
fin a n c e a n d in te rn a tio n a l
b a n k in g - W o r ld B a n k
( 21)
environmental
aid
g lo b a l w a rm in g (21)
(9) to u ris m
(2 0 )
c a rb o n c re d its (21) a n d
reso u rce s e c o lo g ic a l fo o tp rin ts (13) rising sea-level
(4 a n d 6)
(18)
(12) = c h a p te r n u m b e r in th is te x t

Figure 21.3
W o rld GDP
Source: The UC A tlas
o f G lobal In e q u a lity
□ n o d a ta
C rite ria for measuring the
'development gap'
1 Economic wealth
To many people living in developed countries,
econom ic development has been associated with
a growth in wealth based on GDP (or GNP). This
implies that the GDP (or GNP) of a country has
to increase if its standard of living and quality of
life are to improve. An econom ic growth rate of
8 to 10 per cent, which is the highest, has been
achieved in China and Ireland in recent years, and
by several South-east Asian countries over the past
decade or two (Figure 19.38). A rate of 1 per cent is
considered disappointing.
Although GDP/GNP figures are easier to
measure and to obtain than other development
indicators such as social well-being, there are limi­
tations to their use and validity. They are more
accurate in countries that have many economic
transactions and where goods, services and labour
can be measured as they pass through a market
place - hence the term 'market economies'. Where
markets are less well developed, and trading is
done informally or through bartering, and where
much production takes place in the home for per­
sonal subsistence, GDP figures are less reliable. In
the former centrally planned, socialist economies,
with their relatively small role in international
trade and with few services, GDP figures were
difficult to calculate and interpret.
Comparison of GDP requires the use of a
single currency, generally US dollars, but cur­
rency exchange rates fluctuate. The size and
growth of GDP may prove to be poor long-term
econom ic indicators and fail to take into consid­
eration hum an and natural resources. GDP per
capita is a crude average and hides extremes and
uneven distribution of incom e between regions
and across socio-econom ic groups, especially
in less developed countries where there may be
very few extremely wealthy people and a large
m ajority living at subsistence level. Despite these
limitations, GDP and GNP are still regarded
as relatively good indicators of development
and good measures for comparing differences
between countries (Figure 21.3). Notice that it
is the advanced econom ies and several of the
oil-producing states that have the highest GDP
per capita and the developing econom ies that
have the lowest, although the fastest-growing
are China and several others in South-east Asia.
The World Bank now produces figures for incom e
inequality within some countries, e.g. Brazil.
2 Social, cultural and welfare criteria
Human development has changed the purpose
of development to that of meeting human needs,
and away from the old style of econom ic develop­
ment based on changes in a country's economy
and wealth. The UN Development Programme's
Human Development Index (HDI) gives every
 country a score between 0 and 1, based on its
citizens' longevity, education and income. The
three factors are given equal weight. Longevity is
measured by average life expectancy at birth - the
most straightforward measure of health and safety.
Education is derived from the adult literacy rate
and the average number of years of schooling.
Income is based on GDP per capita converted
to 'purchasing power parity dollars' (PPP) and
is adjusted according to the law of diminishing
returns, i.e. what an actual incom e will buy in a
country. The HDI value for a country shows the
distance that it has already travelled towards the
maximum possible value of 1, and also allows
comparisons with other countries (Figure 21.4).
The difference between the value achieved by a
country and the maximum possible value shows
the country's shortfall, i.e. how far the country
has to go. Finding ways of reducing this shortfall
is a major challenge for each country.
As the table on the right shows, it is countries
in Scandinavia that now top the HDI list and
countries in the Sahel of sub-Saharan Africa that
tend to be at its foot - an interesting latitude effect.
Countries with a score of over 0.9 correspond
A major criticism of the HDI is that it con ­
tains no measure of hum an rights or freedom.
Although the UNDP did produce a separate
H um an Freedom Index (HFI) in 1991, it has not
done so since, arguing that 'freedom is difficult
to measure and is too volatile, given military
coups and the whims of dictators'. The issue of
personal and political rights has become increas­
ingly im portant since then.
Perhaps the main point about HDI is that it
enables you to spot anomalies, e.g. countries that
have a better (Canada, Sri Lanka and Tanzania)
or worse (Saudi Arabia and other oil-producing
countries) level of well-being than might be
expected from their GNP. HDI can serve a
purpose if it identifies where poverty is greatest
(between countries, w ithin a country or between
groups of people in a country) or if it stimulates
debate and action as to where aid, trade and debt
alleviation needs to be focused.
Year Top tw o Bottom two
1990 Canada 0.93 N ig er 0 .2 8
Japan 0.92 M a li 0 .30

closely with the economically more developed 1995 N o rw a y 0 .9 4 N ig er 0 .30

countries while those with less than 0.5 equate
Canada 0 .9 4 M a li 0 .32
closely with the least economically developed
countries (compare Figures 21.3 and 21.4). 2 000 N o rw a y 0 .9 6 Sierra Leone 0.31
Figure21.4 Yet should the similarities between GDP and
S w eden 0.95 N ig er 0 .32
The UN H um an HDI really be that surprising? Longevity, a good
D e v e lo p m e n t education and a high purchasing power all depend 2 005 Iceland 0.97 S ierra Leone 0 .3 4
In d e x (2 0 0 5 ) W o rld
fairly directly on a country's wealth.
d e v e lo p m e n t N o rw a y 0.97 B urkin a Faso 0 .37

'o p ic o f C a n c e r 2 3 | ° N

Equator 0°

'r o p i c o f C a p r ic o r n 2 3 | ° S

h ig h (0.8 a n d o v e r)
m e d iu m (h ig h ) (0.715-0.799)
m e d iu m (lo w ) (0.5-0.714)
lo w (u n d e r 0.5)
n o d a ta
 3 O th e r c rite ria for m e a s u rin g th e
'development gap'
Further criteria have also been used to measure the
quality of life as an indicator of levels of, or stages
in, development. Several are linked to popula­
tion as, in developing countries, birth rates are
generally high, the natural increase is rapid, life
expectancy is shorter and a high percentage of the
population is aged under 15 (Figures 13.15 and
13.21). Higher death and infant mortality rates
reflect the inadequacy of nutrition, health and
medical care. In many developing countries, the
prevalence of disease may result from an unbal­
anced diet, a lack of clean water and poor sanita­
tion - a situation often aggravated by the limited
numbers of doctors and hospital beds per person.
The major-ity of people live in rural areas and are
dependent upon farming, while in the country as
a whole only a small percentage of the population
is likely to find employment in manufacturing or
service industries. Many jobs are at a subsistence
level, in the informal sector (page 574) and the
amount of energy consumed within the country
is low (Figure 18.25). Economically less developed
countries often import manufactured goods,
energy supplies and sometimes even foodstuffs,
especially grain. In return, they may export raw
materials for processing in the developed world
(Figure 21.36), accumulate a trade deficit and get
increasingly into debt (page 624). High rates of
Kenya: wom en and developm ent
M a r ie t t a live s o n a sm all shamba (fa rm ) ju s t o u t s id e
T s a v o N a tio n a l P a rk in so u th - e a s t K e n y a (F ig u re
21.5). W it h h e r h u s b a n d w o r k in g 250 k m a w a y in
M o m b a s a , a n d h e r n e a re s t n e ig h b o u r liv in g 3 km
a w a y , M a r ie t t a is le ft a lo n e to lo o k a fte r t h e fa r m a n d
h e r s e v e n c h ild re n . H e r d a y b e g in s b y s h a rp e n in g
t h e m a c h e t e n e e d e d to c o lle c t t h e d a ily s u p p ly o f
d e a d w o o d (liv in g tre e s a re le ft fo r a n im a l g ra z in g ),
as th is is h e r o n ly s o u rc e o f e n e r g y ( p a g e 543), a n d
b y p re p a rin g a m e a l fo r t h e fa m ily . T h e e ld e s t girls,
b e fo re w a lk in g to s c h o o l, c o lle c t w a t e r fro m t h e rive r
1 k m a w a y . M u c h o f M a rie tta 's d a y is s p e n t c o lle c t in g
fir e w o o d a n d lo o k in g a fte r h e r c ro p s (m a iz e , b e a n s
a n d s o rg h u m ). A lt h o u g h o w n in g a f e w c h ic k e n s
a n d g o a ts, M a r ie t t a 's 'w e a lt h 'is h e r t w o c o w s w h ic h
p r o v id e m ilk a n d a re u s e d to p lo u g h t h e h a rd
g ro u n d . It is e s s e n tia l t h a t t h e s e c o w s re m a in h e a lt h y
fo r e v e n if t h e v e t, liv in g o v e r 50 k m a w a y , d id call,
M a r ie t t a w o u ld n o t b e a b le to a ffo rd t h e bill. H e lp e d
b y P ra c tic a l A c t io n (P la c e s 90, p a g e 5 77), M a r ie t t a
has b e c o m e a wasaidizi a n d h a s b e e n g iv e n b a sic
t r a in in g in a n im a l h e a lth ca re . E a c h w e e k , s h e s p e n d s
608 Development and globalisation
illiteracy reflect a shortage of schools and trained
teachers. The density of com m unication networks,
circulation of newspapers and numbers of cars,
telephones and television sets per household or
per capita have also been used as indicators of
development.
S ocial a n d economic d e velo p m e n t
An often neglected factor in social and economic
development is gender, and in particular the role of
women. Places 96 describes the lifestyle of a Kenyan
woman who, like many other women across the
world, is the principal support of her family and
local community. It is women like these who form
the mainstay of the family, of women's groups, the
community and, indeed, of a nation's develop­
ment. Yet their role as providers and generators of
wealth is not matched in most societies by their
status or influence. Women (and not just in devel­
oping countries) are often:
■ denied ownership of property (including
land), access to wealth, education and family
planning (page 357) and equality in justice
and em ploym ent
■ kept subordinate by being granted lowly posi­
tions or given m enial tasks which are often
poorly paid or even unpaid (farming) or are
heavy, tedious and tim e-consum ing (col­
lecting firewood and water)
a subject to violence, both physical and m ental
■ denied political influence.
t w o m o r n in g s in h e r 's u r g e r y 'in t h e lo c a l v illa g e (a
fo u r- h o u r ro u n d w a lk a lo n g a tra c k w h e re , ju s t p rio r
to t h e a u th o r 's visit, a lio n h a d k ille d a v illa g e r ) a n d
o t h e r d a y s v is itin g lo cal fa rm s. S h e e a rn s a sm all
c o m m is s io n fr o m t h e sa le o f v a c c in e s a n d m e d ic in e ,
b u t d o e s n o t re c e iv e a salary.
Figure 21.5
M a rie tta a t
h e r's u rg e ry '
 Living in extreme poverty p o o r fam ilie s
e a c h w ith several

At the beginning of the 21st century, the UN ch ild re n

claimed that nearly 1 billion people lived

in extrem e (or absolute) poverty, which
meant that 1 person in every 6 of the
c h ild re n b e c o m e e arn v e ry
world's population was struggling for sur­
e v e n p o o re r th a n little o r no
vival. Poor countries were finding them ­ th e ir p are n ts m oney
selves falling further and further behind

t
the richer countries and the 'development cycle of
gap' was continuing to grow. As this gap poverty
widened, people in the poorest countries 1
g e t w o rst- paid 1 1 ch ild re n g et 1
became caught up in the so-called 'cycle
jo b s or fin d no little o r no
of poverty' (Figure 21.6), which leaves suc­
w o rk at all [ ; e d u c a tio n j
cessive generations in a 'poverty trap’ from
which there appears little hope of escape.
At the Millennium Summit of 2000, world
leaders committed their nations to a new global c h ild re n m a y be
partnership aimed at reducing extreme poverty. illiterate an d d e v e lo p
They set out a series of targets which have become lim ite d skills

known as the Millennium Development Goals

(MDGs) and which they hoped would be achieved
by 2015 (Figure 21.7). Within five years significant
progress had been made in many parts of the world.
The number in extreme poverty had declined by an
estimated 130 million, average overall incomes had
increased by 21 per cent, infant mortality had fallen
from 103 per 1000 live births to 88, life expectancy
had risen from 63 years to 65, and an extra 8 per
cent of the developing world's people had access to
clean water and 15 per cent to improved sanitation.
A report by the UN Millennium Project secre­
tariat team in 2006 concluded, however, that this
progress had not been uniform and that there were
still huge disparities not only between countries
but especially between rural areas, where extreme
poverty is often still increasing, and urban areas.
The team said that sub-Saharan Africa was at the
Figure 21.7
Figure 21.6
The cycle o f p o v e rty
centre of the crisis, with continuing food insecurity
(page 503), extremely high child and maternal mor­
tality, large numbers living in sub-standard accom­
modation and a widespread shortfall for most of
the MDGs. According to the Human Poverty Index
(HPI), the world's six poorest countries were, in
descending order, Sierra Leone, Niger, Ethiopia,
Burkina Faso, Mali and, at the foot, Chad. Asia was
the region with the fastest progress, but even there
thousands of people remained in extreme poverty
and even the fastest improving countries still failed
to meet non-income goals.

M ille n n iu m D e v e lo p m e n t G oals (MDGs)

a n d basic h u m a n rig h ts

MDGs need to address: MDGs should between 1990 and 2015:

• in c o m e p o v e rty -h u n g e r • red u ce by t w o - th ir d s th e u n d e r-5 s

m o rta lity rate
• lack o f a d e q u a te s h e lte r -d is e a se
• have h a lte d a n d b e g u n to reverse th e
• lack o f clean w a te r -e x c lu s io n
spread o f HIV a nd AIDS
MDGs need to promote: • reduce by th re e -q u a rte rs th e m a te rn a l
m o r ta lity rate
• g e n d e r e q u a lity -e d u c a tio n
• a im to h a lv e th e n u m b e r o f p e o p le su ffe rin g
• e n v iro n m e n ta l s u s ta in a b ility
fro m h u n g e r, liv in g o n u n d e r $1 p er d ay, w ith o u t
MDGs should ensure the basic rights of: access to safe d rin k in g w a te r a n d w ith o u t access
to basic s a n ita tio n
• h e a lth -s h e lte r
• e lim in a te g e n d e r d is p a rity in e d u c a tio n
• e d u c a tio n -e d u c a tio n

Figure 21.8

L ivin g in e x tre m e
p o v e rty
 M ille n n iu m Development Goals on
water
As shown in Figure 21.7, a lack of dean water
is one of six features that characterises living in
extreme poverty, and two of the MDGs were to
reduce by half by 2015 the number who in 1990
lived w ithout access to safe water and without
access to basic sanitation. An earlier attempt by
the UN to provide water and sanitation for all
by 1990 was the International Drinking Water
Supply and Sanitation Decade launched in 1980.
This ambitious target was never reached. The year
2008 was designated the International Year of
Sanitation. Will this attempt be more successful?
It was also in 2008 that the UN claimed a
Figure 21,9
P ercentage o f th e p o p u la tio n
w ith access to safe w a te r
number of facts:
■ It would take an extra US$10 billion per
annum to achieve the MDGs by 2015.
■ 1.1 billion people - 1 in 6 of the world's
population - did not have access to safe water
(Figure 21.9).
a 2.6 billion people - more than 2 in 6 of the
world's population - did n ot have adequate
sanitation.
■ If all the Earth's water was poured into a
bucket then, as 97.5 per cent of it is saltwater,
the fresh water available for drinking (the
rem aining 2.5 per cent) would be the equiva­
lent of one teaspoonful (and that assumes it is
not polluted).
s At any given time, almost half the total popu­
lation of the developing countries is suffering
from one or more of the m ain diseases such
as diarrhoea, cholera, typhoid and bilharzia
(Figure 21.27) that result from the inadequate
610 Development and globalisation
provision of safe water and sanitation, and
half of the hospital beds in the developing
world are occupied by people with w'ater-
related illnesses.
Water-related disease is the second major
cause of death for children, with a total of
almost 2 m illion dying across the world each
year and 5000 a day in developing countries.
In semi-arid areas, obtaining water is time
consum ing at the best - Figure 21.11 shows
women carrying water, w hich could weigh
20 kg, on their heads and taking several hours
to collect from a source several kilometres
away. Such unreliable sources becom e life
threatening during times of drought (Figure
16.5).
W hereas an average person living in Europe
uses 200 litres of water a day - half that of
someone living in the USA - a person living
in a developing country may only have 10
litres for washing, cooking and drinking.
i The demand for water in the 20th century
increased by more than twice the rate of pop­
ulation growth and this demand is expected
to rise by another 40 per cent by 2030.
Although safe water and adequate sanitation
may be difficult to find in shanty settlements
of cities in developing countries (pages 443
and 445), urban areas are usually much better
off than more remote rural areas (Figure
21 . 10 ) .
! Increasing attention needs to be paid to
virtual w ater. This is w'ater that appears in
food products or is needed to manufacture
goods. Agriculture accounts for over 70 per
cent of water consum ption as it can take 1000
litres to produce 1 kg of potatoes, 1450 litres
for 1 kg of wheat and 3450 litres for 1 kg of
rice. A country consumes even more water if
it imports fresh fruit and vegetables.
A c c e ss to safe A cce ss to
100
w a te r s u p p ly s a n ita tio n
90
80 u rb a n
70- u rb a n
60
50-
40
30
20 rural
10
Figure 21.10
Safe w a te r and s a n ita tio n : w o rld to ta l
 Figure 21. I I

W o m e n c a rry in g w a te r

In early 2008, the Secretary-General of the UN

expressed concern over the increasing num ber of
global conflicts resulting from water shortages.
As consum ption increases and resources dwindle,
conflicts over water are becom ing more heated as
people downriver find themselves at the mercy
of those upriver, with irrigation and dam co n ­
struction the m ajor flashpoints. W hile water dis­
putes may not be a single cause for warfare, they
can inflam e existing tensions.

Malawi and Ethio pia:W aterA id

In 2006, W a t e r A id c e le b r a t e d its tw e n ty - fifth y e a r a n d Malawi

w a s c r e d ite d to b e B ritain 's m o s t a d m ir e d c h a rity .T o
M a la w i is o n e o f t h e w o r ld 's p o o re s t c o u n t r ie s w it h
d a te , W a t e r A id h a s h e lp e d o v e r 12 m illio n p e o p le in
65 p e r c e n t liv in g b e l o w t h e p o v e r t y lin e a n d a life
d e v e lo p in g c o u n trie s t o g a in a c c e s s to safe, c le a n
e x p e c t a n c y o f less t h a n 40 y e a rs. O n ly 73 p e r c e n t o f
w a t e r a n d to im p r o v e d s a n ita tio n . Its a im s a r e to h e lp
t h e 1 1 .2 m illio n in h a b it a n t s h a v e a c c e s s t o sa fe w a t e r
p e o p le in s o m e o f t h e p o o re s t c o u n trie s :
a n d o n ly 61 p e r c e n t to s a n ita tio n . W a t e r A id b e g a n to

• to s e t u p , o p e r a t e a n d m a in t a in t h e ir o w n sa fe w o r k h e r e in 1999 a n d n o w h a s fo u r o n g o in g p ro je c ts

d o m e s t ic w a t e r a n d s a n ita t io n fa c ilitie s in ru ral are a s a n d o n e in t h e c a p ita l o f L ilo n g w e .

Figure21.12
W a te rA id p u m p s b rin g
cle a n w a te r to A frica n
villa g e s
T w o s c h e m e s in ru ral a re a s in c lu d e d ig g in g o v e r 2 00
• to le a rn a b o u t s a fe h y g ie n e p r a c t ic e s so t h a t
w e lls in t h e S a lim a D is tric t t o re a c h c le a n s u p p lie s
t h e y g a in m a x im u m h e a lt h b e n e fits .
o f u n d e r g r o u n d w a t e r a n d t h e n u s in g m o d e r n
It a c h ie v e s t h e s e a im s b y h e lp in g lo c al o rg a n is a tio n s
p u m p s t o raise th is w a t e r to t h e s u r fa c e w h e r e it is
to s e t u p lo w -co st, s u s ta in a b le p ro je c ts t h a t use
p ro v id in g safe w a t e r fo r 26 0 0 0 p e o p le (F ig u re 21.12),
a p p r o p r ia t e t e c h n o lo g y a n d w h ic h c a n b e m a n a g e d
a n d re h a b ilita tin g e x is tin g p ip e d w a t e r s y s te m s in
b y t h e c o m m u n it y itself. W a t e r A id , w h ic h re lie s o n
M a c h in g a D is tric t to p r o v id e 15 000 p e o p le w it h
d o n a tio n s , c a n p r o v id e safe w a te r, s a n ita tio n a n d
safe w a te r . O n e in n o v a t iv e a p p r o a c h e n c o u r a g e s
h y g ie n e e d u c a tio n fo r ju s t £15 p e r p e rs o n - b a sic
v illa g e rs to c o n s t r u c t c o m p o s t in g la trin e s in w h ic h
s e rv ic e s t h a t a re e s s e n tia l if v u ln e r a b le c o m m u n it ie s
h u m a n w a s t e is m ix e d w it h soil a n d a sh to fo rm a rich
a re to h a v e a n y h o p e o f e s c a p in g fro m t h e
c o m p o s t .T h is c o u ld b e s ig n ific a n t in a c o u n t r y w h e r e
s tr a n g le h o ld o f d is e a s e a n d p o v e rty . It a ls o lo b b ie s
m o s t p e o p le d e p e n d o n fa r m in g fo r t h e ir liv e lih o o d
g o v e r n m e n t s a n d d e c is io n - m a k e rs to p rio ritis e w a t e r
a n d w h e r e t h e soil is o ft e n in fe r tile a n d fe rtilis e r is
a n d s a n ita tio n in t h e ir p o v e r t y r e d u c t io n p lan s.
b o th s c a rc e a n d e x p e n s iv e . In lo w - in c o m e a re a s o f
L ilo n g w e , s u s ta in a b le s y s te m s fo r m a n a g in g w a t e r
kio sks a re b e in g d e v e lo p e d .
E lk
•-U-
Ethiopia
T h e v illa g e s o f D e y a ta D o d o ta a n d D e w a r o in ce n tral
E th io p ia a re ju s t 8 km fro m e a c h o th e r in d is ta n c e

b u t s e e m p o le s a p a rt in th e ir w a y s o f life. T h a n k s to

W a te rA id , D e y a ta D o d o ta n o w has w a t e r p ip e d to it,

a llo w in g villa g e rs to g r o w v e g e ta b le s in th e ir fro n t

g ard e n s. In D e w a ro , villa g e rs rely o n cru d e , earth-

b a n k e d d a m s th a t h o ld w a t e r fo r ju s t six m o n th s a year,

w a t e r w h ic h t h e y n o t o n ly u se fo r d rin kin g , w a s h in g
a n d d isp o sin g o f s e w a g e , b u t w h ic h t h e y sh a re w ith

th e ir an im a ls. For h a lf th e y e a r t h e y h a v e a lo n g tre k

fo r w a te r. D e y a ta D o d o ta is e s s e n tia lly self-sufficient;

D e w a r o n e e d s fo o d aid a n d lives in t h e h o p e th a t

£3000 w ill b e fo u n d to e x te n d t h e p ip e lin e to th e m .

Development and globalisation 611

 Framework 19 Co rrelatio n and developm ent: scattergraphs,
Spearm an’s rank correlation, and chi-squared
T h e d a ta a re p lo t t e d a g a in s t t h e s c a le s o f b o th
Scattergraphs
a x e s .T h e d e g r e e o f c o r r e la t io n is e s t im a t e d b y t h e
It w a s s u g g e s t e d o n p a g e s 6 0 6 - 6 0 8 t h a t t h e r e w a s
c lo s e n e s s o f t h e s e p o in ts to a b e st-fit lin e. T h is lin e
a c o rre la tio n b e t w e e n c e r t a in c rite ria a n d t h e le v e l
is u s u a lly d r a w n b y e y e a n d s h o w s a n y t r e n d in t h e
o f d e v e lo p m e n t .'C o r r e la t io n ' in th is s e n s e is u s e d to
p a t t e r n in d ic a t e d b y t h e lo c a t io n o f t h e v a r io u s
d e s c r ib e t h e d e g r e e o f a s s o c ia tio n b e t w e e n t w o sets
p o in ts . O n e o r t w o p o in ts , o r re sid u a ls, m a y lie w e ll
o f d a t a . This re la tio n s h ip m a y b e s h o w n g r a p h ic a lly
b e y o n d t h e b est- fit lin e a n d , b e in g a n o m a lo u s , m a y
b y m e a n s o f a scatte rg rap h .T h is in v o lv e s t h e
b e ig n o r e d a t th is s ta g e . (L a t e r it m a y b e r e le v a n t to
d r a w in g o f t w o axes: t h e h o riz o n ta l o r x axis a n d t h e
t r y to a c c o u n t fo r t h e s e a n o m a lie s o r e x c e p tio n s .)
v e r t ic a l o r y axis. U s u a lly o n e v a r ia b le to b e p lo tte d is

d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e s e c o n d v a r ia b le . It is c o n v e n ­ T h e best-fit lin e m a y b e d r a w n as a s tra ig h t lin e (o n an

tio n a l to p lo t t h e in d e p e n d e n t v a ria b le o n t h e x a x is a r ith m e tic s c a le ) o r as a s m o o th c u r v e (o n lo g o r s e m i­

a n d t h e d e p e n d e n t v a ria b le o n t h e y axis. lo g scales). If all t h e p o in ts fit t h e best-fit lin e e x a ctly,

t h e r e is a p erfect co rrelatio n b e t w e e n t h e t w o
F ig u r e 21.1 3 s h o w s t w o re la t io n s h ip s , o n e fro m
v a ria b le s . H o w e v e r, m o s t p o in ts a t b e s t w ill lie c lo s e
p h y s ic a l g e o g r a p h y a n d o n e fr o m h u m a n g e o ­
t o a n d o n e ith e r s id e o f t h e d r a w n line. A p o s itiv e
g ra p h y . In t h e p h y s ic a l e x a m p le , ra in fa ll is t h e
c o rre la tio n is w h e r e b o th v a r ia b le s in c re a s e - i.e. t h e
i n d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le , w it h r u n o ff b e in g d e p e n d ­
best-fit lin e rises fro m t h e b o tto m le ft t o w a r d s t h e t o p
e n t u p o n it .T h e h u m a n e x a m p le s h o w s G D P as t h e
rig h t (F ig u re 2 1 .14a a n d b). A n eg ativ e co rrelatio n
in d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le a n d e n e r g y c o n s u m p t io n
o c c u rs w h e r e t h e in d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le in c re a s e s as
p e r c a p it a t o b e d e p e n d e n t u p o n th is m e a s u r e o f
t h e d e p e n d e n t v a ria b le d e c r e a s e s - i.e. t h e best-fit
a c o u n t r y 's w e a lt h .
lin e falls fro m t h e t o p le ft to t h e b o t t o m rig h t
Figure 21,13 (F ig u re 21.14 d a n d e). In s o m e in s ta n c e s , t h e

P lo ttin g th e a r r a n g e m e n t o f t h e p o in ts m a k e s it im p o s s ib le to
d e p e n d e n t a nd y axis
d r a w in a lin e, in w h ic h c a s e t h e in fe re n c e is t h a t th e r e
(dependent
in d e p e n d e n t is n o c o rre la tio n b e t w e e n t h e t w o sets o f d a ta c h o s e n
variable)
va riab le s
(F ig u re 2 1.14 c). In t h e e v e n t o f o n e , o r b o th , o f th e
examples:
v a ria b le s h a v in g a w id e r a n g e o f v a lu e s , it m a y b e
runoff;
energy a d v is a b le to u se a lo g a r ith m ic s c a le (F ig u re s 3.22
consumption
a n d 18.25).
per capita

If t h e s c a t t e r g r a p h s h o w s t h e p o s s ib ility o f a

xaxis c o r r e la t io n b e t w e e n t h e t w o v a r ia b le s , t h e n an
(independent variable)
a p p r o p r ia t e s ta tis tic a l te s t s h o u ld b e u s e d to se e

examples: rainfall (mm); if t h e r e is in d e e d a c o r r e la t io n , a n d to q u a n t if y t h e

GDP per capita re la tio n s h ip .

a perfect positive 3 good positive c no correlation d fairly good negative

correlation (arithmetic correlation (log or correlation
scale) semi-log scale) (arithmetic scale)

x anomaly ,-
X
/ or r \ X
X
X
/ / <
x / \ x
X
x
X

x /* X X

/
X

= + 1.00 ab o u t + 0.80 0.00 about-0.60 =- 1.00

Figure21,14

Types o f co rre la tio n

a nd th e ir associated
S pearm an's ran k
c o e ffic ie n ts

612 Development and globalisation

 GDP per capita Energy consumption per capita
Birth rate
US$ Rank kg oil-equivalent Rank './ /<1 d2 per 1000
N o rw a y 53 000 1 5 28 4 2 i 1 12

USA 45800 2 8051 1 - 1 1 14

S w itz e rla n d 41100 3 3 622 6 3 9 10

UK 35100 4 3 992 5 i 1 13

G erm a ny 34200 5 4 26 7 3 - 2 4 8

Japan 33 600 6 4 058 4 2 4 9

A rg e n tin a 14300 7 1653 8 1 1 19

M alaysia 13 300 8 1950 7 - 1 1 21

B razil 9 700 9 1012 9 0 0 20

C o lom b ia 6 700 10 799 11 1 1 20

E gypt 5 500 11 638 12 1 1 27

China 5 300 12 902 10 - 2 4 12

Ind ia 2 700 13 4 76 13 0 0 24
Figure 21.15
Kenya 1700 14 466 14 0 0 40
Ranked data fo r GDP,
Sierra Leone 700 15 230 15 0 0 48
e n e rg y c o n s u m p tio n and
b irth rates fo r s elected
S c /2 = 28 Id 2 =
co u n trie s, 2 007

Spearman's rank correlation coefficient w h e re : d2 is t h e s u m o f t h e s q u a r e s o f t h e d iffe r ­

e n c e s in r a n k o f t h e v a r ia b le s , a n d n is t h e n u m b e r
T h is is a s ta tis tic a l m e a s u r e t o s h o w t h e s t r e n g t h o f
in t h e s a m p le .
a r e la t io n s h ip b e t w e e n t w o v a r ia b le s . F ig u re 21.15

lists t h e G D P p e r c a p it a fo r 15 s e le c t e d c o u n trie s . In o u r e x a m p le it f o llo w s th a t:

F ifte e n is t h e m in im u m n u m b e r n e e d e d in a s a m p le

fo r t h e S p e a r m a n 's ra n k t e s t to b e v a lid . _ 1 6 x 28
3 3 7 5 - 15
T h e firs t s ta g e is to s e e if t h e r e is a n y c o r r e la t io n
1 168
b e t w e e n t h e G D P a n d t h e e n e r g y c o n s u m p t io n p e r 336 0

c a p it a .T h is c a n b e d o n e u s in g t h e f o llo w in g s te p s :
= 1 - 0.05 (t h e n d o n o t f o r g e t t h e fin a l

1 R a n k b o t h s e ts o f d a ta . T h is h a s a lr e a d y b e e n s u b t r a c t io n )
d o n e in F ig u r e 2 1.15. N o t ic e t h a t t h e h ig h e s t
= 0.95 (it is u s u a l to g iv e t h e a n s w e r c o r r e c t to
v a lu e is ra n k e d first. H a d t h e r e b e e n t w o o r
t w o d e c im a l p la c e s ).
t h r e e c o u n t r ie s w it h t h e s a m e v a lu e , t h e y w o u ld

h a v e b e e n g iv e n e q u a l ra n k in g , e.g. ra n k o rd e r: In th is e x a m p le , t h e r e is a s tro n g p o s it iv e c o r r e la t io n

1, 2, 3.5 , 3.5 (3.5 is t h e m e a n o f 3 a n d 4 ) , (r e m e m b e r , a p e r f e c t p o s it iv e c o r r e la t io n is 1 .0 0 )

5, 7 , 7 , 7 (7 is t h e m e a n o f 6 , 7 a n d 8 ), 9 ,1 0 . b e t w e e n G D P a n d e n e r g y c o n s u m p t io n p e r c a p ita .

