1.

1 Embedded System
An embedded system is a combination of hardware and software with some attached

peripherals to perform a specific task or a narrow range of tasks with restricted resources. It is
an electronic system that is not directly programmed by the user, unlike a personal computer.
An embedded system is a device that incorporates a computer within its implementation,
primarily as a means to simplily the system design, and to provide flexibility; and the user of
the device is not even aware that a computer is present. It is a microcontroller-based, so Rware-
driven, reliable, real time control system,. Autonomous or human or network interactive,
operating on diverse physical variables and in diverse cenvironments, and sold in a competitive
and cost conscious market. Generally, an embedded system is a subsystem in ~ Jarger system

and it is application specific. The generic block diagram of an embedded system is shown in
Figure 1.1. Every embedded system consists of certain input devices such as: key boards,
switches, sensors, actuators; output devices such as: displays, buzzers, sensors; processor along
with a control program embedded in the off-chip or on-chip memory, and a real time operating

system (RTOs).
Input Output

Input Output
Devices Processor Devices

Memory

Figure 1.1: Block Diagram ofa Generic Embedded System.

4
1.1.2 Characteristics of an Embedded System:

The important characteristics of an embedded system are

Speed (bytes/sec):Should be high speed

.Power (watts): Low powerdissipation
.Size and weight : As far as possible small in size and low weight
Accuracy (% error): Must be very accurate

Adaptability: High adaptabilty and accessibility.

.Reliability: Must be reliable over a long period of time.
So, an embedded system must perform the operations at a high speed so that it can be
readily used for real time applications and its power consumption must be very low and the

size of the system should be as for as possible small and the readings must be accurate with
minimum eror. The system must be easily adaptable for different situations.

1.1.3 Categorios of Embedded systems:

Embedded systems can be classified into the following 4 categories based on their
functional and performance requirements.

Embedded system

Functional Performance
1. Stand-alone embedded systems Small scale embedded system
2. Real time embedded system 2. Medium scale embedded s/m
a) Hard real time E.S 3. Large scale embedded system
b) Soft Real time E.S Or

3. Networked embedded system Sophisticated Embedded

4. Mobile embedded system Systems

Stand-alone Embedded systems:

A stand-alone embedded system works by itself. It is a self-contained device which

does not require any host system like a computer. It takes either digital or analog inputs from

is input ports, calibrates, converts, and processes the data, and outputs the resulting data to its
atached output device, which either displays data, or controls and drives the attached devices.
EX: Temperature measurement systems, Video game consoles, MP3 players, digital
cameras, and microwave ovens are the examples for this category.

Real-time embedded systems:

An embedded system which gives the required output in a specified time or which

strictly follows the time deadlines for completion ofa task is known as a Real time system i.e.
a Real Time system, in addition to functional correctness, also satisfies the time constraints

There are two types of Real time systems. (i) Soft real time system and (ii) Hard real time

system.
Soft Real-Time system: A Real time system in which, the violation of time constraints

will cause only the degraded quality, but the system can continue to operate is known
as a Soft real time system. In soft real-time systems, the design focus is to offer a

guaranteed bandwidth to each real-time task and to distribute the resources to the tasks.

Ex: A Microwave Oven, washing machine, TV remote etc.

Hard Real-Time system: A Real time system in which, the violation of time
constraints will cause critical failure and loss of life or property damage or catastrophe
is known as a Hard Real time system.
 These systems usually interact directly with physical hardware instead of through a human
being The hardware and software of hard real-time systems must allow a worst case execution
(WCET) analysis that guarantees the execution be completed within a strict deadline. The chip
selection and RTOS selection become important factors for hard real-time system design.

Ex: Deadline in a missile control embedded system, Delayed alarm during a Gas leakage,
car airbag control system, A delayed response in pacemakers ,Failure in RADAR functioning
etc.

