Covenant University Student Work

Experience Programme (SWEP) 2020/2021

By
Odunmbaku Oladipo
From
Petroleum Engineering
With
Matric No: 19CN026166

Submitted to the department of Mechanical

Engineering

In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement for

the 2020/2021 SWEP Programme, Covenant
University, Ota.

October 2021.

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 CERTIFICATION
I, Oladipo O. Odunmbaku, hereby declare that the presented report was
researched and approved having provided satisfaction on the partial
requirements for the completion of the 2020/2021 SWEP programme,
Covenant University, Ota.

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 DEDICATION
I dedicate this report to the Almighty God for making this programme a
success and also to my parents for their support which allowed me to
undergo this programme.

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 ACKNOWLEDGMNETS
To God be all the glory for the completion of the SWEP programme. I
would like to appreciate all my lecturers for the knowledge bestowed
upon me along the course of the programme and to my parents for their
loving support and contributions, Thank you.

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ABSTRACT

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 TABLE OF CONTENT
TITLE PAGE……………………………………………………………1
CERTIFICATION………………………………………………………2
DEDICATION…………………………………………………………..3
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS………………………………………………4
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………..5
LIST OF CONTENT……………………………………………………6
LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………….X
CHAPTER ONE: SWEP OVERVIEW………………………………...X
1.0 INTRODUCTION TO SWEP………………………………X
1.0.1 AIMS & OBJECTIVES OF SWEP………………………X
1.0.2 IMPORTANCE OF SWEP………………………………X
1.0.3 BENEFITS OF SWEP……………………………………X
CHAPTER TWO: KNOWLEDGE GAINED………………………….X
2.0 INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL ENGINEERING…X
2.0.1 AREAS OF INTEREST IN MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING…………………………………………………X
2.1 GENERAL WORKSHOP SAFTEY………………………...X
2.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE PROJECT……………………..X
2.3 SOLAR POWER SYSTEM…………………………………X
2.3.1 INTRODUCTION…………………………………….X
CHAPTER THREE: PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE GAINED………...X
CHAPTER FOUR: CONCLUSION……………………………………X

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7
 LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 2.1.1 PPE…………………………………………………………...X
Fig 2.2.2 TYPES OF PPE………………………………………………X
Fig 2.3.1 Solar Cell……………………………………….…………….X
Fig 2.3.2 Solar Array……………………………………………………X
Fig 2.3.3 BIPV…………………………………………………………X
Fig 2.3.4 BIPV……………………………………………………...…..X
Fig 2.3.5 Independent Array……………………………………………X
Fig 2.3.6 PWM Charge Controller………………………………….…..X
Fig 2.3.7 MPPT Charge Controller……………………………………..X
Fig 2.3.8 Battery………………………………………………………...X
Fig 2.3.9 Series Battery Connection……………………………………X
Fig 2.310 Dual UPS…………………………………………………….X
Fig 2.3.11 Inverter………………………………………………………X
Fig 2.3.12 Circuit Breaker………………………………………………X
Fig 2.3.13 Off-Grid System…………………………………………….X
Fig 2.3.14 Grid-Tied System…………………………………………....X
Fig 2.3.15 Hybrid System………………………………………………X

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 CHAPTER ONE

SWEP OVERVIEW

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO SWEP

SWEP (Students Work Experience Program) is a program designed for 200 Level
engineering and building technology students. It is a 4-6 weeks program which
takes place within the vicinity of the school where the students involved would be
enlightened on various fields in the engineering and building technology
departments broadening their scope to not just the theoretical aspect but also the
practical areas of the concerned work practices.

1.0.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SWEP

SWEP is aimed at providing the participating engineering students with the
practical skills of general workshop and safety practices in the use of tools and
equipment’s, as they are obtainable in the real world of engineering. SWEP helps
in developing students with a logical mode of thinking and reasoning that promotes
a practical application of acquired theoretical, knowledge in overcoming technical
and professional challenges. It grants students a level of familiarity or experience
with different engineering equipment’s in different departments. Students involved
tend to appreciate the dignity of labour because they are engaged in manual labour.

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 1.0.2 IMPORTANCE OF SWEP
The SWEP programme aids in the development of the innovative and creative
ability of students which are very necessary in growing competitive engineering
world. SWEP acts as a prerequisite for the Students Industrial Work Experience
Scheme (SIWES) which lasts over a period of 6 months in place of the 400 Level
Omega semester where the theoretical academic curricula are integrated with real
life engineering and industrial practices which increases their employability factor
after convocation.

1.0.3 BENEFITS OF SWEP

SWEP offers benefits to students in a variety of ways ranging from more insight on
theoretical aspects to acquiring skills in practical areas thereby widening their
understanding in these fields. SWEP helps to blend theoretical knowledge acquires
in the classroom with practical hands-on application of knowledge as it bridges the
gap between knowledge acquired in institutions and relevant production skills
required in work organizations. SWEP develops and enhances personal attributes
such as critical thinking, creativity, leadership, time management and interpersonal
skills.