2 C a lc u la t e t h e d iffe r e n c e , o r d, b e t w e e n th e tw o A lt h o u g h t h e clo ser/" is t o +1 o r - 1 t h e s t r o n g e r t h e

ra n k in g s . N o t e t h a t it is p o s s ib le t o g e t n e g a t iv e lik e ly c o r r e la t io n , t h e r e is a d a n g e r in j u m p in g to
a n s w e rs . q u ic k c o n c lu s io n s . It is p o s s ib le t h a t t h e r e la t io n s h ip

3 C a lc u la t e d 2, t o e lim in a t e t h e n e g a t iv e v a lu e s . d e s c r ib e d m a y h a v e o c c u r r e d b y c h a n c e . T h e
s e c o n d s t a g e is t h e r e f o r e to te s t t h e sig n ific a n c e
4 A dd up ( I) th e d 2 v a lu e s (in th is e x a m p le , t h e
o f t h e re la tio n s h ip . T h is is d o n e b y u s in g t h e g r a p h
a n s w e r is 28).
s h o w n in F ig u r e 21 .1 6. N o t e t h a t t h e c o r r e la t io n
5 Y o u a re n o w in a p o s it io n to c a lc u la t e t h e
c o e f f ic ie n t r is p lo t t e d o n t h e y ax is a n d t h e d e g re e s
c o r r e la t io n c o e ffic ie n t , o r r, b y u s in g t h e
o f fre e d o m (df) o n t h e x axis. D e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m
fo rm u la :
a r e t h e n u m b e r o f p a irs in t h e s a m p le m in u s tw o .

n3 - n

Development and globalisation 613

 a n d 6 in a re a C. H a d c h a n c e b e e n t h e o n ly fa c t o r
1.0 a ff e c t in g th is d is t r ib u t io n , t h e n it m ig h t r e a s o n a b ly
0.9 likelihood of the
0.8 b e e x p e c t e d t h a t as a re a A c o v e r s 5 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e
it 0.7 correlation
<u t o ta l a re a , t h e n h a lf t h e v illa g e s w o u ld b e lo c a te d
o 0.6 occurring by
chance t h e r e . S im ila rly , a re a s B a n d C, e a c h c o v e r in g 20
0.5
p e r c e n t o f t h e a re a , s h o u ld b o t h h a v e 10 v illa g e s ,
0.4 le a v in g a r e a D, w it h o n ly 10 p e r c e n t o f t h e a re a ,

w it h t h e re m a in in g 5 v illa g e s .T h is m e a n s , as
0.3 *
s h o w n in F ig u r e 2 1 .18a, t h a t w e h a v e t w o s e ts o f

0.2 -
d a t a s h o w in g t h e o b served ( O ) n u m b e r a n d th e

e xp ected (E) n u m b e r o f v illa g e s . In re a lity , h o w e v e r ,

^Unable to accept F ig u re 2 1 .1 7 s h o w s t h a t a re a s B a n d D h a v e m o re

| hypothesis at v illa g e s t h a n m ig h t b e e x p e c t e d a n d A a n d C f e w e r
0.1 J significance levels t h a n e x p e c t e d . It is t e m p t in g , t h e r e fo r e , to s u g g e s t
2 4 6 8 10 20 50 60 80 greater than 5%;
t h a t t h e r e c o u ld b e a r e la t io n s h ip b e t w e e n t h e
degrees of freedom (df) hence 5% level of
significance is known o b s e r v e d a n d e x p e c t e d d is t r ib u t io n s a n d t h a t th is
(number of pairs of items in sample minus 2)
as the rejection level. r e la t io n s h ip is d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e h e ig h t o f t h e

la n d , w h e r e a s t h e d iffe r e n c e m a y in fa c t b e d u e
Figure 21.16 U s in g t h e c o rre la tio n c o e ffic ie n t o f G D P p e r c a p it a e n t ir e ly to c h a n c e fa c to r s . C h i- s q u a re d is u s e d to

The significance of the a n d e n e r g y c o n s u m p t io n p e r c a p ita , w h ic h w e h a v e e s t im a t e t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t t h e d iffe r e n c e s are

Spearman's rank
correlation coefficients
and degrees of freedom
w o r k e d o u t to b e 0.95, w e c a n re a d o ff 0.95 o n t h e d u e to c h a n c e .
v e r t ic a l sc a le a n d 13 (i.e. 15 in t h e s a m p le m in u s 2 )
It is o ft e n b e s t t o b e g in w it h a n u ll h y p o t h e s is ,
o n t h e h o riz o n ta l. W e c a n s e e t h a t t h e re a d in g lies
w h ic h in th is c a s e m ig h t b e 'T h e r e is n o s ig n ific a n t
a b o v e t h e 0.1 p e r c e n t s ig n ific a n c e le v e l c u r v e .T h is
r e la t io n s h ip b e t w e e n t h e d is t r ib u t io n o f v illa g e s
m e a n s t h a t w e c a n s a y w it h 99.9 p e r c e n t c o n fid e n c e
a n d t h e h e ig h t o f t h e la n d .'W e c a n n o w u s e t h e
t h a t t h e c o rre la tio n has n o t o c c u r r e d b y c h a n c e .T h e
f o r m u la fo r c h i- s q u a re d , w h ic h is:
g ra p h a lso s h o w s t h a t if t h e c o rr e la tio n falls b e lo w

t h e 5 p e r c e n t s ig n ific a n c e le v e l c u r v e t h e n w e c a n , v '( O - f )2

o n ly s a y w it h less t h a n 95 p e r c e n t c o n fid e n c e t h a t

t h e c o rre la tio n h a s n o t o c c u r r e d b y c h a n c e . B e lo w

th is p o in t, t h e c o rre la tio n o r h y p o t h e s is is re je c te d

in t e r m s o f s ta tis tic a l s ig n ific a n c e - i.e. t h e r e is t o o

g re a t a lik e lih o o d t h a t t h e c o rre la tio n h a s o c c u r re d

AREA B
b y c h a n c e fo r it to b e m e a n in g fu l. E v e n if t h e r e is a

s ig n ific a n t c o rre la tio n , t h e re s u lt d o e s n o t p r o v e t h a t 20% of area u* 1

th e re is n e c e s s a rily a causal re la tio n s h ip b e tw e e n
12 villages =
v a ria b le s . It c a n n o t b e a s s u m e d t h a t a c h a n g e in > |
A causes a c h a n g e in 6 . F u r t h e r in v e s t ig a t io n is 1
AREA A
n e c e s s a ry to e s ta b lis h this.
50% of total area
'c 1
Chi-squared 20 of total villages 1

W h e r e a s S p e a r m a n 's ra n k s e e k s a sso ciatio n s

AREA C <
b e t w e e n x a n d y v a lu e s , c h i- s q u a re d lo o k s fo r
<
d ifferen ces b e t w e e n g r o u p s (o r a r e a s ).T h e s y m b o l 20% of area
fo r c h i- s q u a re d [chi is a G r e e k le tt e r p r o n o u n c e d

'k y ') is x- F ig u re 2 1.17 s h o w s t h e h y p o t h e t ic a l

6 villages

d is t r ib u t io n o f v illa g e s o v e r a n a re a o f la n d
c o n s is t in g o f f o u r c o n t r a s t in g c a t e g o r ie s o f h e ig h t ,

i.e. f r e q u e n c ie s o f 0 - 5 0 m , 5 1 - 1 0 0 m , 1 0 1 - 1 5 0 m

a n d o v e r 150 m (it c o u ld h a v e b e e n d iffe r e n t t y p e s Figure21.17

o f soil, o r ro c k t y p e , e tc.). O f t h e 50 v illa g e s lo c a t e d Chi-squared: observed
h e re , 2 0 a re in a r e a A, 12 in e a c h o f a r e a s B a n d D, and expected villages

614 Development and globalisation

 F ig u re 2 1 ,1 8 b s h o w s h o w to u s e t h e fo r m u la a n d ,
in th is e x a m p le , h o w w e o b t a in a c a lc u la t e d v a lu e
o f c h i- s q u a re d o f 12.8. W e c a n n o w , b y u s in g F ig u re
21.19, t e s t fo r t h e s ig n ific a n c e o f th is v a lu e a n d
d e t e r m in e t h e p r o b a b ilit y t h a t t h e d is t r ib u t io n
w a s d u e to c h a n c e . N o t ic e t h a t, as in S p e a r m a n 's
ra n k (F ig u r e 2 1 .1 6 ), t h e h o riz o n ta l ax is is la b e lle d
'd e g r e e s o f f r e e d o m '( d f ) . W e re a d t h e d e g r e e s o f
f r e e d o m b y s u b t r a c t in g 1 fro m t h e t o ta l n u m b e r
Figure 21.18 o f d is t r ib u t io n s (a re a s ), in th is c a s e 4 - 1 = 3 . U s in g
Aworked chi- o u r t w o c o o r d in a t e s (x2= 12.8 a n d d f = 3) w e c a n
squared example o b t a in a lo c a t io n o n t h e g r a p h w h ic h is ju s t a b o v e
t h e 1 c h a n c e in 1 0 0 c u r v e , i.e. o u r d is t r ib u t io n is
o n ly lik e ly to o c c u r b y c h a n c e o n c e in e v e r y 1 0 0
s itu a tio n s . W e c a n a s s u m e , t h e r e fo r e , t h a t t h e r e is
a p o s s ib le c o n n e c t io n b e t w e e n t h e d is t r ib u t io n
o f v illa g e s a n d h e ig h t o f t h e la n d a n d so w e c a n
s ta rt lo o k in g fo r c a u s e s (h a d t h e lo c a t io n o n t h e
g r a p h b e e n b e l o w t h e 5 c h a n c e s in 100 c u r v e ,
t h e n w e c o u ld a s s u m e t h a t t h e r e
w a s n o c o n n e c t io n b e t w e e n v illa g e
distribution and height of the land The significance
a n d th e re fo re w e n e e d n o t s p e n d of chi-squared
anddeqrees
t im e s e e k in g r e a s o n s ). offreedom

Area A B C D Total

O (Observed) 20 12 6 12 50

E (Expected) 25 10 10 5 50

Using chi-squared

(0 (0-£) -5 +2 -4 +7
1

25 4 16 49
0
3

CT\
CO

(iii) jo - fj2 1.0 0.4 1.6

(iv) I IO-EV 1.0 0.4 1- 1.6 9.8 = 12.8

(sum of) 1 E 1
1 2 3 4 5 10 20 304 050 100
X2~ 12.8 degrees offreedom (df)

Stages in economic growth a n d cu ltu ra l d iffe re n c e s. O n e o f th e first m o d e ls

The Rostow model
V ario u s m o d e ls, w ith a w id e ra n g e o f c rite ria ,
h a v e b e e n su g g ested w h e n try in g to a c c o u n t fo r
Figure 21.20 d iffe re n c e s in w o rld d e v e lo p m e n t. T h e s e in c lu d e
Rostow's model of th o s e b a sed o n c a p ita lis t a n d M a rx is t sy ste m s as
economic growth w e ll as th o s e m o r e c o n c e r n e d w ith w e a lth , s o c ia l
to a c c o u n t fo r e c o n o m ic g ro w th , a n d p ro b a b ly
still th e sim p le st, w as t h a t p u t fo rw ard b y
W .W . R o sto w in 1 9 6 0 . F o llo w in g a stu d y o f 15
c o u n trie s , m a in ly in E u ro p e, h e su g g ested th a t
all c o u n trie s h a d th e p o te n tia l to b re a k th e c y c le
o f p o v e rty a n d to d ev e lo p th r o u g h fiv e lin e a r
stag es (Figu re 2 1 .2 0 ) .

high mass
level of consumption
development

the drive to
the maturity

A .
3 take-off

J L .
preconditions
for take-off

A .
the traditional
society

time

Development and globalisation 615

f:gure21.21
1 Primary 2 Secondary 3 Tertiary (services)
Changes in employment
Stage 1 vast majority very few very few
structure based on
Rostow's model Stage 2 vast majority few very few
Stage 3 declining rapid growth few
Stage 4 few stable growing rapidly
Stage 5 very few declining growing rapidly
S ta g e 1: T r a d it i o n a l s o c ie t y A s u b s is te n c e
e c o n o m y b a sed m a in ly o n fa rm in g w ith v e ry
lim ite d te c h n o lo g y o r c a p ita l to p ro ce ss raw
m a te ria ls o r d ev e lo p in d u s trie s a n d serv ices
(Figu re 2 1 .2 1 ).
S ta g e 2 : P r e c o n d it io n s f o r t a k e - o f f A c o u n try
o fte n n eed s a n in je c tio n o f e x te rn a l h e lp to m o v e
in to th is stage. E xtractiv e in d u stries d ev elop.
A griculture is m o re co m m e rc ia lise d an d b e co m e s
m e c h a n is e d . T h e re are so m e te c h n o lo g ic a l
im p ro v e m e n ts an d a g ro w th o f in frastru ctu re. T h e
d e v e lo p m e n t o f a tra n sp o rt system e n co u rag es
trad e. A sin gle in d u stry (o fte n te x tile s) b e g in s to
d o m in a te . In v e s tm e n t is a b o u t 5 p er c e n t o f GDP.
S ta g e 3: T a k e -o ff M a n u fa ctu rin g in d u stries grow
rapidly. A irports, roads a n d railw ays are b u ilt.
P o litical an d social a d ju s tm e n ts are n e ce ssary to
ad ap t to th e n e w w ay o f life. G ro w th is u su ally
lim ite d to o n e o r tw o parts o f th e c o u n try (g r o w th
p o le s - page 5 6 9 ) a n d to o n e or tw o in d u stries
(m a g n e ts ). N u m b ers in ag ricu ltu re d eclin e .
In v e s tm e n t in creases to 1 0 - 1 5 per c e n t o f GDP,
or cap ital is b o rro w ed fro m w e a lth ie r n a tio n s .
S ta g e 4 : T h e d riv e to m a t u r it y By now , g row th
sh o u ld b e self-su stain in g . E c o n o m ic g row th
spreads to all parts o f th e c o u n try an d leads to an
in cre ase in th e n u m b e r a n d typ es o f in d u stry (th e
m u ltip lie r e ffe c t, page 5 6 9 ). M o re c o m p le x tra n s ­
p o rt system s d ev elo p a n d m a n u fa c tu rin g exp an d s
as te c h n o lo g y im p ro v es. S o m e early in d u stries
m a y d eclin e . T h ere is rapid u rb a n isa tio n .
S ta g e 5: T h e a g e o f h i g h m a s s c o n s u m p t i o n
R ap id e x p a n s io n o f te rtia ry in d u s trie s a n d
w elfare fa c ilitie s . E m p lo y m e n t in serv ice in d u s ­
trie s grow s b u t d e c lin e s in m a n u fa c tu rin g .
In d u stry s h ifts to th e p ro d u c tio n o f d u rab le
c o n s u m e r g o o d s.
Criticisms of Rostow's model
R o stow 's m o d e l, p u t fo rw ard in 1 9 6 0 , su ffers th e
sam e c ritic is m s as sev eral o th e r m o d e ls, o f b e in g
b o th o u td a te d a n d o v ersim p lifie d (Fram ew o rk 12,
p ag e 3 5 2 ), a lth o u g h , as o n e c ritic c o n c e d e s , 'th e
a lte r n a tiv e s are ju st t o o d iffic u lt to e x p la in a n d
to a p p ly ’. You s h o u ld b e aw are, h o w ev er, o f su ch
v a lid c ritic is m s :
■ T h e m o d e l assu m es, in c o r re c tly , t h a t all
c o u n trie s start o ff at th e sam e lev el.
616 Development and globalisation
s W h ile c a p ita l w as n e e d e d to a d v a n ce a
c o u n tr y fro m its tr a d itio n a l so cie ty , o fte n
t h e in je c t i o n o f aid h a s b e e n d w arfed b y d e b t
r e p a y m e n ts w h ic h d elay ed , a n d h a s e v e n p re ­
v e n te d so m e c o u n trie s (e sp e c ia lly in A frica),
fro m re a c h in g th e 'ta k e -o ff' stage.
■ T h e m o d e l u n d e re s tim a te s th e e x te n t to
w h ic h th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f so m e c o u n trie s
in th e p a st w as at th e e x p e n s e o f o th e rs , e.g.
th r o u g h c o lo n ia lis m a n d im p e ria lis m .
■ It p re d icts to o s h o rt a tim e s c a le b e tw e e n th e
b e g in n in g o f g ro w th a n d th e tim e w h e n a
c o u n tr y b e c o m e s s e lf-s u s ta in in g . It o v e r­
e m p h a sis e s th e e ffe c t o f th e l e a r n i n g c u rv e ,
i.e . th e tim e ta k e n fo r a c o u n tr y to d ev e lo p
d im in is h e s as c o u n trie s le a rn fro m o th e rs
t h a t are alre ad y d ev e lo p e d . W h ile th e e m e r­
g e n ce o f th e N IC s (p ag e 5 7 8 ) in th e la te 2 0 th
c e n tu r y a n d o f R u ssia, In d ia a n d C h in a in th e
e a rly 2 0 0 0 s see m to su p p o rt R o sto w 's c la im ,
h e w as, lik e m o s t p e o p le , to u n d e re s tim a te
th e e ffe c ts o f g lo b a lis a tio n .
■ T h e m o d e l h a s n o t see n a u n iv e rs a l s e q u e n c e
a n d is, a c c o rd in g to B arke a n d O 'H are a m o n g
o th e rs , to o E u ro c e n tric .
Barke and O' Hare's model for West
Africa
Barke a n d O 'H are (The Third World, 1 9 8 4 ) cla im e d
th a t a lth o u g h d ev elo p ed in d u stria l c o u n trie s
m ay h av e m o v e d th ro u g h R ostow 's five stages, it
seem s in c re a sin g ly u n lik e ly th a t c o u n trie s th a t
h av e y e t to d ev elo p e c o n o m ic a lly w ill fo llo w th e
sam e p a tte rn . T h is m a y b e b e ca u se c a p ita l a lo n e
is in s u ffic ie n t to p ro m o te ta k e -o ff. P erh ap s w h at
is n e e d ed is a fu n d a m e n ta l stru ctu ral c h a n g e in
so c ie ty w h ic h e n co u ra g e s p e o p le to save and
in v e st an d to d ev elo p a n e n tre p re n e u ria l, b u sin ess
class, as w as th e case in H o n g K ong . P ossib ly th e
pro cess w h ic h allow s tra n s itio n fro m tra d itio n a l
ag ricu ltu re to a d v a n ce d in d u stry is a re lic t o n e ,
b e in g ap p lica b le o n ly to th e early in d u strialise d
c o u n trie s w h ic h h a d u n lim ite d use o f th e w orld 's
resou rces a n d m ark ets. B arke a n d O 'H are h av e
suggested a fo u r-stag e m o d e l fo r in d u strial g ro w th
in d e v e lo p in g c o u n trie s, p o in tin g o u t t h a t e le ­
m e n ts fro m d iffe re n t stages o fte n e x ist side by
side, p ro v id in g a 'd u al e c o n o m y '.
S ta g e 1: T r a d it i o n a l c r a f t in d u s t r ie s T h e s e w ere
in e x is te n c e b e fo re E u ro p e a n c o lo n is a tio n , e.g.
c lo th w e av in g , iro n w o rk in g , w o o d c a rv in g a n d
le a th e r g o o d s in n o r th e r n N ig e ria (K an o ).
S ta g e 2 : C o l o n i a li s m a n d t h e p r o c e s s in g o f
p r im a r y p r o d u c ts Raw m a te ria ls w ere in itia lly
e x p o rte d in a n u n p ro c e s s e d fo rm (c o c o a a n d
p a lm o il) w h ile th e c h ie f im p o rts (te x tile s an d
m a c h in e ry ) c a m e fro m th e c o lo n ia l p o w e r an d ,
b e in g ch e a p e r, d estro y ed m a n y lo c a l c ra ft in d u s ­
trie s. Later, so m e p ro c e ss in g to o k p la ce , u su a lly
in p o rts o r th e p rim a te c ity (p ag e 4 0 5 ), if it
re d u ce d th e w e ig h t fo r e x p o r t (v e g e ta b le o ils a n d
su gar), if it w as to o b u lk y to im p o r t (c e m e n t),
o r if th e re w as a larg e lo c a l m a r k e t (te x tile s ). To
h e lp o b ta in raw m a te ria ls fro m th e ir c o lo n ie s ,
th e E u ro p e a n p o w ers b u ilt p o rts (A ccra a n d
capital city, chief port, major \
L ago s), b u t railw ay s w ere o n ly c o n s tr u c te d if
i industries and urban areas, most ]
th e re w ere s u ffic ie n t lo c a l re so u rce s to m ak e services and investment /
th e m p ro fita b le . E d u c a tio n , a lo n g w ith th e
d e v e lo p m e n t o f in d u s tria l a n d m a n a g e m e n t
sk ills, w as n e g le c te d .
Stage 3: Import substitution D u rin g th e S econ d
W orld W ar and , later, fo llo w in g th e ir in d ep en d ­
en ce, co u n tries h ad to replace th e im p o rt o f textiles,
furniture, hardw are an d sim ple m a c h in e ry w ith The core­
th e ir ow n m an u factu red goods. P ro d u ctio n w as in periphery model
sm all u n its w ith lim ited cap ital and tech n o lo g y .
Stage 4: M anufacture of capital, goods and
consum er durables As sta n d a rd s o f liv in g ro se a rtific ia lly c re a te d S p e cia l E c o n o m ic Z o n es
in sev eral c o u n trie s (n o ta b ly in th e N IC s in b e c a m e g ro w th c e n tre s in C h in a (C ase S tu d } 19).
L a tin A m e rica a n d S o u th -e a s t A sia), th e re w as E c o n o m ic a c tiv ity , in c lu d in g th e lev el o f in d u s-
a n in c re a se d d e m a n d fo r h e a v ie r in d u s try a n d tr ia lis a tio n a n d in te n s ity o f ta n n in g , d ecreases
'W e s te r n '-s ty le d u ra b le c o n s u m e r g o o d s. T h e s e ra P id ly w ith d is ta n c e fro m th e c o re re g io n s an d
in d u strie s, o fte n b e ca u se o f th e in v e s tm e n t to w ard s th e p e rip h e ry - as s h o w n in th e co re -
a n d skills n e e d e d , w ere d ev e lo p e d b y tra n s n a - periphery m odel (Figu re 2 1 .2 2 ).
tio n a l c o m p a n ie s w ish in g to ta k e a d v a n ta g e T h e c o r e form s th e m o s t P ro sp erou s and
o f c h e a p lab o u r, ta x c o n c e s s io n s a n d e n tr y to d ev elo p ed p art o f a cou n try , or reg io n . It is lik ely
a large lo c a l m a rk e t (p ag e 5 7 3 ) . T h e A m e rica n t0 c o n ta in th e c a P ital c ity (w ith its a d m in istra -
V a lco c o m p a n y , fo r e x a m p le , in th e m id -1 9 5 0 s t *o n a n d fin a n c ia l fu n ctio n s ), th e c h ie f p o rt (if th e
c o n s tr u c te d a d a m o n G h a n a 's R iver V o lta , a c o u n try h as a co a stlin e ) a n d th e m a jo r u rb an ised
h y d r o -e le c tr ic p o w er s ta tio n at A k o so m b o , a n d a n d in d u strial areas. U sually, levels o f w ealth ,
a n a lu m in iu m s m e lte r at T em a, in re tu r n fo r d u ty e c o n o m ic a c tiv ity an d d e v e lo p m e n t d ecrease w ith
a n d ta x e x e m p tio n s o n th e im p o r t o f b a u x ite ' d ista n ce fro m th e co re 50 th a t P laces to w ard s th e
a n d th e e x p o r t o f a lu m in iu m , a n d th e p u rch a se periphery b e c o m e in c re a sin g ly poorer,
o f c h e a p e le c tric ity . P ro je c ts d ev e lo p e d b y tra n s - As a country d ev e lo p s e c o n o m ic a lly , o n e o f
n a tio n a ls are u su a lly p re stig io u s, o f lim ite d tw 0 P a s s e s is lik e ly to o ccu r:
v alu e to th e c o u n try , a n d m a y b e w ith d ra w n 1 E co n o m ic activ ity in th e core c o n tin u e s to
(V o lk sw ag en h a v e sto p p e d o p e ra tin g in N ig eria) § row as * attracts n ew ind ustries an d services
s h o u ld w o rld sales d ro p . In o th e r cases, w h e re (ban k in g, in su ran ce, g o v e rn m e n t offices). As
p riv a te c a p ita l w as n o t f o r th c o m in g o r w h e re levels o f caP ital and te ch n o lo g y in crease, th e
th e d o m in a n c e o f t r a n s n a tio n a l c o r p o ra tio n s re§ io n wil1 b e able t0 afford sch o o ls' hospitals,
w as fe lt to b e u n d e s ira b le , as in C h in a a n d In d ia , sh o p p in g cen tres, good h o u sin g an d a m o d ern
la rg e -sca le in d u s tria l d e v e lo p m e n t w as p ro m o te d tran sp o rt system . T h ese pu ll facto rs en cou r-
age rural in -m ig ra tio n (page 3 6 6 ). M eanw hile,
th r o u g h fiv e -y e a r n a tio n a l p la n s fo r e c o n o m ic
in th e p erip h ery jo b s w ill b e relativ ely few,
d e v e lo p m e n t (C ase S tu d y 19 ).
low -paid, u n sk illed and m a in ly in th e prim ary
sector, w h ile services an d g o v e rn m e n t in v e st­
Core-periphery model
m e n t w ill b e lim ited . T h ese 'p u sh ' facto rs (page
E c o n o m ic g r o w th a n d d e v e lo p m e n t are rarely
3 6 6 ) force p eo p le to m igrate tow ards th e core.
e v e n . W e h a v e a lre a d y se e n h o w M y rd al (page
T h is process still seem s to o p erate in th e N ICs
5 6 9 ) id e n tifie d 'g ro w th p o le s' w h ic h , h e c la im e d ,
and in m a n y o f th e e co n o m ica lly less d eveloped
d ev e lo p e d in to c o re re g io n s; h o w in th e 1 9 th
co u n tries (K enya, Peru). Barke and O 'H are hav e
c e n tu r y it w as th e c o a lfie ld s t h a t fo rm e d B rita in 's
suggested th a t 'ju st as it is p ossible to co n ceiv e
m a jo r in d u s tria l areas; an d , s in c e 1 9 8 0 , h o w
o f cores (M D Cs) an d p erip heries (LDCs) o n a

Development and globalisation 617

 all economic
core grows in original core
development
occurs within
the core

the core is
dominant in the
country/island/
region
begins to develop wealth is more evenly spread
@ capital city

@ important city
glo bal scale, it c a n be ackn o w led g ed th a t c o lo ­
@ main port n ia lism insp ired cores (en clav e e co n o m ies) and
perip heries (rural su bsistence sector) w ith in
primary core
T h ird W orld cou n tries th em selv es'.
In d u stry a n d w e a lth b e g in to spread o u t m o re
secondary cores
e v en ly . In itia lly , a s e c o n d co re re g io n w ill
periphery d ev elo p fo llo w e d b y sev eral s e c o n d a ry re g io n s
(Figure 2 1 .2 3 ) . T h is c a n re su lt in th e d e c lin e in
th e d o m in a n c e o f th e o rig in a l co re . E ven so,
th e re w ill still b e p e rip h e ra l areas th a t are less
w ell o ff. T h is p ro cess h as o ccu rre d in m a n y o f
t h e e c o n o m ic a lly m o re d ev e lo p e d co u n trie s,
e.g. USA a n d J a p a n (Figure 1 9 .2 0 ) an d , m o re
re ce n tly , th e e m e rg in g C h in a (P laces 9 8 ).

migration
of people
China: c o re -p e rip h e ry

E c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t has, until v e r y recen tly, a lo n g t h e e n tire c o a s tlin e w ith t h e aim o f e n c o u ra g in g

figure 21.23
b e e n s e v e re ly re stricte d in C h in a p a rtly d u e to th e o v e rse a s tra d e (Fig u re 2 1 .24b). E v e n so, a p a r t fro m th e
The hoped-for
c o u n try 's v a s t size an d p a rtly d u e to p h y sical barriers h e a v y in d u strial re g io n b e t w e e n S h e n y a n g a n d H arb in
economic growth
su ch as m o u n ta in s a n d d eserts. In th e e a rly 20th in th e n o rth - e ast a n d a ro u n d C h o n g q in g far u p th e
in a country
c e n tu ry m o s t o f C hina's lim ite d c o m m e rc ia l a c tiv ity Y a n g tz e River, e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t d id n o t sp re ad

w a s c o n c e n tra te d a ro u n d th re e co re re g io n s (Fig u re far in to t h e h u g e p e rip h e ry .

2.1,2 4 a).T h e se w e re Be ijin g , th e ca p ital, in t h e no rth ;

Y e t w ith in th e last t w o o r th re e d e c a d e s, C h in a has
S h a n g h a i, t h e o n ly in te rn a tio n a l p o rt an d city, n e a r
d e v e lo p e d to su ch an e x te n t th a t it is e x p e cte d , in th e
to t h e m o u th o f t h e Y a n g tz e R ive r in t h e ce n tre ; an d
n e x t f e w years, to b e c o m e t h e w o rld 's th ird larg est
C a n to n (m o d e rn G u a n g z h o u ) a n d th e Pearl R ive r
e c o n o m y a n d its in c re asin g w e a lth , a lb e it fro m a lo w
e s tu a ry in t h e so u th (a d ja c e n t H o n g K o n g w a s t h e n a
b ase, is b e g in n in g to sp re ad to e v e n r e m o te villa g e s
British c o lo n y ). In t h e 1950s M a o Z e d o n g a tte m p te d
(C ase S t u d y 14 B ) a n d p ro v in c e s (Fig u re 2 1 .24c). E ve n
to in d u strialise C h in a b u t his effo rts o n ly fu rth e r
so, m o st d e v e lo p m e n t has b e e n , a n d still is, in th e
im p o v e ris h e d a n a lre a d y e c o n o m ic a lly p o o r c o u n try
co astal p ro v in c e s an d t h e Y a n g tz e B asin w h e r e 94 p er
th a t h a d v irtu a lly iso la te d itse lf fro m t h e rest o f w o rld .
c e n t o f t h e p o p u la tio n n o w liv e .T h e Y a n g tz e Basin,

Real p ro g re ss o n ly t o o k p la c e a fte r his d e a th in w h e r e t h e T h r e e G o rg e s D a m (p a g e 545) p ro vid e s

1976 w h e n C h in a s lo w ly b e g a n to o p e n its d o o rs to e le c tric ity fo r n e w h ig h- tech in d u strie s a n d t h e lake

o utsid e rs. In 1980 fiv e S p e c ia l E c o n o m ic Z o n e s (Fig u re b e h in d it has im p ro v e d river n a v ig a tio n as far as

Figure 21.24
19.42) w e r e e sta b lish e d , c re a tin g a n e w in d u strial co re C h o n g q in g (F ig u re 2 1 .24c), is t h e o n ly larg e co re reg io n
Core and periphery in
a lo n g p arts o f t h e so uth -east coast. A b o u t th a t tim e to h a v e d e v e lo p e d far inlan d.
China (see Figure 21.23
for key) 14 'o p e n cities; o r p orts, w e re d e s ig n a te d a t in te rva ls

/■ i n m
a 1920 b 1980

94% of
population

618 Development and globalisation


Figure21.25
The complex inter­
relationship between
health and development
H e a lth a n d d e v e lo p m e n t
H e alth , ac co rd in g to th e U N M ille n n iu m
D e v e lo p m e n t G o als, is o n e o f fo u r b a sic h u m a n
rig h ts (Figure 2 1 .7 ). T h is p articu lar b asic rig h t
is m o s t lik ely to be d en ie d to p eo p le liv in g in
e x tre m e poverty, e sp ecially th o s e in th e least e c o ­
n o m ic a lly d ev elo p ed c o u n trie s w h ere th e re m ay
b e disease, h u n g e r a n d a lack o f safe w ater and
ad eq u ate s a n ita tio n . H e alth is clo se ly lin k e d w ith
e c o n o m ic d ev e lo p m e n t, an d in d ee d sev eral m e as­
ures o f d e v e lo p m e n t n a m e d o n page 6 0 8 w ere
b irth an d d e a th rates, in fa n t m ortality , life e x p e c t­
ancy, a b a la n c e d d iet a n d th e n u m b e r o f p eo p le
p er d o cto r or h o s p ita l b ed . G o o d h e a lth , ac co rd in g
to th e W o rld H e a lth O rg a n iz a tio n (W H O ), is 'a
state o f c o m p le te p h y sical, m e n ta l an d social
w e ll-b e in g a n d n o t m e rely th e a b s e n ce o f disease
a n d in firm ity ' - a s ta te m e n t th a t im p lies c o m p le x
in te ra c tio n s b e tw e e n h u m a n s a n d th e ir v ario u s
e n v iro n m e n ts (Figure 2 1 .2 5 ).
B earin g in m in d P h illip s' w arn in g in Figure
2 1 .2 5 c o n ce rn in g d ifficu lties in try in g to c o r­
relate h e a lth w ith e c o n o m ic d ev elo p m en t, th ere
do appear to b e m ark ed d ifferences in th e types
o f illness (Figure 2 1 .2 7 ) an d in h e a lth care (Figure
2 1 .2 6 ) b etw een th e m o re and th e less e co n o m ica lly
developed cou n tries. It h as b e e n suggested th a t, as a
co u n try develops, it is likely to pass th ro u g h several
stages o f epidemiological or health transition.

'it has long been acknowledged that the health
status of the population of any place or country
influences development. It can be a limiting
factor, as generally poor individual health can
lower work capacity and productivity; in
aggregate in a population, this can severely
restrict the growth of economies. On the other
hand, economic development can make it
possible to finance good environmental health,
sanitation and public health campaigns -
education, immunisation, screening and health
promotion - and to provide broader-based social
care for needy groups. General social
development, particularly education and literacy,
has almost invariably been associated with
improved health status via improved nutrition,
hygiene and reproductive health. Socio­
economic development, particularly if equitably
spread through the population - although this is
rarely the case - also enables housing and related
services to improve. The classical cycle of poverty
can be broken by development.
However, it is notoriously difficult to provide
generalisations about the relationship between
economic development and a population's health
status. We can cite examples in which correlations
between GNP and life expectancy are not
straightforward.There are many examples to
show how economic development has
contributed to improving quality of life and
health status, via indicators such as increased life
expectancy, falling infant, child and maternal
mortality and enhanced access to services. By
contrast, there are examples in which economic
development, infrastructure expansion and
agricultural intensification do not always coincide
with improved human well-being.There is, in fact,
a growing realisation that macroeconomic
changes may not always filter down to benefit all
of the population, and many perhaps soundly
based policies in economic terms can have
devastating human effects in increasing poverty
and maldistribution of resources.'
David Phillips and Yola Verhasselt

Figure21.26

Differences in health care

a Cataract camp, Kolkata
b Intensive care unit,
St Bartholomew's,
London

Figure 21.27

Differences in types of
disease between less
and more developed
countries

less d eveloped countries m ore d eveloped countries

heart disease and stroke

water-borne parasites poor hygiene poor diet (circulatory)
neoplasms (cancers)

bilharzia mosquito guinea blackfly typhoid cholera, trachoma hepatitis lack of lack of mental disorders
snail worm dysentery protein vitamins
arthritis

Alzheimer's disease
malaria yellow river kwashiorkor marasmus rickets beri-beri respiratory problems
fever blindness

Development and globalisation 619

 The epidemiological (health) transition in m o st cou n tries fro m th a t w h ic h previously
existed in a 'tra d itio n a l' state or d ev elop in g co u n try
T h e d em o g rap h ic tra n sitio n m o d e l (Figure 1 3 .1 0 )
(Figure 2 1 .2 8 ). Figure 2 1 .2 9 has b e e n ad apted fro m
suggests th a t fertility (b irth rate) d eclin es ap p reci­
O m ran 's ep id em io lo g ical tra n sitio n . Initially, th re e
ably, p ro b ab ly irreversibly, w h e n trad itio n al, m a in ly
stages o f th e tra n s itio n w ere envisaged:
agrarian societies are tran sfo rm ed b y m o d e rn isa­
1 th e age o f p estilen ce an d fa m in e w h ic h gradu­
tio n , in d u strialisatio n and bu reau cratic urban-
ally m erges i n t o ...
o rien ted societies. This rath er straightforw ard and
2 th e age o f reced in g p an d em ics (w orldw ide
sim p listic d em o g rap h ic tra n sitio n assum es th a t, for
diseases), giv in g w ay t o ...
e xam p le, a sim p le in d u stria l-e co n o m ic m o d e rn isa­
3 th e age o f d eg enerative an d h u m an -in d u ce d
tio n w ill o ccu r in societies a cco m p a n ied b y ch an g es
diseases.
in lifestyles, liv in g c o n d itio n s an d h e a lth levels. O f
M o re r e c e n t stu d ie s h a v e su g g ested th e e m e r­
greater in te re st to epid em iologists, h e a lth p lan n ers
g e n ce o f ...
and m ed ical geographers is th a t w ith 'm o d e rn isa ­
Figure 21.28
4 th e age o f delayed d eg enerative diseases and,
tio n ' an d in cre asin g afflu en ce a n d life e x p e cta n cy
asso ciated w ith a le n g th e n in g o f life, poorer
Aview on health com es a v ery d ifferen t disease o r a ilm e n t profile
h ealth .
transition
O m ran suggested th a t th e re w ere th re e v ariatio n s in
th e b asic m od el:
It has long been recognised that societies pass through various
1 T h e classical or 'W estern ' m o d el, w h ic h to o k
patterns o f morbidity (illness and disease) and mortality (causes of
death) during the development process, even if not all the stages and p lace over a p ro lo n g ed p eriod (1 0 0 to 2 0 0
sequences are identical in every case. In general, health improves, years).
morbidity and mortality fall and com e from different causes, and 2 T h e 'acce le rate d ' m o d el, w h ic h occu rred in
life expectancy increases; this comprises the ‘epidem iological Ja p a n after th e S eco n d W orld War, an d m o re
tran sition' [after Omran, 1971]. M ore recently the term ‘health re ce n tly in H o n g K ong (Places 99 ), Singapore
tran sitio n ’ is being used, as it has a broader concept than an d o th e r N IC s in S o u th -east Asia. T h is show ed
epidem iological, i.e. it focuses on health rather than ju st on rapid d eclin es in m o rta lity and fertility.
morbidity. These changes generally come with 'm odernisation’ and
3 T h e 'd elay ed ' m o d el, w h ic h is c o m m o n to
are indeed part and parcel o f the process. They seem to occur at a
m a n y o f today's less d ev elop ed cou n tries. It c o n ­
different pace in varying countries and, in recent years, they are
tain s e lem e n ts o f m o rb id ity an d m o rta lity fro m
related to the application o f modern medical techniques and
b o th d eg enerative an d in fe ctio u s diseases but,
technology as well as to changing standards o f living, nutrition,
housing and sanitation. at th e sam e tim e , lacks th e m arked re d u ctio n in
fertility exp erien ced in th e 'W estern ' m o d el.
David Phillips,
T h e E p id em io lo g ic a l T ran sition in H on g K ong, 1988

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4

high levels

Figure 21.29

The epidemiological model

low levels

Pestilence and famine
Age of
mainly respiratory and
Causes
infectious diseases.
measles, smallpox, malaria,
typhoid and cholera,
Types
tuberculosis, enteritis and
diarrhoea, pneumonia
Receding pandemics
reduced due to vaccines,
immunisation schemes,
improved housing and
sanitation
Degenerative and human- Delayed degenerative
induced diseases diseases
increased wealth, unhealthy
diets and overweight, lack of
longevity
exercise, smoking, stress
neoplasms (cancers),
circulatory (heart attacks and
strokes), respiratory (linked to Alzheimer's, pneumonia (plus
air pollution), cerebrovascular neoplasms and circulatory)
(nervous disorders)

620 Development and globalisation

 H ong Kong: the epidem iological transition
Fig u re 21.30 s h o w s t h e e p id e m io lo g ic a l c h a n g e s
fo r H o n g K o n g b e t w e e n 1951 an d 2001 .T h e g ra p h
illu strates th re e tre n d s th a t c lo se ly m a tc h O m a n 's
a c c e le ra te d m o d e l:
3 A rap id in c re ase in d e a th s fro m 'W e s te rn 'd is e a s e s ,
e s p e c ia lly m a lig n a n t n e o p la s m s (ca n c e rs) a n d h e a rt
d ise a se (d u e to o v e r w e ig h t a n d an in c re a se in stress).
S in g a p o re sh ares th e s e th re e ch a ra cte ristic s w it h H o n g

1 A rap id d e c lin e in in fe c tive / p a ra sitic d ise a se s (d u e K o n g , p ro b a b ly b e c a u s e it to o has a fairly h o m o g e n o u s

to im p ro v e d s ta n d a rd s o f livin g, b e tte r h o u sin g e th n ic m ix livin g m a in ly in u rb a n areas. S im ila r p atte rn s

co n d itio n s a n d im p ro v e d m e d ic a l ca re in c lu d in g s h o w in g c h a n g e s in t h e c a u s e o f d e a th c a n a lso b e se e n

im m u n is a tio n ) a n d d ig e s tiv e c o m p la in ts (th e result in o th e r e xisting a n d e m e r g in g N IC s in S o u th - e a st Asia

o f im p ro v e d h e a lth c a re a n d a b e tte r d iet). su ch as M a la ysia, S o u t h K o re a ,T a iw a n a n d , p re s u m a b ly

Figure21.30
in tim e , C h in a . W h e r e d issim ilaritie s d o a p p e ar, t h e y m a y
2 A n in itia l d r o p in r e s p ir a t o r y illn e s s e s a n d
Epidemiological b e c r e d ite d to d iffe re n ce s in w e a lth , so cial status, e th n ic
p n e u m o n ia w h ic h h a s s in c e b e e n r e v e rs e d
change in Hong Kong, mix, re lig io n a n d le ve l o f u rb a n isa tio n , b o th w ith in an d
1951-2001 (p a r t ly as a re s u lt o f in c r e a s e d tr a ffic e m is s io n s ).
b e t w e e n co u n trie s.