Networked embedded systems:

The networked embedded systems are related to a network with network interfaces to

access the resources. The connected network can be a Local Area Network (LAN) or a Wide
Area Network (WAN), or the Intemet. The connection can be cither wired or wireless.
The networked embedded system is the fastest growing area in embedded systems

applications. The embedded web server is such a system where all embedded devices are
connected to a web server and can be accessed and controlled by any web browser.
Ex: A home security system is an example of a LAN networked embedded system where all
sensors (e.g. motion detectors, light sensors, or smoke sensors) are wired and running on the
TCP/IP protocol.
Mobile Embedded systems:

The portable embedded devices like mobile and cellular phones, digital cameras, MP3
players, PDA (Personal Digital Assistants) are the example for mobile embedded systems. The
basic limitation of these devices is the limitation of memory and other resources.
Based on the performance ofthe Microcontroller they are also classified into (i) Small
scaled embedded system (ii) Medium scaled embedded system and (ii) Large scaled embedded

system.

1.1.4 Classifications of Embedded systems

1. Small Scale Embedded Systems: These systems are designed with a single 8- or 16-
bit microcontroller; they have little hardware and software complexities and involve
board- level design. They may even be battery operated. When developing embedded
software for these, an editor, assembler and cross assembler, specific to the
microcontroller or processor used, are the main programming tools. Usually, C *is used
for developing these systems. C program compilation is done into the assembly, and
executable codes are then appropriately located in the system memory. The software
has to fit within the memory available and keep in view the need to limit power
dissipation when system is running continuously.
2. Medium Scale Embedded Systems: These systems are usually designed with a single
or few 16- or 32-bit microcontrollers or DSPs or Reduced Instruction Set Computers
(RISC). These have both hardware and software complexities. For complex software
design, there are the following programming tools: RTOS, Source code engineering
tool, Simulator, Debugger and Integrated Development Environment (IDE). Software
tools also provide the solutions to the hardware complexities. An assembler is of little

use as a programming tool. These systems may also employ the readily available ASSPs
and 1Ps (explained lter) for the various functions-for example, for the bus interfacing.
encrypting. deciphering, discrete cosine transformation and inverse transformation,
TCP/IP protocol stacking and network connecting functions.

3. Sophisticated Embedded Systems: Sophisticated embedded systems have cnormous

hardware and software complexities and may need scalable processors or configurable
processors and programmable logic arrays. They are used for cutting cdge applications
that need hardware and so ftware co-design and integration in the final system; however,
they are constrained by the processing speeds available in their hardware units. Certain
software functions such as cncryption and deciphering algorithms, discrete cosine
transformation and inverse transformation algorithms, TCP/IP protocol stacking and
network driver functions are implemented in the hardware to obtain additional speeds
by saving time. Some of the functions of the hardware resources in the system are also
implemented by the sotware. Development tools for these systems may not be readily
available at a reasonable cost or may not be available at all. In some cases, a compiler
or retarget able compiler might have to be developed for these.
1.4.1 Hardware features of standalone embedded systems

Standalone embedded system includes different types of processors, power supply unit, clock,
reset circuit, memories which are considered to be most essential hardware components of
standalone embedded systems. A brief discussion on important features of these components
are given below

1.4.1.1 Different types of processors used

Processor: A processor is the heart of the embedded system. It is responsible for execution of
instruction and controlling flow of data to and from processor. Designer should have proper
knowledge regarding eficiency of different types of processor and based on which one should
select the appropriate processor as per requirement. Different types of processors available can
13

be categorized into four broad categories () General purpose processor (GPP) (2) Application
specific System processor (ASSP) (3) Multiprocessor system and (4) GPP core or ASIP core.