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 CHAPTER 2

KNOWLEDGE GAINED

2.0 INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING
Mechanical engineering is one of the largest, broadest, and oldest engineering
disciplines. Mechanical engineers use the principles of energy, materials, and
mechanics to design and manufacture machines and devices of all types. They
create the processes and systems that drive technology and industry.
Mechanics, energy and heat, mathematics, engineering sciences, design and
manufacturing form the foundation of mechanical engineering. Mechanics includes
fluids, ranging from still water to hypersonic gases flowing around a space vehicle;
it involves the motion of anything from a particle to a machine or complex
structure.
The breadth of the mechanical engineering discipline allows students a variety of
career options. Regardless of the particular path they envision for themselves, a
mechanical engineering education empowers students with creative thinking skills
to design an exciting product or system; analytical tools to achieve their design
goals; the ability to overcome all constraints; and the teamwork needed to design,
market, and produce a system. These valuable skills can be applied to launch
careers in many other fields, such as medicine, law, consulting, management,
banking, and finance.
Mechanical engineering is one of the broadest engineering disciplines. Engineers
in this discipline work on power-producing machines such as electric generators,
internal combustion engines, and steam and gas turbines. They also work on
power-using machines such as refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment,
machine tools, material-handling systems, elevators and escalators, industrial
production equipment, and robots used in manufacturing. Some mechanical
engineers design tools that other engineers need for their work. In addition,

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mechanical engineers work in manufacturing or agriculture production,
maintenance, or technical sales; many become administrators or managers.
Here at Covenant University, the College of Mechanical Engineering is comprised
of different laboratories some of these include;
 Strength of Materials Laboratory
 Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Laboratory
 Aerodynamics Laboratory
 Fluid Mechanics Laboratory
 Computer Laboratory. etc.

In these laboratories, we are lectured on different courses. Some of these courses

include:
 Fluid Mechanics
 Strength of Materials
 Applied Computer Programming
 AutoCAD and Fusion 360 etc.

2.0.1 AREAS OF INTEREST IN MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING
Mechanical engineering has a broad scope and it reaches out to many areas
associated with our everyday lives. These areas have been put into study and
research and have thus been implemented in different research institutions. Some
of these areas of interest include:
 Biomedical and Biomechanics Engineering .

 Ground Vehicle Systems.

 Heat Transfer and Thermodynamics 

 System Dynamics and Control.

 Transportation Systems

 Aerodynamics and Fluid Mechanics

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 Combustion, Energy Systems and the Environment.

 Design and Manufacturing

 Materials and Structures

 Vibrations, Acoustics and Fluid-Structure Interaction.

2.1 GENERAL WORKSHOP SAFTEY

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 2.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE PROJECT
During the SWEP in the mechanical engineering department, two projects were
given to the groups (F & G). As a member of group G, the project given to us was;
Selection, Design and Construction of Solar Panel from Solar Cells.
Increasing student skills in the field of work and linking theory with applications
become the motivation to students to join the factories and companies for
achieving this target. One of the most popular manufacturing industries is the Solar
Panel industry. Solar energy is one of the most free and abundant types of energy,
making Solar Panels one of the most useful forms of technologies especially in a
country like Nigeria which faces power supply crises.
Solar Panel manufacturing done by joining the PV (Photo-Voltaic) cells with
tabbing wires which are soldered unto each other to allow currents and voltage to
from one cell to another, through and after manufacturing processes, the Panel is
sent for testing where they are tested to see if they supply the required amount of
power which all depends on the specific function of the panel (i.e., the battery it is
required to charge).
This report also contains the detailed methodology of constructing a Solar Panel
from materials such as Monocrystalline PV (Photo-Voltaic) cells, aluminium,
tempered glass, etc. In this write-up the method used was carried out in the
Aerodynamics Laboratory, College of Mechanical Engineering, Covenant
University, Ota.
The scope of this report covers all the materials, tools, procedure, machinery,
precautions and prerequisite knowledge required to successfully design and
fabricate a Solar Panel. The project maximizes the use of Solar panels a renewable
and sustainable form of energy.

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 2.3 SOLAR POWER SYSTEM

2.3.1 INTRODUCTION

One third of the world’s population of six billion, lives in developing countries.
Many of these people lack access to modern energy services for economic and
social development and some of their present energy systems are unsustainable.
The emergence of perennial fuel crisis in most developing countries has drawn
attention to the need for energy experts to further concentrate on producing viable
alternatives.
The issue of sustainable development is gaining steady momentum. The
renewable energies being inherently sustainable and environment friendly are
gaining popularity. All developed countries and many developing countries in
their energy planning have included renewable energies as important sources of
energy for this century. Many countries are planning to develop renewable
energies (solar, wind, hydro) to cover 10 to 40% of their energy needs within a
couple of decades. Therefore, the development of renewable source of energy
should be taken with a greater sense of urgency.
Among the various types of renewable energy, special attention has been given to
solar energy because it is freely available. According to Bolaji and Ad, solar
energy is the driving force behind several of the renewable forms of energy. Solar
energy is an ideal alternative source of energy because it is abundant, inexhaustible
and renewable.
The photovoltaic system has very simple configuration. It has four main
components: photovoltaic modules to convert sunlight into electrical energy;
battery to store and deliver electrical energy in usable form; charge controller to
regulate level of charging to and from the battery; and appliances such as lamps,
computers, d.c motor driven devices and telecommunication equip equipment.

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Photovoltaic conversion is useful for several reasons. Conversion from sunlight to
electricity is direct, so that bulky mechanical generator systems are unnecessary.
The solar photovoltaic system has no moving parts, in the field, it requires only
modest amount of skilled labour to install and maintain, making them well suited
for developing countries.