□ 1951 1981
□
35-
E3 1961 □ 1991

□ 1971 ■ 2001 30-

1a

° . 12-
Q
O Vdeath rate
<v
~G
C
in ^
=3

° G
cD

2
infective/ digestive respiratory malignant cerebro-vascular
0- parasitic system system and neoplasms
1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 pneumonia (cancers)

The value of the epidemiological (health) a n d fo r g o v e r n m e n t s t r y in g to d e c id e w h e r e b e s t to

transition
P e rh a p s t h e m o s t im p o r t a n t ro le t h e e p id e m io lo g ic a l
tra n s itio n c a n p la y is t o p r o v id e a fo rm a l f r a m e w o r k
w it h in w h ic h to s e t h e a lth a n d h e a lth - c a re s tr a te ­
g ie s o v e r t h e m e d iu m t o lo n g t e rm . A s su ch , it c o u ld
p r o v id e a m a jo r s t im u lu s t o fu tu r e h e a lth - c a re n e e d s
b o th w it h in c o u n t r ie s w h e n d ir e c t e d b y g o v e r n m e n t s ,
o r g lo b a lly t h r o u g h in te rn a tio n a l h e a lth a g e n c ie s . It
c o u ld h e lp h e a lth p la n n e rs in p la c e s w h e r e c h a n g e is
v e r y ra p id (N IC s), is v a r ie d b e t w e e n so cial g r o u p s (rich
a n d p o o r c o m m u n it ie s in d e v e lo p in g c o u n t r ie s ) a n d
e t h n ic g ro u p s (S o u t h A frica ), a n d w h e r e h e a lth c a re
is e x p e n s iv e a n d fin a n c e is lim ite d (t h e U K ). It c o u ld
also p o in t o u t t h e g r o w in g n e e d s fo r c a re fro m c a u s e s
like m e n ta l illn ess, e s p e c ia lly in d e v e lo p in g c o u n trie s ,
a n d A lz h e im e r's d is e a s e , in m o re d e v e lo p e d c o u n trie s ,
w h ic h a re b o th c o n s id e r a b ly u n d e r e s t im a t e d in m u c h
h e a lth s e c to r p la n n in g .
T h e e p id e m io lo g ic a l t r a n s itio n is r e le v a n t fo r
m a n u fa c t u r e r s a n d s u p p lie rs o f m e d ic in e s a n d h e a lth
e q u ip m e n t , fo r re s e a r c h e r s lo o k in g fo r n e w v a c c in e s ,
a llo c a t e fu n d s .
F in a lly , b y id e n t if y in g a fo u r t h s ta g e , t h a t o f t h e
a g e o f d e la y e d d e g e n e r a t iv e d is e a s e s , t h e e p i d e ­
m io lo g ic a l t r a n s itio n d r a w s a t t e n t io n to t h e w o r ld 's
a g e in g p o p u la t io n ( p a g e s 3 5 9 - 3 6 0 ).T h is s ta g e ,
a lt h o u g h a t p r e s e n t c o n f in e d to t h e m o r e d e v e l ­
o p e d a n d w e a lt h y 'W e s t e r n 'c o u n t r i e s ( Ja p a n , t h e
U K ), s u g g e s t s a le n g t h y o ld - a g e p o t e n t ia lly d o g g e d
w it h c h r o n ic , b u t n o n - fa ta l, a ilm e n t s . O ld a g e , fa c e d
b y a n e v e r- in c re a s in g p r o p o r t io n o f t h e p o p u l a ­
t io n a n d w h o s e h e a lt h a n d s o c ia l n e e d s a re o ft e n
g r e a t e r t h a n t h o s e in y o u n g e r a g e g ro u p s , m a y n o t
b e a t t r a c t iv e u n le s s p u b lic a n d fa m ily s u p p o r t a re
fo r t h c o m in g . A lt h o u g h d e v e lo p in g c o u n t r ie s are
fu r t h e r fr o m th is s ta g e , n e v e r t h e le s s m a n y a r e e x p e ­
r ie n c in g a ra p id in c r e a s e in lo n g e v it y , re s u ltin g in
m o r e p e o p le n e e d in g c a r e as t h e y liv e lo n g e r . D u e
to t h e in c r e a s in g n u m b e r s o f t h e e ld e r ly in m a n y
d e v e lo p in g c o u n t r ie s ( C h i n a , C a s e S t u d y 13; In d ia ),
a n d d u e to t h e a b s o lu t e to ta ls , it is n e c e s s a r y to s ta rt
p la n n in g n o w fo r t h e ir fu t u r e h e a lt h a n d s o c ia l ca re .

Development and globalisation 621

 HIV/AIDS b e co m e in creasin g ly in fectio u s in In d on esia and
V ietn am , follow ed b y Eastern Europe an d C en tral
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome),
Asia (Figure 2 1 .3 1 ).
first d escribed in m ed ical literatu re in 1 9 8 1 , had
T h e 2 0 0 7 report claim ed th at:
b e co m e pandemic (an ep id em ic th a t spreads
s a lth o u g h all cou n tries across th e w orld w ere
over a w ide geographical area) b y th e 1 9 9 0 s and
affected , HIV/AIDS was m o st p rev alen t in
rem ains o n e o f th e greatest th reats to global public
cou n tries in su b-Saharan A frica (Figure 2 1 .3 1
h ealth . T h e th re e m a in m ean s o f tran sm ittin g
and Places 1 00) w here 2 2 .5 m illio n p eop le w ere
HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) are b y
affected , fo llow ed by S o u th an d S o u th -east Asia
th e ex ch an g e o f bod y fluids d uring sexual in te r­
w ith 4 m illio n
course (w ith greater efficien cy from m ale to fem ale
■ th e p ercen tag e o f p eop le liv in g w ith H IV w orld ­
th a n v ice versa), th ro u g h in fe cte d b lo o d (shar­
w ide, m a n y o f w h o m h a d b e e n b o rn w ith it,
in g needles/syringes and b y co n ta m in a te d blo od
had d eclin ed fro m a peak o f 3 8 m illio n in 2 0 0 3
transfusions) and p aren tally fro m m o th e r to ch ild
to 3 3 .2 m illio n (a lth o u g h th is in p art m ay have
during p reg n an cy o r b irth . T h e d o m in a n t form s o f
b e e n due to th e im prov ed m e th o d o f data c o l­
tran sm ission , and th e w ay th e virus spreads, vary
le ctio n m e n tio n e d above)
w orldw ide (Figure 2 1 .3 1 ).
s th ere w as a decrease in th e n u m b e r o f reported
UNAIDS an d W H O a n n o u n c e d in 2 0 0 7 th a t
n ew in fe ctio n s, d ow n from ju st over 3 m illio n
'HIV/AIDS co n tin u e s to be a m a jo r d ev elo p m en t,
a year in th e late 19 9 0 s and 5 m illio n in 2 0 0 3
global h ealth and security ch allen g e, esp ecially in
to a n estim ated 2 .5 m illio n in 2 0 0 7 . Even so,
sou th ern Africa. It reverses life e x p e cta n cy gains,
w orldw ide th a t was an average o f 6 8 0 0 new
erodes productivity, d ecim ates th e w orkforce, c o n ­
in fe ctio n s per day
sum es savings, an d dilutes p o v erty efforts th re a te n ­
■ in 2 0 0 7 , 2.1 m illio n p eop le died o f AIDS - an
in g th e realisation o f th e M ille n n iu m D ev elop m en t
average o f 5 7 0 0 e a ch day
G oals' (page 6 0 9 ). T h e y also p o in ted o u t th a t th is
a life e xp ectan cy , esp ecially in th e w orst-affected
report reflected im prov ed ep id em io logical data c o l­
co u n trie s o f su b-Saharan A frica, w as c o n tin u in g
le ctio n and analysis w h ic h resulted in substantial
to fall a lth o u g h th e re w ere e n co u ra g in g signs
revisions o f all previous estim ates. T h is latest data
th a t, sin ce 2 0 0 5 , an tiretro v iral th e rap y was
Figure 21.31 suggested th a t th e n u m b er o f n ew HIV in fe ctio n s
b e g in n in g to p ro lo n g life ev en if, as yet, th ere
had beg u n to level o ff and th e n u m b e r o f d eath s at­
Estimated globai
w as n o k n o w n cure.
distribution of HIV tribu table to AIDS had b e g u n to fall. T h e p and em ic,
infections, 2007 still d o m in a n t in sub-Saharan Africa, h ad also

population in millions

global total about

33.2 million
__ __________j

Pattern 1 countries
Extensive spread occurred
here in the late 1970s,
predominantly among the
homosexual, bisexual and
Western intravenous drug-using
and Central community. Heterosexual
Europe spread is slowly increasing.
Pattern 2 countries
Spread here also occurred
in the late 1970s but
predominantly by
heterosexual transmission.
Vertical transmission from
mother to child and
transmission via
Africa contaminated blood and
22.5 blood products are also
important routes.
Pattern 3 countries
Oceania Here HIV infection was
0.01 introduced later, probably
in the 1980s by travellers
and also by imported
infected blood and blood
Source: U N A I D S 2 0 0 8 products.
 Sub-Saharan A frica: HIV/AIDS

S u b - S a h a ra n A frica re m a in s t h e g lo b a l e p ic e n tre o f th is re g io n - n o w b e in g o n ly 42.5 y e a rs (F ig u re 21.32).

t h e e p id e m ic . In 2007 th e re w e r e an e s tim a te d 22.5
m illio n in fe c te d p e o p le livin g in this re g io n w h o had
HIV, i.e. 6 8 p e r c e n t o f th o s e a ffe c te d g lo b a lly a n d 35
p e r c e n t o f th is region's to ta l p o p u la tio n .T h e re g io n
a lso c o n ta in e d 43 p e r c e n t o f all ch ild re n a g e d u n d e r
15, an d 52 p e r c e n t o f all w o m e n a b o v e t h e a g e o f
15, w h o w e r e a ffe c te d acro ss t h e w o r ld b y t h e virus.
E ig h t c o u n trie s in s o u th e rn A frica (B o ts w a n a , L eso tho ,
M a la w i, M o z a m b iq u e , S o u th A frica, S w a z ila n d , Z a m b ia
a n d Z im b a b w e ) a c c o u n te d for a lm o s t o n e -th ird o f
L a te st p re d ic tio n s fo r th e s e c o u n trie s is th a t b y 2015 it
is lik ely to b e u n d e r 42 y e a rs - m o re th a n 20 y e a rs less
th a n t h e 63 y e a rs it m ig h t h a v e b e e n h ad H IV / A ID S
n e v e r o cc u rre d . In t h e w o rst- affe c te d co u n trie s, su ch as
B o ts w a n a , th e p a n d e m ic is c re a tin g a 'c h im n e y - s h a p e d '
p o p u la tio n s tru ctu re (F ig u re 21.33), w h ic h le ave s
fe w e r p e o p le in t h e e c o n o m ic a lly a c tiv e a g e g ro u p
(p a g e 354). It has also left an e s tim a te d 11.4 m illion
c h ild re n in th e re g io n as o rp h a n s - ju s t o v e r 1 in e v e r y 4
ch ild re n . M o re rece n tly, a n d re su ltin g fro m t h e re d u ce d

all th e n e w H IV in fe c tio n s an d A ID S d e a th s across e ffe c tiv e n e s s o f p eo p le 's im m u n e system , t h e risk o f

t h e w o rld (F ig u re 21.32). A lth o u g h t h e 1.7 m illion
n e w in fe c tio n s in su b - Sa h ara n A frica in 2007 w a s a
sig n ifica n t re d u c tio n o n p re v io u s years, it w a s still
n e a rly 70 p e r c e n t o f t h e w o rld 's to ta l, w h ile t h e 1 .6
m illio n d e a th s d u e to A ID S in this re g io n w a s 76 p er
c e n t o f t h e w o rld 's to tal.
tu b e rc u lo s is (T B ) has in c re a se d b y 50 p er c e n t an d
d e a th s fro m T B b y 25 p e r c e n t . O f th e 14 m illio n p e o p le
g lo b a lly co - in fe cte d w ith T B a n d HIV, 10 m illio n live in
su b - Sa h ara n A frica w h e r e t r e a tm e n t is b o th h a rd e r to
g e t a n d less e ffe ctive . A s m o re p e o p le are w e a k e n e d
b y HIV, th e re are fe w e r d o c to rs a n d n u rses to tre a t

p atie n ts, fe w e r te a c h e rs to e d u c a te c h ild re n a b o u t

O n e o f th e w o rs t e ffe cts o f H IV /A ID S has b e e n a
th e ca u se s a n d e ffe cts o f th e illness, a n d fe w e r h e a lth y
re d u c tio n in life e x p e c ta n c y . B y 2005, in so u th e rn
fa rm e rs to p ro d u c e su fficie n t fo o d (p a g e 503).
A frica it had, o n av e ra g e , falle n b y 10 y e a rs sin c e th e

p a n d e m ic w a s first re co rd e d . In

2007 it still a p p e a r e d to b e falling,

Figure 21.33
w ith th e a v e ra g e a g e fo r th e 10
Projected population c o u n trie s in t h e w o rld w ith th e
structure for Botswana
lo w e s t life e x p e c t a n c y - a ll in
in 2020

a with AIDS

so males females
mH'
70

60
!_
50
45 :
40

30
! ............. mi
20
: Sierra Leone
; 41
■ |

'4 0 120 100 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 100 120 140

p op ulation (thousands) Figure 21.32

: without AIDS Life expectancies for 10

countries in the world
males t-afc-l females with the lowest expect­
BBitSS ancy and 8 countries
with 32% of new HIV
iEBISfSitiH infections and 33% of
AIDS deaths

mmBSisarnmmmsasa-iii countries with 32% of

new HIV infections and
33% of AIDS deaths
|,- .. j countries with the world's
lowest life expectancies
40 120 100 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 100 120 140
1000 km
p op ulation (thousands)
 Internationa! trade
Development of world trade
T rad in g resu lts fro m th e u n e v e n d is trib u tio n o f
raw m a te ria ls o v er th e E a rth 's su rface. It plays
a m a jo r ro le in th e e c o n o m y o f all c o u n trie s as
n o n e h as a n a d e q u a te su p p ly o f th e fu ll ran g e
o f m in e ra ls, fu els a n d fo o d s; o f m a n u fa c tu re d
g o o d s; o r o f serv ices to m a k e it s e lf-su fficie n t.
C o u n trie s th a t trad e w ith o th e r c o u n trie s are said
to b e interdependent. D u rin g c o lo n ia l tim e s,
sev eral E u ro p e a n c o u n trie s b e g a n to use raw
m a te ria ls fo u n d in th e ir c o lo n ie s to d ev elo p th e ir
o w n d o m e s tic m a n u fa c tu rin g in d u strie s. T h is
saw th e b e g in n in g o f m o d e rn in te r n a tio n a l trad e
b e tw e e n th o s e c o u n trie s t h a t p ro v id e d m a n y o f
th e re la tiv e ly c h e a p raw m a te ria ls a n d th o s e t h a t
m ad e a m u c h g re a te r p ro fit b y m a n u fa c tu rin g
o r p ro c e ss in g th o s e raw m a te ria ls. Later, in th e
2 0 th c e n t u r y th e m o re e c o n o m ic a lly d ev elo p ed
c o u n trie s c a m e to sp e cialise in p a rtic u la r asp ects
o f m a n u fa c tu rin g , as th is cre a ted g reater b e n e fits
Figure 21,34 th a n in try in g to c o m p e te w ith o th e r c o u n trie s
th a t h a d e q u a l, o r b e tte r, o p p o rtu n itie s . E v en
Major global trading
blocs, including m o re re c e n tly , in te r n a tio n a l trad e h a s c o m e to be
associate members d o m in a te d n o t ju s t b y a few w e a lth y c o u n trie s
b u t b y a n in c re a s in g n u m b e r o f larg e tran sn a­
tional corporations (page 5 7 3 a n d P laces 1 0 1 ,
page 6 3 0 ).
Balance of trade and balance of
payments
T h e raw m ate ria ls, g o o d s a n d serv ices b o u g h t b y
a c o u n tr y are c a lle d im p o rts a n d th o s e so ld b y a
c o u n tr y are e x p o rts. T h e balance of trade fo r a
c o u n tr y is th e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n th e in c o m e it
receiv es fro m its v isib le e x p o rts a n d th e c o s t it
in cu rs in p a y in g fo r its v is ib le im p o rts. T h e bal­
ance of p a y m e n ts in c lu d e s th e b a la n c e o f trad e
to g e th e r w ith a n y in v is ib le e a rn in g s o r co sts
s u c h as fro m b a n k in g a n d in s u ra n c e , to u rism ,
r e m itta n c e s fro m m ig r a n t w o rk ers ab ro ad , p ro ­
fe ss io n a l ad v ice a n d air/sea tra n s p o rt. C o u n trie s
t h a t e a rn m o re fro m th e ir e x p o rts t h a n th e y pay
fo r th e ir im p o rts are said to h a v e a trade surplus
e n a b lin g th e m to b e c o m e rich er. T h o s e c o u n trie s
t h a t sp en d m o re o n im p o rts th a n th e y e a rn fro m
th e ir e x p o rts h a v e a trade deficit an d so b e c o m e
in c re a sin g ly less w e ll-o ff. It is th is d iffe re n c e
b e tw e e n th e tra d e o f c o u n trie s t h a t h a s larg ely
b e e n re s p o n s ib le fo r th e c re a tio n , a n d w id e n in g ,
o f th e developm ent gap (page 6 0 5 ).

EU ASEAN(AFTA)
European Union: Austria, Belgium, Asian Free Trade Area: Brunei,
Bulgaria, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR,
Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines,
Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam
Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, Luxembourg, NAFTA
Malta, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, North American Free Trade Agreement:
Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, OPEC Canada, Mexico, USA
Sweden, UK
Organisation of Petroleum
Exporting Countries: Algeria,
Angola, Ecuador, Indonesia, CARICOM
Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Caribbean Community:
EFTA Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, 20 countries
European United Arab Emirates,
Venezuela ANDEAN COMMUNITY
Free Trade
Association: Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador,
Peru
Iceland,
Liechtenstein,
Norway,
Sweden,
□ major trade groups
Switzerland
smaller trade group
UEMOA
□ of developed
West African { countries
APEC
Economic and
Asia-Pacific Economic Co­
Monetary Union: SADC smaller trade groups
operation: Australia, Brunei,
Benin, Burkina South African Development of developing
Canada, Chile, China, Hong
Faso, Cote Committee: Angola, SAARC countries
Kong, Indonesia, Japan,
d'Ivoire, Mali, South Asian
□
Botswana, Dem. Rep of
Malaysia, Mexico, New loose-knit trade
Niger, Senegal, the Congo, Lesotho, Association for
Zealand, Papua New Guinea, groups
Togo Madagascar, Malawi, Regional Co­
Peru, Philippines, Russia,
Mauritius, Mozambique, operation: MERCOSUR OPEC countries
Singapore, South Korea,
Namibia, South Africa, Bangladesh,
Taiwan, Thailand, USA, Argentina, Bolivia,
Swaziland, Tanzania, Bhutan, India,
Vietnam Brazil, Chile, Colombia,
Zambia, Zimbabwe Maldives, Nepal,
Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay
Pakistan, Sri Lanka

624 Development and globalisation

 1

Trading blocs w h ic h , in tu rn , w ill red u ce th e p ric e o f p ro d u cts

sold b e tw e e n th e m . A lth o u g h th is m ad e th e EU,
D u rin g th e la tte r p a rt o f th e 2 0 t h c e n tu ry an
fo r e x a m p le , m o re c o m p e titiv e a g a in s t n o n ­
in c re a s in g n u m b e r o f c o u n trie s g ro u p ed to g e th e r
m e m b e r c o u n trie s o r riv al tra d in g b lo c s s u c h as
fo r th e p u rp o se o f try in g to in c re a se th e v o lu m e
Ja p a n o r NAFTA, it also cre a ted re s tric tio n s (trad e
an d v alu e o f th e ir trad e. T w o o f th e e a rlie st an d
b arriers) b e tw e e n g o o d s m ad e in th e EU an d
larg est trading b lo c s w ere th e EU a n d NAFTA
th o s e o f d e v e lo p in g c o u n trie s. T h is h a s m e a n t
(Figure 2 1 .3 4 ), e a c h o f w h ic h n o w h a s a n in ­
th a t th e L ED C s h a v e fo u n d it in c re a s in g ly d if­
te rn a l m a rk e t o f a ro u n d 5 0 0 m illio n p e o p le . By
ficu lt to sell th e ir p ro d u cts to M E D C s, in c re a sin g
c re a tin g tra d in g b lo c s , c o u n trie s c a n e lim in a te
fu r th e r th e trad e a n d d e v e lo p m e n t gap.
c u s to m d u tie s (tariffs) b e tw e e n m e m b e r states

Figure21.35

Selected inter­
regional and
intra-regional $3651 billion $80 billion
trade flows, 3 1.4% 0.7%-
2006

M idd le East/Asia ^
North A m erica/Europe $451 billion
>billion 3 .9 %
$709 billion
6 . 1% 0 :6 % - l Asia/North Am erica
$1022 billion
Central and So u th Am erica/
8.8%
North Am erica $1638 billion
$242 billion
$33 billion 14.1%
2 .1%
0 .3 %

$111 billion

inter-regional trade 1.0 %

intra-regional trade

The direction of world trade Asia (H ong K ong, Singapore, S o u th Korea and
Taiw an, page 5 7 8 ) and in L atin A m erica (Brazil
Figure 2 1 .3 5 show s th e p attern o f w orld trade, by
an d M e x ico ). Even m o re re ce n tly th e re has
value and in clu d in g fin an ce, th a t has tak e n place
b een , in term s o f scale an d speed, an u n p rec­
o v er th e last few decades,
ed en ted e m erg en ce o f a n ew trad in g n a tio n -
s M o st o f a n a tio n 's in te rn a tio n a l trad e is w ith
C h in a (C ase Stud y 21 ).
o n e o r m o re n e ig h b o u rin g co u n tries, e.g.
■ Today w orld trad e is d o m in ate d n o t by c o u n ­
C an ad a w ith th e USA, Sou th K orea w ith Jap an ,
tries but b y large an d pow erful tra n sn a tio n a l
th e U K w ith co u n trie s in W estern Europe,
co rp o ratio n s (TN Cs, pages 5 7 3 an d 6 3 0 ).
s M o st o f th e w orld's trad e is b etw een th e
ad van ced m ark et e co n o m ies o f NAFTA, th e EU
Trade links
and Ja p a n , a lth o u g h th e ir share fell fro m 7 2 per
ce n t in 1 9 9 0 to 6 8 per c e n t in 1 9 9 8 and 5 8 per Figure 2 1 .3 6 gives an in d icatio n o f th e im p o rtan ce

ce n t in 2 0 0 7 . o f trade for 1 2 selected cou n tries th a t b elo n g to dif­

s T h e ad van ced m ark et e co n o m ie s h av e h ad rela­ feren t levels o f e c o n o m ic activity. It also show s th e

tiv ely little trad e w ith th e d ev elo p in g cou n tries. th re e m a in groupings o f agricultural products, fuels

W h e re th e y h av e - as w as seen w h e n a c co u n tin g an d m inerals, and m an u factu red prod ucts, in to

for th e d e v e lo p m e n t gap (page 6 0 5 ) - th e y w h ich m o st item s o f w orld trade are m an ageably

h av e gen erally e xp o rted h ig h -v alu e goods and placed to g eth er w ith, as a m easure o f th e ir d evelop­

im p o rted low -value goods in retarn . m e n t, th e trade per capita. T h e ad van ced e co n o ­

a T h ere h as b e e n relativ ely little trade b etw een th e m ies, th e N IC s an d TN Cs, and n o w th e em erg in g

d ev elo p in g cou n trie s th em selv es. T h is is partly m arkets, hav e m an u factu red goods a cco u n tin g

b ecau se m a n y o f th e m h av e h ad low rates o f fo r a h ig h p ro p o rtio n o f th e ir to tal exports. This

e c o n o m ic g ro w th an d partly b ecau se th e y have has enabled th e m to accu m u late th e capital and

ten d ed to prod u ce sim ilar, an d lim ited , types o f te ch n o lo g y need ed to b u y and process requ isite raw

goods, i.e. th e sam e o n e o r tw o m aterials. m aterials such as fuels and m inerals. In con trast,

s S in ce th e 1 9 7 0 s th e ad v an ced e co n o m ies hav e alth o u g h m o st d ev elop in g cou n tries hav e som e

faced in creasin g c o m p e titio n fro m th e so- m an u factu rin g , it is usually o fte n o n ly prim ary

called n ew ly ind ustrialised co u n tries (N ICs) in processing o r is operated b y TN C s tak in g advantage

o f th e ir ch eap labou r (page 57 3 ).

Development and globalisation 625

 Advanced economies NICs

USA UK Japan Singapore Malaysia

World rank-exports 2 7 41419

World rank-imports 1 4

Exports agricultural
fuels and minerals
manufactured
a Type others

b Value US$ 1 038278 448291 649931 271 772 160676

c % world's exports 8.59 3.71

Imports agricultural
fuels and minerals
manufactured
a Type others

b Value US$ 1 919420 619385 579574 238652 131 152

c %world's imports 15.46 4.99 4.67 1.92 1.06

Trade per capita US$ 10864 21 389 10112 124769 11 603

Figure21.36
T h e w orld m arket in fuels, usually oil and n a tu ­
Selected exports,
imports and trade ral gas, is d o m in ate d by th e O PEC cou n tries and,
per capita of selected recently, Russia. M o st is exp orted to fuel-sh ort
countries ad vanced eco n o m ies in th e EU an d Ja p a n , alth o u g h
th e rapid increase in d em an d sin ce ab o u t 2 0 0 5 has
c om e fro m C h in a. T h e price o f th ese fuels tend s
to be b ey o n d th e reach o f d ev elopin g cou ntries,
retard ing th e ir e co n o m ic d ev elo p m en t even m ore.
T h e pattern o f m in eral exports is less obvious,
w ith b o th d eveloped (Australia an d C anada) and
d ev elop in g (Jam aica and Zam bia) cou n tries b ein g
m a jo r exporters. Again, how ever, it is th e advanced
e co n o m ies, N IC s and, m o st recently, C h in a, th a t
are th e c h ie f im porters.
A gricultural prod ucts o fte n a c co u n t for over
h a lf o f a d ev elopin g cou ntry 's exports, alth o u g h
an in creasin g n u m b er o f A frican cou n tries are now
h av in g to im p o rt cereals as th e ir fo o d p ro d u ctio n
decreases (pages 5 0 3 and 6 2 9 ). W h ile m a n y o f th e
m o re ind ustrialised cou n tries rely o n im p orts o f
foodstuffs, som e th a t hav e exten sive (USA, C an ad a
and Australia, page 4 8 6 ) or in ten siv e (N etherlands,
D enm ark, page 4 8 7 ) farm in g system s, are n e t
exporters.
For m a n y years d e v e lo p in g c o u n trie s h av e
m ad e d em a n d s fo r a faire r tra d in g sy stem . O n e
re q u est is fo r h ig h e r or fixed p rices fo r th e ir
p rim a ry p ro d u cts so as to lim it th e w id e n in g
o f th e d e v e lo p m e n t gap; a s e c o n d re q u est is for
b e tte r a ccess to m ark e ts w ith in th e m o re w e ll-o ff
c o u n trie s. T h e re is still th e t e n d e n c y fo r so m e
M E D C s to try to im p o se q u o ta s, to add tariffs, to
try to lim it th e q u a n tity , o r to raise th e p rice, o f
g o o d s im p o rte d fro m th e L ED C s. O th e r d em a n d s
h a v e in c lu d e d c h a n g e s in th e in te r n a tio n a l
m o n e ta r y sy stem so as to e lim in a te flu c tu a tio n s
in c u rre n cy e x c h a n g e rates; e n c o u ra g in g M E D C s
to sh are th e ir te c h n o lo g y ; d issu ad in g M E D C s
fro m 'd u m p in g ' th e ir u n w a n te d , an d s o m e tim e s
u n te ste d , p ro d u cts ch e a p ly ; lo w erin g in te re st
rates; an d an in c re a se in aid free o f e c o n o m ic
a n d p o litic a l strin g s (page 6 3 2 ).
T h e W T O re p o rt o f 2 0 0 8 c o n firm e d th a t th e
g ro w th o f w orld trad e h ad d eclin e d fro m 8 .5 per
c e n t in 2 0 0 6 a n d 5 .5 p er c e n t in 2 0 0 7 to a fo recast
o f 4 .5 p er c e n t fo r 2 0 0 8 . T h is d eclin e b eg an w ith
a slow d o w n in th e N o rth A m erican e c o n o m y
w h ic h later spread to th e EU a n d Ja p a n , giv in g
th e m average fo re ca st g ro w th o f o n ly 1.1 per c e n t
in 2 0 0 8 . Figure 2 1 .3 7 show s th a t, partly due to
a n in cre ase in th e p rice o f raw m aterials, esp e­
cially m e ta ls and fuels, an d h a v in g to rely less o n
th e ad v an ced e c o n o m ie s fo r trad e, th e em erg in g
m ark ets an d d ev elo p in g co u n trie s h a d n o t, so far,
b e e n affe cte d as m u c h b y th is d eclin e ; th is gave
th e m a p red icted g ro w th o f 5 per c e n t in 2 0 0 8 .