A GPP has the usage advantages over other processors because of

a). Having predefined known instruction set resulting fast system development.
b). Board and I/0 Interfaces designed for GPP can be used for different system changing the
software.

c) Ready availability of computer facilities in high level language along with compiler and
debugger, resulting in fast development of a new system.

a) General Purpose Processor (GPP) may be any one of Microprocessor, Microcontroller,

Embedded processor, Digital Signal Processor (DSP) and Media processor.
Microprocessor is a single VLSI chip that has a CPU with caches, floating point processing
arithmetic unit, pipelining and super scaling, units. Later units may present for faster
processing. RAM is externally connected to CPU. Microcontroller is also a single chip
VLSI unit with limited computational capability keeping all functional units /components
inside the chip. Embedded processor may be microprocessor or microcontroller when
design specially to achieve capabilities of fast context switching resuling lower latency,
atomic ALU operation with no shared data problem RISC core for fast and precise
calculations. ARM family processors, Intel i960 etc. belongs to this class. DSP as a GPP
is a single chip VLSI having computational capabilities ofa microprocessor and a multiply
and Accumulate (MAC) unit(s). DSP is an essential units of an embedded system with
very large instruction word (VLWI) processing capabilities. It process very efficiently
Single Instruction Multiple Data (SIMD), Discrete Cosine Transformation (DCT) and
Inverse Discrete Cosine Transformation (IDCT). DCT and IDCT are most useful for
algorithms for signal analys ing, coding, filtering noise cancellation, echo-elimination etc.
b) Application Specific System Processor (ASSP): ASSP is dedicated for faster processing
and useful for applications like real time video processing which incorporates lots of
processing before transmiting. It may also include some features ofRTOS. ASSP provides
hardwired solution for most of ts time consuming tasks. For example ASSP chip i2ehip
has TCP, UDP, IP, ARP and Ethernet 10/100 MAC Media Access Control) hardwired
logic included into it. In practice, an ASSP is used as an additional processing unit for
running the application specific tasks in place of processing using embedded software.
c) Multiprocessor System: As embedded algorithm has to work within strict deadline,
sometimes it may not be possible to carry out the same with a single processor. Ina real
time video processing number of MAC operations required may be more than possible
from one DSP unit. In such a case an embedded system may go for two or more processors.
Similar requirement may be needed in modem cell phones which has to perform number
of tasks. Multiprocessors are used when a single processor doesn't meet the need of the
different tasks that have to be performed concurrently. The operations ofall processors are
synchronized to obtain an optimum performance.

d)GPP or ASEP core: GPP core or ASIP core is integrated into either an Application
Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC) or a VL.SI or an FPGA (Field programming Gate Array)
core integrated with processor units. Lately a new innovation in this area is System on
Chip (SOC). A SOC may be embedded with multiple processors, memories, multiple
standard source solutions called IP (Intellectual Property) core and other logic and analog
units. It may have also a network protocol embedded on it. It can embed DSP applications
and FPGA core.
For a number of applications GPP core may not be a suitable solution. For
various security application, smart card, video game, mobile Internet, Gbps transceiver,
Gbps LAN, missile system needs a special processing unit on a VLSI design circuit to
function as a processor. These units are called Application Specific Instruction Processor
(ASIP). Sometime for an application both configurable processor (FPGA or ASIP) and
non-configurable processor (DSP or microprocessor or microcontroller) might be needed
on a chip. Gcnerally this type of applications are very important in some killer applications
(application which is useful to millions of people) such as HDTV, cll-phone etc.

1.4.1.2 Power supply unit

Generally embedded system has its own Power supply unit. Four range of votage (i) 5.0V
+0.25V (i) 3.3V+0.3V (ii) 2.0V +0.2V (iv) 1.5V+0.2V are used
for operation ofdifferent
units. Additionally 12V+0.2V supply is needed for a flash or EEPROM and R$232 Serial
Interfaces. Supply of voltage to the chip depends on number of pins provided in the chip
which is generally in pair supply and ground. A processor may have more than two pins
of Vdd Vss which are responsible for distribution of power and reduction of inferences in
all the sections. Supply should separately power the (a) External Il/O driving port (b) timers
and (c) clock and reset circuits. Clock and reset circuit should be specially designed to be
free from radio frequency inference
 Embedded systems which don't have a power source at their own are

either connected to an external power supply or use charge pump for necessary power
supply. Example of first type may be Network nterface Card (NIC) and Graphics
accelerator which do not have their own power supply are connected to PC power-supply
line. In the second type charge pump brings power from a non-supply line. It consist of a
diode in the series followed by a charging capacitor. The diode gets forward bias input
from an external signal, say RTS (Request to Send) signal in case a mouse used with the
computer. The charge pump inside the mouse store charge in inactive state and dissipate

power when the mouse is used.