2.3.2 ANATOMY OF A SOLAR-ELECTRIC SYSTEM

The science of turning sunlight directly into electricity is known as photovoltaics

(PV), referring to photons of light and volts of electricity. Solar panels, properly
called PV modules contain solar cells, which are most commonly made of layers of
silicon, a semiconductor material made from sand.
When photons of light enter a solar cell, they get absorbed and excite electrons in
the silicon layers, causing them to move and, ultimately, flow continuously
through a circuit of wiring that feeds into the PV system. Harnessing this electron
flow is what gives you electrical power.
The electricity produced by PV modules (and used by all batteries) is direct current
(DC), in which all of the electrons move in one direction only. The home’s
electrical system and most appliances use alternating current (AC) power, in which
the electrons move back and forth, alternating direction about 60 times per second.
Therefore, PV systems include one or more inverters that convert the DC solar-
generated electricity to usable AC power.
All PV systems start with a collection of solar-electric modules, called the PV
array. The array can be installed on a roof or on the ground. The modules in an
array are usually wired together in groups, each called a series-string. The series-
strings are joined near the array at a combiner box or other device, and wiring from
the box brings the power to the rest of the system components at the ground level.
The first component that these supply lines connect to depends on the type of
system.

2.3.3 DETAIL OF SOLAR CELL

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A standard PV module is little more than a metal frame surrounding a sandwich
made of a rigid backing material, thin layers of silicon solar cells, a transparent
bonding sheet, and a tempered-glass top. The cells are where the magic happens.
Each cell typically measures about 4 to 6 inches square, and a full-size module
usually contains 60 or 72 interconnected cells laid out in a grid pattern. The cells
are most commonly made of crystalline silicon (c-Si), a semiconductor material
capable of producing about 0.5 volt of electricity. (The amount of current, or
amperage, produced by the solar cell depends on its size.)
When you wire cells together in a series, the voltage adds up so that a 60-cell
module produces about 30 volts, and a 72-cell module about 36 volts.

Fig

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 2.3.4 COMPONENTS OF A SOLAR PV INSTALLATION

 SOLAR PV ARRAY: The function of the solar PV is to trap sunlight and

generate electricity. It exists from various manufacturers at different ratings
and specifications depending on the projected load and cost.

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 Fig

Solar array can come in different ways;

 Building Integrated PV (BIPV): Building-integrated photovoltaics
(BIPV) are solar power generating systems that are seamlessly
integrated into the building envelope and part of building components
such as facades, roofs or windows.
Building-integrated PV are dual purpose:
they serve as both the outer layer of a structure and generate
electricity for on-site use or export to the grid. BIPV systems can
provide savings in materials and electricity costs, reduce pollution and
add to architectural appeal of a building.

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20
 Fig Fig

 Independent Installation: This refers to a system of installation in

which the PV arrays are setup separately from a building. Usually, an
open field or on top water.

Fig

 CHARGE CONTROLLER: The charge controller is a DC-to-DC converter

whose main function is to control the current flow from the Photo-Voltaic
array with the purpose of charging the batteries. Most of these devices can
maintain the maximum charge of a battery without overcharging or reaching
the minimum design charge. The charge controller has two main functions;

- Overcharge Protection: The purpose is to prevent the damages of the

batteries when they are charged and the PV array still supplies energy.
This protection interrupts current flow from the modules to the
batteries and regulates the batteries voltage.

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 - Over discharge Protection: During periods of excessive use of energy
or little solar irradiation, the charge of the batteries could be affected
approaching to the point of minimum discharge. The charge controller
disconnects the batteries or stop the current flow from the batteries the
load to prevent batteries damages.

They are majorly of two types of charge controllers;

- PWM (Pulse Width Modulation): It serves appropriate for small scale
installations and it is costs less.

- MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking): It is better used in large

scale power production.

PWM MPPT
Advantages 1/3 – 1/2 the cost of a MPPT Highest charging efficiency (especially in
controller. cool climates).

Longer expected lifespan due to Can be used with 60-cell panels.

fewer electronic components
and less thermal stress.

Smaller size Possibility to oversize array to ensure

sufficient charging in winter months.

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Disadvantages PV arrays and battery banks 2-3 times more expensive than a
must be sized more carefully comparable PWM controller.
and may require more design
experience.
Cannot be used efficiently with Shorter expected lifespan due to more
60- cell panels. electronic components and greater
thermal stress.

Fig

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 Fig

 BATTERY: The battery stores electricity for use at night or for meeting
loads during the day when the modules are not generating sufficient power
to meet load requirements. To provide electricity over long periods, PV
systems require deep cycle batteries. These batteries, usually lead-acid, are
designed to gradually discharge and recharge 80% of their capacity hundreds
of times. Automotive batteries are shallow-cycle batteries and should not be
used in PV systems because they are designed to discharge only about 20%
of their capacity. If drawn much below 20% capacity more than a few dozen
times, the battery will be damaged and will no longer be able to take a
charge.
A PV system may have to be sized to store a sufficient amount of power in
the batteries to meet power demand during several days of cloudy weather.
This is known as “days of autonomy.” Batteries are often rated 12V DC
nominal value but different ratings depending on the load requirement. Some

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can be rated low voltage such as 2V but at higher current for industrial
protection requirement. If the total voltage needs are greater than what one
battery can provide, a number of batteries are connected together to form a
bank. For example, two 12-volt batteries wired in series (positive terminal to
negative terminal), produces a battery bank capable of providing up to 24
volts of DC energy, and four batteries wired in series produces 48 volts.
The performance of a battery is measured by its depth of discharge (DoD).
The most economic value is usually above 50% but must not more than
80%. Because most fully discharged Lithium batteries may not recover
optimally. Most types of batteries contain toxic materials that may pose
serious health and safety problems. The National Electric Code (NEC),
battery companies, and PV system designers recommend that lead acid and
wet cell batteries, which give off explosive hydrogen gas when recharging,
be located in a well-ventilated space isolated from the other electrical
components of the system and away from living spaces.