626 Development and globalisation

 NICs OPEC Emerging markets Developing economies

Brazil UAE Nigeria China India Kenya Sierra Leone

24 23 43 3 28 107 170

137470 139353 52000 968936 120254 3437 216

95886 97754 21 809 791 461 174845 7311 389

0.77 0.79 0.18 6.37 1.41 0.06 0.00

1234 39288 447 1207 307 275 127

World Trade Organization (WTO) A g reem en t o n Trade a n d T ariffs) w h ic h h a d b e e n

A b a s ic aim o f th e W T O is to b rin g to g e th e r
c o u n trie s t h a t b e lo n g to v ario u s c u sto m s u n io n s,
a llo w in g th e m th e o p p o rtu n ity to tak e d e c i­
sio n s o n m u ltila te ra l trad e a g re e m e n ts. It was
e sta b lish e d in 1 9 9 5 , re p la cin g G A TT (th e G e n era l
set up in 1 9 4 8 to try to red u ce tariffs (im p o rt
d uties) a n d to p ro v id e a fo ru m fo r d iscu ssin g
p ro b le m s o f in te r n a tio n a l trad e. A lth o u g h over
1 5 0 c o u n trie s are m e m b e rs o f th e W T O , e ffe c ­
tiv e ly m o s t d ecisio n s are m ad e by o n ly eig h t

Figure 21.37 - th e so -ca lle d G 8 o f C an ad a, F ra n ce, G erm any ,

Italy, Ja p a n , Russia, th e UK a n d th e USA - w h ic h ,
Recent changes in world
w ith th e e x c e p tio n o f Russia, also fo rm th e in ­
trade, 1999-2008
n e r circle o f th e Organisation for Econom ic
Co-operation and Development (OECD). In
c o n tra st, th e m a n y d ev e lo p in g c o u n trie s, w ith
th e ir lim ite d w e a lth , p ro d u cts a n d te ch n o lo g y ,
h a v e least say a n d fin d it d ifficu lt to o b ta in a fair
world output annual % change

sh are o f th e w orld 's trad e.

emerging markets and
developing countries T h e first o f m a n y s u m m it trad e talks to o k
p la ce in 1 9 8 6 w h e n 6 5 d ev e lo p in g c o u n trie s
a nd N IC s m e t to d iscu ss tariffs, su b sid ies an d
trad e refo rm . S u b se q u e n t m e e tin g s, k n o w n as
th e U ru g u ay R o u n d , fo llo w ed . By 1 9 9 5 , som e
tariffs h a d b e e n rem o v ed b u t g e n era lly o n ly o n
in d u stria l p ro d u cts th a t b e n e fite d th e N IC s. In
c o n tra st, m a in ly due to stro n g fa rm in g lo b b ie s in
th e USA a n d th e EU, th e re w as little re fo rm o n
a g ricu ltu ra l p ro d u cts, m u c h to th e d e tr im e n t o f
0J i------- i--------------- 1
--------i------------------ th e d ev e lo p in g co u n trie s.
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 20072008
year

Development and globalisation 627

 T h e D o h a ro u n d o f talks, n am e d after th e capital
o f Q atar w here th e first su m m it to o k place in 2 0 0 1 ,
in itially h ad 101 d ev elop in g cou n tries atten d in g.
In 2 0 0 2 th e W orld B an k estim ated th a t freeing
in te rn a tio n a l trade bou n d aries an d subsidies cou ld
lift 3 2 0 m illio n people abov e th e $ 2 a day p ov erty
lin e by 2 0 1 5 . However, after o n ly little progress
was m ad e at C a n cu n (M exico) in 2 0 0 3 , at th e talks
in H on g K ong in 2 0 0 5 th e M ED C s agreed to grant
duty-free and quota-free m arket access for at least
9 7 per ce n t o f tariff lines o n prod ucts o rig in atin g in
th e least d eveloped cou ntries. T h is d ecision, w h ich
addressed M ille n n iu m D ev elo p m en t G oal 8: Aid,
Trade, G ro w th an d G lob al Partnership (page 60 9 ),
still had th e p o ten tial to lift m illio n s o f p eop le out
o f poverty, b u t at th e reduced figure o f 75 m illio n ,
n o t th e previously h o p ed -fo r 9 5 m illio n (and this
assum ed all tariffs, qu o tas and o th e r obstacles to
free trade w ould b e rem ov ed - a n assu m p tio n th a t
in 2 0 0 8 w as seen to have b e e n a fan cifu l scenario).
W ith agriculture d o m in a tin g th e poorest
eco n o m ies in Africa, L atin A m erica an d parts o f
Asia, m u ch o f th e n e g o tiatio n s betw een 2 0 0 1 and
2 0 0 8 cen tred o n proposals for low erin g barriers to
trade in farm products, and cu rtailin g subsidies th a t
rich er n a tio n s pay th e ir farm ers to grow co tto n ,
co rn and o th e r crops. Such subsidies c a n lead to
gluts th a t depress w orld prices an d p u t farm ers in
d ev elopin g cou n tries at a disadvantage. B ut n o t
all d ev elo p in g cou n tries h av e th e sam e interests.
W h ile sw eeping reform s o f global farm policies
cou ld b e n e fit places like A rgen tina an d Brazil, th e y
w ould m ak e life even m o re d ifficu lt fo r th e p o o r­
est cou n tries th a t have to im p o rt food, especially
w h en , in 2 0 0 8 , th e price o f cereals sh o t up.
T h e 2 0 0 8 talks, a tte n d e d b y 1 5 3 n a tio n s, w ere
h e ld in G e n ev a b u t s o o n ran in to d ifficu lties
(Figure 2 1 .3 8 ). T h e talks w ere e x te n d e d , a llo w ­
in g fu rth e r d iscu ssion s b e tw e e n th e to p trad in g
n a tio n s o f th e EU, th e USA, C h in a , Ja p a n , In d ia,
Brazil an d A ustralia - leav in g , as usual, th e p o o rer
n a tio n s to w a tc h and w ait. A fter n in e days th e
Figure21.38
Hopes
The hopes and problems • Farm tariffs could be reduced to 30 percent.
at Geneva, 2008 • Areduction in money for subsidies on farm products by 60 per
cent or even 70 per cent.
• Aresultant benefit in trade could increase income for developed
and developing countries.
• Reduced prices for consumers in the advanced economies and
fairer prices for farmers in emerging economies.
• Millions of people could be pulled out of poverty.
Problems
• The USA, EUand Japan insisted that the larger trading nations of
the emerging economies - Brazil, China and India - open their
markets to Western manufactured goods.
• The emerging nations insisted on large cuts in farm subsidies and
tariffs paid to farmers in the USAand the EU.
628 Development and globalisation
Doha Trade Talks Collapse
July 2008
TH E Doha round of world trade talks has collapsed
in what one former trade chief called the biggest
blow to globalisation since the end of the Cold War.
Negotiators warned that there was now little or no
chance of salvaging the talks, which promised to bring
down trade tariffs, pull millions out o f poverty and
keep food and goods prices under control. It is the first
time a major set of world trade talks has collapsed
entirely, and insiders warned that the consequences
would be weaker economic growth and a less
globalised world.
Officials warned that there was now ‘little or no
appetite’ to return to the round. Insiders said the talks
had stumbled after the USA. China and India failed to
compromise on the size o f their agricultural tariffs. At
the centre of the dispute were so-called ‘safeguard
clauses’ which allowed developing nations to slap
emergency tariffs on imports if they leaped to
unmanageable levels. US negotiators apparently
balked at Indian and Chinese proposals to trigger these
safeguards on their cotton exports.
A WTO spokesperson said: ‘We have missed the
chance to seal the first global pact of a reshaped world
order. We would all have been winners. Years of
negotiation which were and are important for
globalisation have been sacrificed by this failure.’
Figure 21.39
Collapse of the Doha
trade talks
talks collap sed (Figure 2 1 .3 9 ), w ith n eu trals b la m ­
in g th e USA, C h in a a n d In d ia. It w ill b e in te re st­
in g to see w h a t th e situ a tio n w ill b e in , s a y 2 0 1 0
o r ev en 2 0 1 5 .
Food shortages: a global issue
In m id -2 0 0 8 , th e UN called fo r a c tio n to ta ck le
h u n g e r a n d m a ln u tritio n in a w orld o f rising
fo o d prices, c la im in g th a t 'th e y h av e b e co m e th e
fo rg o tte n M ille n n iu m D e v e lo p m e n t G o al [page
6 0 9 ]. T h is go al h as receiv ed less a tte n tio n , b u t
in creased fo o d prices a n d th e ir th re a t, n o t o n ly
to p eo p le b u t to p o litica l stability, h av e m ad e it a
m a tte r o f u rg e n c y to give it th e a tte n tio n it n eed s
[Figure 2 1 .4 1 ].'
W h ile h e a d lin e n ew s a b o u t h ig h fo o d p rices
is a re la tiv e ly n ew p h e n o m e n o n , th e y h av e b e e n
risin g s in c e 2 0 0 1 a fte r h a lf a c e n tu ry o f b e in g
d ep ressed (Figu re 2 1 .4 0 a ). Im a g in e a lo w -in c o m e
fa m ily in a d e v e lo p in g c o u n tr y e a rn in g less th a n
$1 a d ay w h o m ig h t h a v e p aid 2 0 c e n ts fo r a
k ilo g ra m m e o f w h e a t o n e year a n d h a d to p ay 3 0
c e n ts th e n e x t. Fo r p e o p le in p o v e rty sp e n d in g
ov er h a lf th e ir in c o m e o n fo o d in o rd er to
surv ive, p rice rises o f sta p le s c a n b e d ev a sta tin g .
 T h e ro o t causes o f th ese u n p re ced e n te d rises have
been th e large increases in energ y (esp ecially oil
w h ic h is n eed ed for m a c h in e ry and tran sp ort) and
fertiliser costs, th e d em an d fo r food crops in biofu el
p ro d u ction , an d a record lo w level in cereal stocks.
T h e price o f oil appears likely to re m a in h ig h and
th e d em an d fo r biofu els to in crease further. In
2 0 0 7 , o n e -q u arter o f th e US m aize crop (11 per
c e n t o f th e global to tal) w e n t in to b iofu el p ro d u c­
tio n w h en , previously, th e USA h ad supplied over
6 0 per c e n t o f th e w o rld ’s exp orts. O th e r factors
in clu d e: a h ig h e r d em an d fo r grain to feed live­
stock in C h in a , w here in creasin g afflu en ce m ean s
m o re p eop le are e atin g m eat (5 0 kg per cap ita in
2 0 0 7 com p ared w ith 2 0 kg in 1 9 9 0 ); a four-year
d ro u g h t in A ustralia w h ich , instead o f b e in g a m a ­
jo r exp o rter (page 4 8 5 ), has had to im p o rt w heat
itself; w ater shortages in gen eral w h en , as seen o n
page 6 1 0 , ov er 7 0 per c e n t o f w ater supply goes
to agriculture; and a global red u ctio n in th e area
un d er cereals from a peak in 1 9 8 0 (Figure 2 1 .4 0 b ).
T h is inclu d es th e C o m m o n w e a lth o f In d e p e n d e n t
States (CIS) w here, acco rd in g to a M o sco w bank,
o n ly 4 3 per c e n t o f arable lan d in th e w orld's larg­
est cereal grow er is still u n d er cu ltiv ation , and th e
EU w ith, u n til 2 0 0 8 , its set-a-side lan d policy.
A cco rd in g to th e FAO, in 2 0 0 8 th e re w ere
3 6 co u n trie s in crisis as a resu lt o f h ig h e r food
p rices, a n d in n e e d o f e x te rn a l assistan ce (aid). O f
Figure21.40
World cereal prices and production
Sources: World Bank, FAO
a wheat prices (2002-08)
400
o-l-------- ,-------- ,-------- 1
-------- ,-------- I-------- 1
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
year
b global area under cereal production
740 ...... ............ -
o 1985 1990 1995 2000
year
th ese, 2 1 w ere in A frica, 1 0 in Asia an d 5 in L atin
A m erica. In m a n y o f th e se places, fo o d sh o rtages
h av e b e e n w o rsen ed b y in te rn a l c o n flic ts and e x ­
tre m e w e a th e r - b o th floo d s an d d ro u g h t (Places
75, page 5 0 3 ).
R e sp o n d in g to th is crisis, th e U N S ecretary -
G e n era l listed , at a G 8 m e e tin g p rio r to th e D o h a
ro u n d o f trad e talk s in 2 0 0 8 (p ag e 6 2 8 ), th e
fo llo w in g n e e d s w h ic h h e said c o u ld o n ly b e m e t
w ith g lo b a l c o -o p e r a tio n :
■ E n su re v u ln e ra b le p o p u la tio n s are g iv en
u rg e n t h e lp b y s ca lin g u p fo o d a ssista n ce ,
g iv in g fin a n c ia l su p p o rt fo r fo o d aid and
e x e m p tin g r e lie f fo o d fro m e x p o r t r e s tric tio n s
an d ta x e s.
■ B o o st ag ric u ltu ra l p ro d u c tio n by g iv in g seeds
a n d fe rtilis e r to u p to 4 5 0 m illio n o f th e
w o rld ’s sm a ll-s c a le fa rm ers a n d fo r th e G 8
lead ers to giv e m o re d e v e lo p m e n t a s sista n ce
to a g ricu ltu re.
■ Im p ro v e fa ir tra d e b y re d u c in g a g ricu ltu ra l
su b sid es in G 8 c o u n trie s (p ag e 6 3 1 ).
■ In c re a se s ig n ific a n tly in v e s tm e n t in fa rm in g ,
a g ric u ltu ra l re se a rch a n d ru ral d e v e lo p m e n t.
■ S tre n g th e n g lo b a l fo o d c o m m o d ity m a rk e ts
a n d p ro v id e a n aid p ack ag e o n trad e fo r
LED C s.
■ T h e G 8 c o u n trie s a n d th e ir p a rtn ers to reassess
subsid ies an d tariffs o n b io fu e l p ro d u c tio n .
Figure 21.41
Predicted impact of
food price rises on
trade balances
Source: World Bank
m H large losers (trade balance worsening > 1% 2005 GDP)
moderate losers (trade balance worsening < 1% 2005 GDP)
moderate gainers (trade balance improving < 1% 2005 GDP)
I B large gainers (trade balance improving > 1% 2005 GDP)
no data
A/ote: Rising prices will improve the trade balance of major food
2005 exporters but major importers are likely to experience a greater deficit.
Development and globalisation 629
 TNCs and world trade N ICs - lo cated m o st o f th eir factories in developin g
cou n tries as th ese cou ld provide b o th raw m aterials
It is argued th a t g lo balisatio n is sim ilar to the
an d th e ch eap labou r need ed to prod uce goods th a t
c o lo n ia l period ex ce p t th a t it is large tran sn atio n al
w ere to b e sold in developed cou ntries. Yet, given
corp oration s, n o t cou ntries, th a t are increasing
th e ch an ce, m a n y d ev elopin g cou n tries w elcom ed
th e ir w ealth and d o m in a tin g w orld trade. C er­
th e p resence o f TN Cs, seeing th e m as a n o p p o rtu n i­
ta in ly in th e last century, TN Cs - usually w ith th eir
ty to o b tain in v e stm e n t and to create e m p lo y m en t.
head quarters in th e ad van ced eco n o m ies or in th e

3y| South Korea: Sam sung - a T N C

Figure 21.42

Samsung welcomes
visitors

S o u th Korea's te n th p res id e n t, e le c te d in 2007, h a d w ith a w o rk fo rc e o f 36 e m p lo y e e s .T o d a y , t h e site o f

a lw a y s b e e n in v o lv e d w ith g ia n t co rp o ra tio n s, in his th a t fa c to r y co v e rs an are a th e size o f o v e r 2 0 0 fo o tb a ll

ca se H y u n d a i. H y u n d a i is o n e o f m a n y sim ila r fam ily- p itc h e s (F ig u re 21.43) a n d e m p lo y s 22 000 w o rk e rs,

run b u sin e ss e s th a t h a v e b e c o m e TN Cs, a n d w h ic h are n e a rly all in R e se a rc h an d D e v e lo p m e n t (o n e in e ig h t

c o lle c tiv e ly k n o w n as c/ioebo/s.The g r o w th o ft h e s e has e ith e r a n M A o r a P h D ).T h e c o rp o ra tio n n o w has

c h a e b o ls, u n iq u e to S o u th Ko rea, in t h e 19 7 0 s- l 980s 124 o ffices in 56 co u n trie s, 16 o v e rse a s p ro d u c tio n

m a d e th e m le a d in g w o rld T N C s in sh ip b u ild in g , steel, fa c to rie s o f w h ic h 13 are in C h in a a n d t h e o th e rs

cars, c o n s tru c tio n , c o m p u te rs a n d e lec tro n ics, an d e ls e w h e r e in S o u th - e a st A sia, a n d a g lo b a l w o rk fo rc e

m a d e S o u th K o re a o n e o f Asia's fo u r 'tig e r e c o n o m ie s ' o f 154 000. S a m s u n g is c o m p o s e d o f n u m e ro u s

(p a g e 5 7 8 ).T h e la rg e s tT N C is S a m s u n g (F ig u re 21.43). b usinesses, th e th re e larg e st b e in g S a m s u n g

Ele ctro n ics, t h e w o rld 's b ig g e s t e le c tro n ic s c o m p a n y ,

T h e o rg a n is a tio n
S a m s u n g H e a v y In d u stries, o n e o f th e w o rld 's
w a s set u p as a
b ig g e s t sh ip b u ild e rs, a n d S a m s u n g C o n s tru c tio n an d
fa m ily tra d in g
E n g in e e rin g .T h e th r e e b u sin e sses re fle c t t h e m e a n in g
c o m p a n y in
o f t h e K o re an w o rd samsung, m e a n in g 't h r e e stars'.
1938 a n d w a s
W it h o v e r 20 p e r c e n t o f t h e nation's e x p o rts, S a m s u n g
to b e n e fit a fte r
has a p o w e rfu l in flu e n c e o n t h e co u n try 's e c o n o m ic
t h e K o re an W a r
d e v e lo p m e n t, politics, m e d ia an d c u ltu re a n d has
b y s u p p ly in g
b e c o m e a ro le- m o d e l fo r n a tio n a l pride.
U N forces. In

1969 it o p e n e d It is t h e w o rld 's le a d e r in LC D an d flat-screen TVs, is

a fa c to r y in s e c o n d (to N o k ia) in t h e p ro d u c tio n o f m o b ile p h o n e s,

c o n ju n c tio n a n d is a m a jo r p ro d u c e r o f lap to p s, c a m e ra s an d
•I w ith th e p rin te rs as w e ll as air c o n d itio n e rs, frid g es, w a s h in g
Figure 21.43
Ja p a n e s e firm m a c h in e s, m ic r o w a v e s a n d v a c u u m cle an e rs. It also
The Samsung factory S a n y o , to m a k e s p o n so rs an E n g lish P re m ie r L e a g u e fo o tb a ll te a m -
at Suwon, south of a n o th e r e x a m p le o f g lo b a lis a tio n .
b lack-and -w hite
Seoul
te le v is io n s an d

Fairtrade
Guarantees a better deal for For m a n y years d ev e lo p in g c o u n trie s h av e m ad e
Third World Producers d em an d s fo r a fairer trad in g system (page 6 2 6 ).
The Fairtrade Mark guarantees: Fairtrade in th e U K w as e sta b lish ed in th e early
• farmers get a fair and stable price for their products 1 9 9 0 s as a strategy for p o v erty a lle v a tio n and
• farmers and workers get the opportunity to improve su stain ab le d e v e lo p m e n t aim e d at sm all-scale,
their lives d isad v an tag ed farm ers in so m e o f th e w orld 's
• greater respect for the environment
p o o re st co u n trie s. Fairtrade gu aran tees a fair price
• a stronger position for farmers in world markets
to farm ers fo r th e ir p rod uce, a n d p ro v id in g d ece n t
• closer links between shoppers and producers
• investment in local community projects. w o rk in g c o n d itio n s a n d im p ro v e m e n ts in lo cal
Figure 21.44
c o m m u n ity a m e n itie s such as sch o o ls an d h e a lth
The Fairtrade cen tre s (Figure 2 1 .4 4 ).
Mark

630 Development and globalisation

 M ore th a n 4 0 0 0 Fairtrade prod u cts hav e b een
licen sed for sale in th e UK. S hoppers ca n ch o o se
w in e, c o tto n prod ucts, flow ers an d sports balls as
w ell as fo o d and soft drinks carry in g th e Fairtrade
M ark. In 2 0 0 6 alo n e, sales o f Fairtrade prod ucts
in creased b y 4 6 p er c e n t (Figure 2 1 .4 5 ), p roviding
fu rth er ev id en ce o f th e grow th o f e t h ic a l c o n ­
s u m e ris m . T h is is w h e n an in cre asin g n u m b e r o f
shoppers are prepared to p ay m o re fo r prod u cts if
th e y feel it w ill h elp provide jo b s an d lift people
o u t o f e x tre m e poverty. Large T N C s su ch as N estle
(coffee in El Salvador) an d Tate & Lyle (sugar ca n e
in Belize), to g e th e r w ith superstores su ch as Asda,
Sainsbury's, T esco an d M arks an d Spencer, are b e ­
in g encou rag ed b y shoppers to stock a n d support
Figure 21.45 Fairtrade prod ucts.

Fairtrade sales,
year
1998-2006

• 3 Ghana: Fairtrade
In 1993, a g ro u p o f c o c o a fa rm e rs in G h a n a , to g e th e r as re c e iv in g t h e F a irtra d e m in im u m p ric e a n d th e
w it h T w in T r a d in g (a U K t r a d in g a ss o c ia tio n ), set u p F a irtra d e so cial p re m iu m , t h e c o - o p e ra tiv e a lso sh ares
th e ir o w n K u a p a K o k o o c o - o p e ra tiv e o n Fa irtra d e t h e p rofits a n d has a real s a y in h o w its p ro d u c ts are
term s. T h e ir a im w a s to c re a te a n o rg a n is a tio n w ith p ro d u c e d a n d m a rk e te d . In 2007, D iv in e C h o c o la te
fa rm e rs 'w e lfa re a t its h e a rt a n d w ith a re p u ta tio n fo r Inc, also c o - o w n e d b y K u a p a K o ko o , w a s e s ta b lis h e d
q u a lity a n d e fficie n cy. O n c e t h e c o - o p e ra tiv e m e m b e rs in t h e U S A a n d w it h all d e b ts p a id o ff D iv in e C h o c o la te
h a d h a rv e s te d t h e c o c o a p od s, sp lit t h e m o p e n w ith d e liv e re d t h e first d iv id e n d t o K u a p a K o ko o .
a m a c h e t e a n d d rie d t h e b e a n s fo u n d in sid e (Fig u re
Fa irtra d e has tra n s fo rm e d t h e lives o f m a n y v illa g e rs in
21.46), t h e y w e r e a b le to sell th e ir p r o d u c e to th e
G h a n a , d e liv e rin g f u n d a m e n ta l im p ro v e m e n ts in livin g
co - o p e ra tiv e a n d e n jo y t h e b e n e fits o f sellin g to th e
a n d w o rk in g co n d itio n s, a n d e n a b lin g p a rtic ip a tio n
F a irtra d e m ark et: p ro m p t p a y m e n t, a re g u la r b o n u s,
in a n o rg a n is a tio n t h a t v a lu e s w o m e n , e d u c a tio n a n d
d e m o c ra tic rig hts a n d c o m m u n it y im p ro v e m e n ts
t h e n e e d s o f t h e farm er. A s o n e t e e n a g e r w h o s e fa m ily
fu n d e d b y Fa irtra d e in c o m e . K u a p a K okoo, w h ic h
w a s a m e m b e r o f K u a p a K o k o o s a id :'W e sell c o c o a
Figure 21.46 m e a n s 'g o o d c o c o a farm ers', th e n w e ig h e d t h e b a g s
fo r t h e D iv in e b a r g e ttin g a faire r p ric e fo r o u r b eans.
a n d sold t h e c o c o a to t h e g o v e r n m e n t c o c o a b oard ,
Splitting open the M y fa m ily n o w e a rn e n o u g h fo r m e to s ta y a t sch o o l
w h ic h t h e n sold it o n all o v e r t h e w o rld . In 2008 - an d
cocoa pods a n d to b u y fo r o u rs e lv e s b e tte r m a c h in e r y w h ile th e
still t h e o n ly fa rm e r- o w n e d c o m p a n y in G h a n a
p rofits an d end -o f-year b o n u s h a v e e n a b le d th e v illa g e
- t h e co - o p e ra tiv e h ad 45 000 m e m b e rs (28
to c o n s tru c t a w e ll, w h ic h n o w g iv e s us a cle a n w a t e r
p e r c e n t o f w h o m w e r e w o m e n ) in 1 2 0 0 sm all
s u p p ly (P la c e s 97), a n e w sc h o o l a n d a m o b ile h e a lth
v illa g e s w h ic h p ro d u c e d 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e
c e n tr e .1It has a lso e n h a n c e d t h e statu s o f w o m e n .
c o u n try 's c o c o a (G h a n a is t h e w o rld 's se c o n d

la rg e st c o c o a g ro w e r).

In 1997 t h e m e m b e rs o f K u a p a K o k o o v o te d

to se t u p th e ir o w n c h o c o la t e c o m p a n y , a n d

w it h t h e h e lp o fT w in T rad in g , t h e B o d y S h o p ,

C h ris tia n A id a n d C o m ic Relief, a n d w it h a lo a n

g u a r a n t e e d b y D F ID (th e U K's D e p a r t m e n t

fo r In te rn a tio n a l D e v e lo p m e n t ), D iv in e

C h o c o la te w a s b o rn (F ig u re 2 1 .4 7 ).T o d a y

D iv in e C h o c o la te is t h e le a d in g F a irtra d e
Figure
c h o c o la t e c o m p a n y in t h e U K , a n d a fte r t h e
21.47
B o d y S h o p k in d ly d o n a t e d its sh are s to K u a p a
The Divine
K o ko o , t h e c o - o p e ra tiv e n o w o w n s 45 p e r
chocolate
c e n t o f t h e b usiness. T h is m e a n s t h a t as w e ll
bar

Development and globalisation 631

 Overseas aid and development Donors and recipients
A lth ou gh it is th e ad van ced e co n o m ies th a t are th e
Overseas aid is th e tra n s fe r o f re so u rce s at n o n ­
largest d onors in term s o f US dollars, th e a m o u n t
c o m m e rc ia l rate s b y o n e c o u n tr y (th e d o n o r) or
th a t each c o u n try gives as a p ro p o rtio n o f its ow n
a n o rg a n is a tio n , to a n o th e r c o u n tr y (th e re c ip ­
G D P is sm all - certain ly w ell below th e 0 .7 per ce n t
ie n t). T h e re so u rc e m a y b e in th e fo rm of:
reco m m en d ed b y th e UN. Indeed it is o fte n o n ly
1 m o n ey , as g ra n ts o r lo a n s, w h ic h h a s to b e
th e S can d in av ian cou n tries w h ich , w hile giving
rep aid , e v e n a t lo w in te r e s t rates
less in to ta l am ou n ts, ach iev e th e U N figure. As for
2 go o d s, fo o d , m a c h in e r y a n d te c h n o lo g y
th e recipients, w hile th e tw o-third s o f th e world's
3 k n o w -h o w a n d p e o p le (te a c h e rs, n u rses).
lo w est-in co m e cou n tries located in sub-Saharan
T h e b a s ic a im in g iv in g aid is to h e lp p o o re r
A frica d o receive m o st o f th e overseas aid, th ere is
c o u n trie s d ev e lo p th e ir e c o n o m ie s a n d to
n o sim ple corre latio n betw een th e level o f poverty
im p ro v e serv ices in o rd er to raise th e ir stan d ard
an d th e am o u n t o f aid received. D o n o r cou n tries
o f liv in g a n d q u a lity o f life . In reality , th e g iv in g
are ju st as likely to give aid to th o se cou n tries th a t
o f aid is far m o re c o m p le x a n d c o n tro v e r s ia l as it
hav e supported th e m in tim es o f w ar or provide
d o es n o t alw ays b e n e f it th e re c ip ie n t.
lan d for m ilitary bases, possess a valu able raw m a te ­
rial or h av e strong h isto ric ties as to cou n tries th a t
Types of aid
are th e least w ell-off. S o m e org an isatio n s such as
B asically, th e re are tw o m a in ty p es o f aid: official
th e In tern atio n al M o n etary Fund (IMF) also aim to
Figure 21.48 a n d voluntary. T h e d iffe re n c e s in th e ir p u rp o ses
h elp th e p oorest cou n tries w hile o thers, such as th e
Official and voluntary a n d a im s are su m m a rise d in F ig u re 2 1 .4 8 .
W orld Bank, len d capital for specific projects.
aid

Official aid Paid for by taxpayers in donor countries i Voluntary aid Money raised by independent
and administered by governments in those countries. organisations and private donations.

Official and voluntary

J
Directly Indirectly

Bilateral aid Generally government- Multilateral aid Richer
to-government (e.g. Britain's Department countries give money to
for International Development: DFID). international organisations
This aid is often 'tied', i.e. there are such as the World Bank, the
'strings attached' so that the recipient International Monetary
country may, for example, have to give Fund (IMF),the United
building contracts to, or buy goods from, Nations (FAO, WHO,
the donor country. Developing countries UNESCO) and EU, who then
consider this to be a form of 'economic redistribute it to poorer
colonialism'. Many recipients fall further countries.Theoretically
into debt when attempting to make there should be 'no ties'
repayments. Aid has, recently, been but in reality these
withheld from countries which the organisations have also
donors regard as undemocratic, as withheld aid from
aggressors or as having a poor human countries with non-
rights record. democratically elected
governments.
Immediate and short­ Longer-term Organisations such as
term disaster relief for development Oxfam, Save the Children,
natural disasters programmes Christian Aid, WaterAid and
(earthquakes, floods, involving Practical Action raise money :
droughts) or human- work with through private donations,
induced disasters local fund-raising events, sales
(refugees from civil communities. at charity shops, etc.
wars, ethnic cleansing). Money is given, without
ties, to specific projects
in poorer countries.
Projects are often small
and sustainable
and use appropriate
technology.

Total aid given in 2007 =only 0.22% of

Variable amounts (dependent on Total aid given in 2007 =
GNP of developed countries and is public reaction to an event). equivalent to US$1.6
equivalent to US$19 a year for each
a year for each
person living in a developing country.
person living in a
developing country.

632 Development and globalisation

Figure 21,49
Arguments for
and against the • Response to emergencies, both natural and human-induced.
giving of aid • Helps in the development of raw materials and energy supplies.
• Encourages, and helps to implement, appropriate technology schemes.
• Provides work in new factories and reduces the need to import certain
goods.
• Helps to increase yields of local crops (green revolution) to feed rapidly
growing local populations.
• Provides primary health care, e.g. vaccines, immunisation schemes, nurses.
• Helps to educate people about, and to implement, family planning
schemes.
• Grants to students to study in overseas countries.
• Can improve human rights.
Is aid good or bad?
W h ile few p e o p le w o u ld arg u e a g a in st e m e rg e n ­
cy aid, e x c e p t to say th a t it is o fte n 't o o little a n d
t o o la te ', o th e r fo rm s o f aid are m o re c o n tr o ­
v ersial. S o m e c o n sid e r th a t n o n o n -e m e rg e n c y
aid sh o u ld b e g ra n te d , e sp e c ia lly as it is u su ally
g iv e n in th e p o litic a l, in d u stria l o r c o m m e rc ia l
in te re sts o f th e d o n o r w ith o u t c o n c e r n fo r th e
Sri Lanka: aid after the 2004 tsunam i
O n e m a jo r e ffe c t o f g lo b a lis a tio n is t h e s p e e d a t w h ic h
n e w s is fla s h e d a ro u n d t h e w o rld . In s o m e cases, like
th e In d ia n O c e a n t s u n a m i in 2 0 0 4 (P la c e s 4) o r t h e
C h in e s e e a r t h q u a k e in 2008 (P la c e s 2), p e o p le acro ss
t h e g lo b e fe e l as if t h e y t h e m s e lv e s a re in v o lv e d in
t h e e v e n t a n d c o n s e q u e n t ly a re a n x io u s to h e lp in
w h a t e v e r w a y , h o w e v e r sm all, t h e y ca n .
In S ri L a n k a , a p la c e k n o w n b y o v e r s e a s to u ris ts , t h e
t s u n a m i le ft a lm o s t 4 0 0 0 0 d e a d , 575 0 0 0 h o m e le s s
a n d 16 0 0 0 s e rio u s ly in ju re d . H o s p ita ls , sc h o o ls ,
h o m e s , h o te ls , ro a d s a n d t h e m a in lin e r a ilw a y
b e t w e e n C o lo m b o a n d G a le w e r e d e s tr o y e d . A id
c a m e fro m t h r e e m a in s o u rc e s:
• Em ergency aid c a m e fro m v o lu n t a r y in te rn a tio n a l
re lie f o rg a n is a tio n s w h o a re u s e d to re s p o n d in g
ra p id ly to a n y g lo b a l d isa ste r - a lth o u g h t h e y
a d m itte d n e v e r o n e so g re a t as this. In itia lly t h e y
h e lp to lo c a te p o ss ib le s u rvivo rs a n d tre a t th e
in ju re d .T h e y th e n se e k to satisfy t h e u r g e n t n e e d s
o f t h e su rv iv o rs w h ic h , th e s e o rg a n is a tio n s claim ,
is a lw a y s fo r shelter, clo th in g , fo o d , toilets, cle an
w a t e r a n d m e d ic a l su pp lies.
• Sho rt-te rm aid is p r o v id e d p a r t ly b y t h e
v o lu n t a r y re lie f o r g a n is a tio n s a n d p a r t ly
b y o r d in a r y p e o p le . A f t e r t h e t s u n a m i a n d
fo llo w in g a p p e a ls in B ritis h n e w s p a p e r s
(F ig u r e 2 1 .5 0 ) a n d o n t e le v is io n , p e o p le b e g a n
p h o n in g , u s in g t h e In t e r n e t o r s e n d in g c h e q u e s
to o r g a n is a tio n s s u c h as O x fa m , C h r is tia n A id
a n d C A F O D . W it h in a f e w d a y s o v e r £ 1 0 0 m illio n
Aid is a conscience-salver for the rich and former colonial powers.
Better to use money on the poor living in the donor countries.
An exploitation of physical and human resources.
Used to exert political and economic pressure on poorer
countries.
Increases the recipient country's external debt.
Often only goes to the rich and the urban dwellers in recipient countries,
rather than to the real poor.
Encourages corruption among officials in donor and recipient countries.
Undermines local activities, e.g. farming.
Does not encourage self-reliance of recipient countries.
Often not given appropriate technology.
e n v ir o n m e n t o r th e lo n g -te rm im p ro v e m e n t in
th e q u a lity o f life o f th e re c ip ie n t. T o o o fte n , aid
te n d s to ad dress th e sy m p to m s o f p o v e rty ra th e r
th a n its cau ses. O th e rs feel t h a t aid c a n m ak e im ­
p o rta n t c o n tr ib u tio n s to th e e c o n o m y o f m a n y
o f th e le a st w e ll-o ff c o u n trie s a n d to th e w elfare
o f so m e o f th e ir p o o re s t c o m m u n itie s . S o m e o f
th e a rg u m e n ts o f th e p ro -aid a n d a n ti-a id groups
are listed in Figure 2 1 .4 9 .
h a d b e e n d o n a t e d a n d w h e n t h e D is a s te r
A p p e a l c lo s e d a ft e r t w o m o n th s , £ 3 0 0 m illio n
h a d b e e n ra ise d . P e o p le in m a n y o t h e r c o u n t r ie s
d id t h e s a m e .
• Lo n g-te rm aid is p r o v id e d b y g o v e r n m e n t s
w h ic h , in th is ca s e , p le d g e d £ 3 7 0 0 m illio n -
e a s ily a w o r ld re c o rd . T h is m o n e y w a s u s e d to
r e b u ild c o m m u n ic a t io n s , h o s p ita ls , s c h o o ls ,
h o u s e s a n d in t r y in g t o r e c r e a t e jo b s .
T w o y e a rs later, t h e Sri L a n k a n R e c o n s tr u c t io n a n d
D e v e lo p m e n t A g e n c y (R A D A ) a n n o u n c e d t h a t n e a rly
90 p e r c e n t o f t h e p le d g e d m o n e y h a d b e e n re c e iv e d
- a r e m a r k a b ly h ig h fig u r e as o ft e n g o v e r n m e n t s ,
a g e n c ie s a n d p e o p le fail t o m e e t t h e ir p ro m is e s
as t h e ir m e m o r y o f a n e v e n t fa d e s - a n d t h a t 1 0 2 0
p r o je c ts h a d b e e n e ith e r c o m p le t e d o r s ta rte d .
Figure 21.50
TSUNAMI Tsunami appeal
advert
EARTHQUAKE
Hundreds and thousands of people across a dozen
countries have been affected by the major disaster
and devastation caused by the earthquake in the
Indian Ocean and the Tsunamis that followed.
Aid agencies are working to provide em ergency relief and need
your support. DEC members are ActionAid, British Red Cross,
CAFOD, Care International UK, Christian Aid, Concern, Help the
Aged, Merlin, Oxfam, Save the Children, Tearfund, World Vision.
Give now to the Disasters Emergency Committee.
0870 60 60 900
or www.dec.org.uk
Or by cheque to PO Box 999, London EC3A 3AA,
payable to DEC Tsunami Earthquake Appeal
Development and globalisation 633
 World transport ■ Im p ro v e m e n ts in tra n s p o rt re s u ltin g fro m
space-shrinking technologies in c lu d e c o n -
T ran sp o rt is referred to several tim es in th is b o o k : t a in e r is a tio n , A irbu s A 3 8 0 a n d th e I n te r n e t.
■ It c a n b e v iew ed as a n in d ic a to r o f w e a lth an d T h e s e in c re a s e sp eed a n d ease, a n d a ll c o n ­
e c o n o m ic d ev e lo p m e n t, e.g. as m easu red b y trib u te to g lo b a lis a tio n .
th e n u m b e r o f cars p er 1 0 0 0 p eo p le. W h ile th e
m o re d ev elo p ed co u n trie s h a v e less th a n o n e - Characteristics of modern transport
fifth o f th e w orld 's p o p u la tio n , th e y h av e ov er systems
th re e -q u a rte rs o f its cars a n d lorries.
A co m p a riso n o f th e ch aracteristics o f th e m a jo r
■ It is e sse n tia l in lin k in g p eo p le, resou rces and
form s o f p resen t-d ay tran sp o rt - can al, o ce a n
activ itie s; in in c re a sin g p e rso n al m o b ility ; and
sh ip p in g, rail, road , air and p ip e lin e - is given in
fo r th e e x c h a n g e o f g oo d s (trad e) a n d ideas
Figure 2 1 .5 3 , w ith e a ch typ e h a v in g its ad van tages
(in fo rm a tio n ).
an d d isad van tages o v er rival form s o f tran sp o rt.
■ It w as co n sid ere d a m a jo r fa c to r in in d u strial
Figure 2 1 .5 3 also refers to te rm in a l an d h a u l­
lo c a tio n (W eber, page 5 5 7 ) a n d in d e te rm in in g
age costs. Terminal costs are fixed regardless o f
ag ricu ltu ral (v o n T h iin e n , page 4 7 1 ) an d u rb an
th e le n g th o f tim e o f jo u rn e y an d are h ig h e st for
(page 4 2 5 ) la n d use. T h e re lativ e d ecrease in
o ce a n sh ip p in g a n d low est for road tran sp o rt.
tra n sp o rt co sts sin ce th e 1 9 5 0 s h as m ad e th is a
Haulage costs, w h ic h in crease w ith d istan ce b u t
less s ig n ific a n t lo c a tio n factor.
d ecrease w ith th e n u m b e r o f passengers carried or
■ In early eco n o m ic/ g e o g rap h ical th eo ry , costs
th e a m o u n t o f cargo h an d led , are lo w est for w ater
w ere th o u g h t to be p ro p o rtio n a l to d istan ce
tran sp o rt an d h ig h e st fo r air (Figure 2 1 .5 1 ). It is
(v o n T h iin e n 's c e n tra l m a rk e t a n d C h ristaller's
n o w acce p te d th a t, as tran sp o rt costs com p rise
c e n tra l p lace), e sp ecially o n a fla t p lain w h ere
te rm in a l costs plus h au lag e costs, th e n th e cost
tra n sp o rt costs w ere e q u a lly easy a n d c h e a p in
p er ton n e/ k m d eclin es w ith d istan ce. Figure 2 1 .5 2
all d irectio n s. Later, co sts w ere regarded to b e
show s th e ch an g es in passeng er an d freig h t traffic
Figure 21.51 a fu n c tio n o f a raw m a te rial's w e ig h t a n d th e
in th e UK in th e last 5 0 years.
d ista n c e it h a d to b e m o v e d (W eber).
Transport costs

a distances covered by various types of transport in comparison with 1 km travelled by air

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 distance (km)

pipeline

water

rail

road

High terminal
water and low
b most economical form of transport over different distances (bulky, low value) haulage costs
rail over medium distances over long
road over short distances
distances
low terminal costs, average terminal High terminal
air (light, high
high haulage costs and haulage costs and high
value, perishable)
haulage costs

Figure 21.52 billion v eh icle km billion tonnes/km/yr

8001 270-
a passengers b fre ig h t
Changes in total total

passenger and 700- 1 240- y

pipeline
freight traffic 600-
air 210

in the UK, rail 180-

500- w ater
1966-2006
150 (canal & coastal shipping)
Source: UK 400
1

Department of 120-
-
300-
Transport
car
90- 1
200-
60-
cycle road
rail
100- 30-
m tm bus
i 0- , .. ( ..... , ..... ,■■ , j . .... . (
0-
C O O t N ^ - v O C O O r N ^ - v O C O O r s J ^ v O C O
' £>i' ^r' ' .r' ^r' vr' >cocococococyvcnaN<Tia> co <y> a\
v o v o r -' - i ' -' i ^ r ' -r ^c o c o c o c o
<?><Tic^O''0'>cricr'0''C>(j'^C'iCJNcrva'vcriO'v

634 Development and globalisation

 Ocean transport and
Canals and rivers deep-sea ports Rail Road Air Pipelines
Physical W eather Canals can freeze in Storms, fog. Icebergs in Very cold (frozen Fog and ice both can Fog, icing and snow: Not greatly affected.
winter. Drought/heavy North Atlantic. points). Heavy snow cause accidents/ less since planes have
rains make rivers (blocks line). Heavy pile-ups. Cross-winds had automatic pilots.
unnavigable. rain can cause for big lorries; snow Airports better if
landslides, heat can blocks routes; sun can sheltered from wind
buckle lines. dazzle. and awayfrom hills
andareasoflow cloud.