An embedded system has to perform tasks continuously from power-up to power-off
and may even be kept on continuously. Real Time Systems (RTOS) use Wait and Stop
instructions and disabling certain units when not needed. This indeed is very important for
saving power during program execution. Performing tasks at reduce clock rate is also a
way to control power dissipation. Performance of software analysis during design phase
can include power dissipation considerations also. A good design must optimize the
conflicting needs of low power dissipation and fast efficient program execution.
1.4.1.3 Clock Oscillator

The function of this oscillator circuit is to provide an accurate and stable periodic clock
signal to a processor. The processor needs a clock oscillator as clock controls the various
clocking requirements of CPU. The clocking requirements are the system timers and CPU
machine cycles. The machine cycle includes (i) Fetching code and data from memory and
Decoding and execution and (ii) Transferring results to memory. The clock controls the
time for executing an instruction. The clock circuit uses eithera crystal (External to the
processor) or a ceramic resonator (internally associated with the processor) or an external
IC attached to the processor. (a)The crystal resonator gives the highest stability in

frequency with temperature and drift in the circuit. The crystal in association with an
appropriate resistance in parallel and a pair of series capacitance at both pins. The crystal
is kept as near as feasible to the two pins of the processor, (b) The internal ceramic
generator, if available in a processor, saves the use of the external crystal and gives a
reasonable though not very high frequency (c) The external IC based clock oscillator has
a significantly higher power dissipation compared to the internal processor resonator. It
provides a higher driving capability, which might be needed when various embedded
circuits ofembedded systems concurrently driven for e.g. in multiprocessor based systems.
16

1.4.1.4 Real time clock or timer units

A timer is suitably configured as system clock sometime referred as RTC (Real Time

Clock). RTC is used by scheduler for real time programming. A hardware timer is a counter
that is incremented at a fixed rate when the system clock pulses. There are several different
types of timers available. A timer/counter can perform several different tasks. The CPU
uses the timer to keep track of time accurately. The timer can generate a stream of pulses

or a single pulse at different frequencies. It can be used to start and stop tasks at desired
times A CP (computer operating properly) or watchdog timer checks for runaway code
execution. The hardware implementation of watchdog timers varies considerably between
difterent processors. In general watchdog timers must be turned on once within the first
few cycles after reset and then reset periodically with software. Some watchdog timers can

programmed for different time-out delays. The reset sequence is sometimes as simple as a
specialized instruction or as complex as sending a sequence of bytes to a port. Watchdog
timers either reset the processor or execute an interrupt when they time out.

More than one timers using the RTC may be needed for various timing and counting
need. There may be hardware and software implementations of timers. At least one
hardware timer device is must in a system which is used as system clock. The hardware
timer gets the input from a clock out signal from processor and activates the system clock
as per the number ticks present at the hardware timer. Number of hardware timers present
are generally limited.