Fig

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 Fig

 INVERTER: Energy from an array or a battery bank is direct current (DC).

This will provide for DC loads such a light, fans, pumps, motors, and some
specialty equipment. However, if the energy is to be used to power loads that
operate on alternating current (AC), as what is found in a residence, the
current needs to be converted.
The inverter changes DC energy to AC energy. Inverters are available in
many different sizes for various-sized loads. A small inverter can be plugged
into the power outlet of a vehicle to change the 12-volt DC energy from the
vehicle’s battery, to 120-volt AC energy to power a laptop computer. Larger
inverters are available to power larger loads. For example, a 4000-watt
inverter can be connected to a 12-volt battery and used for energizing small
AC appliances.
A string inverter is used to convert DC power from a solar array to AC
power and can be connected to an AC distribution power panel (service
panel) in a residence or facility. String inverters are available in different
sizes depending on the size of the AC loads.

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Fig Fig

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 BREAKERS: Breakers are very important for protection and isolation.

Fig

Fig

2.3.5 TYPES OF SOLAR POWER SYSTEM

 Off-grid solar power System: The ultimate in self-sufficiency, off-grid

systems have no connection to the utility grid and are therefore the best

28
choice for homes, offices and companies far from utility lines. They include
a bank of batteries for storing solar-generated power during the day and
feeding the load with power at night.
These systems also may get additional backup power from a fuel-powered
(usually gas, diesel, or propane) generator, which should be installed by an
electrician. All solar electricity goes through the batteries; it does not power
the loads directly from the array. The batteries are charged by DC power
from the array and are monitored and controlled by a device called a charge
controller. Battery power is converted to AC (through a DC–AC inverter)
before supplying.

Fig

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 Higher initial cost
 Independent generation
 You do not loose electricity when solar goes down because you
generate independently
 No electricity bills
 Limited storage due to cloudy weather

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 Grid-Tied PV system: A grid-tied system is by far the most common type of
residential PV system, as well as the simplest and least expensive. It
connects to the electric utility grid and uses the grid for both “storage” and

backup. When the array creates more power than the house uses, the excess
power is fed back onto the grid — turning the utility meter backward — and
you get credited for it. When the house needs more than the solar array
provides, the house automatically pulls power from the grid.
Fig

 Cheaper because you use less equipment.

 Excess power not consumed can be sold back to the utility
company through net-metering.
 Reliable but, when sun goes down, you can lose supply
because there is no direct storage.

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 Hybrid Solar Energy System: Solar hybrid power systems are hybrid power
systems that combine solar power from a photovoltaic system with another
power generating energy source.
A common type is a photovoltaic diesel hybrid system combining
photovoltaics (PV) and diesel generators, or diesel gensets, as PV has hardly
any marginal cost and is treated with priority on the grid. The diesel gensets
are used to constantly fill in the gap between the present load and the actual
generated power by the PV system.

Fig
 Very Reliable
 No downtime
 Excess energy can be stored for later use, this saves cost.
 Installation requires high level expertise

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2.3.6 DESIGN AND SIZING OF SOLAR PV SYSTEM

Determine power consumption demands

The first step in designing a solar PV system is to find out the total power
and energy consumption of all loads that need to be supplied by the solar PV
system as follows:

- Calculate total Watt-hours per day for each appliance used. Add the
Watt-hours needed for all appliances together to get the total Watt-
hours per day which must be delivered to the appliances.

- Calculate total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules.

Multiply the total appliances Watt-hours per day times 1.5 (the energy
lost in the system) to get the total Watt-hours per day which must be
provided by the panels.

Size the PV modules

Different size of PV modules will produce different amount of power. To
find out the sizing of the PV module, the total peak watt produced needs.
The peak watt (Wp) produced depends on size of the PV module and climate
of site location. We have to consider panel generation factor which is
different in each site location. For Thailand, the panel generation factor is
3.43. To determine the sizing of PV modules, calculate as follows:

- Calculate the total Watt-peak rating needed for PV modules

Divide the total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules by
3.43 to get the total Watt-peak rating needed for the PV panels needed
to operate the appliances.

- Calculate the number of PV panels for the system

Divide the answer obtained by the rated output Watt-peak of the PV
modules available to you. Increase any fractional part of result to the

33
 next highest full number and that will be the number of PV modules
required.

Result of the calculation is the minimum number of PV panels. If more PV

modules are installed, the system will perform better and battery life will be
improved. If fewer PV modules are used, the system may not work at all
during cloudy periods and battery life will be shortened

Inverter sizing
An inverter is used in the system where AC power output is needed. The
input rating of the inverter should never be lower than the total watt of
appliances. The inverter must have the same nominal voltage as your
battery.
For stand-alone systems, the inverter must be large enough to handle the
total amount of Watts you will be using at one time. The inverter size should
be 25-30% bigger than total Watts of appliances. In case of appliance type is
motor or compressor then inverter size should be minimum 3 times the
capacity of those appliances and must be added to the inverter capacity to
handle surge current during starting.
For grid tie systems or grid connected systems, the input rating of the
inverter should be same as PV array rating to allow for safe and efficient
operation.