Relief Width of channels. Harbours need to be Cannot negotiate steep Avoids/takes detours Large areas of flat land Difficult to lay, then
Need flat land or gentle deep, wide and gradients so have to around high land. for runways, terminal reliefisnota problem.
gradients. Soft sheltered.Tidal avoid hills. Estuaries can Valleys may flood. May buildings and
rock/soil for digging, problems. be obstacles. Flooding in go around estuaries if no warehousing. Firm
problems with deltas. valleys. bridges. foundations. Ideally,
Rivers must be cheap farmland or land
slow-flowing, have a needing reclamation.
constant discharge and Relief not a barrier.
have no rapids.

Economic Speed/time Slowest form of Slow form of transport, Fast over Fast over short distances Fastest over long Veryfast as continuous
transport. Long detours yet most economical. medium-length and on motorways. distances, not over short flow.
and possible delays at distances. Urban delays. ones due to delays
locks. getting to and passing
airport security.

Running or haulage Often family barge. Expense (oil used as Relatively cheap over Cheapest over shorter Very expensive, yet Cheapest as no labour is
costs (wages and fuel): Limited fuel use means fuel) increases with medium-length distances. Haulage costs speed makes it involved (provided
increase with distance the cheapest form of distance. journeys. Fuel costs and increase with distance. competitive oververy diameter is large .
transport over lengthy wages rising. Recent rise in cost of long distances.
journeys. petrol.

Terminal costs (loading Canals expensive to Ports expensive— Building and Expensive building and Very expensive to build Very expensive to bui:d.
and unloading costs and build and to maintain, harbour dues/taxes. maintenance of maintenance costs, and maintain airports. Need surveillance.
dues): no change with unless natural Expensive to build track/stations/ especially motorways. High airport dues.
distance waterways used. specialised ships. Less signalling/rolling stock Cartax instead of dues, Planes expensive to
since containers. are very expensive. but roads builtfrom purchase and maintain.
Cheapest over long taxation therefore lower
distances. overheads. Congestion
charges.

Number of routes Relatively few. Relatively few ports, Not very flexible. Recent Many and at different Often only a few Limited to key routes.
Inflexible. inflexible due to increase in urban rail and grades. Great flexibility, internal and Inflexible and one-way
increased specialisation new high-speed intercity most in urban and international flows.
of ships. Links to routes. industrial areas. airports/routes. Not
hinterland. Coastal very flexible because
shipping. of safety.

Goods and/or Heavy, bulky, Heavy, bulky, Intercity passengers. Many passengers. Mainly passengers. Bulk liguid (oil, gas,
passengers carried non-perishable, non-perishable Heavy, bulky (chemicals, Perishable, smaller Freight is light (mail), slurry, liguid cement,
low-value goods. low-value goods. Cruise coal) and rapid (mail) loads by lorry. Relatively perishable (fruit) or water).
Present-day tourists. passengers. Goods goods. Can carry several few people carried by high-value (watches).
carried in containers. hundred passengers. one bus or car.
Dependable and safe.

Congestion Very little except at Increasing delay and Considerable congestion Congestion heavy in Heavy at large airports None.
locks. congestion in many on intercity and urban areas, at peak times and at peak holidaytimes.
deep-sea ports. commuter routes. and in holiday periods.

Convenience and Neither very convenient, Not very convenient. Commuter routes Door-to-door (exceptfor Countrytocountry.Jet Rawmaterial or portto
comfort unless for leisure/ Cruise liners very uncomfortable. Some some city centre lag if more than three industry.
relaxation, nor very comfortable. intercity routes better. destinations): most time zones crossed.
comfortable. convenient and flexible. Cramped, dehydrating
Safety is guestionable; and tiring over longer
strain for drivers, but journeys.
independent.

Environmental Environmental Some oil discharged, but Tankers discharging oil. Noise and visual Amajor cause of noise High noise levels. Some Few are buried
problems relatively few problems. Much land needed for pollution limited to and alrpollution. Effect airpollution. Uses up underground.
ports, hard-standing narrow belts. Noise on ozone layer, acid rain, much land for airports. Eyesore on surface.
and warehousing. decreases with welded and global warming
rails, increases with (greenhouse effect).
Figure 21.53 high-speed trains. Uses up land, especially
Comparable characteristics Electrictrains cause less farmland. Structural
of transport systems pollution. damage caused by
vibrations.
 Ocean shipping A sh ip b e rth e d at a quaysid e is n o t o n ly n o t
e a rn in g m o n ey , it is h a v in g to p ay o u t h a rb o u r
M an y p o rts in W estern E urope d ev elop ed eith e r
dues. Tw o in n o v a tio n s h av e e n a b le d th e tu rn-
b y trad in g w ith th e ir fo rm er c o lo n ie s o r across th e
ro u n d tim e (th e tim e it takes to u n lo ad an d load
A tlan tic to th e A m ericas. In tu rn , large p orts w ere
cargo) to b e sh o rten ed :
created w ith in th e c o lo n ie s to e x p o rt raw m aterials
1 T h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f roll on/roll off (Ro-Ro)
o r a c tin g first as e n tre p o t p orts a n d n o w as free-
m e th o d s w h e reb y lorries c a n drive straig h t
ports. A freep o rt is a n area o f la n d e x e m p t from
o n to ships, re d u cin g th e n e e d fo r cran es and,
taxes paid by th e rest o f th e c o u n try in w h ic h it is
ind eed , d o ck w orkers.
lo cated . As su ch , it c a n attract im p o rts th a t ca n be
2 T h e in tro d u c tio n o f containerisation in
m a n u factu re d in to good s th a t are th e n e xp o rted
w h ic h goo d s are p acked in to c o n ta in e rs o f
w ith o u t h a v in g to p ay d uties o r ta x , e.g. Sin gap ore
a sp ecific size at, fo r e x a m p le, a fa c to ry an d
w ith , am o n g st o th e r ind ustries, its o il-refin in g
tak e n b y tra in o r lo rry to th e c o n ta in e r port
(Places 10 4 ). Ju s t as o ce a n sh ip p in g c o n tin u e s to
w h ere th e y are easily an d q u ic k ly load ed o n to
grow in q u an tity , so to o h av e ships in creased b o th
ships u sin g sp ecialised e q u ip m e n t (P laces 1 0 4 ).
in size an d in sp ecialisatio n , e.g. o il tan k ers and
C o n ta in e r is a tio n is co n sid ered to h av e b e e n
b u lk iro n ore carriers. T h is in tu rn h as m e a n t th a t
o n e o f th e m a jo r d riv in g fo rces in th e process
it is th e wider, d eeper estuaries th a t h av e seen th e
o f g lo b a lisa tio n .
m o st c o n c e n tra te d grow th in th e w orld trade b y
T h e Em m a Maersk is th e w orld 's larg est c o n ta in e r
sea, a trad e th a t h as b e e n in cre a sin g stead ily for
v essel (c a p a b le o f ca rry in g o v er 11 0 0 0 c o n t a in ­
several decades an d w h ic h has, sin ce 2 0 0 0 , grow n
ers) a n d lo n g e s t sh ip (at 3 9 7 m ). Its re g u lar ru n is
e n o rm o u sly sin ce C h in a b e g a n e x p o rtin g its w ide
b e tw e e n C h in a a n d W e ste rn E u ro p e.
ran ge o f c h e a p ly m an u factu re d goods. M o st o f th e
w orld's trad e is m o v ed b y w ater.

Singapore: an ocean port

O n fo u n d in g t h e p o rt o f S in g a p o r e in 1819, Sir
S ta m fo rd R affles d e c re e d th a t it w a s o p e n to all
m a ritim e n a tio n s .T o d a y o v e r 400 s h ip p in g lines w ith
links to m o re th a n 6 00 p o rts w o r ld w id e h a v e ta k e n
a d v a n t a g e o f th a t d e c re e a n d sin c e 1986 S in g a p o re
In 200 7 S in g a p o r e w a s v o t e d - fo r t h e t w e n t ie t h tim e
s in c e 1987 - t h e b e s t p o rt fo r its co st c o m p e titiv e n e s s ,
c o n ta in e r s h ip p in g - frie n d ly re g im e , a d e q u a c y o f
in v e s tm e n t in p o rt in fra stru c tu re , a n d v is io n a r y
d e v e lo p m e n ts . S in g a p o r e is a fre e p o rt, still o p e n to

Figure 21.54 has b e e n t h e w o rld 's b u sie st p o rt in te rm s o f s h ip p in g all co u n trie s, w it h s e v e n fre e tra d e z o n e s o f w h ic h
to n n a g e , a n d its m a in b u n k e rin g p o rt (i.e. fu el six a re fo r s e a b o r n e c a rg o a n d o n e is a t n e a rb y
Vessel arrivals in
c o n ta in e r). A t a n y g iv e n tim e , o v e r 800 C h a n g i in te rn a tio n a l a irp o rt. G o o d s c a n b e m a d e o r
Singapore, 2007
sh ip s are lik ely to b e in p ort, w ith a a s s e m b le d in th e s e z o n e s w it h o u t p a y m e n t o f im p o r t
7 o/0 n e w o n e a rriv in g o r w e ig h in g o r e x p o rt d u tie s a n d p rofits c a n b e s e n t b a c k t o t h e
coasters
a n c h o r e v e r y s e v e n m in u te s p a re n t c o m p a n y w it h o u t b e in g tax e d . M a n y h ig h- tech
and
(128 5 68 ve sse ls in 2007 T N C s a s s e m b le th e ir g o o d s h e re b e fo re se llin g th e m
freighters
regional ferries c o m p a re d w ith a t c o m p e tit iv e prices. H o w e v e r, t h e p o rt's larg e st
28% 81 000 in 1992).To m o n e y - e a rn e r is oil, a re so u rc e t h a t t h e c o u n t r y d o e s
bulk carriers
8% s a v e tim e , h a rb o u r n o t p o ss es s.T h is is b e c a u s e S in g a p o r e im p o rts c ru d e
p ilo ts are flo w n o u t oil fro m t h e M id d le East, In d o n e s ia a n d M a la ysia ,
b y h e lic o p te r to m e e t re fin e s it in t h e fr e e p o r t a n d th e n e x p o rts a r a n g e o f
in c o m in g vessels. oil p ro d u c ts , m a k in g it t h e w o rld 's th ird la rg e s t oil-
tankers
15% W it h its m o d e rn re fin in g ce n tre .

barges and tugs h a n d lin g e q u ip m e n t,

18% it ta k e s less th a n a

s e c o n d to m o v e 1 to n n e
containers
16% o f ca rg o . W a re h o u s e s

a re a lso a u to m a te d an d

c o m p u te ris e d . V e sse ls v a r y fro m

m o d e rn s u p e rta n k e rs, b u lk carriers a n d

c o n ta in e r sh ip s to t h e m o re tra d itio n a l b u m b o a ts

a n d b a rg e s (F ig u re 21.54). In 200 7 t h e p o rt also

h a n d le d 27.9 m illio n c o n ta in e rs m a k in g it, a lo n g

w it h S h a n g h a i, t h e w o rld 's b u sie st c o n ta in e r p o rt

(F ig u re 21.55).

636
 Airtransport to build a n o th e r 9 7 airports b y 2 0 2 0 , b rin g in g th e
Air tran sp o rt has th e h ig h est te rm in al charges, h ig h cou ntry 's to tal b y th e n to 2 3 9 . N ation al passengers
haulage costs (av iatio n fuel) and affects large hav e grow n fro m 7 m illio n in th e m id -1 9 8 0 s to

n u m bers o f people living o n flig h tp ath s near to 185 m illio n by 2 0 0 7 , in response to C h in a's rapid

airports. Its advantages (Figure 2 1 .5 3 ) inclu d e speed e co n o m ic grow th.

over lo n g d istances b o th for passengers such as This, and o th e r w orld airport p lanned d evelop­

tourist and business people, and for freight esp ecial­ m e n t, was before th e surge in oil prices in 2 0 0 8 ,

ly if it is o f h ig h value (w atches, d iam ond s), lig ht w h ic h left airlines in a state o f u n certain ty , n o t

in w eigh t (m o bile p h o n es) or p erish able (fruit). kn ow in g w h e th e r fuel costs w ill rem ain high , go

Apart fro m e m p lo y in g large n u m bers o f people h ig h er or ev en fall, and air travel was inclu d ed in

at airports, air transp ort is im p o rta n t to cou ntries carb on -cred it trading.

th a t are o f con sid erable size (Brazil), w here ground

terrain is d ifficu lt (Sahara Desert, th e Alps), w h e n
crossing stretches o f sea (L on d on to Belfast), or
w hen relief aid is essential fo llo w in g a h u m a n
(Rwanda) or n atu ral (earthqu ake) disaster or in te r­
n atio n al c o n flic t (A fghanistan).
S in ce d eregulation in th e EU in 1 9 9 3 , th ere has
b e e n increased co m p e titio n betw een existin g air­
lines, a w ider availability o f routes and th e ad ven t
o f low -bud get airlines w ith th e ir reduced fares. This
led to an increase in th e n u m b er o f flights, pas­
sengers and freight, w ith co n g e stio n at airports and
co m p e titio n for airspace. T his increase in d em and ,
esp ecially d uring h o lid ay periods an d at 'h u b '
lo catio n s, has resulted in th e bu ild in g o f m o re and
larger airports.
Beijing's th ird term inal, o p en ed in tim e for th e
2 0 0 8 O lym p ics, is 2 .9 km fro m en d to end and is
larger th a n all five H eathrow term in als put tog eth er
(Figure 2 1 .5 6 ). It w ill increase B eijing 's passenger Figure 21.56

cap acity from 35 m illio n to 85 m illio n . C h in a plans Beijing's new Terminal 3

D ubai:‘hub’ international airports

Figure 21.57 Heathrow

Numbers of people H e a t h r o w is t h e le a d in g E u r o p e a n 'h u b 'a ir p o r t fo r
passing through in te rn a tio n a l flig h ts a n d is said to b e B ritain 's m ain
Heathrow g a t e w a y to t h e g lo b a l e c o n o m y . A 'h u b 'is w h e n ,

in s te a d o f sm all p la n e s fly in g r e la t iv e ly s h o rt jo u r n e y s

b e t w e e n m a n y cities, la rg e p la n e s fly b e t w e e n th e

b ig g e s t c itie s w it h fe e d e r f lig h t s (F ig u re 21.57). P a rt

o f H e a th ro w 's im p o r t a n c e s te m s fro m t h e fa c t t h a t

21 p e r c e n t o f p a s s e n g e rs a rriv in g a t t h e a ir p o r t are

'in transit', ju s t s t o p p in g lo n g e n o u g h to c h a n g e

flig h ts .T h is c a u s e s c o n g e s tio n in t h e a ir p o r t a n d little

in c o m e fo r t h e U K b u t is e s s e n tia l fo r fillin g se ats o n

B ritis h A ir w a y s flig h ts a n d m a in t a in in g t h e a ir p o r t in

p o le p o s itio n . H o w e v e r, t o m a in t a in th is p o s itio n it

is a rg u e d t h a t a th ird r u n w a y w ill b e n e e d e d b y 2015

a n d t h e t w o e x is tin g o n e s n e e d to b e u s e d m o re .

E v e n ts le a d in g to t h e fin a l d e c is io n w ill p ro v o k e a

m a jo r e c o n o m ic , so cial a n d e n v ir o n m e n t a l d e b a te .

S o m e o f t h e a d v a n t a g e s a n d d is a d v a n t a g e s o f t h e

p r o p o s e d e x p a n s io n a re s u m m a r is e d in F ig u re 21.58.

Development and globalisation 637

 Figure 21.58
For e xp an sio n
Arguments for The prestige of being Europe's major'hub'airport and
and against the world's busiest.
expansion
Heathrow is vital to the British economy with
170 000 jobs dependent on it.
If Heathrow does not expand, flights and jobs will go
to rival airports in Paris, Frankfurt and Amsterdam.
In 1991,16 per cent ofthe total arrivals were passing
through'in transit'; by 2006 this was 21 per cent and
by 2010 it is predicted to be 31 per cent (Figure 21.57).
These are essential for filling, and maintaining, BA
flights (40 per cent of Heathrow's total).
The environmental damage is exaggerated - aircraft
only contribute 6 per cent of Britain's total carbon
emissions, far less than cars and coal-fired power
stations.
Dubai
D u b a i h a s m a d e its e lf t h e n e w 'h u b 'f o r a ir t r a n s p o r t
in t h e M id d le E a s t a n d b e y o n d . It is a tim e - z o n e
b r id g e b e t w e e n t h e Fa r E a s t a n d E u r o p e o n t h e
e a s t - w e s t axis a n d b e t w e e n t h e C IS a n d A fric a o n
t h e n o r t h - s o u t h axis. A th ir d t e r m in a l w a s o p e n e d
in 2 0 0 8 to r e lie v e p re s s u re c r e a t e d b y t h e 34 m illio n
p a s s e n g e r s a n d 2 6 0 0 0 0 flig h ts t h a t u s e d t h e a ir p o r t
in 200 7 . It h a s b e e n c o n s t r u c t e d to t a k e t h e n e w
A ir b u s A 3 8 0 w h ic h h a s 525 se ats. D u b a i's s u c c e s s
as a 'h u b 'h a s b e e n its lin k in g t o g e t h e r o f s e e m in g ly
u n lik e ly p a irs o f citie s, e.g. N a g o y a a n d S a o P a u lo ,
M o s c o w an d C a p e T ow n , G u a n g z h o u an d D ar es S a ­
la a m (F ig u re 21.59). E m ir a t e s a irlin e a ls o u s e s D u b a i
a ir p o r t to lin k s m a lle r c itie s w it h m a jo r w o r ld c e n ­
tre s, fo r e x a m p le p a s s e n g e r s fr o m N e w c a s t le c a n fly
Transport, carbon trading and
international agreements
A fter p o w er s ta tio n s an d in d u stry , tra n s p o rt is
th e m a jo r cau se o f c a rb o n release in to th e a tm o s ­
p h e re. T h e e ffe c t o f cars a n d o th e r road v e h icle s
e m ittin g c a rb o n d io x id e , a g re e n h o u s e gas, o n
g lo b al w a rm in g , h a v e b e e n k n o w n fo r som e
tim e . It is o n ly m o re re c e n tly t h a t th e in c re a se
in air tra ffic h a s b e e n see n as a fu r th e r fa c to r
in c lim a tic c h a n g e . W h a t is still to be b ro a d ly
a c c e p te d is th e e ffe c t o f o c e a n tra n s p o rt w h ic h
h a n d le s m o s t o f th e w orld 's trad e, a n d o f an
in c re a sin g n u m b e r o f cru ise lin ers. T h e UK g o v ­
e rn m e n t, as ju s t o n e e x a m p le , c la im s t h a t it h a s
re d u ced c a rb o n e m iss io n s in th e la st d ecad e b u t,
as e n v iro n m e n ta lis ts p o in t o u t, it h a s ig n o red
b o t h o c e a n a n d air tra n s p o rt in its c a lc u la tio n s .
If th e s e e m iss io n s w ere in c lu d e d , it w o u ld m e a n
t h a t B rita in h a d a n o v era ll in c re a se in c a rb o n
e m issio n s.
638 Development and globalisation
A g a in st exp an sio n
Aviation is the fastest-growing source of avoidable
carbon emissions, and must be curtailed.
Residents in the south-east will experience an increase
in noise, congestion and pollution; some 700 existing
homes will have to be demolished, and a further
150 000 people will be under the new flightpaths.
The new runway is expected to cater more for
short-haul flights for which there are less damaging
alternatives.
The vast number ofthe present 18 million'in transit'
passengers spend virtually no money as they pass
through the airport, contributing little to Britain's
balance of trade.
The airport already has a reputation for congestion,
long delays and lost luggage.
N ew
Zealand
Figure21.59
Dubai as an airtransport'hub'
t o D u b a i a n d h a v e a n ig h t's re s t b e fo re t r a v e llin g o n
to p la c e s in Ja p a n , C h in a a n d O c e a n ia .
U nd er th e K y o to P ro to co l - w h ic h w as draw n
u p in 1 9 9 2 , ad o p ted in 1 9 9 7 , c a m e in to force in
2 0 0 5 an d is d u e to exp ire in 2 0 1 2 - in d u strialised
c o u n trie s w ere m e a n t to cu t g re en h o u se gas e m is­
sio n s b y a n av erage o f 5 .2 p er c e n t. S in ce K yoto,
to ta l g lo b al e m issio n s h av e in fa c t soared; th e
e c o n o m ie s o f C h in a and In d ia h av e b o o m e d at a
rate th a t w as n o t p red icted an d th e w orld 's p o p u ­
la tio n h a s g ro w n b y a b o u t 1 b illio n . At p re se n t it
is th e in d u strialised co u n trie s th a t e m it m o st
c a rb o n (Figure 2 1 .6 0 ) w h ile th e p o o re st n a tio n s
o fte n e m it so little th a t a n y cu tb ack s b y th e m
w ou ld h a v e m in im a l e ffe ct o n a g lo b al scale
(Figure 2 1 .6 0 ). As w ith d ev e lo p m e n t, th e re is a
w ide gap b e tw e e n th e h ig h -e m ittin g ric h c o u n ­
tries a n d th e lo w -e m ittin g p o o r c o u n trie s. O n e
suggested s o lu tio n is carbon trading. T h e EU
alread y h as a n e m issio n s tra d in g m e c h a n is m
in o p e ra tio n , to g e th e r w ith v o lu n ta ry o ffset
sch e m e s.
The world w ould look very different if each
country's landmass were in proportion to its
carbon emissions, as this W orldm apper
cartogram reveals. A cartogram is part-map,
part pie-chart. It attem pts to keep areas (such
as countries) in roughly the same place, w hile
changing their size to reflect the value of a
variable - in this instance carbon emissions.
A population cartogram w ould depict China
and India as larger than their actual size, while
Australia would be smaller. For more
information visit www.worldm apper.org

Figure 21.60
C a rb o n trad in g is w h e n e a ch c o u n try is giv en a are b e in g b u ilt, c la im s t h a t it n e e d s th is
Cartogram to show
q u o ta fo r its em issio n s. T h o se cou n tries th a t e m it e n e rg y to c re a te jo b s , w h ile In d ia says it n e e d s
contribution to
m o st w ou ld be ab le to b u y fro m cou n tries th a t do t h e e x tra e n e rg y ju s t to im p ro v e , o r e v en to
carbon emissions by
different parts ofthe n o t use th e ir full qu ota, allow in g th o se th a t em it m a in ta in , th e sta n d a rd o f liv in g o f its rap id ly
world less th a n th e ir q u o ta to earn m o n e y b y sellin g th e ir g ro w in g p o p u la tio n .
Source:© 2006 SASI surplus. W h ile th is m a y b e a w ay fo r th e p o o rest D e v e lo p in g c o u n trie s d o n o t see w h y th e y
Group (University of
co u n trie s to earn extra in c o m e , it hard ly solves s h o u ld h e lp so lv e a p ro b le m t h a t w as n o t o f
Sheffield) and Mark
th e glo bal p ro b lem as rich cou n tries w ill p resu m ­ t h e ir m a k in g , a n d to d o so w o u ld m e a n th e ir
Newman (University
of Michigan) ably b u y ex tra credits rath er th a n reduce th e ir ow n b e in g g iv e n m o n e y a n d te c h n o lo g y b y th e
em issio ns. P rob lem s relatin g to in te rn a tio n a l trade d e v e lo p e d c o u n trie s.
a n d tran sp o rt w ould rem ain . Take tw o exam ples:
1 A c o u n tr y in th e EU b u y s b a n a n a s , e v e n
th r o u g h Fairtrad e, fro m a c o u n tr y in th e
C a r ib b e a n . W h ic h c o u n tr y is lia b le fo r th e USA
c a rb o n tra n s p o rt e m iss io n s - th e e x p o r te r o r 24%
th e im p o rte r?
2 A n o th er c o u n try in th e EU, or a TN C based rest ofthe world
th ere, orders goods to b e m ad e in C h in a w here 40%

th e y c a n be p rod uced m o re cheaply. Is it th e

country/TN C th a t orders and sells th e goods China
16%
th a t is resp o n sib le for th e tran sp o rt em issions,
or C h in a w here th e goods w ere m an u factu red ?
Europe
C a rb o n trad in g c a n o n ly w ork th ro u g h in te rn a ­ Russia 12 %
tio n a l c o -o p e ra tio n b u t g ettin g 2 0 0 cou n tries w ith Figure 21.61
UK 2 % ’
a w ide d iv erg en ce o f interests to agree is a d ifferen t World's leading
m atter. T h ese in terests in clu d e th e follow ing : carbon contributors
■ T h e USA fears t h a t a re d u c tio n in its e m issio n s integrated transport systems
w o u ld m e a n jo b losses a n d a p o ssib le fall in
A lth ou g h m o st lo n g -d istan ce tran sp o rt is eith e r by
th e c o u n try 's stan d ard o f liv in g . It agreed, fo r
ship (freight), p lan e (passengers) or p ip elin e (oil
th e first tim e in 2 0 0 8 , to ta lk a b o u t e m issio n s
and natu ral gas), b o th road an d rail ca n be used
at th e 2 0 0 9 C o p e n h a g e n c o n fe re n c e .
to cross c o n tin e n ts su ch as N o rth A m erica, or to
m T h e EU c o u n trie s argue fo r a 3 0 p er c e n t re d u c­
trav el fro m W estern Europe to th e fo rm er E astern
tio n b u t are fin d in g it h ard to a ch iev e .
b lo c cou n tries. In a n ideal w orld, th e re w ould be a
■ E m iss io n s o f e m e rg in g c o u n trie s , s u c h as
stronger lin k b e tw e e n th ese v ariou s types, w hereas
C h in a a n d In d ia , are su rg in g a n d th e s e c o u n ­
in fa ct in teg rated system s te n d to be lim ited to re­
trie s are u n d e r n o p ressu re to c u t b ack . C h in a ,
g ion s and large u rb an areas (Places 1 06) th a n b e in g
w h e re n u m e ro u s n e w c o a l-p o w e re d s ta tio n s
o n a glo bal scale.

Development and globalisation 639

 H ong Kong: an integrated traffic system
H o n g K o n g o r ig in a lly g r e w as a re s u lt o f its s t r a t e g ic
tr a d e ro u t e lo c a t io n a n d its la rg e , d e e p , s h e lte re d
h a rb o u r, a n d c o n t in u e d to d e v e lo p p a r t ly as a re s u lt
o f la te r in d u s tria lis a tio n . H o n g K o n g b e c a m e o n e o f
S o u th - e a s t A sia's f o u r 'lit t le tig e r s ' (p a g e 5 78), a n d
t r a d e w it h C h in a in p a r t ic u la r a n d t h e P a c ific R im in
g e n e r a l e x p a n d e d ra p id ly.
u s e d a t t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e 2 0 th c e n t u r y a re still
in o p e r a t io n t o d a y (F ig u re 21.62). T h e S t a r F e rry
tra n s fe rs la rg e n u m b e r s o f p e o p le d a ily fro m H o n g
K o n g Isla n d t o K o w lo o n o n t h e m a in la n d ; t r a m s lin k
t h e n o r t h e r n p a r t o f H o n g K o n g Is la n d ( a lt h o u g h
la n d r e c la m a t io n m e a n s t h e ir ro u te s a re n o lo n g e r
a d ja c e n t to t h e se a ); a n d t h e P e a k T r a m fu n ic u la r

r a ilw a y c a rrie s w e a lt h y c o m m u t e r s a n d to u ris ts to

E a rly t r a n s p o r t w a s m a in ly re s tric te d to w a t e r d u e
a n d fro m V ic to r ia P e a k (F ig u re 2 1 .6 3). A fo u r t h fo rm
to t h e lim ite d a m o u n t o f fla t la n d . A s b u ild in g o n
o f t r a n s p o r t , t h e K o w lo o n R a ilw a y , lin k e d t h e c o lo n y
t h e s t e e p h ills id e s p r o v e d d iffic u lt a n d h a z a rd o u s
w it h t h e N e w T e rrito rie s a n d t h e C h in e s e citie s o f
(C a s e S t u d y 2 B ), e s p e c ia lly o n H o n g K o n g Isla n d ,
G u a n g z h o u a n d S h e n z h e n (p a g e 581).
la n d w a s r e c la im e d fro m t h e se a fo r in d u s try ,

h o u s in g a n d t ra n s p o rt. T h r e e fo rm s o f t r a n s p o r t

Figure 21.62

Hong Kong's Star

Ferry, funicular
railway and tram

Figure21.63

The development of
transport in Hong
Kong before 1992

Tsuen Wan New Town tram route

------ Star Ferry (1979) date of China

_ — - road tunnels » —-m. electrified railway opening

Kwai Chung: world's
largest container L ■ : MTR (Mass © typhoon shelter <T N e w Territories

ChekLap
terminal (1976) ■ “ " Transit Railway Q built-up area
K o k /> Kowloon-*

to Shenzhen c ° ^ ong Kong

Kowloon-Canton
and Guangzhou
single-track railway
opened 1910; made
double track and
electrified in early
1980s
Kai Tak Airport: runway extended
in 1974; buildings refurbished in
early 1990s
ferries to
numerous
islands
proposed
Victoria Harbour extension
new rail terminus
Kowloon
• opened in 1975
Ocean
Terminal Cross Harbour
Tunnel (1972)
Eastern Harbour
Crossing (1989)

Kennedy Town first trams in 1904; 13 km

Victoria Peak 552 m Central and Wanchai of track;all trams new
since 1991
PeakTram:funicular
railway (1888); 1.4 km;
climbs 373 m Hong Kong Island
Chai Wan

640 Development and globalisation

 Figure 21.64

TheTsing Ma bridge

Transport since 1997

In 1997, t h e B ritis h h a n d e d H o n g K o n g b a c k to

C h in a a n d t h e fo r m e r c o lo n y b e c a m e a S p e c ia l

A d m in is t r a t iv e R e g io n . B y 2 008, t h e f o llo w in g

a d d it io n s a n d c h a n g e s h a d b e e n m a d e to t h e

t r a n s p o r t s y s te m .

T h e la rg e s t d e v e lo p m e n t w a s t h e c o n s t r u c t io n o f

a n e w in t e r n a t io n a l a ir p o r t a t C h e k L a p K o k (F ig u re

21.65). T h e d e c is io n to re - lo c a te t h e a ir p o r t h e r e

w a s m a d e in 1989 as p a r t o f a c o m p r e h e n s iv e p la n

to in c o r p o r a t e air, ro ad , rail a n d p o r t d e v e lo p m e n t s .