A software timer is a software that executes and increases or decreases a count variable

(count value) or an interrupt on a timer output or on a real time clock interrupt. A software
timer can also generate interrupt on over low of count value or the final value of count
variable. Software timers are used as virtual timing devices. There are number of control
bits and time out status flags in cach timer device. A timer device when given count inputs,
in place of clock pulses performs as a counting device.
1.4.1.5 Interrupt Handlers

A system possesses. number of devices and the system processor has to control and
handle the requirements of devices by running appropriate Interrupt Service Routine (ISR)
for cach. An interrupt handling mechanism must exist in cach system to handle interrupt
from various processes in the system. An interrupt is an event that suspends regular

17

program operation while the event is serviced by another program. Interrupts increase the

response speed to external events. Different microcontrollers have different interrupt

sources which can include external, timer and serial port interrupts. When an interrupt is
received the current operation is suspended, the interrupt is identified and the controller
jumps (vectors) to an interrupt service routine. There are two sources of interrupt: hardware
and software. Hardware interrupts include a signal to a pin, timer overflow, and serial port
interrupts. Software interrupts are commands given by the programmer. There are two
different interrupt types: maskable and non-maskable. A maskable interrupt can be
disabled and enabled while non-maskable interrupts cannot be disabled and are therefore
always enabled. Most 8 bit microcontrollers use vectored arbitration interrupts. Vectored
arbitration means that when a specific interrupt occurs the interrupt handler automatically
branches to an address associated with that interrupt. The servicing of interrupts in general
is dictated by the status of the GIE (Global Interrupt Enable). GIE is cleared when an
interrupt occurs and all interrupts are delayed until it is set.

1.4.1.6 Reset circuit and Watchdog tinier

Reset instruction start execution from starting address otherwise execution start from
this address when it is powered up. The reset circuit activates for a fixed period (a few
clock cycles) and then deactivates to let the program proceed from a de fau lt beginning
address. On deactivation of the reset that succeed the processor activation, a program
executes from start-up address. Reset can be activated either by external reset circuit that
activates on power up or by software instruction or by a programmed timer known as
watchdog timer. Watchdog timer is a timing device that resets the system after a predefined
timeout this time is usually configured and the watchdog timer is activated within the first
few clock cycles after power up. It has many applications. In many embedded systems
reset by a watchdog timer is very essential because it helps in rescuing the system from
program hangs. On restart program can function normally.
1.4.1.7 Memories

18

Embedded system makes use of different types of memories based on their features. These can
be viewed with following chart. These may be bricfly explained based on their functionality (i
Internal RAM used for registers, temporary data and stack. (Gi) Internal ROM/PROM/EPROM
for application program (ii) Extemal RAM for temporary data and stack (iv) Intemal cache
available in case of some microcontroler or microprocessor. (v)EEPROM of flash memory for
saving the results (vi) External ROM or PROM for embedding software used in non
microcontroller based systems. (vii) RAM memory buffers at ports. Caches for superscalar

microprocessors.

Varnous Foms of Sysiem Memory

Intemal RAMa Inlemal Edemal Flas ROM Memory

RAM at Cadhes RAM EEPROM PROM Addre
Mico Chips)
Controller
Mcroproc50 he Syslerm
EXemal Ports
Hold Copis
External nd/or
RAM
ofSyslem Intemal
wemoy
P

Figure 1.4: Various forms of system memory

Diferent types of memory devices in varying sizes are available for use as per

requirement. These are (a) Masked ROM or EPROM of flash which stores the embedded
software (ROM image). Masked ROM s for bulked manufacturing (2)EPROM or
EEPROM is used for testing and design stages. (3)EEPROM (SV form) is used to store
the results during the system program run time. It is erased byte by byte and written during

the system run. It is useful to store modifiable bytes for example run time system status,
time and date. Flash is very useful when a processed image or voice is to be siored or a
data set or system configuration data is to be stored which can be upgraded as and when
required. In a flash new images after compressing and processing can be stored and the
old one is erased from a sector in a single instruction cycle. In boot block flash a OPT
sector is reserved to store once only at the time of first boot. It stores boot program and

initjal data or permanent system configuration data. This OTP sector can be used to store
ROM image. (4)RAM is mostly used in SRAM form in a system. Advanced system uses
RAM in the form of a DRAM, SDRAM, or RDRAM (5) Parameterised distributed RAMM
is used when I/0 devices and subunits require a memory bufer. (6) Subunits like MAC

which operates at fast speed uses separate blocks of RAM.