Battery sizing
The battery type recommended for using in solar PV system is deep cycle
battery. Deep cycle battery is specifically designed for to be discharged to
low energy level and rapid recharged or cycle charged and discharged day
after day for years. The battery should be large enough to store sufficient
energy to operate the appliances at night and cloudy days. To find out the
size of battery, calculate as follows:

- Calculate total Watt-hours per day used by appliances

- Divide the total Watt-hours per day used by 0.85 for battery loss
- Divide the answer obtained by 0.6 for depth of discharge.
- Divide the answer obtained by the nominal battery voltage.

34
 - Multiply the answer obtained with days of autonomy (the number of
days that you need the system to operate when there is no power
produced by PV panels) to get the required Ampere-hour capacity of
deep-cycle battery.

Battery Capacity (Ah) = Total Watt-hours per day used by appliances x

Days of autonomy / (0.85 x 0.6 x nominal battery voltage)

Solar charge controller sizing

The solar charge controller is typically rated against Amperage and Voltage
capacities. Select the solar charge controller to match the voltage of PV
array and batteries and then identify which type of solar charge controller is
right for your application. Make sure that solar charge controller has enough
capacity to handle the current from PV array.
For the series charge controller type, the sizing of controller depends on the
total PV input current which is delivered to the controller and also depends
on PV panel configuration (series or parallel configuration).
According to standard practice, the sizing of solar charge controller is to take
the short circuit current (Isc) of the PV array, and multiply it by 1.3
Solar charge controller rating = Total short circuit current of PV array x 1.3

2.3.7 SOLAR POWER INSTALLATION STEPS

a. Erect scaffolding to ensure safety during roof installation

b. Install Solar Panel Mounts tilted at about 10 to 45 degrees
c. Install Solar Panels
d. Wire the panels – either in parallel and series depending on
requirement
e. Install charge controller
f. Install Inverter
g. Connect charge controller to the battery and battery to the inverter

35
 h. Connect inverter to consumer unit. You can also connect charge
controller directly to DC load.
i. Test installation

2.3.8 FAILURE ANALYSIS ON SOLAR PANELS

The performance of solar PV module is related with its output. The higher of PV
output, the better efficiency and hence better performance. The efficiency of cells
depends on several factors; its ability to capture incoming sunlight, to convey it to
electrons that have the right energy state. Energy efficiency factors must be
carefully considered while designing any solar PV systems. The major factors
affecting solar module PV system are:

i) Temperature: Module output reduces as temperature increases. Solar cells

perform better in cold rather than in hot climate and as things stand, panels are
rated at 25˚C which can be significantly different from the real outdoor situation.
For each degree rise in temperature above 25˚C the panel output decays by about
0.25% for amorphous cells and about 0.4-0.5% for crystalline cells.

ii) Shading: A shadow on even a small part of the panel can have a surprisingly
large effect on the output. The cells within a panel are normally all wired in series
and the shaded cells affect the current flow of the whole panel. But there can be
situations where it cannot be avoided, and thus the effects of partial shading should
be considered while planning. If the affected panel is wired in series (in a string)
with other panels, then the output of all those panels will be affected by the partial

36
shading of one panel. In such a situation, an obvious solution is to avoid wiring
panels in series if possible.

iii) Dirt and Dust: Dirt and dust can accumulate on the solar module surface,
blocking some of the sunlight and reducing output.

iv) Solar spectrum: It influences the current generated by a solar cell is influenced
by the spectral distribution (spectrum) of sunshine. The solar spectral effect can be
empirically related to absolute air mass, resulting in the Air-Mass (AM) function.
This function is technology specific, depending on the spectral response of the
module, and also cite specific, depending on the site’s atmospheric characteristics.

v) Solar angle of incidence: Photovoltaic modules have an angle of incidence

dependent optical behavior that can be measured and used to improve the analysis
of array performance. Like absolute air mass, solar angle-of-incidence is time-of-
day dependent. Its effect on the short-circuit current (Isc) of a photovoltaic module
result.

vi) Mismatch and wire loss: The maximum power output of the total PV array is
always less than the sum of the maximum output of the individual modules. This
difference is a result of slight inconsistencies in performance from one module to
the next and is called module mismatch and amounts to at least a 2% loss in system
power. Power is also lost to resistance in the system wiring. These losses should be
kept to a minimum but it is difficult to keep these losses below 3% for the system.

2.3.9 Advantages of PV system

37
Photovoltaic systems can be an ideal solution for covering basic energy needs of
contemporary and next generation societies. PV systems can facilitate a sustainable
energy mix. There are numerous advantages of PV system, especially in
comparison with the conventional fossil fuels. The advantages of PV system are as
follows:

ii) Cleanliness: PV systems use solar power, a renewable green energy source, to
generate electricity and thus they help reduce CO2

ii) Reliability: Moreover, PV systems, as any other renewable green energy

technology, avoid adverse effect to the atmosphere which is beneficial to the public
health and the environment. The life of PV systems is expected to 30 year and can
be installed in various regions and climate where exposure to the sun is optimal.
The system does not contain any mechanical and moving devices so requires
minimum maintenance. Only minor checking of cable connections and basic
regular cleaning of panel surface is adequate to keep it in operation for several
years.

iii) Safety: The PV systems require sunlight to operate. It does not require any
materials that can combust or explode when ignited, or remain toxic for several
years so makes PV system safer. However, some PV products use toxic materials
which can create an increased hazard in future.

iv) Reduced Operating Costs: PV systems do not require any fuel for run rather
require only sun light, which comes at no charge. Additionally, the minimum
maintenance is required so reduces maintenance costs. Hence overall running costs
of PV system is much less.

v) Silence: Unlike generator and other sources of power and its generating system,
PV makes no noise.