T h e a ir p o r t its e lf w a s o p e n e d in 1998 w it h a

s e c o n d t e r m in a l n in e y e a rs later. B y t h a t t im e it w a s

h a n d lin g 4 7 m illio n p a s s e n g e rs a y e a r .T h e a ir p o r t
o p e n e d a n e w w e s t c o a s t ro u te (2 0 0 3 ) b e t w e e n
is c o n n e c t e d t o T u n g C h u n g (a n e w t o w n o n L a n ta u
n o r t h e r n K o w lo o n a n d t h e n e w t o w n o f T u e n M u n
Isla n d ), K o w lo o n a n d H o n g K o n g Isla n d b y a
(F ig u re 2 1 .6 5 ).T h e s e t w o ro u te s w ill t h e m s e lv e s b e
27 k m e x p r e s s w a y t h a t in c lu d e s t w o b r id g e s (F ig u r e
lin k e d in 2 0 0 9 .T h e e a s t c o a s t r o u te o f t h e K C R n o w
2 1.64) c o n n e c t in g is la n d s w e s t o f K o w lo o n , a n d
p r o v id e s a h ig h - s p e e d d ir e c t lin k w it h S h a n g h a i
a n e w t u n n e l u n d e r V ic to ria H a r b o u r. A d ja c e n t to
a n d B e ijin g .T h e p o r t o f H o n g K o n g r e c e iv e d 39 000
t h e e x p r e s s w a y is t h e A ir p o r t E x p re s s (A E L ) w h o s e
v e s s e ls in 2 0 0 6 w h ile t h e t w in c o n t a in e r t e r m in a l o f
t ra in s c o v e r t h e 35.3 km to H o n g K o n g Isla n d in 24
K w a i C h u n g a n d T s in g Yi re m a in s o n e o f A sia's la rg e s t
m in u te s . O f t w o n e w M T R lin es, o n e c o n n e c t s w it h
a lt h o u g h it h a s n o w b e e n o v e r t a k e n b y S in g a p o r e
D is n e y la n d o n L a n ta u Is la n d a n d t h e o t h e r w a s b u ilt
(P la c e s 104) a n d S h a n g h a i (C a s e S t u d y 15 B ).
b e t w e e n e a s te rn H o n g K o n g Isla n d a n d e a s te rn

K o w lo o n u s in g y e t a n o t h e r n e w u n d e r - h a rb o u r E a c h d a y, a b o u t 11 m illio n p a s s e n g e r jo u r n e y s are
Figure 21.65 t u n n e l. A t p r e s e n t t h e M T R tra c k s c o v e r 91 k m a n d m a d e in c lu d in g o v e r 4 m illio n b y b u s, 3.8 m illio n b y

Transport developments h a v e 53 s t a t io n s .T h e K o w lo o n - C a n t o n R a ilw a y M T R , 1.4 m illio n b y rail, 240 0 0 0 b y tra m , 155 000 b y

since 1997 (K C R ) h as e x t e n d e d its e a s t c o a s t lin e (2 0 0 4 ), a n d f e r r y a n d 28 0 0 0 b y A E L .

west coast railway from to Guangzhou and Shenzhen

North Kowloon to
Tuen Mun New Territories

west coast
railway

east coast line

• Tuen Mun Shatin extended to
Wu Kai Sha

new airport at Chek Lap Kok - airport railway: 34 km

existing island was levelled and and 23 minutes to
land reclaimed from the sea Hong Kong Island
Terminals 1 (1998) and 2 (2007)
Kowloon
Airport Disneyland new MTR
route
container terminals at
rail link with Kwai Chung (enlarged) \Victoria
Disneyland and Tsing Yi (new)
Tung Chung Harbour

Central
Lantau Island
airport railway: 34 km and
23 minutes to Hong Kong Island Hong Kong Island

New Expressway in five sections:

North Lantau Expressway
Stanle1
'
Lantau Fixed Crossing (2 bridges)
Fixed Crossing to West Kowloon
West Kowloon Expressway
Western Harbour Crossing (tunnel)
total length
 Information and communications
technology (ICT)
S in ce th e m id -1 9 9 0 s , th e te le c o m m u n ic a tio n s /
IC T s e c to r h a s u n d e rg o n e m a jo r c h a n g e s . In d e e d
w h e n a p re v io u s e d itio n o f th is b o o k w as b e in g
w ritte n in 1 9 9 8 an d w h e n th e la te s t figures a v a il­
a b le w o u ld h av e b e e n for 1 9 9 6 , o n ly 1 2 .9 per
D e ve lo p e d Develo pin g
................... ................... land/fixed lines
................... .................... m ob ile cellular phones f—-
................... .................... Internet
0 J ...............-----------r - ------ - i- ' “ " V --------------- — r ............r --------1-----------i---------------------- 1-----------
1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
year
Fixed telephone lines (iandlines)
Fixed lin e s w ere easily th e m o s t av a ila b le o f th e
th re e fo rm s o f IC T in th e 1 9 9 0 s w ith a fre q u e n c y
te n tim e s g reater in d ev elo p ed th a n in d e v e lo p ­
in g c o u n trie s. A lth o u g h th e n u m b e r o f Ia n d lin e s
in d ev e lo p e d c o u n trie s p eak ed at 5 6 .8 p er c e n t
in 2 0 0 0 - a tim e o f rap id g ro w th o f b o th m o b ile
p h o n e s a n d th e I n te r n e t - it h a s slo w ly c o n t in ­
ued to in c re a se in d e v e lo p in g c o u n trie s a lth o u g h
in A frica th e re are, o n average, o n ly 3 fixed lin es
p er 1 0 0 p eo p le.
Mobile cellular telephones
L atest d ata suggest th a t th e g lo b al n u m b e r o f
m o b ile te le p h o n e s surpassed 3 b illio n in 2 0 0 7
a n d th a t b y 2 0 0 8 ov er h a lf o f th e to ta l p o p u la ­
tio n w ou ld o w n th e ir o w n m o b ile an d cou ld
co lle ctiv e ly b e sen d in g up to 3 0 0 0 0 0 te x ts e ach
m in u te . By 2 0 0 7 , th e n u m b e r o f su bscribers in
d ev elo p ed co u n trie s exce e d e d 9 0 per c e n t w hereas
th e n u m b e r fo r d ev elop ed co u n trie s w as still in
th e m id -3 0 s. Even so, d esp ite th is large d ifferen ce,
m o b ile p h o n e s h av e b e e n critic a l in e n h a n c in g
access to te le c o m m u n ic a tio n s in m a n y d ev elo p ­
in g c o u n trie s, and e sp ecially in rural areas w here
fixed lin es re m a in lim ite d o r are n o n -e x is te n t. T h e
13 per c e n t o f th e w orld 's p o p u la tio n th a t live in
th e G 8 co u n trie s (C an ad a, France, G erm an y , Italy,
Ja p a n , Russia, th e UK and th e USA) a c c o u n t fo r 3 0
p er c e n t o f m o b ile o w n ersh ip .
642 Development and globalisation
c e n t o f th e w o rld 's p o p u la tio n p ossessed a fixed
o r la n d lin e te le p h o n e ; o n ly 2 .5 p er c e n t o w n ed
a m o b ile c e llu la r te le p h o n e ; a n d o n ly 1 .4 per
c e n t h a d a ccess to th e I n te r n e t (Figu re 2 1 .6 6 ).
C o n s e q u e n tly th is s e c tio n did n o t ap p ear in th a t
b o o k . W ith in a d ecad e th e s e space-shrinking
technologies h a v e b e c o m e a m a jo r re a so n for
th e g ro w th an d spread o f g lo b a lis a tio n .
ICT Developed countries % Developing countries %
1994 2006 1994 2006
Fixed
48.8 51.5 4.4 13.9
lines
Mobiles 5.2 90.9 0.2 32.4
Internet
2.2 58.6 0.03 10.2
users
Figure 21.66
Fixed telephone lines, mobile cellular
2004 2006 phones and Internet users per 100
inhabitants, 1994-2006
Internet
A lth o u g h access to th e In te rn e t has also b e e n
gro w in g rapidly, th e n u m b e r o f users in d ev elo p ­
in g co u n trie s ag ain re m a in s lim ite d w ith o n ly ju st
ov er 1 0 p er c e n t co m p are d w ith a lm o st 6 0 per
c e n t in d ev elo p ed c o u n trie s. T h e re are also m a jo r
d iscrep an cies in in te rn a tio n a l In te rn e t b an d w id th
- th e critical in frastru ctu re th a t d ictate s th e speed
at w h ich w ebsites in o th e r co u n trie s c a n b e a c­
cessed. O th e r c o n stra in ts for d ev e lo p in g c o u n trie s
in clu d e th e h ig h c o s t o f in te rn a tio n a l b a n d w id th
(th e y o fte n h av e to p ay th e fu ll c o s t o f a lin k to a
h u b in a d ev elo p ed c o u n try ), lite ra cy a n d a lack
o f electricity . At p re se n t o v er 4 0 p er c e n t o f th e
w orld 's In te rn e t users live in th e G 8 c o u n trie s
w h ereas in as m a n y as 3 0 d ev e lo p in g c o u n trie s,
In te rn e t users n u m b e r less th a n 1 p er c e n t o f th e
to ta l p o p u la tio n .
T h e IC T 'r e v o lu tio n ' h as see n th e sp e ed in g
up o f th e g lo b a lis a tio n p ro cess a n d is c o n tr ib u t­
in g to th e d is in te g ra tio n o f n a tio n a l e c o n o m ie s
(page 6 0 5 ). It is, arguably, th e re s u lta n t flow o f
d ata, fin a n c e a n d m ig ra n t re m itta n c e s t h a t fo rm s
th e m o s t in d ic a tiv e fe atu re o f g lo b a lis a tio n . IC T
h as also allo w ed in d u strie s a n d serv ices, fro m
larg e-scale TN C s an d in te r n a tio n a l b a n k s dow7n
to self-e m p lo y e d in d iv id u a ls, a freer c h o ic e o f
lo c a tio n fo r th e ir site o r p la ce o f w o rk (p o st-
F o rd ism , p ag e 5 6 1 ).
 The global value chain
T h e value chain, a la ter d e v e lo p m e n t o f th e
com m odity chain, is a c o n n e c te d g ro u p o f
a c tiv itie s t h a t are req u ired to see a p ro d u ct
th ro u g h a series o f stages fro m c o n c e p t-d e sig n
to m a r k e tin g -d is trib u tio n (G e reffi 1 9 9 4 ). T h e
p ro cess o f g lo b a lis a tio n h a s p ro m o te d tw o typ es
o f c h a in :
1 T h e producer-driven ch ain is c h a ra c te r is tic
o f c a p ita l- a n d te c h n o lo g y -in te n s iv e in d u s ­
trie s (a u to m o b ile s , c o m p u te rs a n d o th e r h ig h -
te c h n o lo g y a c tiv itie s ) w h e re th e sy ste m is
c o n tr o lle d b y larg e T N C s.
2 T h e buyer-driven chain is ty p ic a l o f la b o u r-
in te n s iv e a c tiv itie s su ch as th e fa s h io n
in d u s try (C ase S tu d y 2 1 ), r e ta ilin g (W al-M art
- Figu re 1 9 .4 6 - a n d Ik ea) a n d m e r c h a n d is in g
(N ike a n d A didas) w h ic h in v o lv e s th e s e ttin g
up o f a g lo b a l n e tw o rk a n d w h ic h in c r e a s ­
in g ly d ep en d s o n a cce ss to , a n d a d v a n ce s in ,
ICT.
T h e v a lu e c h a in in v o lv e s d iv id in g th e in d u stry
in to sev eral c o m p o n e n ts , e a c h o f w h ic h m a y b e
lo c a te d in a c o u n tr y t h a t offers th e lo w e st-c o st
fa c to rs. For e x a m p le :
■ T h e h e a d o ffic e fo r a d m in is tr a tio n an d fro m
w h e re raw m a te ria ls m a y be o rd ered an d
India: call centres
T h e rap id g ro w th in call centres is o n e con sequ ence
o f sp ace - sh rin k in g te c h n o lo g ie s . Call c e n tre s re p re s e n t
a c o m p a n y - c u s t o m e r re la tio n sh ip in w h ic h a w id e
ra n g e o f s u p p o r t se rvices, in c lu d in g after-sales a d vice ,
m a rk e tin g , te c h n ic a l s u p p o rt, cla im s e n q u irie s, se at
re se rv a tio n s a n d d a ta p ro visio n , are p ro v id e d o v e r
th e t e le p h o n e fro m d e d ic a te d c e n tre s to a w id e ly
d isp e rse d c u s to m e r b ase b y firm s su ch as A m e ric a n
Express, B a n k o f A m e ric a , B T (British T e le c o m ) a n d Dell.
Call c e n tre s p ro v id e in fo rm a tio n a n d a d v ic e fo r e xisting
Figure 21.67 c u s to m e rs as w e ll as try in g to a ttra c t n e w o nes. In th e
last d e c a d e , g lo b a lis a tio n has se e n In d ia, w ith t h e c ity
Acall centre in
Bangalore o f B a n g a lo re in p articu lar, sp e cia lis in g a n d b e c o m in g
a w o rld h u b in th is s e c to r o f
b u sin e ss p ro c e ss o u tso u rcin g ,
w h ic h is t h e final link in th e v a lu e
ch ain . In d ia has b e c o m e su ch a
p rim e lo c a tio n fo r call c e n tre s a n d
o ffsh o re s e rvice s fo r fir m s b ase d
in th e U S A a n d B ritain t h a t it is in
d a n g e r o f b e c o m in g ste re o ty p e d
fo r p ro v id in g t h a t sp e cialis ed
t y p e o f se rvice , ra th e r th a n b e in g
k n o w n fo r its w id e r e c o n o m ic
d e v e lo p m e n t. It is t h e w o rld 's
le a d in g e x p o rte r o f IC T se rvice s
a n d its v o lu m e o f o u ts o u r c in g is
d o u b lin g e v e r y th re e years, to th e
d e trim e n t o f sim ilar jo b s b a ck in th e
d esig n s fo r th e p ro d u c t d raw n is in th e USA
w ith its a v a ila b le fin a n c e ,
c R e sea rch a n d d e v e lo p m e n t (R & D ) in to
im p ro v e d m e th o d s o f p ro c e ss in g is c a rrie d
o u t in th e UK w ith its sk ille d t e c h n ic a l la b o u r
fo rce.
a P ro ce s sin g / m a n u fa ctu rin g o f p arts is d o n e
in C h in a w h e re la b o u r is p le n tifu l a n d c h e a p
(C ase S tu d y 2 1 ), a lth o u g h th e fin a l a sse m b ly
m a y be in a n N IC su ch as M a la y sia .
■ M a rk e tin g a n d d is trib u tio n are ca rrie d o u t in
N o rth A m e rica a n d th e EU w ith th e ir large
an d w e a lth y c o n s u m e r m a rk e ts,
s A fter-sales a n d c u s to m e r serv ices o p e ra te
th r o u g h a c a ll c e n tr e lo c a te d in In d ia (P laces
1 0 7 ), ta k in g a d v a n ta g e o f its lo w -p rice d b u t
sk illed lab o u r.
E a ch year, th e v alu e c h a in b e co m e s m o re c o m ­
p lex, d y n a m ic an d service in d u stry o rie n te d . T h e
issue is w h e re a n d w h e n c a n v alu e to a p ro d u ct
b e added a n d h o w far c a n fa cto rie s a n d lo ca tio n s
at th e lo w er en d o f th e c h a in m a n a g e to upgrade
(P laces 1 0 2 o n c h o c o la te in G h a n a ). For e xam p le,
in th e g a rm e n t in d u stry (C ase S tu d y 2 1 ), w here
d esign adds c o n sid era b le valu e, su b -co n tra cto rs
in places su ch as T urkey an d In d ia u sed o n ly to
m ak e th e c lo th e s d esign ed elsew h ere b u t now ,
in creasin g ly , th e y d esign th e ir ow n.
U S A an d t h e U K. S o m e o f India's call c e n tre s a re a d d in g
v a lu e b y m o v in g u p in to b u sin e ss se rv ic e p ro visio n .
To m a n y A m e ric a n a n d British e m p lo y e rs , In d ia has a
s ta b le d e m o c ra c y , a h u g e E n g lish - sp e a k in g p o p u la tio n
a n d a so u n d e d u c a tio n sy ste m t h a t tu rn s o u t m o re
th a n a m illio n g ra d u a te s a year, all o f w h o m are lo o k in g
fo r w e ll-p aid jo b s. B u t'w e ll- p a id 'is a re la tiv e te rm .T h e
a v e ra g e in c o m e p e r c a p ita in In d ia is u n d e r $1000
a y e ar; for a p e rs o n w o rk in g in a call c e n tre in th a t
c o u n try it is b e t w e e n $ 15 000 a n d $25 000 a y e ar; to
p a y s o m e o n e in A m e ric a o r th e U K to d o t h e s a m e jo b
is lik ely to c o s t $70 0 0 0 -$ 9 0 000 a year. S o la rg e firm s in
t h e W e s te r n w o rld are m o v in g th e ir call c e n tre s to Ind ia
in o r d e r t o r e d u c e th e ir fin a n cia l co sts in a n a t t e m p t t o
re m a in c o m p e titiv e in to d a y 's w o rld .
B u t it is n o t a n e a s y life fo r In d ia n call c e n tre w o rk e rs
(F ig u re 21.67). D u e to t h e tim e d iffe re n c e - B a n g a lo re
is 11 h o u rs b e h in d N e w Y o r k - t h e m a n n in g o f p h o n e s
has to b e d o n e t h r o u g h o u t t h e n ig h t. B y d a y th e
a g e n ts, as t h e call c e n tre te le p h o n is ts a re k n o w n , h a v e
ty p ic a l In d ia n n a m e s b u t b y n ig h t t h e y ta k e o n n a m e s
t h a t s o u n d like t h e b o y o r girl n e x t d o o r in A m e ric a
o r B ritain. In th e ir tra in in g t h e y are t a u g h t to id e n tify
d iffe r e n t 'W e s t e r n 'a c c e n t s a n d to u se th o s e a c c e n ts
w h e n e v e r p o ss ib le t h e m s e lv e s in o rd e r t o m a k e th e m
s o u n d m o re frie n d ly a n d h e lp fu l to th e caller. B y th e
e n d o f th e ir tra in in g , o n ly 5 o u t o f e v e r y 100 o f t h e
o rig in a l a p p lic a n ts are lik ely to g e t a jo b .
 China and India: globalisation in the textile
and fashion industry
2 1 /
- F A
In th e e a rly 19 th ce n tu ry , Britain w a s a
le ad in g p ro d u c e r o f textiles. A t th a t tim e, it
im p o rte d silk fro m C h in a an d s o m e c o tto n
fro m India. Later, Britain b e g a n e x p o rtin g
textile m a c h in e ry to c o u n trie s su ch as India
w h ic h w e r e th e n a b le to e x p o rt m a n u fa c ­
tu re d textiles b a ck to th e UK. This, o n h in d ­
sight, w a s t h e b e g in n in g o f g lo b alis atio n
in in d u stry an d th e cre a tio n o f a relatively
sim p le v a lu e ch ain.
Today, th e m e n tio n o f g lob alisatio n can
p ro vo ke e x tre m e opinions. C e rtain ly its
im p a c t o n th e p e o p le s an d e c o n o m ie s o f
b o th C h in a an d India has b e e n co n sid e rab le
- so m e tim e s for th e g o o d , s o m e tim e s for th e
worse. B u t this im p a c t o f g lob alisatio n has no t
ju st b e e n one-w ay. T h e g ro w th o f t h e C h in e se
an d Indian e c o n o m ie s has affected m a n y
p e o p le across th e w o rld, ag ain s o m e tim e s for
th e ir b enefit, so m e tim e s to th e ir d etrim en t.
T h e textile an d fashion ind ustry p ro vid e s a
g o o d e x a m p le o f h o w a g lo b al v a lu e ch ain
affects p e o p le an d w h e re , as so o ften is th e
case, s o m e are w in n e rs an d s o m e are losers:
:igure 21.68
Housing in China
a New housing
b Dormitory housing
644 Development and globalisation
g a r m e n t d e s i g n ------------ p ro d u c tio n
(so u rc in g )
China
M a n y d e s ig n e r clo th e s, in c lu d in g s p o rts ­
w e a r, tra in e rs an d je a n s, are p ro d u c e d on
a g lo b a l sc ale b y la rg e T N C s w h ic h h a v e
lo c a te d th e ir m a in p ro d u c tio n fa c to rie s
in d e v e lo p in g co u n trie s, e s p e c ia lly if, like
M e x ic o a n d T u rk e y , th e s e c o u n trie s are
n e a r to t h e m a rk e t fo r m id - ra n g e p ro d ­
ucts. As d e s ig n s a n d sty le s o f c lo th in g are
c o n s ta n tly c h a n g in g , th e n it is q uicker,
e a sie r an d c h e a p e r to g e t e m p lo y e e s to
a d a p t to th e s e c h a n g e s t h a n it is to re p la c e
e x p e n s iv e m a c h in e r y g e a re d to s p e cific
g a rm e n ts .T h is m e a n s th a t t h e T N C s lo c a te
th e ir m a in fa c to rie s in c o u n trie s like C h in a
w h e r e la b o u r co sts are still low , a lth o u g h in
C h in a's c a s e m a n y g a r m e n t fa c to r ie s w e r e
in itia lly fin a n c e d fro m H o n g K o n g.
M a n y p e o p le living n e a r to n e w textile
an d fashion factories, w h ic h h a ve m o d e rn
m achinery, h ave benefited from
globalisation. T h e y are likely to g e t th e b etter
jo b s and, sh ou ld t w o o r th re e m e m b e rs o ft h e
fam ily also b e e m p lo y ed , m a y earn e n o u g h
to build a n e w h o u se for th e m se lve s (Figure
21.68a). U nlike th e ho u se th e y will ha ve left,
this will be larger, lighter and cleaner; it will
h a ve electricity, ru nn in g w a te r an d sew erag e;
and th e n e w o w n e rs can p ro b ab ly afford a
w a sh in g m achine,T V , fridg e an d co m p uter.
---------- 3 *. retail -------------s u p p ly
(sales) (w e a rin g )
H o w e v e r, t h e n u m b e r o f n e w fa c to rie s
th a t h a v e o p e n e d has g re a tly e x c e e d e d
t h e s u p p ly o f local lab o u r.T h is has led to
th o u s a n d s o f p e o p le fro m t h e su rro u n d in g
p oo rer, rural areas b e in g a ttra c te d to th e
larg e cities, c re a tin g a sc ale o f rural to u rb an
m ig ra tio n n e v e r b e fo re s e e n a n y w h e r e
in t h e w o rld (p a g e 366). As is so o fte n th e
case, t h e re ality o f u rb a n fa c to r y life is
fa r f r o m t h e m ig ra n ts 'p e rc e p tio n an d so
C h in a 's 150 m illio n m ig ra n t w o rke rs, m a n y
benefited
o f w h o m are w o m e n , h a v e
less from g lo b a lisa tio n . T h e y are likely
to g e t t h e w o r s t jo b s, m a y h a v e to w o rk
m o re th a n 12 h o u rs a d a y fo r at least six
d a ys a w e e k , a n d e a rn u n d e r £ 1 0 0 a m o n th
(£4 a d ay). T h e w o rs t fa c to rie s h a v e b e e n
d e s c r ib e d a s 's w e a ts h o p s 'a s w o rk in g c o n d i­
tio n s are o fte n c r a m p e d a n d s o m e tim e s
u n h e a lth y an d t h e jo b s re p e titiv e and
b o rin g (F ig u re 21.69). A c c o m m o d a t io n m a y
b e in single-sex d o rm ito rie s (F ig u re 2 1 .6 8 b),
s h a rin g a ro o m w it h u p to 12 o t h e r w o rkers.
T h e re is little s p a c e o r p riva cy , a n d w a s h in g
facilitie s m a y h a v e t o b e sh are d w ith up
to 50 p e o p le . M o s t o f th e ir w a g e s w ill b e
se n t h o m e as re m itta n c e s b u t t h e w o rk e rs
c a n rarely afford to re tu rn to th e ir villa g e s
th e m s e lv e s .
Figure 21.69
Sweatshop conditions
 China and India: globalisation in the textile and fashion industry
There is another group of people who cer­
tainly have not b enefited from g lo b a li­
sa tio n . Tang Lee's family have been making
children's clothes in Beijing for five genera­
tions and then selling them in their small--- -
shop in a guiet back street (Figure 21.70).
Now his business is failing in the face of
globalisation. As China becomes richer,
more of its people can afford the brand-
named fashion products that are pouring
into or being made in China and which are
available for sale in the hundreds of new,
large department stores. Added to this, the
increase in the number of foreign televi­
sion programmes has made the Chinese,
especially the younger ones, more aware of
'Western-style'designer products. As Tang
Lee said:'People want whatever they see on
television but it will mean the end of small
clothes makers, small shops and the tradi­
tional Chinese culture'.
India
In 2005, India's newspapers reported that,
due to the end of textile quotas and Chinese
trade disputes/exports to the USA had
increased by 36 per cent and the textile
boom has given jobs to India's poor'and
a government minister predicted that 'as
many as 12 million jobs could be created in
the textile sector over the next few years'.
The globalisation policy ofthe govern­
ment has seen the construction of modern
capital-intensive spinning mills that use
modern technology (Figure 21.71); the
introduction of a promotion and marketing
strategy aimed at capturing both the urban
and rural market; and a diversification in the
range ofthe products which are aimed to be
low-price and high-quality.The industry has
also invested heavily in acquiring sophisti­
cated high-technology equipment and tools
from overseas countries and introduced
production and marketing collaboration
with foreign manufacturers.The high-
voiume production of quality synthetic and
cotton items, which has benefited so many
people as well as the national economy, has,
however, given it a competitive advantage
over traditional handloom products.
The government has recognised the
Irn pact that the entry of global competitors is
having on the handloom sector (Figure 21.73)
which is mainly located in rural areas and
operated by women working in weaver com­
munities (Figure 21.72).The weakening ofthe
handloom sector is posing a serious threat to
the socio-economic life and livelihood of tra­
ditional weaver communities in general and
the socio-economic status of rural women
working in those communities in particular. As
rural women constitute a major segment of
the labourforce in the handloom industry, it
will have a far-reaching effect on the govern­
ment's drive for rural poverty alleviation and
e a r ornic em novvcrrerl 'or /.'omen.
 China and India: globalisation in the textile and fashion industry

A lt h o u g h B a n g a lo re has b e c o m e t h e
g lo b a l h u b fo r call c e n tre s (p a g e 643), it
is still im p o r t a n t fo r textiles. F ig u re 21.74
d e s c rib e s h o w t h e less w e a lth y , less e d u ­
c a te d m e m b e rs o f t h e c o m m u n it y c a n also
b e n e fit fro m g lo b a lis a tio n .
With increasing globalisation, the degree of
competition for marketing textile items has
intensified with the entry of foreign suppliers and
foreign brands. The position and share of
handloom products has been suffering by the entry
of major competitors. It is imperative that the
handloom industry sector, with its distinct and
unique features, prepares and strengthens itself to
meet the challenges and intensity of competition in
the global and internal market.
Source: Ministry of Human Resource
Development, government of India

Champa Kala does not have the
English nor the computer skills
needed to find work in one o f
the many call centres located in
the skyscrapers o f central
Bangalore, nor with one o f the
software firms that have
transformed the region into a
high-tech hub. Instead she
works in an industrial suburb as
a seamstress in a new garment
export factory which, since the
expiration six months earlier of
a 30-year-old global system of
textile quotas and the end o f a
long U SA -E U trade dispute
with China, is part o f India's
booming textile sector.
Naturally she does not earn the
wages nor work in the
air-conditioned atmosphere o f a
call centre but she is happy
enough simply to have found a
jo b that pays around $1200 a
year as she helps produce
jackets for Gap Inc.
Many economists believe that it
is new factories like this that
typify the low-end. labour-
intensive manufacturing sector
that India needs if it is to
improve the standard o f living
o f its 400 million low-skilled,
poverty-stricken citizens who
live on less than $1 a day and
who have been largely
by-passed by the country’s
high-end jo b growth. A director
for the garment factory claimed
that it was providing jobs for the
illiterate and semi-illiterate
classes by taking up to 300
Figure 21.73
people a week straight from Extract from a
villages and farmland and, government report
within a month in their training
centre, giving them the skills to
work the machines. The
garment firm opened this
factory in 2004 and within 12
months employed 1600 people.
It has since opened several more
in the region. In 2006 the textile
sector, which nationally
employed 35 million people and
generated $14 billion in exports,
had raised the hopes for
sustained jo b creation,
especially if India’s share o f the
global textile market rises from
the 4 per cent o f 2004 (China
had 20 per cent) to a predicted
Figure 21.74
15 per cent by 2010.
Textiles in
Bangalore

China, the EU and North t h e e n d o f t h e y e a r o v e r 1 m illion jo b s w e r e p ro te c tio n is m at its w o rs t a n d th a t w h ile

America: the quotas row, to b e lost in B a n g la d e sh , Sri Lan ka (still th e E U h a d b e e n p re a c h in g to t h e d e v e l­

2005 re c o v e rin g fro m t h e p rev io u s year's tsu n am i),

C a m b o d ia an d th e Ph ilip p in e s (Fig u re 21.75).

o p in g c o u n trie s a b o u t t h e n e e d to o p e n u p

T h is crisis h ad its o rig in s in t h e s c ra p p in g , at
t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e year, o f t h e M u lti- Fib re
A r r a n g e m e n t (M F A ) w h ic h set q u o ta s o n
h o w m a n y g a rm e n ts c o u ld b e im p o rte d
fro m in d iv id u a l c o u n trie s in to t h e E U an d
N o rth A m e ric a .
C h e a p e r m a n u fa c tu r in g co sts in C h in a
m e a n t h a t it c a n u n d e rc u t o th e r co u n trie s
b y u p to 25 p e r c e n t a n d so h u n d re d s o f
retailers s w itc h e d p ro d u c tio n th e re (as
m a n u fa c tu r in g co sts in C h in a are o n ly 4
p e r c e n t th o s e o f t h e U S A a n d t h e EU, th e n
p ro d u c tio n , p a c k a g in g , s h ip m e n t to an d
t h e n d is trib u tio n in t h e EU an d t h e U S A ca n
all b e p a id a n d still le a v e a d e c e n t p rofit). As
a result, im p o rts fro m C h in a so a re d b y u p
to 1 2 0 0 p e r c e n t an d , b y t h e m id d le o f t h e
year, se ve ra l billion m o re g a rm e n ts w e r e en
ro u te to E u ro p e a n m arkets.
W ith in m o n th s, a t least 50 000 jo b s w e re
lost in trad itio n al textile co u n trie s in S o u t h ­
east Asia as fac to rie s clo se d d o w n , a n d b y
A c c o rd in g to t h e U N , th e s e c o u n trie s lost
10 p e r c e n t o f th e ir e x p o rt e arn in g s in e ig h t
m o n th s. H o w e v e r, it w a s o n ly w h e n firm s
in Italy (Eu ro p e 's le ad in g g a rm e n t m a n u ­
facturer), F ra n c e a n d t h e U K b e g a n clo sin g
th a t t h e E U a c te d . In Ju ly it im p o s e d q u o ta s
o n te n ca te g o rie s o f g a rm e n ts c o m in g from
C h in a in o rd e r to p ro te c t its o w n d o m e s tic
m ark et fro m a d e lu g e o f c h e a p g o o d s - b ut
b y th e n m o re th a n 80 m illion item s w e r e
a lre a d y m a d e u p a n d o n th e ir w a y!
R e taile rs in t h e E U w e r e u n h a p p y ,
c la im in g th a t t h e q u o ta s in h ib ite d fre e
tra d e an d th a t c o n s u m e rs w o u ld b e
h it t h r o u g h p ric e rises a n d sh o rta g e s
o f ju m p e rs , je a n s, tro u se rs a n d lin g erie.
C a m p a ig n e rs said th a t W e s te r n d e m a n d
fo r cu t- p rice c lo th e s w a s fu e llin g a v ic io u s
circ le o f su p p ly - ch a in sw itc h e s , rap id w a g e
re d u c tio n s in t h e p o o re s t c o u n trie s an d
w o rs e n in g la b o u r re latio n s g lo b a lly .T h e y
a rg u e d th a t t h e in tro d u c tio n o f q u o ta s w a s
th e ir m arkets, th e EU th e n im p o s e d restric­
tio n s t o p ro te c t th e ir o w n . T h e g e n e ra l s e c ­
re ta ry o f t h e In te rn a tio n a l Textile, G a r m e n t
an d L e a th e r W o rk e r s 'F e d e ra tio n s a id :'O u r
c o n c e r n is th a t c o u n trie s like B a n g la d e s h
a n d Sri L an k a are b e in g fo rc e d to t r y to
u n d e r c u t C h in a a n d e a c h o th e r. T h e y ca n
o n ly d o this b y in c re a sin g th e ir a lre a d y lo n g
w o rk in g h o u rs an d r e d u c in g th e ir a lre a d y
lo w w a g e s . G a r m e n t m a n u fa c tu r in g
p ro v id e s o n e o f t h e f e w e c o n o m ic o p p o r ­
tu n itie s for p o o re r c o u n trie s to raise th e ir
in c o m e s . N o w p e o p le w o rk in g in te x tile
fa c to r ie s in th o s e c o u n trie s are h a v in g to
live at a s u b s is te n c e level, a n d u n d e rc u ttin g
m e a n s t h a t th e s e n a tio n s c a n n o t lift t h e m ­
se lve s o u t o f p overty.'
A lth o u g h th e crisis w a s e v e n tu a lly
b ro u g h t to a c o n c lu s io n , it d id n o t p re v e n t
fu rth e r fa c to r y clo su res an d jo b losses in
b o th d e v e lo p in g c o u n trie s an d t h e EU as
C h in a c o n tin u e s to d o m in a t e t h e w o rld 's
g a r m e n t tra d e (Fig u re 21.76).

646 Development and globalisation

 China and India: globalisation in the textile and fashion industry EEB 2 B D

The quotas row, the rise of China, and the West's demand for cheaper clothing, are consigning hundreds of thousands to poverty.

EUROPE 200 textile firms across the continent

closing each week with job losses predicted to
reach 250 000, according to industry lobby group
Euratex. Italy, where most ofthe industry is based,
fears losing 30 000 jobs unless quotas are imposed
and remain.

PHILIPPINES Has lost up to

half of its export earnings as
a result ofthe end ofthe MFA.
The government recently
exempted small businesses -
which make up the majority
ofthe garment industry -
BANGLADESH The garment
industry accounts for 75% ofthe from minimum wage

country's export earnings and legislation in an attempt to

undercut China.
employs 1.8 million people. It is *
estimated to have lost 10% of its
industry due to retailers switching
to China since January. The
working week has been increased of 2005, 36 garment
to 72 hours while the minimum closed with the loss of 26 000 jobs.

wage has halved in real terms in 1 million people (total population

the past 10 years as the country
tries to compete with China.
Figure21.75
CAMBODIA The clothing market accounts for 90% of export earnings,
7 million) work in the clothing
mainly to Europe and America. More than 20 000 workers have already
industry.
been laid off and unions are concerned that pay and conditions are
being sacrificed in an attempt to win trade from China.

The quotas row: the

situation in August
2005

Figure 21.76

From the NewcastleJournal, February 2008

Slow death of region’s textile industry

TH E North-East clothing and
textile industry has been in
decline for two decades, when
customers such as Marks &
Spencer - which once prided
itself on selling British-made
clothes - began to source
garments from cheaper
foreign suppliers.
Dewhirst, once one o f M & S ’s
largest suppliers, employed
up to 20,0 0 0 people in the UK
at one stage. Now, the
business has around 1,500
British staff, mainly in design,
sampling and office-based
roles. In the region, it retains
a menswear manufacturing
site in Sunderland and a plant
in Peterlee.
Much o f the work at these two
sites is alterations to clothing
that is made abroad. The
region's textile industry has
been hit hard by cheap
imported goods in recent
years. Since the late 1990s.
more than 5,000 clothing jobs
have been lost in the
North-East.
The North-East's textile
industry is made up of around
600 firms - mainly working in
the areas o f design, laundry
and distribution - the majority
o f which employ fewer than
20 staff.
The manufacturing side of the
business tends to concentrate
on quality, expensive goods
such as the garments made by
Barbour in South Shields.
Beau Brammell in Seaham
makes blazers and other
school clothing.
Fred Kirkland, from the
N orth-East Textile Network
and Skillfast - the U K sector
skills council for fashion and
textiles - said: ‘Clothing and
textiles as an industry has
changed and moved on.
What we do retain is the
design and technical aspect.
This is the high value end o f
the industry. It is very
important we keep these
skills in order to compete
with com panies abroad.’

Development and globalisation 647

Barke, M. and O ’Hare, G. (1991) The Third Thottathil, S. (2008) 'Energy matters: fair Population Reference Bureau:
World, Oliver & Boyd. trade or food miles', Geography Review www.prb.org
Bek, D. and Binns, T. (2000) 'Putting Vol 21 No 3 (February). United N ations (UN):
ethics on the table', Geography Review C anadian In tern ation al D evelopm ent www.un.org/Pubs/CyberSchoolBus/
Vol 21 No 2 (November). Agency, V irtual Library on index, shtm l
Black, W.R. (2003) Transportation: A In tern ation al Developm ent: UN AIDS:
geographical analysis New York, The www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/cidaweb/acdicida. www.unaids.org
Guildford Press. risf/En/Home
UN D evelopm ent P rogram m e (UNDP):
Bumpus, A. (2008) 'Energy matters: Centre for Health Protection, www.undp.org/
carbon offsets’, Geography Review Vol 21 D epartm ent of Health, G overnm ent of
UN W ater for Life:
No 4 (April). the Hong Kong Special A dm inistrative
www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/
Region:
C hina Business H andbook 2008. UN W orld Food Program m e:
www. chp.gov.hk
C hina Econom ic Review 200S. www.wfp.org/english/
CIA W orld Fact Book:
Coe, N.M., Kelly P.P. and Yeung, H.W.C. www.cia.gov/library/publications/ W ateraid:
(2007) Econom ic Geography, Blackwell. the-world-factbook/ www.wateraid.org/
Dicken, P. (2007) G lobal Shift, Sage Food and Agriculture O rganisation W orld Bank:
Publications Ltd. (FAO): www.worldbank.org/
Digby, B. (2004) ‘The changing geography www.fao.org/index_en.htm W orld Bank, developm ent in d ica­
of HIV/AIDS', Geography Review, Vol 18 HDI data, h u m an developm ent reports: tors, an n u al GNP: (by co u n try and the
No 1 (September). http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/ world)
G lobal Civil Society Yearbooks. hdr2007-2008/ www.worldbank.org/data/

Held, D. eta l. (1999) G lobal H um an D evelopm ent Index, life W orld Energy Council:
Transformations, Polity Press. exp ectan cy tables: www.worldenergy.org/

Phillips, D.R. and Verhasselt, Y. (eds) http://hdrstats.undp.0rg/indicat0rs/2 . W orld Health O rganisation (WHO):
(1994) Health and Development, In tern ation al Energy Agency: www.wto.int/
Routledge. www.worldenergyoutlook.org/html W orld Trade O rganisation:
Singapore Yearbook o f Statistics 2007, In tern ation al Labour O rganisation www.wto.org/
Singapore M inistry of Trade & Industry. (ILO), child labour:
Statistical Yearbook for Asia am i the Pacific www.ilo.org
2007, Econom ic and Social Com m ission
for Asia and the Pacific.