1.418 Input / Output units and buses

The system gets input from physical devices such as keypads/boards, sensors,
transducer cireuits ete. It gets the values by read operations at the port address. The system
has output ports through which it sends output bytes to the real world. It sends the values
to output by a wrte operation at the port address. In case of some devices a port may be
used as both input as well as output port. One example is mobile phone which sends as
well as receives signals. There are two types of 1/0 ports (i) Parallel port and (ii) Serial
port. In a serial port, system gets a serial stream of bits at an input and sends the signal as
bits through a modem. A serial port faciltates long distance communications and
interconnections. A serial port may be serial URAT, a serial synchronous port or serial
intertacing port. A system may get inputs from mutiple channels or may have to send
multiple output channels. A demultiplexer takes input from various channels and transfers
the input to a selected channel. A multiplexer takes output from the system and sends it to
another system. A system might have tao be connected to a number of other devices and
systems. For networking system there are different types of buses e.g., 12C, CAN, USB,
ISA, EISA and PCI.

1.4.1.8 DACIADC

For automatic control and signal processing applications, a system must provide

necessary interfacing circuit and software for Digital to Analog Conversion (DAC) unit
and Analog to Digital Conversion (ADC) unit. A DAC operation is done with the help of
a combination of PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) unit in the microcontroller and External
Integrator chip. ADC operations are needed in systems for voice processing
Instrumentation, Data acquisition systems and automatic control

1.5 Data and Address Bus concept

We refine the high level functional diagram to ilustrate a typical bus configuration
comprising the address, data and control lines

20

Signals from Signals to Outside

Outside Worid World

Control

Opud

Datapath

Address
Data
Control

Figure 1.5 A typical Bus structure comprising address, data and control signals.
 Address bus and data bus
According to computer architecture, a bus is defined as a system that trans fers data
between hardware components of a
computer or between two separate computers.
Initially, buses were made up using electrical wires, but now the term bus is used more
broadly to identify any physical subsystem that provides equal functionality as the
carlier electrical buses.

Computer buses can be parallel or serial and can be connected as multi drop, daisy chain
or by switched hubs.

System bus is a single bus that helps all major components of a computer to
communicate with each other.

It is made up of an address bus, data bus and a control bus. The data bus carries the
data to be stored, while address bus carries the location to where it should be stored.

Address Bus

Address bus is a part of the computer system bus that is dedicated for specifying a
physical address.

When the computer processor needs to read or write from or to the nory, it uses the
address bus to specify the physical address of the individual memory block it needs to
access (the actual data is sent along the data bus).

More correctly, when the processor wants to write some data to the memory, it will
assert the write signal, set the write address on the address bus and put the data on to
the data bus.

21

Similarly, when the processor wants to read some data residing in the memory, it will
assert the read signal and set the read address on the address bus.

After receiving this signal, the memory controller will get the data from the specific
memory block (arter checking the address bus to get the read address) and then it will
place the data of the memory block on to the data bus.

The size of the memory that can be addressed by the system determines the width of
the data bus and vice versa. For example, if the width of the address bus is 32 bits, the system
can address 232 memory blocks (that is equal to 4GB memory space, given that one block
holds I byte of data).

Data Bus

A data bus simply carries data. Intenal buses cary information within the processor,
while external buses carry data between the processor and the memory.

Typically, the same data bus is used for both read/write operations. When it is a write
operation, the processor will put the data (to be written) on to the data bus.

When it is the read operation, the memory controller will get the data from the specific
memory block and put it in to the data bus.

What is the difference between Address Bus and Data Bus?

Data bus is bidirectional, while address bus is unidirectional. That means data travels
in both directions but the addresses will travel in only one direction.

The reason for this is that unlike the data, the address is always specified by the
processor. The width of the data bus is determined by the size ofthe individual memory
block, while the width of the address bus is determined by the size of the memory that
should be addressed by the system.
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