38
vi) Modularity: The size and scope of PV system is not fixed. PV systems are
scalable and can be expanded at any time to increase the amount of power. The
growing trend towards inverter of modular design. Components are individually
replaceable in case of failure.

vii) Independence: Because PV systems can be used for remote and small power
generation plants, they are more decentralized and consistent power grid that is less
dependent on utility companies. They are also for distributed power generation.

2.3.10 Limitations of PV system

Although the advantages of PV systems are becoming more apparent as society

develops, PV systems do possess limitations which should be considered. The
limitations of PV systems are discussed below:

I) High Initial Cost: The cost of PV systems is in operation is almost negligible but
it requires high initial investment cost than those of conventional power sources.
The PV system produces DC current and voltage so requires inverter and other
extra devices (e.g., synchronizer for Grid Tied PV system) for AC supplies which
increase the costs of installation of PV system.

ii) Efficiency: The efficiency of solar cell is improved and it is still in range of
14% to 40% which is much less than the other sources of power. Due to its
inefficiency, more solar power is required to operate same device.

iii) Manufacturing, Storage and Handling: After installation, PV system is almost

safe but their manufacturing, handling and storage comes with various hazards.
Potentially explosive gases like phosphine and diborane are used in making PV
module. Thin-film technologies uses cadmium telluride and other hazardous

39
materials may create long term hazardous waste. PV system installer also needs
proper training in handling the components. The durability of proper designed and
installed PV systems often justifies and overweighs the associated costs and risks.

iv) Require Large Area: The PV system installation requires large area for the
deployment. If installed on land the cause associated land use problems because it
is used for 25 years or longer. The large area exposure to light is not always
available on roof of the buildings to meet the required area of installation.

v) Need of Energy Storage Devices: Sunlight is not always available to power the
PV systems so requires energy storage device such as batteries to provide
consistent and reliable power supply. The batteries and other storage device
increase the cost.

vi) Inconsistent source of energy: Sun doesn’t always shine in day time. In
addition to this, geographic location, climate and other environmental conditions
affect the amount of exposure to any available sunlight. Thus, it creates
inconsistent source of energy.

vii)Lack of Awareness: The more technology and its knowledge, the more power
will receive society from sun in affordable and practical way. The lack of
knowledge slows the growth of alternative energy market as well as PV system.

2.3.11 Environment, health and safety issue

The cleaner energy as electricity can be available from the PV system without
affecting the environment and health because it doesn’t produce GHG gases and
toxic materials when under operation. PV system has many environmental

40
advantages for generation of electricity over other conventional sources. However,
if the lifecycle of PV system is considered then there are environmental, health and
safety hazards associated with the manufacture of solar cells and installation of PV
system.

The PV industry uses toxic chemicals in manufacturing process of the PV cells.

The hazards differ for different thin film technologies and deposition process. The
environmental issues are related to the generation of liquid- and solid-wastes
during wafer slicing, cleaning, and etching, and during processing and assembling
of solar cells. In thin-film technologies, Silane used in bulk quantities which may
facilities may pose hazards to the surrounding community if adequate separation
zones do not exist. PV modules will have to be decommissioned at the end of their
useful life, 20 to 30 years after their initial installation. In decommissioning these
devices, the principal concern will be associated with the presence many hazardous
chemicals.

The different health problems are associated with the toxic materials. In production
facilities, workers may be exposed to Cd compounds through the air they breathe,
as well as by ingestion from hand-to-mouth contact. Inhalation is probably the
most important pathway, because of the larger potential for exposure, and higher
absorption efficiency of Cd compounds through the lung than through the
gastrointestinal tract. Although elemental selenium has only a mild toxicity
associated with it, hydrogen selenide is highly toxic. It has an Immediately
Dangerous to Life and Health concentration of only 1 ppm. Potential public health
issues are related to the use of hydrogen selenide in facilities that use hydrogen
selenide as a major feedstock material. Associated hazards can be minimized by
using safer alternatives, limiting inventories, using flow restricting valves and
other safety options.

41
The manufacture of photovoltaic modules uses some hazardous materials such as
Arsine, Cadmium compounds, Hydrogen selenide. These can present health and
safety hazards, if adequate precautions are not taken. Routine conditions in
manufacturing facilities should not pose any threats to health and the environment.

2.3.12 SOLAR ENERGY AS A SUSTAINABLE ENERGY

42
 CHAPTER 3
PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE GAINED

43
CHAPTER 4

44
45
 Covenant University Student Work
Experience Programme (SWEP) 2020/2021

By
Odunmbaku Oladipo
From
Petroleum Engineering
With
Matric No: 19CN026166

Submitted to the department of Mechanical

Engineering

In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement for

the 2020/2021 SWEP Programme, Covenant
University, Ota.

October 2021.

46
 CERTIFICATION
I, Oladipo O. Odunmbaku, hereby declare that the presented report was
researched and approved having provided satisfaction on the partial
requirements for the completion of the 2020/2021 SWEP programme,
Covenant University, Ota.

47
 DEDICATION
I dedicate this report to the Almighty God for making this programme a
success and also to my parents for their support which allowed me to
undergo this programme.

48
 ACKNOWLEDGMNETS
To God be all the glory for the completion of the SWEP programme. I
would like to appreciate all my lecturers for the knowledge bestowed
upon me along the course of the programme and to my parents for their
loving support and contributions, Thank you.