Activities
a i W h a t is m e a n t b y'g ro ss d o m e s tic p ro d u c t'(G D P ) p er c C h o o s e o n e o f t h e fo llo w in g sets o f statistics th a t ca n also be
ca p ita ? (2 marks) u sed to s h o w d e v e lo p m e n t:

ii W h y is th is o ft e n c h o s e n as a u s e fu l in d ic a t o r o f a •e n e rg y c o n s u m p tio n / p e rs o n
c o u n t r y 's le v e l o f d e v e l o p m e n t ? (2 marks) • n u m b e r o f d o c to rs / th o u s a n d p e o p le
iii S o m e t im e s t h e H u m a n D e v e lo p m e n t In d e x (H D I) is
• level o f e d u c a tio n o ffe m a le s .
u s e d to in d ic a t e le v e l o f d e v e lo p m e n t , r a t h e r t h a n
E x p lain w h y y o u r c h o s e n set o f statistics is a g o o d in d ic a to r
u s in g G D P / c a p it a . W h a t a re t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f u s in g
o f a c o u n try 's level o f d e v e lo p m e n t. (10 marks)
t h e H D I? (4 marks)
b S t u d y F ig u re 21.3 o n p a g e 606.
To w h a t e x t e n t d o e s th is m a p s u p p o r t t h e v i e w t h a t t h e
o ld d iv is io n o f t h e w o r ld in t o t h e 'r ic h n o r t h 'a n d t h e 'p o o r
s o u t h 'is n o lo n g e r v e r y u s e fu l? (7 marks)

648 Development and globalisation

2 a T h e R o s to w m o d e l s h o w s t h e e c o n o m y o f a c o u n t r y g o in g b In M y rd a l's c o re - p e rip h e r y m o d e l, w h y d o e s p o p u la tio n
th ro u g h fiv e stages: o fte n m o v e fro m t h e p e rip h e ry to w a rd s t h e c o re ? (5 marks)
•tra d itio n a l s o c ie ty c N a m e a c o u n tr y th a t s h o w s e v id e n c e o f h a v in g a co re
• p re c o n d itio n s fo r take - o ff a n d a p e rip h e ry . E x p lain h o w M yrd al's m o d e l h e lp s y o u to

•take - o ff u n d e rs ta n d t h e d is trib u tio n o f e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t in

th a t co u n try . (10 marks)
•t h e d riv e t o m a tu rity

• h ig h m ass c o n s u m p tio n .

D e s c rib e t h e ch a ra cte ristic s o f e a c h stag e. ( 10 marks)

Exam practice: basic structured questions

3 S t u d y Fig u re 21.36 o n p a g e s 626-627. 4 a i W h a t is a 'h u b 'a ir p o r t ? (2marks)
a D e scrib e t h e m a in fe a tu re s o f t h e im p o rts a n d e x p o rts of: ii N am e one in te rn a tio n a l h u b a irp o rt a n d e x p lain w h y
i th e d e v e lo p e d c o u n trie s (U S A , U K a n d Ja p a n ) (3 marks) it h as b e c o m e im p o rta n t o n a w o rld scale. (3 marks)
ii t h e O P E C c o u n t r ie s (U A E a n d N ig e ria ). (3 marks) b D iscu ss t h e e c o n o m ic a n d e n v iro n m e n ta l a rg u m e n ts for

b C hoose one o f t h e e m e rg in g m a rk e t c o u n trie s (C h in a o r a n d a g a in s t a n in c re a s e in t h e n u m b e r o f aircraft flig h ts

In d ia ) a n d e x p la in h o w th a t c o u n try has s u c c e e d e d in a ro u n d t h e w o rld . (10 marks)

d e v e lo p in g its e c o n o m y in re c e n t years. (9 marks) c N am e one city w ith a n in te g ra te d tra n s p o rt system . O u tlin e
c R e fe rrin g to two d e v e lo p in g e c o n o m ie s , for e x a m p le K e n ya t h e m a in c o m p o n e n t s o f th a t sy ste m a n d e x p la in t h e social,
a n d Sie rra Le o n e , e x p lain h o w c h a n g e s in t h e w o rld tra d e e c o n o m ic an d e n v iro n m e n ta l b e n e fits o f t h e in te g ra te d
s y ste m m ig h t h e lp th e ir p ro c e ss o f d e v e lo p m e n t. (10 marks) syste m . (10 marks)

Exam practice: structured questions

5 a C hoose one o f t h e M D G s in F ig u re 21.77 n u m b e re d 2 ,3 ,4 o r 5. Figure 21.77
1 Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
Ex p lain w h y y o u r c h o s e n M D G ca n m a k e an im p o r ta n t
The eight Millennium
c o n trib u tio n to th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f p o o r co u n trie s. (5 marks) 2 Achieve universal primary education
Development Goals
b M a n y p e o p le t h in k t h a t H IV /A ID S is a d ise a se th a t is p a rtic u ­ 3 Promote gender equality and empower women (MDGs)
larly d a m a g in g to t h e d e v e lo p m e n t p ro ce ss in m a n y p o o r
4 Reduce child mortality
co u n trie s.

S u g g e s t re aso n s fo r th is v ie w . (8 marks) 5 Improve maternal health

c W it h re fe re n c e to one or more ca se stu dies, s h o w h o w th e 6 Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
p ro ce ss o f e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t c a n ta k e p la c e w h ils t
7 Ensure environmental sustainability
a ls o e n s u rin g e n v iro n m e n ta l su stain ab ility. (12marks)
8 Develop a global partnership for development
6 a E x p lain t h e im p o rta n c e o f c a p ita l in v e s tm e n t in R o sto w 's
m o d e l o f in d u strial d e v e lo p m e n t. (4 marks) a S t u d y Fig u re 21.33 o n p a g e 623.

b B a rk e a n d O 'H a re d e v e lo p e d a d iffe re n t m o d e l to h e lp D iscu ss t h e e c o n o m ic a n d so cial s ig n ific a n c e o f t h e

e x p la in t h e w a y m a n y A frican c o u n trie s w e re d e v e lo p in g .
Ex p lain t h e im p o rta n c e o f tra n s n a tio n a l c o rp o ra tio n s in
th e ir m o d e l. (5marks)
c N a m e a c o u n t r y w h e r e a c le a r c o re - p e rip h e ry re la tio n sh ip
exists. Ex p lain w h y t h e c o re d e v e lo p e d m u c h m o re th a n th e
p e rip h e ry a n d d iscuss w h e t h e r t h e d iffe re n c e b e t w e e n th e
c o re a n d t h e p e rip h e ry is lik ely to b e r e d u c e d in t h e fu tu re.
(15 marks)
p re v a le n c e o f H IV in fe c tio n in t h e d iffe re n t a g e c o h o rts in
B o ts w a n a , an d in sim ila r c o u n trie s o f so u th e rn Africa.
(12 marks)
b O u tlin e th e m a in fe a tu re s o f t h e e p id e m io lo g ic a l tra n sitio n
m o d e l, a n d e x p la in h o w a s tu d y o f t h e m o d e l c a n h e lp w ith
a n u n d e rs ta n d in g o f t h e p ro ce ss o f e c o n o m ic a n d social
d e v e lo p m e n t. (13 marks)

Exam practice: essays

8 W it h re fe re n c e to one c o u n try w h e r e th e re are m a rk ed 9 W it h re fe re n c e to c o u n trie s a t d iffe re n t s ta g e s o f e c o n o m ic
d iffe re n ce s b e t w e e n th e level o f d e v e lo p m e n t in t h e c o re re g io n d e v e lo p m e n t, d iscuss h o w g lo b a lis a tio n h as a ffe c te d either
a n d t h e p e rip h e ry : t h e te x tile an d c lo th in g in d u s try o r t h e IC T in d u stry. (25marks)
• e x p la in w h y t h e d iffe re n t le ve ls o f e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t
10 'F re e T ra d e is m o re im p o r t a n t t h a n F a irT ra d e in e n c o u ra g in g th e
h a v e arisen
e c o n o m ic d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e p o o r c o u n trie s o f A frica, S o u th
• e x p lain w h a t t h e g o v e r n m e n t is d o in g to try to r e d u c e th e A m e ric a a n d Asia.'
d iffe re n ce s b e t w e e n t h e c o re a n d t h e p e rip h e ry . (25marks) D iscu ss this s ta te m e n t. (25marks)

Development and globalisation 649

 Index
Places - Aberfan Geographical terms - abrasion
A altitude 206-7, 210, 213,
Aberfan 54-5, 523
ablation zone 106, 120
abrasion 72, 110-11. 113
149, 151-2, 184
absorption 207-8, 213
242
accessibility matrix 615
accumulation zone 106
120
acidity 269
acid rain 43, 56, 207
222, 243, 269, 536
acid soil 261-2, 269,
271-2, 275-6, 331
acid volcanoes 17, 24-5
active layer 47, 131, 133
135, 137-8
adiabatic lapse fate
216-17
administration principle
409
adret slopes 212-13, 464
adsorption 265, 26 8 -9
advection fog 178-81,
215, 217, 222, 234,
322-3, 454
afforestation 63, 67 281
283, 309, 518 -2 0
age-gender pyramids
353-4, 360, 370, 383
ageing population 354,
359-60, 383, 648
agglomeration economies
5 60-3, 565-8
agriculture (see farming)
aid 501, 503, 547, 576,
611, 629, 6 3 2-3
AIDS/HIV 346, 349, 360,
483, 503, 520, 62 2 -3
air
conditional instability
217
instability 217, 220,
226-7, 229, 231,
316
stability 216-17, 222
226-9
air masses 219, 221,
229-33, 239
air transport 456, 634-5,
637-8, 640-1
Alaska 136
albedo 126, 2 0 7 -9 212
242-3
Aldeburgh 190-1
alkaline soils 261, 269
274, 328
alluvial fans 188-90
Alps 8, 125, 213, 241, 463
650 Index
People's names - Burgess, E.W. Key reference - 100
autotrophs 288, 296 biota 260-3, 268-9, Canada 377, 463-4, 477,
261, 276, 289, 305, avalanches 31-2, 52, 106, 327-9 486
346, 348, 463-4 124-5 birth control 357-8, 379, canal transport 635
Amazon/Amazonia azonal soils 273, 314 381-3 canyons 95, 186-7,
316-18, 347-8, 394, birth rate 191, 349-55, 527-30
427, 477, 480, 520 357-8, 371, 377, capacity (river) 72, 118
anabatic winds 240 B
379-83, 387, 418, 613 capillary action 41, 59,
anaerobic soils 272, 275 backwash 141-2, 144-6, Blaenau Ffestiniog 523 182, 261, 273, 275,
Andes 17, 19, 463 153 block disintegration 40 281, 321, 323, 327-8
Antarctica 104, 126, 209 bacteria 261, 266, 268, blockfields 40, 132-4, 139 capillary water 267
antecedent drainage 85 288-9, 292, 300-1, 317 blocking anticyclones capital (money) 469-70,
anticyclones 216-17, Bagnold, R.A. 184 228, 234 477, 555-6
221-2, 228, 234, 240 bahadas188-9 blow holes 152 car assembly 565, 579
apartheid 369, 372-3 balance of payments/ bluff line 76-7, 79, 82 carbon credits/trading
appropriate technology trade 502, 624 boreal forest (see 536, 638-9
449, 499, 505, 547-9, Bangalore 643, 646 coniferous forests) carbon cycle 297-8
576-7, 611 Bangladesh 63, 148, 238, Boscastle (Cornwall) 80 carbon dioxide 43-4,
aquifer 195, 200 359, 377, 481, 647 Botswana 359, 623 103-4, 138, 192, 207,
arable 466, 470, 476, 478, bankfull discharge 61, 71, boulder clay 116 243, 249, 254-5, 268,
481-2, 485-6, 492, 76, 88 bournes 199-200 295, 520, 537
495, 498, 508 baobab trees 320 braided channels 77, carbonation 43, 56, 194,
arches 152 barchans 184-6 119-20, 132, 135-6, 196-8, 274
arctic air 221, 229-30 Barke, M. and O'Hare, G. 139, 188 Carboniferous limestone
arctic climate 315, 332-3 616-17 Brazil 49, 76, 347-8, 374, 8, 21, 43, 63, 75,
arctic sea-ice 127 barrier islands/beaches 405, 427, 442-3, 449, 194-9, 203-4, 274,
aretes 112-13, 115 155-6, 168 480, 520, 543, 627 592-3
Argentina 354, 405, bars 155 breaking point (Reilly) Carboniferous period 8,
484-5 basal slippage 107-8 410-11 196, 201
aridity index 178-9, 321 basalt 13, 24, 76, 194-5, break of bulk ports 570 Caribbean 238, 510-11,
Arran 29-30, 116, 120-1, 203 breakpoint bars 143-4 598
166, 276, 288-9, 293, baseflow 58-9, 61, 188 bridging points 391-2 Carlisle 396
305 base level 81, 123, 163, brown earths 315, carnivores 296-7, 320, 327
ash/cinder cones 16, 25, 200 329-30 carrying capacity 191-2,
33, 149 basic volcanoes 24-5 brownfield sites 441, 556 280, 297, 336-7, 378
aspect 105, 110-11, 210, batholiths 17, 19, 28-9, brush/bush fires 31-2, Carson, M.A. and Kirkby,
212-13, 261, 289, 305, 201
293, 453 M.J. 46
391, 464 bays 143, 148, 151, 155 building materials 321, cartogram 639
assisted areas 556, 571-2 beaches 60-1, 143-6, 338, 389-90, 443, 449, cash tenancy 467
asthenosphere 10, 13-14, 149-51, 153-7, 171-3, 577, 593 catena 261, 276, 464
21
594 Burgess, E.W. 420-1, cation exchange 268-9
asylum seekers 367 bedding planes 28-30, 40, 424-5, 437 caves/caverns 152, 166,
Atacama 180, 222, 250, 63, 194-5, 198, 201 Burkina Faso 280, 282 196-8
321-2 bedload 71, 73-4 business parks 429, census data 371-2, 448,
atmosphere behavioural factors 435-6, 567 454
composition 207-9, 475-6, 557 bustees 442-3 Central America 53, 238,
243, 249, 254-5 Benidorm 594 buttes 189 510-11
energy/heat budget Bentley, M. 138 central business district
207-10, 220, 226, Bergeron-Findeison 2 19 (CBD) 420-6, 428-33,
235, 249 bergschrunds 109-10 C 435, 442, 444, 455
moisture 213-15, berms 143-5 Cairngorms 595 central business height
219-22 best-fit line 66, 546, 612 Cairo 447-8 index (CBHI) 430-1
motion/winds 224-41 bid-rent theory 425-6, calcification 271, 273 central business intensity
pressure and 471-3 calcimorphic 274 index (CBII) 430-1
circulation 206-7, bifurcation ratio 66 calderas 25 central place theory 402,
224-8 binary distribution 405 Calder, N. 8-9 406-10
structure 206-7 binomial data 524-5 California 20-21, 452-7, centrally planned
temperature 206-7, biofuels/bioenergy 543 496, 540-1 economies 466, 468,
210-13, 254-5 biomass 293, 297, 300-1, call centres 643 475, 492
attrition 73, 149 543 Cambourne (Cambs) centrifugal movement
Australia 307-10, 485 biomes 295, 304-6, 412-13 421, 436
314-41
cereal farming 341, 466,
472-6, 478, 481-2,
484-6, 492, 499, 501,
508, 629
chalk 8, 63, 132, 135,
150, 194-6, 199-200,
274, 389-90, 397, 459
channel flow 58-9, 68
chaparral 293, 324, 454
check dams 283, 505
chelates/cheluviation 43,
271, 332
chemical weathering 29,
40, 42-4, 56, 181-3,
194, 196, 202, 260,
263, 269, 271, 274,
317, 321, 323
chernozems 267, 315,
327, 339-40, 486
chestnut soils 315, 328,
339-40
Chicago 420-1
child labour 575
China 11, 20, 192, 198,
280, 283, 359, 363,
380-3, 386, 414-15,
419, 456, 468, 470,
485, 502, 505, 544-5,
580-2, 618, 625-7,
637, 639, 644-7
C h i n o o k 241, 326, 464,
486
chi-squared 614-15
Christaller, W. 406-10,
557, 634, 641
cirque glaciers 106, 117
cirques 41-2, 106,
109-12, 115
cirrus 218-19, 232
cities
in developed countries
418-26, 428-41,
452-7
in developing
countries 418-19,
442-51
million population
418-19
city breaks 596
classifications 24-8, 46-8,
106, 116, 132, 164,
167, 185, 225, 306,
315, 361, 378, 392,
492, 532, 587
clay-humus complex
266, 268-9
cliffs 143, 149-52, 166-7,
170-3, 196, 198
climate
arctic 130-1, 315,
332-3
British Isles 228-34,
244-5, 255
classification 315
cold 315, 330
cool temperate
continental 315,
325-6, 339
cool temperate western
margin 315, 328
desert 178-80, 315,
321-2
equatorial 315-16
Mediterranean 307,
315, 323-4
monsoon 239-40, 315, condensation 215-17,
325 219-22, 231, 235
tropical continental condensation nuclei 215,
311, 315, 319, 219, 243
335-8 conditional instability
tropical eastern margin 217
90, 315, 318 confidence levels 159,
urban 212, 242-3 524-5
warm temperate coniferous forests 293,
eastern margin 315, 300-1, 306, 315,
325 330-1, 518-19
climatic change 34, consequent rivers 84-6
102-4, 123, 130-1, conservation 591-3, 595,
137, 169, 181, 189-91, 598
200, 246-55, 294 conservative plate
climatic climax margins 15, 20-1
(vegetation) 286-92, constructive plate
320, 324, 326, 328, margins 14-17, 203
335 constructive waves 144-6,
clints and grykes 43, 196, 153, 155, 168
198 containerisation 636,
Cloke, P. 393, 398, 517 640-1
clouds 212, 218-20, 232, continental crust 10, 14,
236 16-20
Club of Rome 379 continental drift 12
clustered settlement 397, contour farming 281
4 0 2-4 convection currents 14,
coal 8, 248, 522, 532-7, 16
539, 544-5, 563-4, convectional rainfall 58,
570-1 210, 215, 220, 226,
coasts 316, 319, 330, 340,
classification 164, 167 480
concordant and convenience goods 432-3
discordant 167 convergence 219, 226,
deposition 154-5, 158, 316
163, 170-1, 173 cool temperate
erosion 149-52, 163, continental climate
170-3 315, 326-7, 339
floods 31-2, 148, coral 196, 302, 511, 526,
169-170, 172-5, 598
236, 238, 377 core
land use 170 and frame 430
management 150, and periphery model
170-5, 594, 598 569, 617-18
transportation 150, of Earth 10, 14
153-4, 171 core stones 202
Coe, N., Kelly, P. and Coriolis force 146,
Jeung, H, 561, 582 179-80, 224-6, 231,
cold climates 315, 330 235, 239
cold fronts 229-33 Cornwall 80, 522
cold glaciers 107-8 corrasion 72, 149, 197
collision plates 14-15, correlation 64-7, 299,
19-20, 199 404, 492, 546, 612-15
collision raindrops 219 corries (see cirques)
Colorado River 186-7, corrosion 73, 149, 197
527-30 Costa del Sol 594
commercial farming 337, cotton belt 463, 467
477-8, 482-8, 492, counterurbanisation 365,
508-11 419
common agricultural crag and tail 114
policy (CAP) 487, 493 creep 46-7, 107-8, 263
communes 467-8, 580
Cretaceous period 8, 21,
communities (plant) 196, 201
2 86-8, 290-3 crevasses 109, 126-7
commuter villages 375, Crewe, L. 561, 568
398-9 critical isodapane 560
commuting 375, 425, 457 cruises 597, 600
comparison goods 432-3 crumb structure 265-6,
competence (rivers/ 268, 327
glaciers) 72, 118 crust 9-10, 13-14
composite cones 25 cuestas 199
compression flow cumulative causation 569
107-10, 113 cumulo-nimbus 218-20,
concentric urban model 226, 232, 236, 292
420-1
cumulus 218-19, 232, detritivores 268, 296
236 development gap 502,
cwms (see cirques) 605-8, 624-5
cycle of poverty 438, 609 development models
cyclones 235-8 615-18
Devon 399
Devonian period 8, 201
D dew 215, 221, 234, 316
Dalmatian coastline 164, dew point 215-17, 219,
167 221, 231
dams 39, 54, 92-7, 129, diet 377, 480, 500, 503
528-30, 539, 545 diminishing returns, law
Davis, W.M. 51 of 462, 465, 607
death rates 349-55, discharge 61, 64, 135-6
359-60, 377, 380, 418, disease 610, 619-23
438, 621 dispersed settlements
deciduous forests 59, 62, 394, 397, 399, 402
287, 293, 306, 315, dissolved load 71-4
328-9, 518-19 distance decay 361, 410
decomposers 261, 268, Doha (trade talksi 628-9
296 doldrums 226, 316
deep-sea trenches 17-19, dolines 197-8
180 dome volcanoes 25
defensive sites 390-2, dominant species 2 8 6 -"
397, 400 318, 328-30
deflation 183 Don River 64
deforestation 63, 91, 125, dormitorv towns villases
191, 279, 307-10, 317, 375, 392, 398
480, 494, 503, 518-21 drainage
DEFRA 170, 172, 174, antecedent 85
255, 498, 593 dendritic 84
deglaciation 116-21, 163 parallel 84
deglomeration economies radial 84, 190
560
rectangular/trellis 84
Delhi 240, 619 superimposed 85, 200
deltas 73, 77-8, 97, 490-1 drainage basins 58-67,
demographic transition 93-7
model 350-2, 380, drainage density 63, 67,
387, 620 195, 201
dendritic drainage 84 drainage diversion 122-3
dendrochronology 248, drift 116
294 drought 31-2, 190-2,
dependency ratio 354, 267, 340-1, 346, 453,
383 490, 502-3, 528
dependent variable 612 drumlins 118-21
deposition dry adiabatic lapse rate
coasts 154-5, 158, 163 (DALR) 216-17, 234,
deserts 184-9 241
glaciers 116-21 dry farming 282
glacifluvial 116, dry-point sites 390
119-21 dry valleys 132, 135,
rivers 71-4, 76-9, 81 197-200
wind 132, 157, 184-6 Dubai 638
depressions 132, 210, duricrust 182, 187
219-20, 226-33, 245, dust storms 182-3, 280,
328 283
deprivation indicators dykes 28-30
399, 438, 456-7 dynamic equilibrium 48,
derelict land grants 439 ' 81, 143, 157, 276
Derwent, River 122-3
desertification 191-2,
208, 320, 479, 503 E
deserts early civilisations 388-9,
climate 178-80, 315, 397, 400
321-2 earthflows 47
landforms 180-9 earthquakes 9-11, 13,
location 103, 179, 306 15-20, 31-2, 36, 52,
soils 315, 323 452
vegetation 304, 306, East Anglia 172-5
315, 322 Ebbw Vale 564, 570-2
desert varnish 182, 323 ecological footprint 376,
destructive plate margins 379, 509, 536
14-15, 17-18, 33 ecology 295
destructive waves 144-6, economically active
153, 168 population 354
Index 651
economic development Enterprise Zones (EZs) famine 32, 502-3 fetch 140, 144-5, 148-9, occluded 231, 233
604-8 434, 439, 571 farming 153-4, 171 polar 226-30, 328
economic growth 615-18 entrenched meanders 83 arable 466, 472-6, 478, fiards (fjards) 164 warm 229-32
'economic man' 471, entrepreneurs 553, 557 481-2, 485-6, 492, field capacity 60, 267 frost 215, 217, 221, 234,
475, 561 Environment Agency (EA) 495, 498, 508 financial institutions 435 241
economic migrants 362, 64, 94-5, 97, 172, 174 commercial 477-8, finite resources 522, 532 frost-free days 463
367, 369-70, 354 environmental lapse rate 482-8, 492, 508-11 fiords (fjords) 113, 123, frost heave 46, 132-3, 138
economic rent 471-3 (ELR) 206, 216-17 environment 491, 164-5, 168, 597 frost hollows 241, 463
ecosystems 156, 169, environmentally sensitive 493-8 fires 31-2, 279, 293, 311, frost shattering 40,
295-8, 300-6, 315-42, areas (ESAs) 496-7, 593 extensive 469, 472, 320, 324, 326, 335, 110-11, 119, 132,
339-42, 526, 595-8 Environmental Stewardship 475, 477-8, 480, 453, 521 135, 181, 196, 202
ecotourism 591, 597-8 Scheme 496-7 4 84-6, 489, 492 firn 105, 110-11 fuelwood 543, 549, 577
eco-towns 400 ephemeral plants 304, 322 extensive cereals 466, fissure eruptions 25, 203 fumaroles 26
edge cities 455 ephemeral rivers 187-8 478, 485-6, 492, flexible production/ functions
edge-of-city council epicentres 9 499, 508, 629 specialization 561, developed cities 426,
estates 429, 436, 441 epidemiological transition extensive commercial 565-6 42 8 -9
edge-of-city regional 619-21 pastoral 475, 478, flood hydrographs 61-3, developing cities 442,
shopping centres 423, epiphytes 317, 329 484-5, 492 95-6, 188 444-5
428, 433-4, 458-9 equatorial climate 223, health check 493 floodplains 71, 76-7, settlement 392, 396,
Egypt 168, 447-8, 490-1 315-16 hunters and gatherers 82-3, 90-2, 388, 390 40 6 -1 0
El Nino 93, 96, 249-53, erg 180, 184-6 478, 492 floods fungi 261, 266, 268, 317
452-3, 521 erosion intensive 468-70, 472, coastal 31-2, 148, fynbus 324
elongation ratio 118, 120 coastal 149-52, 163, 475, 477-8, 481-2, 169-70, 172-5, 236,
eluviation 261-2, 271 170-3 487-8, 492 238, 377
emergent coasts 165-6, deserts 183-4 intensive mixed deserts 187-8 G
288 glacial 109-11, 113-15 commercial 475, flash 49, 62-3, 80, G8 countries 627, 629
emerging countries 578, rivers 72-6, 78-9, 81-2 478, 487-9, 492 187-8, 465 Ganges Valley 477, 481-2
604, 625, 627, 644-7 soil 183, 191, 261, 266, intensive subsistence rivers 31-2, 61-4, 72, garrigue 274^293, 324-5
emigration 361, 369 279-81, 283 468, 470, 478, 76-80, 87-93, 377, geographical inertia 554,
employment structures surfaces 165 481-2, 489, 492 453, 490-1 563, 571
552, 616-17 wind 183-4, 191, 279, irrigation 478, 490-2, flow movements 47, 49, Geographic Information
enclosures 397, 494 320, 495 496, 505 52-5, 453 Systems (GIS) 23,
energy erratics 117, 119-20 Mediterranean 475, fog 277-8
atmospheric 207-10, escarpments 196, 478, 488-9, 492 advection 180-1, 215, geological timescale 9-10,
220, 226, 235, 249 199-201, 390 nomadic herding 336, 217, 222, 234, 201
biomass/biofuel/ eskers 116, 119-20 465, 478-9, 492 322-3, 453 geostrophic wind 225
bioenergy 293, 297, estuaries 73-4, 123, 147, organic 282, 497-8, radiation 215, 217, geothermal energy 533,
3 00-1, 543 163-4 508-9 221, 234, 243 542
coal 522, 532-7, 539, ethical consumerism 631 pastoral 336-8, 341, fohn 125, 241 gentrification 436
544-5 Ethiopia 520, 611 470, 476, 478-9, fold mountains 11, 15, Gereffi, G. 643
conservation 544 ethnic groups 371-5, 454 484-5, 492, 506-9 17-19, 249 Gersmehl, RF, 300
distribution and European Union (EU) plantations (tropical food chains 296-7, 303, geysers 26, 527
reserves 533-4 469, 475, 487, 493, commercial) 467, 322 Ghana 617, 631
ecosystems 295-8 496, 500, 506-10, 556, 478, 482-3, 492, food supplies/shortages Gilbert, A. 604
environment 536-45 624-8, 639, 646-7 510-11 378-9, 390, 487, 493, glaciation/glaciers
fuelwood 543, 549, eustatic (glacio-eustatic) sedentary 477, 492 498, 500-3, 628-9 budgets 106
577 change 81, 123, 162-3, shifting 477-8, 480, food web 297 debris 104, 109-11,
geothermal 533, 542 165, 200, 248 492 footloose industry 436, 113-14, 117-18
hydro-electricity 533, eutrophication 281, 309, slash and burn 480 553, 562, 566 deposition 116-21
535, 539, 544-5, 494, 509 subsistence 468, 470, Ford, H./Fordism 557, diversion of drainage
547 Evans, D. 118, 123 477-82, 492 561-2 122-3
hydrogen 543 evaporation 58-9, 62, systems 476 Ford, N. 355, 379 erosion 109-11,
micro-hydro 547-9 188, 214-15 world location 478 forestry 307-10, 518-21 113-15
non-renewable 532, evapotranspiration 58-9, farm size 467-8 forests lakes 111, 113, 115,
536-9, 544-5 93, 178, 263, 269, fashion industry 644-7 coniferous 293, 300-1, 119-23
nuclear 532-3, 535, 315-16, 331, 464, 520 faults 15-16, 20-1, 152, 306, 315, 330-1, movement 107-9
538-9, 544-5 Ewing, M. 13 165 518-19 periods (glacials) 102
oil and natural gas exfoliation 41, 181, 202 favelas 49, 427, 442-3, deciduous 59, 62, transportation 109,
532-5, 537-9, exponential rate 378-9 449 287, 293, 306, 315, 116-17
544-5 extending flow 107-10, feldspar 43, 56, 194-5, 328-9, 518-19 troughs 41-2, 113-15,
renewable 532-3, 535, 113 201-2, 260 fires 521 121
539-43, 545, 547-9 extensive farming 469, felsenmeer 40, 134 micro-climate 243 types 106-8, 169
resources 532-3 472, 475, 477-8, 480, fermentation layer 262 rainforest 62, 301, glacifluvial material 116,
rivers 68-71, 73, 75-8, 4 84-6, 489, 492 ferralitic soils 315, 306, 315-18, 347, 119-21
82, 188 external migration 361, 3 1 7 -1 8 ,3 2 5 519-20 Glaslyn River 73-4, 115
solar 207-8, 249, 295, 367-70 Ferrel cell 226-7, 328 fossil fuels 532-8, 544-5 Glen Canyon 527,
533, 541 extreme poverty 503, 609, ferruginous soils 315, fragmentation of 529-30
tidal 147, 542 628 321, 336 holdings 467 gleying 42, 263, 271-2,
UK consumption 535 extrusive volcanic rock 24 fertiliser 261, 268, 281-2, free ports 348, 636-7 275, 332, 334
waves 140-6, 149-51, 491, 494, 498, 504-5, freeze-thaw 40, 110-11, global warming 34, 123,
154, 168, 171, 173, 508-10 132, 134-5, 181, 196, 126-7, 131, 137-8,
541 F 148, 168, 174, 191,
fertility rates (TFR) 355, 202
wind 533, 540-1 Fair trade 511, 626, 630-1 357-8, 360, 377-83, 249, 254-5, 465, 520,
freezing nuclei 219
world consumption family planning 357-8, 387, 620 528-9, 536, 538, 595,
fronts
533 379, 381-3, 386-7 635, 638
cold 229-33

652 Index
globalisation 501, 552, haloseres 287, 291
554, 605, 609, 616, hamada 180
628-30, 633-4, 638-9, hanging valleys 114-15,
642-7 121
GM foods 498 hard (iron) pan 272, 332
Gondwanaland 12 haulage costs 634-5
Goudie, A. 41, 144, 178, hazards 11, 16, 18, 30-6,
183, 191, 200 49, 52-3, 80, 87-92,
government policies 124-7, 148, 169, 188,
farming 468-9, 475, 233, 236-8, 377, 452-4
483, 493-4, 496-7 head 47, 135, 139
industry 436, 439-40, headlands 142-3, 149,
556, 569, 571-2, 151-2
574, 578-9 health 209, 222, 350-1,
inner cities 436, 357, 377, 438, 446-7,
439 -4 0 500-2, 608-11, 619-23
graded profiles 81-2 heat budget/transfer
Grand Canyon 95, 186-7, 209-11, 220, 226, 229
527-9 Heathrow Airport 637-8
granite 29, 40-1, 43, 150, heat islands 212, 242
181, 194-5, 201-3, hedgerows 494-6
248, 260 Heimaey 16, 25
granular disintegration herbivores 296-7, 320
41, 181, 202 heritage sites 596, 598
grassland Hess, H. 13
temperate/prairie hierarchies 65, 225, 393,
300-1, 306, 315, 406
326-7, 339-42 high-class/high-income
tropical/savanna 103, housing 420-3, 425-6,
293, 301, 306, 315, 428, 442-5, 450
319-20, 335-8 high pressure 179-8,
gravitational water 267 223-30, 234, 239-40,
gravity models 402, 319, 322-3
410-11 high-tech industry 436,
Greece 489 552, 566-7, 572,
green belt 398, 400 578-81, 630, 637, 643
greenfield sites 400, 436, Himalayas 8, 20, 85, 239
441 HIV/AIDS 346, 349, 360,
greenhouse effect/gases 483, 503, 520 and
103, 162, 169, 207, 622-3
249, 254-5, 536, 538, Hjulstrom graph 72
543-4, 635, 638 Holderness 150
Greenland 104 holiday homes 398
Green Revolution 482, Holocene period 8, 102,
501, 504-5 294
Griggs, D.T. 41, 181 honeypots 527, 591
gross domestic product Hong Kong 55, 237, 581,
(GDP) 492, 546, 588, 616, 621, 640-1
604, 606-7, 613-14, horizons 262-3, 266,
632 272-4, 318, 321, 323,
gross national product 325, 327, 329, 332,
(GNP) 377, 492, 604, 334
606 horns
gross raw materials 554, desert 184-5
558-9, 562 glacial 112-13, 115
ground contraction horticulture 473-4, 48 7 -8
132-3 Horton, R.E. 65-6
groundwater 58-9, 61, hot plumes/spots 14,
132-4, 188, 190 18-19
growing season 463, 486 Hoyt, H. 422, 424
growth poles 569, 616-18 Human Development
groynes 153, 171-2 Index (HDI) 502,
Guatemala 53 6 04-7
guest (migrant) workers human resources 532
361, 367, 369-70, 373 humic acid 43, 196, 317
gullying 279-81, 283, 318 humidity 214-15, 242-3,
316, 319
humification 271
H
humus 157, 260-2,
habitats 295 266-8, 271, 300,
Hadley cell 179, 226, 317-18, 321, 323, 325,
319, 322 327, 329, 332, 340
hail 220-1, 326 hunters and gatherers/
halomorphic 275 collectors 388, 478,
halophytes 158, 213, 275, 492
291, 322
hurricanes 31-2, 53, 156,
210, 235-8, 510
hybrids 504-5
hydration 42, 56, 181-2,
' 194
hydraulic action 73, 149,
152
hydraulic radius 69-70,
76
hydro-electricity 528,
533, 535, 539-40,
544-5, 547
hydrograph 61-4, 188
hydrological cycle 162,
” 214
hydrolysis 42-3, 56, 194,
202, 323
hydromagmatic 28
hydromorphic soil 275
hydroseres 287, 292
hygroscopic nuclei 215,
221, 249
hygroscopic water 267
hypothesis testing 145,
' 299, 430-1, 492
ice
damming lakes 122-3
formation 105
ice ages 8, 102-4
ice caps 106, 163
ice crystals 105, 107, 132,
215, 218-20
Iceland 16, 25, 149
ice lens 132, 137
ice sheets 103-4, 106,
122-3, 126-7, 163, 256
ice shelves 106, 126
ice wedges 132-3, 137,
139
ICT 642-3
igneous rocks 24, 28-30,
40, 181, 194, 201-3
Iguafu Falls 76
illegal immigrants 362,
367, 454
illuviation 261-2, 271
immigration 349-50,
361-2, 367, 454
impermeable rock 63, 67,
131, 187, 195, 197-8,
201
incised meanders 82-3
independent variable 612
index of rurality 393, 517
India 20, 203-4, 239-40,
352, 354, 359, 387,
443, 448, 481-2,
504-5, 522, 574,
600-1, 627, 643-6
Indonesia 18-19, 521
industrial estates 436,
556, 571
industrial linkages 560,
568-9
industrial location factors
436, 553-67, 573-4
industrial regions 569-72
industrial theory 557-62,
568-9
infant mortality 354, 359,
377, 380, 438, 446,
608-9
infiltration 58-9, 62, 187,
195
infiltration capacity 59,
195, 280
informal sector 456,
573-5
ingrown meanders 83
inheritance laws 467
inland waterways 635
inner-city areas 364-5,
426, 428-9, 432,
436-40
inselbergs 189, 202
insolation 206-13, 255,
316, 321
insolation weathering
41, 181
instability 217, 220,
226-7, 229, 231
intensive farming 468-70,
472, 475, 477-8,
481-2, 487-9, 492
interaction model 410-11
interception 58-9, 62, 187
interdependence 624-8
interglacials 102, 111
interlocking spurs 62
internal flow 107-8
internal migration 361-7
internally displaced
persons 367
international trade 605,
624-31, 635-7, 646-7
internet/email 22-3, 553,
555, 589, 634, 642
interquartile range 246-7
intertropical convergence
zone (ITCZ) 219, 223,
226-7, 235, 239,
250-1, 316, 319, 323,
335
intrazonal soils 274-5,
314
intrusive rock 17, 24,
28-30, 201, 203
iron and steel 563-4,
570-2
iron pan 272, 332
irrigation 93-7, 191, 281,
283, 361, 478, 490-2,
496, 505, 530
island arcs 17-19
isodapanes 559-60
isolated settlements 394,
399
isostatic (glacio-isostatic)
change 81-2, 123,
162-3, 248
isotims 559-60
isotope analysis 104, 190,
248
Italy 26, 54, 359, 405
i levees 77, 87-92
Japan 359-60, 405, 424,
565, 625-8
']' curve 378
jet streams 210, 226-8,
233, 239, 323
joints 29-30, 40, 63,
110-11, 134, 149, 152,
194-8, 202-3
jua kali 575-7
Jurassic period 8, 196, 201
just-in-time/-in-case 561
K
kames 116, 119-20
kaolin/kaolinite 43, 56,
2 02-3
karst 195-8
katabatic winds 241
Kenya 252, 302-3, 335-8,
354, 359, 444-5, 449,
465, 479, 492, 575-7,
608, 627
kettleholes 119-20
King, K. 51, 187
knickpoints 76
Kolkata 442-3
Koppen, W. 314
Krakatoa 18, 27-8, 249,
289
/c-values 408-9
L
labour 469, 477, 510,
555, 557, 560-1, 565,
567, 574-8
lag time 61-2, 188, 200
lahars 24, 31-2, 34, 53
lakes
glacial 111, 113, 115,
119-23, 137
hydroseres 287, 292
ice-dammed 122-3
microclimates 243
oxbow 79
playa 188-9
laminar flow 68
land and sea breezes 234,
240, 316
land reform 504
landslides 48-9, 53, 55,
236, 452
land tenure 397, 4 6 6-8
land use, rural 393,
471-5, 516-17
land values theory 425-6
La Nina 250, 253, 452-3
lapse rates 206, 216-17,
234, 241
latent heat 210, 216, 220,
231, 233, 235, 239, 241
laterite 321, 336
latifundia 466, 488
Laurasia 12, 17
lava 16, 24-5, 28, 203
leaching 261-3, 265,
267, 271-2, 279, 300,
317-18, 321, 325,
327-9, 332
leaf litter 262, 266, 293,
300-1, 316-19, 323,
325, 329, 332, 334,
340
least cost location (LCL)
557-60, 570
leisure 586-8
lichens 43, 288-9, 333-4
life expectancy 353—4,
359-60, 377, 383,
438, 446, 501, 607-9,
620-3
limestone pavements
43, 196, 198
limits of production
462-3
linear settlements 395,
398
Index 653
linkages 560, 568-9
L in to n , D.L. 2 0 2
literacy 607-8
lithologv 50, 194-5
lithoseres 287-9
lithosphere 10, 14, 21
Li Valley 198
load (river) 68, 71-4,
76-7, 136, 188
loam 264-6
location
industrial 436, 553-7,
562-7
triangle 558-9
locational rent 471-3
loess 103, 132, 136, 280,
283, 327
logarithmic scale 10,
65-6, 269, 404-5, 546,
614-15
logging 307-9, 519-21
London 348, 364-5, 392,
437-40, 458-9, 596,
637-8
long profiles 70, 74, 81-2
longshore bars 143-4,
146, 155
longshore drift 142,
1 5 3 -4 ,1 7 2 -3
Lorenz curves 349
Los Angeles 452-5
low-class/low-income
housing 420-3, 425-6,
428, 436, 442-6, 450
low pressure 224-33,
235-7, 239-40, 319,
328
Lusaka 449
M Pangaea 12, 20, 102
M4/M11 corridor 552,
566-7
Maasai 311-12, 336-8,
449, 577
magma 16-17, 24, 28, 201
Malawi 359, 611
Malaysia 482-3, 520-1,
523, 543, 578-9, 626
malnutrition 500
M alth u s, T. 3 7 8 - 9 , 501
mangroves 156, 169, 317,
526
Manning's equation 70
M an n, P. 4 2 2 - 4
mantle 9-10, 13
maquis 293, 324
margins
of production/
cultivation 462-3,
471-3
plate 14-21, 33
marine parks/reserves
526, 598
marketing principle 409
markets 469, 471-4,
553-5, 557-60, 562
marram grass 157, 281,
290
mass movement 46-9,
52-5, 124, 149-50,
173, 261
mass tourism 590, 598
material index (Ml) 554,
558, 561
654 Index
M cCarty, H.H. and misfit streams 86 net primary production open-field system 397,
Lindberg, L.B. 4 6 2 -3 Mississippi River 77-8, (NPP) 306, 316, 319, 401, 467'
mean, arithmetic 112 8 7-90 322, 324, 326, 328, optima and limits model
meanders 78-9, 90 mobile phones 553, 555, 330, 333 462-3
measures of dispersion 642 net profit curve 472-3 optimum population
246-7 mode 112 Nevado del Ruiz 53 376, 381
mechanical weathering models 110, 119, 143, neve 105, 110 organic farming 282,
40-2, 44, 134, 181-2, 209-10, 220, 226, New Deal for 497-8, 508-9
202, 260, 262, 334 230-2, 236, 261-2, Communities (NDC) organic matter 260-8,
median 112 287-8, 290-2, 300, 439 271-2, 279, 282, 318,
Mediterranean 317, 352, 367, 402-11, newly industrialised 321, 323, 327-9, 334
climate 307, 315, 420-4, 442, 471-4, countries (NICs) organisms (biota) 260-3,
323-4 516, 557-61, 594, 578-9, 604, 617, 620- 268-9
farming 475, 478, 615-18, 620-1 1, 625-7, 630, 640-1 orogeny 19, 163
488-9, 492 Mohorovicic ('Moho') N ew son, M. 59, 6 2 -3 orographic rainfall 215,
soils 315, 325, 488 discontinuity 9-10, N ew ton, I. 4 1 0 220, 239
vegetation 293, 304, 18-19 new towns 398, 447, 450, orthogonal s 142-3
307, 315, 324-5 moisture (soil) 58-60, 579 outwash plains 116, 119
medium-class/medium- 157, 267, 276, 316, Niger 502 overcultivation 191, 280,
income housing 420-3, 322, 336 Nigeria 192, 627 341
425-6, 428, 436, 442, monsoon 198, 228, Nile River/Valley 168, overgrazing 191, 280,
444-6, 449-50 239-40, 249, 315, 325, 344, 490-1 282, 335, 342, 479
meltwater 105-8, 111, 470, 481, 521 nitrogen cycle 297-8 overland flow 58-9, 62,
113, 119-21, 131, mor 262, 272, 332, 334 nitrogen in air 207, 222 187
135-6 moraines 108, 111, nivation 110-11, 132, overpopulation 376-7,
mesas 189 116-21 135, 139 502
mesosphere and morphology (settlement) nodes/nodal points 390, overspill settlement 398
mesopause 206-7 394-6 397 oxbow lakes 79
metamorphic aureole 29 morphometry (stream) nomadic herding 336, oxidation 42, 56, 201,
metamorphic rock 28-9, 65-6 465, 478-9, 492 271
40 M ottersh ead , I), 194 non-renewable resources/ oxygen 40, 42, 104, 207,
methane 207, 254, 543 mountain and valley energy 522, 532, 295, 317-18, 520
MetroCentre 433-4 winds 234, 240-1 536-9, 544-5 ozone 34, 206-7, 209,
Mexico 598 mountain building Norfolk 172-4 249
mica 43, 194-5, 201-2, 260 19-20, 163 normal curve of
microclimates 242-3 mountain tourism 586, distribution 112, 159
micro-hydro 547-9 595 North Sea 147-8, 150, P
mid-ocean ridges 13, mountain vegetation 305, 537-8 Pacific Ocean 18-19
15-16, 19, 24 463 Northum berland 508-9 palaeomagnetism 13
migrant workers 361-2, Mozambique 90-1 Norway 164 Pampas 484-5
367, 369-70, 373, 644 mudflows/slides 24, 34, nuclear energy 532-3,
migration 47, 49, 53-5, 293, 452 parallel drainage 84
535, 538-9, 544-5
balance 361 mud volcanoes 26 parallel slope retreat 51,
nucleated settlements
developed countries mull 262, 274, 327, 329 187
401-2
362-5, 455-6 multicultural societies parent material 260-3,
nutrients
developing countries 371-5, 437, 445, 455 269, 271, 274, 279,
cycle/recycling 261,
366-8, 418, 617-18 multinationals (sec 325, 330, 334
263, 281, 297-8,
external 361, 367-70 transnationals) parent population 159,
316-18, 327, 330,
internal 361-7 multiple-nuclei theory 524-5
340, 480, 497
laws and models 361-2 423-4 particle size 70-4, 79,
soil 260-3, 265, 268-9,
political resettling 367, 143-6, 154, 182-3,
multiplier effect 568-9, 271, 281
373 616 264-5
Nye, J.F. 167
rural-urban 361—3, Myanmar 238 pastoral farming 336-8,
366, 415, 581, M yrdal, G. 5 6 9 , 6 17 341, 470, 476, 478-9,
617-18, 644 O 484-5, 492, 506-9
types 361 oak 287-92 patterned ground 132-3
SM oasis 390, 397
voluntary and forced Peak District 592-3
361-2 Nairobi 444-5, 575-7 obsequent streams 84, peak flow 61, 63-4, 91,
within UK 363-5 National Parks 203, 309, 199 135-6, 188
within urban areas 338, 527-30, 591-3, occluded fronts 231, 233 peak land-value
364-5 595, 597 ocean crust 10, 14, 16 intersection (PLVI)
M ila n k o v itch , M. 102, natural hazards 11, 16, ocean currents 130-1, 425-6, 430-1
1 0 4 -5 , 2 4 9 18, 30-6, 49, 52-3, 64, 179, 210-12, 220, peat 261-2, 275-6
Millennium Development 80, 87-92, 124-7, 148, 249-53, 318, 321, 323, pebble orientation
Goals (MDG) 368, 500, 169, 233, 236-8, 377, 328 116-17, 120
577, 609-10, 619, 622, 452-4 ocean transport 127, 456, pediments 187-90
628 natural increase 349-53, 597, 635-7, 640-1 peds 265-6, 279-80
M iller, A.A: 3 1 5 355, 377, 380, 418 offices 425-6, 429-30, Peltier 44
million cities 418-19 natural resources 346, 435 Penck, vV. 51
Millstone Grit 201, 592 532 offshore bars 155 percolation 58-9, 143,
minerals (soil) 260, nearest neighbour oil and natural gas 532-5, 145-6
262-3, 268, 317-18 analysis 402-4 537-9, 544-5, 637 periferia 442, 446, 449
minimum sample size 159 neoclassical location omnivores 296-7 periglacial 47, 111,
mining 307, 522-3, 537, theory 557 O m ran , A.R. 6 2 0 -1 130-8, 197, 200, 202
570-1 Nepal 547-9 OPEC 624, 626-7 permafrost 130-1, 134-8,
Netherlands 477, 487-8 open cities 580 197, 332-4
permeable/permeability distribution 344, 380 priseres 286 rejuvenation 81-3, 123, rotational movement 48,
63, 67, 195-6, 198 family planning probability levels 159 136, 183 110-11
Permian period 8, 201 357-8, 379, 381-3 psammoseres 287, 290 relative humidity 179, roughness (channel)
personal investigation food supply 378-9, pulp and paper 562 214-15, 219, 242-3 70-1, 188
study 599 487, 493, 500-3 pure raw materials 554, relief rainfall 220, 239 runoff 58-64, 136, 149,
Peru 52, 252 growth rates 349-51, 558-9 religious centres 596 187, 200, 261, 279
pesticide 281, 495, 505, 355-8, 380-3 pyramidal peaks 112-13, Rendille 465, 479 rural depopulation 361-3,
508, 526 optimum 376 1 15 rendzina 199, 274, 325, 366, 507
Pethick, j. 144, 149-50 over-65s 353-4, pyroclastic material 24, 488 rural land use 393, 471-5,
pH 157, 200, 222, 269, 359-60, 381, 383 ' 28, 34 renewable resources 516-17, 526, 592
271-2, 274, 276 parent 159, 524-5 pyrophytes/pyrophytic 532-3, 535, 539-43, rural management 525-6
Phillips, D, 619-20 plant 295 plants 293, 320, 324 545, 547-9 rural settlement 393-5,
photosynthesis 207, 288, pyramids 353-4, 360, replacement rate 358 397-401, 593
295-6, 304-5, 317, 370, 383 reserves 522, 532 rural-urban continuum
324, 330-1, 334 sample 159 Q residential zones 420-3, 393, 516-17
physical resources 532 sparsely populated quantitative techniques
425-6, 428, 436-9, rural-urban migration
physical weathering areas 345-8 65, 67
441-6, 456 361-3, 366, 415, 507,
40-2, 44, 134, 181-2, structure 352-4, 360, quarrying 199-200,
resources 346, 391, 522, 581, 617-18, 644
202, 260, 263, 334 370, 383 203^1, 302, 307,
532-3
piedmont glaciers 106 total fertility rate (TFR) 522-3, 592-3
responsibility system 468,
Pinatubo, Mt 33-5, 249 355, 357-8, 360, quartiles 246-7 470, 580 S
pingos 132-4, 137 377-83 quartz 43, 194-5, 201-2, Sahel 190-2, 279-80, 282,
resurgence 197-9
pioneer communities/ under-15s 353-4, 260, 263 321, 464, 495, 503
retailing 407, 410-11,
colonisers 286, 288, 357-8, 377, 381-2 Quaternary period 8, 102, Salicornia 158, 291
425-6, 428, 430,
290-3, 333 pore water 50, 63, 187, 130, 162, 181, 190, salinisation 97, 273, 275,
432-4, 458-9, 497, 582
pipelines 634-5 195, 200, 262, 265, 249 281, 309, 323, 491,
rias 123, 164, 168
plagioclimax community 267 quaternary sector/ 496
ribbon lakes 113, 115, 119
286-7 porosity 59, 63, 135, 146, industry 552, 562, saltation 71, 157. 182-3
rice 470, 481-2, 504
planned settlements 395, 195,' 199-200, 265-7 566-7 salt crystallisation 40-1.
Richter scale 10, 19, 52,
398, 450-1 ports 391, 635-7, 640-1 quotas/tariffs 487, 493, 149, 181-2, 491
269, 452
plantation farming 467, post-Fordism 557, 561 507, 510, 626, 628, salt lakes/flats 188
ridges and runnels 143-4,
478, 482-3, 492, post-industrial economies 645-7 saltmarsh 154, 156, 158,
146
510-11 552 rift valleys 17, 24, 335-7 163, 169, 174-5, 273.
plates and plate tectonics potential rime 222 287, 291
R
12-21, 33, 103, 163, evapotranspiration 58, Rio de Janeiro 49, 348, salt pans 158, 291
radial drainage 84, 190
181, 199, 203, 249 60, 178 443, 446 sampling 159-62, 244,
radiation 103, 181,
playas 188-9 potholes 72, 196, 198 river capture 85-6 299, 524-5
206-10, 212, 215, 221,
Pleistocene period 8, 47, poverty, cycle of 377, 438 rivers minimum sample size
234
102 , 122 Practical Action 283, channel shape 69, 71 525
radiation fogs 215, 217,
plucking (ice) 110-11, 338, 449, 505, 546-9, deposition 71-4, 76-9, random 160-1
221, 234
114 576-7, 608, 632 81 standard error 524-5
radio-carbon dating 190,
pluvials 187, 190-1, 248 Prairies 325-8, 339-42, discharge 61, 64 stratified 160-1
248
podsolisation 271-2, 332 394, 463-4, 486 erosion 72-6, 78-9, systematic 160-2
rail transport 456, 634-5,
podsols 272, 315, 331-2 prairie soils 315, 328, 81-2 San Andreas Fault 20-1,
640-1
point bars 79 339-40, 486 floods 31-2, 61-4, 72, 452
rainfall (see precipitation)
Poland 369-70 precipitation 76-7, 79-80, 87-93, sand dunes
rainforests 301, 306,
polar air 221, 229-31, distribution/pattern 238, 377, 453, coasts 154, 156-8, 173,
315-18, 347, 519-21
234 223-4, 304, 464-6 490-1 175, 273, 287, 290
rainsplash 46, 187, 279,
polar cell 226-8, 328 effectiveness 62, hydrographs 61-4, 95, deserts 180, 184-6,
281
polar front 226-30, 328 223-4, 304, 322, ' 188 190, 192
raised beaches 123, 151,
polar glaciers 107-8 341 in deserts 186-8 sandstone 8, 20, 63,
166, 287, 394-5
political resettling 367, formation 219 management 87-8, 91, 194-5, 201, 248
ranching 337, 342, 475,
373 types 58, 62, 219-22 94-7 San Francisco 21
478, 484-5, 492
poljes 197 variability/reliability order (stream) 65-7, Sao Paulo 348, 427, 449
random sampling 160-1
pollen analysis 190, 248, 178, 186, 191, 136 satellite images 89, 190,
random settlement 402-3
294 223-4, 256, 304, patterns 84-6 192, 234, 236, 244-5,
range 246-7, 407
pollution 341, 464-6, 501 rank-size rule 402, 404-5 regimes 64, 135-6, 491 490, 521
air 209, 243, 249, 254, pressure transportation 68, 70-4 saturated adiabatic lapse
rapid transit systems 456,
438, 446, 536, 544, atmospheric 179, river terraces 82-3, 390, rate (SALR) 216-17, 241
579, 640-1
635, 638 206-7, 224-8 392, 395 savanna (tropical)
Ravenstein, E.G. 361-2
water 309, 438, 443, melting point 107-11 river transport 605-7 grasslands 103, 293,
raw materials 532, 553-4,
446, 494, 496, 537 pressure gradient 224, Rn values 402-4 301, 306, 311-12, 315,
557-64, 570
ponds and wetlands 287, 231, 233-4 road transport 456, 579, 319-20, 335-8
recreation 94, 97, 527-30,
292, 4 9 4-6 pressure release 41-2, 634-5, 640-1 scale and generalisations
585-7, 591
pools and riffles 78 110-11, 181, 201-2 Roberts, B. 391, 395 347
rectangular drainage 84
population prevailing winds 153-5, roches moutonnees scarp and vale 84, 199,
reduction 42, 271
ageing 354, 359-60, 157, 179-80, 184, 211, 114-15 390, 401
reflection 207-8, 242
363, 383, 620-1 222, 422 rock drumlins 114 scattergraphs 64, 299,
refraction 142-3, 154
changes in UK 351, primacy/primate city 405, rock falls 48, 52 404-6, 546, 612
refugees 362, 367-8
353-4, 363-5 617 rock lip 110-11, 115 scattering 207-8
reg 180, 183-4
checks 378 primary manufacturing rock steps 109, 113 Schumacher, E. 576
regional shopping centres
densely populated 553,' 562 rock type 63, 67, 76-7, science parks 429, 435-6,
429, 432-4, 4 5 8-9
areas 345-8 primary sector 552-3, 616 149, 167, 194-203 567, 581
regolith 46, 182, 260, 262
density 344-8, 377, primary succession Rossby waves 227-8 sclerophyllous scrub 324
regular settlements 402-4
380 287-92, 328 Rostow, W.C. 615-16 Scotland 595
Reilly, W.J. 410-11

Index 655
screes 40-1, 48, 132, 134,
189, 196, 198
‘S' curve 378
sea-floor spreading 13, 16
sea-ice 127
sea-level changes 123,
126-7, 155, 162-9,
200, 248, 255, 452
secondary land values
peak 425-6
secondary manufacturing
553, 562-5
secondary sector 552,
616-17
secondary succession
287, 293, 318
second homes 398
sector model 422
sedentary farming 388,
477, 492
sediment cells 174-5
seif dunes 184-6
seismic waves 9, 36
self-help housing 445,
448-9
Seoul 457
Serengeti 311-12
seres 286-92
services 393, 398-9,
406-8, 446, 552-3,
586, 616-17
set-aside land 487, 493,
496, 507
settlements
early 388-9, 397,
400-1
functions 392, 396,
406-10
morphology 394-6
rural 393-5, 397-401
shanty 49, 373, 418,
427, 442-6, 448-9
site and situation
389-92, 396
spring-line 84,
199-200,
389-90, 401
types 393
Severn River 92-3
shakeholes 197, 199
Shanghai/Pudong 456,
580-1
share cropping 467
sheet floods 187, 189
sheeting 41
Sheffield 422
Shenzhen 580-2
shield volcanoes 25, 203
shifting cultivation
477-8, 480, 492
shopping 407, 425-6, 428,
430, 432-4, 458-9
Sichuan 11, 20
Sierra Leone 627
sills 28-30
Singapore 358, 375,
450-1, 521, 621, 626,
636-7
sinuosity 78-9
site 389-92, 396, 433
site and service schemes
445, 448-9
Sites of Special Scientific
Interest (SSSis) 509,
593, 595
656 Index
situation 389-92, 396 solar constant 207-8, 249 subsistence farming 337, thermokarst 137-8
skewed distribution 112 solar power/energy 468, 470, 477-82, 492 thermosphere 206-7
slash and burn cultivation 207-8, 249, 263, 295, suburbanised villages 'fh o m th w a ite, C . W.
480 533, 541 375, 398-9 178-9, 315, 321
sleet 221 solar radiation 103, suburbia/suburbs 364-5, Three Gorges Dam 545,
slopes 206-10, 21?, 215, 426, 428-9 618
catena 261, 276, 464 221, 234 succession (plant) 286-93 threshold 407, 432
decline 51 solfatara 26 sulphur dioxide 207, 222, throughfall 58-9
development 46, 50-1 solifiuction 47, 110-11, 243 throughflow 58-9, 61, 63,
elements 51 132, 135, 138-9, 200, Sunderland 422-3 136, 149, 200, 261, 263
failure 46, 50, 52-5 202 sunlight 242, 295, 317 thunderstorms 217,
parallel retreat 51 solution 43-4, 71, 73-4, superimposed drainage 219-20, 226, 316, 326
replacement 51 149, 195-6, 198 85, 200 tidal power 147, 542
smog 209, 215, 222, 243, South Africa 372-3 surface creep 182-3 tides 63, 143, 145-8,
453, 521 South Korea 457, 541, surface runoff 58-64, 157-8, 163-4, 291-2
snow 62, 64, 105-6, 111, 630 136, 149, 187, 200, 'tiger economies' 578, 640
135, 219, 221, 234, space-shrinking 261, 279 till 116, 119-21, 149-50.
328, 333, 464, 595 technologies 555, 589, surface storage 58-9 263
Snowdonia 73-4, 115 642-3 surges Tokyo 424
social inequality 437-8, Spain 594 ice 107-8 tombolos 155
440-1, 455-7 Spanish plume 220, 234 storm 63, 147-8, 236, topography (relief) 260-1.
soils Spartina 158, 291 238 276, 305
acidity 269 Spearman's rank 299, suspended load 71-4, Torridge, River 64
brown earths 315, 613-14 182-3, 188 tors 29, 135, 139, 202-3,
329-30, 340 Special Economic Zones sustainable development 238
catenas 261, 276, 464 (SEZs) 580-2, 618 497, 499, 520, 547-9, total fertility rates (TFR)
chernozems 267, 315, specific heat capacity 576-7, 592, 595 see fertility rates
327, 339-40, 486 210-11 swallow holes 196, 198 tourism
chestnut 315, 328, spheres of influence 406, swash I II 2. 144-6, 153 and environment
339-40 408-9 Sweden 352, 354, 562 527-30, 590-8
conservation/ spits 154-5, 158, 171 swell 140-1 classification 587
management 281-3, spring lines 84, 199-200, synoptic charts 237, coastal/resorts/life­
341-2 389-90, 401 244-5 cycle 594, 600-1
creep 46-7, 149, 263 Sri Lanka 18-19, 633, 647 systematic sampling global 588-9
desert 315, 323 stability 216-17, 222, 160-2 growth 587-9
erosion 184, 191-2, 261, 226-9, 319 systems 45-6, 58-9, 81, man agem ent 311-12,
266, 279-81, 283 stacks 152 106, 209, 214, 262-3, 527-30, 592-3
ferralitic 315, 317-18, stalactites and stalagmites 276-8, 296, 298, 317, mass 589-90, 594
325 197-8 349, 476 positive/negative
ferruginous 315, 321, standard deviation 159, effects 590
336 246-7 UK 589
formation 260-2, standard error 524-5 traction 71, 188
271-3 star dunes 185-6 taiga (see coniferous trade
horizons 262-3, 266, statistics, reliability 448 forests)
balance/surplus/deficit
272-4, 318, 321, stem flow 58-9 take-off (Rostow) 615-16 624, 629
323, 325, 327, 329, stereotypes 427 talik 131, 134 international 578, 605.
332, 334 stone circles/polygons talus 40-1, 48, 132, 134 624-31, 635-7, 644
lateritic 321, 336 132-3, 139 Tanzania 311-12, 526 trade winds 179, 226,
Mediterranean 315, stone lines 282-3, 505 temperate forests 287, 319, 321, 323
325, 488 storm beaches 143-5 293, 306, 328-9 trading blocs 625
moisture deficiency/ storm hydrographs 61-4, temperate glaciers 107-8 traffic principle 409
surplus 58-60, 157, 95-6,’ 188 temperate grasslands transects 131, 157, 166,
267, 271, 316, 322, storm surges 63, 147-8, 300-1, 306, 315, 27b, 288, 290-2, 305.
336 236, 238 326-7, 339-42 320, 333, 489, 516
nutrient cycle 261, Strabler, A.N. 65 temperature transform faults 16, 20
263, 281, 297-8, stratified sampling 160-1 atmospheric 206-7, translocation 271
316-18, 327, 330, stratopause and 210-13, 254-6, 261, transnational firms
340, 480 stratosphere 206-7, 304, 463 (TNCs) 337, 498, 501,
pH 157, 269, 271-2, 209 soil 131, 269 510-11, 553, 572-4,
274, 276 stratus 218-19, 222, 232 temperature anomalies 578-9, 581-2, 589,
pit 270 stream order 65-7 2 1 1 -1 2 ,2 3 4 617, 624-5, 630
podsols 272, 315, striations 114-15 temperature inversions transpiration 58-9, 267,
331-2 strip farming 281-2 217, 221-2, 234, 454 279
prairie 315, 328, subduction zones 15, terminal costs 634-5 transport
339-40, 486 17-19, 33 terraces 82-3, 281-2 air 456, 634-5, 637-8,
profile 262-3, 318, sublimation 215, 221 terracettes 47 640-1
321, 323, 325, 327, submergent coasts 163-5 terra rossa 274, 325, 348 canal 635
329, 331-2, 334 sub-Saharan Africa 498, Tertiary period 8, 21, 171 costs 554, 557-62,
properties 263-9 500-3, 607-9, 622-3, tertiary sector 552, 586, 634-5
structure 265-6, 280, 632 616-17 developing countries
282 subsequent rivers 84-6, Tethys Sea 12, 20, 85 446
system 263, 276 199 textile industry 644-7 environment 635
temperature 131, 269 subsidies 487, 493, 507, thalwegs 70 hubs 637-8
texture 264-5, 282 627-8 theme parks 596 integrated systems
tundra 315, 334 thermal expansion 41, 168 639-41
 ocean 127, 456, 597, U valleys Walker cell 250
635-7, 640-1 ubac slopes 212-13, 464 dry 132, 135, 197-200 Walmart 582 Welsh Development
pipelines 634-5 ubiquitous raw materials glacial 42, 106, 111, warm fronts 229-32 Agency (WDA) 572
rail 456, 634-5, 640-1 557-9 113-15, 120-1 warm sector 231-2 Westfield Centre 458-9
rapid transit 456, 579, Ullman and Harris 423-4, hanging 114-15, 121 warm temperate eastern West Indies 256
640-1 435 river 75-9 margins 315, 325 wetlands 131, 156, 49 4 -6
road 579, 634-5, ultra-violet radiation 206, value added chains 564, water wet-point settlements 390
640-1 209 631, 643-5 retention capacity 267 wetted perimeter 69-71,
types 634-5 underpopulation 376-7 values and attitudes 437 soil storage 58-60 75-6
transportation United Arab Emirates varves 119 surplus/deficit 60 wildlife 340-1, 527,
glaciers/ice 109, (UAE) 627 vegetation WaterAid 611 596-8
116-17 United Nations classification 306, 315 water balance 60, 178, wilting point 267
rivers 68, 70-4 Organisations coniferous forest/taiga 316, 322, 336 wind
waves 150, 153-4, 171 FAO 500, 629, 632 293, 300-1, 306, waterfalls 75-6, 81-2, deposition 136, 157,
wind 136, 182-3, 280 UN 355-60, 367-8, 418, 315, 330-1, 518 114-15 184-6
travel account surplus 588 495, 519, 544, 573, deciduous forest 59, watershed recession 86 energy 533, 540-1
trellis drainage 84 596, 606, 609-10, 62, 287, 293, 306, watersheds 58, 62 erosion 183-4, 191,
trenches, deep-sea 17-18, 628-9, 632, 646 315, 328-9, 518 water supply 93-7, 279. 320, 495
180 WHO 501, 619, 622, desert 306, 315, 322 199-200," 222, 281, macro-scale 225.
Trewrartha, G.T. 314 632 interception 58-9, 62, 338, 346, 388-90, 392, 229-40
tricellular model 226-7 WTO 493, 626-8 187 397, 446-7, 449, 464-5, meso-scale 225. 240-1.
trophic levels/pyramids upgraded housing Mediterranean 293, 479, 490-1, 528-9, 593, 323—1 464
296-7 schemes 436, 440, 304, 307, 315, 609-11 micro-scale 225. 242-3
tropical air 229-31, 234, 445, 448-51 324-5 water table 58-9, 195, trar.sr r:a::
239 upwelling water 179-80, post-Holocene 294 199-200, 272, 275, ! 182-3 280
tropical continental 250-1, 253 rainforest/selvas 301, 281, 321, 323, 327, women and development
climate 315, 319, urban areas 306, 315-18, 347, 390, 496 357. 555. 608. 645
335-8 climate 212, 242-3 520-1 water vapour 206-7, Woodland Management
tropical cyclones 31-2, depopulation 365, 419 seres 286-92 213-15, 221, 231, 254 Scheme 4°3 496
53, 90, 147-8, 156, development storage 59 wavecut abrasion
235-8, 510 corporations temperate grassland/ platforms 151-2, 166
tropical eastern margins (UDCs) 439-40 prairie 300-1, 306, wavecut notches 151-2, X
90, 315, 318 problems 437-8, 441, 315, 326-7, 339-40 166 Xcaret 598
tropical grasslands 293, 4 46-7, 455-6 tropical grassland/ waves \c: :
301, 306, 311-12, 315, regeneration savanna 103, 293, atmospheric 207-8 319. 3 2 2 '3 2 4 ?2>
319-20, 335-8 companies (URCs) 301, 306, 311-12, energy 140-6, 149-51,
tropical rainforests 301, 439 315, 319-20, 3 3 5-8 154, 169, 171, 173, Y
306, 315-18, 347, rural continuum 393, tundra 294, 306, 315, 541 Yangtze h:ve: 544-5 ; s
520-1 516-17 333-4, 595 formation 18, 140-2, 618
tropopause and sprawl 398, 400 world location 305, 315 144, 169 vardangs 184
troposphere 225-7, 232 structure 420-4, 442, velocity pounding 149, 152 Yellowstone National Part.
truncated spurs 113, 115 444-5 glaciers 107-9, 111 refraction 142-3, 154 527
tsunamis 18-19, 31-2, urbanisation 63, 212, rivers 61, 68-73, 75 Rossby 227-8 Yorkshire 64 52 123
140, 166, 452, 633 363, 41 8 -1 9 ventifacts 184, 323 types (coastal) 144-5 150. 422
tundra Uruguay 475, 484-5 vertices 615-17 weathering
climate 102-3, 130-1, USA 20-1, 60, 87-90, volcanoes chemical 26, 40, 42^1,
315, 332-3 156, 282, 339-42, 374, classifications 24-6, 28 56, 181-3, 194, 196, Z
soils 315, 334 405, 420-1, 452-5, distribution 11, 13, 15 202, 260, 263, 269, Zambia 359
vegetation 138, 294, 463, 467, 485, 496, eruptions 13, 16-17, 271, 274, 317, 321, zeugens 184
304, 306, 315, 498, 527-30, 540, 31-6, 53, 249 323 Zimbabwe 359
333-4, 595 625-8, 639 formation 16-17, 24-5 mechanical/physical zonal soils 273. 314
Tunisia 366 USSR (former) 466-7, 485 von Thixnen, H. 471-5, 40-2, 44, 134, zones of assimilation
turbulent flow 68, 70-2, 557, 634 181-2, 202, 260, discard 430
75, 197 263, 334
twilight/transition zone V weather maps/stations
420 Vaiont Dam 54 W 237, 245
typhoons 31-2, 34, 235-8 valley-in-valley 82-3 wadis 187-90, 248 Weber, A. 554, 557-62,
Wales 55, 73-4, 115, 564-6, 568, 634
522-3, 563-4, 570-2

Index 657
An Integrated Approach

This is the fourth edition of David Waugh’s essential text for students studying
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