49
 ABSTRACT
At the Inception of Science and Technology into Tertiary Institutions in
Nigeria, respective students were finishing from various schools without
an in-depth view of their programme of study. Most of the students
never had field experience and relied on bookish knowledge, most of
what they knew was restricted to what they were taught in class not by
what they had experienced. Seeing the state of how limited the
knowledge of students were, the STUDENT WORK EXPERIENCE
PROGRAMME (SWEP) was initiated. Their aim was to introduce
students to the practical aspect of their field of discipline and also
expose them to the industrial work situation they would most likely find
themselves in after school.
Through these programmes, Students come across various equipment
and industrial scenario that allows them to engage the theoretical aspect
into the practical aspect of their various field. This has proved fruitful in
helping students have a better understanding of their field of discipline.
In addition, the scheme exposes students to various skills as needed in
the industry for a smooth transition from the class to the world of work.
It grants students of tertiary institutions the opportunity to be
familiarized and exposed to the needed experience in handling
machinery and equipment that they would later come across. One of its
primary goals is to assist students in the integration of leadership
development into the learning process. Through the integration of this,
students are encouraged to participate in non-profit management as part
of a professional career objective.

50
 TABLE OF CONTENT
TITLE PAGE……………………………………………………………1
CERTIFICATION………………………………………………………2
DEDICATION…………………………………………………………..3
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS………………………………………………4
ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………..5
LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………….X
LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………...X
CHAPTER ONE: SWEP OVERVIEW………………………………...X
3.0 INTRODUCTION TO SWEP………………………………X
1.0.1 AIMS & OBJECTIVES OF SWEP………………………X
1.0.2 IMPORTANCE OF SWEP………………………………X
1.0.3 BENEFITS OF SWEP……………………………………X
CHAPTER TWO: KNOWLEDGE GAINED………………………….X
4.0 INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL ENGINEERING…X
2.0.1 AREAS OF INTEREST IN MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING…………………………………………………X
2.1 GENERAL WORKSHOP SAFTEY………………………...X

2.2 INTRODUCTION TO THE PROJECT……………………..X

2.4 SOLAR POWER SYSTEM…………………………………X
2.3.1 INTRODUCTION…………………………………….X
CHAPTER THREE: PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE GAINED………...X

51
CHAPTER FOUR: CONCLUSION……………………………………X

52
 LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 2.1.1 PPE…………………………………………………………...X
Fig 2.2.2 TYPES OF PPE………………………………………………X
Fig 2.3.1 Solar Cell……………………………………….…………….X
Fig 2.3.2 Solar Array……………………………………………………X
Fig 2.3.3 BIPV…………………………………………………………X
Fig 2.3.4 BIPV……………………………………………………...…..X
Fig 2.3.5 Independent Array……………………………………………X
Fig 2.3.6 PWM Charge Controller………………………………….…..X
Fig 2.3.7 MPPT Charge Controller……………………………………..X
Fig 2.3.8 Battery………………………………………………………...X
Fig 2.3.9 Series Battery Connection……………………………………X
Fig 2.310 Dual UPS…………………………………………………….X
Fig 2.3.11 Inverter………………………………………………………X
Fig 2.3.12 Circuit Breaker………………………………………………X
Fig 2.3.13 Off-Grid System…………………………………………….X
Fig 2.3.14 Grid-Tied System…………………………………………....X
Fig 2.3.15 Hybrid System………………………………………………X
Fig 3.0.1 Applying Flux……………………………………………...…X
Fig 3.0.2 Soldering tabbing wire to cells……………………………….X
Fig 3.0.3 Starting point of placing cells………………………………...X
Fig 3.0.4 Tabbed cells…………………………………………………..X

53
Fig 3.0.5 Connecting the cells in rows………………………………….X
Fig 3.0.6 Marking out the Acco board………………………………….X
Fig 3.0.7 Cutting the aluminium for framing…………………………X
Fig 3.0.8 Applying silicon sealant……………………………………...X

54
 LIST OF TABLES
Fig 2.3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of PWM & MPPT…………..X
Fig 3.0.1 Summary results……………………………………………...X

55
 CHAPTER ONE

SWEP OVERVIEW

3.0 INTRODUCTION TO SWEP

SWEP (Students Work Experience Program) is a program designed for 200 Level
engineering and building technology students. It is a 4-6 weeks program which
takes place within the vicinity of the school where the students involved would be
enlightened on various fields in the engineering and building technology
departments broadening their scope to not just the theoretical aspect but also the
practical areas of the concerned work practices.

1.0.4 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SWEP

SWEP is aimed at providing the participating engineering students with the
practical skills of general workshop and safety practices in the use of tools and
equipment’s, as they are obtainable in the real world of engineering. SWEP helps
in developing students with a logical mode of thinking and reasoning that promotes
a practical application of acquired theoretical, knowledge in overcoming technical
and professional challenges. It grants students a level of familiarity or experience
with different engineering equipment’s in different departments. Students involved
tend to appreciate the dignity of labour because they are engaged in manual labour.

56
 1.0.5 IMPORTANCE OF SWEP
The SWEP programme aids in the development of the innovative and creative
ability of students which are very necessary in growing competitive engineering
world. SWEP acts as a prerequisite for the Students Industrial Work Experience
Scheme (SIWES) which lasts over a period of 6 months in place of the 400 Level
Omega semester where the theoretical academic curricula are integrated with real
life engineering and industrial practices which increases their employability factor
after convocation.

1.0.6 BENEFITS OF SWEP

SWEP offers benefits to students in a variety of ways ranging from more insight on
theoretical aspects to acquiring skills in practical areas thereby widening their
understanding in these fields. SWEP helps to blend theoretical knowledge acquires
in the classroom with practical hands-on application of knowledge as it bridges the
gap between knowledge acquired in institutions and relevant production skills
required in work organizations. SWEP develops and enhances personal attributes
such as critical thinking, creativity, leadership, time management and interpersonal
skills.

57
 CHAPTER 2

KNOWLEDGE GAINED

4.0 INTRODUCTION TO MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING
Mechanical engineering is one of the largest, broadest, and oldest engineering
disciplines. Mechanical engineers use the principles of energy, materials, and
mechanics to design and manufacture machines and devices of all types. They
create the processes and systems that drive technology and industry.
Mechanics, energy and heat, mathematics, engineering sciences, design and
manufacturing form the foundation of mechanical engineering. Mechanics includes
fluids, ranging from still water to hypersonic gases flowing around a space vehicle;
it involves the motion of anything from a particle to a machine or complex
structure.
The breadth of the mechanical engineering discipline allows students a variety of
career options. Regardless of the particular path they envision for themselves, a
mechanical engineering education empowers students with creative thinking skills
to design an exciting product or system; analytical tools to achieve their design
goals; the ability to overcome all constraints; and the teamwork needed to design,
market, and produce a system. These valuable skills can be applied to launch
careers in many other fields, such as medicine, law, consulting, management,
banking, and finance.
Mechanical engineering is one of the broadest engineering disciplines. Engineers
in this discipline work on power-producing machines such as electric generators,
internal combustion engines, and steam and gas turbines. They also work on
power-using machines such as refrigeration and air-conditioning equipment,
machine tools, material-handling systems, elevators and escalators, industrial
production equipment, and robots used in manufacturing. Some mechanical
engineers design tools that other engineers need for their work. In addition,

58
mechanical engineers work in manufacturing or agriculture production,
maintenance, or technical sales; many become administrators or managers.
Here at Covenant University, the College of Mechanical Engineering is comprised
of different laboratories some of these include;
 Strength of Materials Laboratory
 Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Laboratory
 Aerodynamics Laboratory
 Fluid Mechanics Laboratory
 Computer Laboratory. etc.

In these laboratories, we are lectured on different courses. Some of these courses

include:
 Fluid Mechanics
 Strength of Materials
 Applied Computer Programming
 AutoCAD and Fusion 360 etc.

2.3.13 AREAS OF INTEREST IN MECHANICAL

ENGINEERING
Mechanical engineering has a broad scope and it reaches out to many areas
associated with our everyday lives. These areas have been put into study and
research and have thus been implemented in different research institutions. Some
of these areas of interest include:
 Biomedical and Biomechanics Engineering .
 Ground Vehicle Systems.
 Heat Transfer and Thermodynamics 
 System Dynamics and Control.
 Transportation Systems
 Aerodynamics and Fluid Mechanics
 Combustion, Energy Systems and the Environment.
 Design and Manufacturing
 Materials and Structures

59
 Vibrations, Acoustics and Fluid-Structure Interaction.

2.4 GENERAL WORKSHOP SAFTEY

The origin of the concept of workplace safety can be traced back to labor
movement during the Industrial Revolution in Europe in the 18th century.
During this revolution, unions of workers were formed to work towards the
welfare of workers. Workers began to demand better working conditions.
Authorities gradually acceded to the demands of the workers and put in place
several regulatory measures to this effect. Along the course of our SWEP
programme, we were introduced to the concept of safety in the workplace.

2.4.1 WHAT IS SAFETY

Safety is a state of being free from danger or situations that can cause harm or
injury to persons or damage to equipment.

2.4.2 TYPES OF SAFETY

o Electrical Safety
o Workshop Safety
o Water Safety
o Confined Space Safety
o Mechanical Safety
o Environmental Safety
o Communication Safety
o Information Safety
o Structural Safety
o Laboratory Safety
2.4.3 ACCIDENT

60
An accident is an unplanned and unintended occurrence in the course of an activity
or operation in the workplace, resulting to: personal injury, property damage,
interference with production or other business activity.
NEAR MISS: It is an unplanned event that threatens human safety or health, the
environment, or the continued normal operation of the business enterprise, wherein
the last protective barrier is challenged, but defeated.

2.4.4 NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF ACCIDNETS

• Negative Effects on Employees: These include physical pains, mental pains,
and family loss. Disability and loss of earning power
• Negative Effects on Organizations: These include reputation, money and
time loss
• Negative Effects on the Nation: These include revenue loss, reduction of
GDP and per capital income of the nation.

2.4.5 CAUSES OF ACCIDNET

There are two main causes of accidents in the workplace, namely Unsafe acts
and Unsafe conditions.
 Unsafe Acts: These are activities carried out without regards and contrary
to STDs. Examples of unsafe acts include; working on equipment in
operation without authorization, horse play, failure to secure or notify,
wearing unsafe clothing, improper use of facility, failure to wear PPE,
taking short cuts and by-passing safety devices.

 Unsafe Conditions: This is an existing situation or condition likely to

cause accidents. Some examples of these include; defective tools and
equipment, defective design, unsafe work place, unsafe clothing,
guarding and environmental hazards.

61
 2.4.6 PERSONAL SAFETY & PPE (PERSONAL SAFETY
EQUIPMENT)
Personal protective equipment, commonly referred to as "PPE", is equipment
worn to minimize exposure to hazards that cause serious workplace injuries and
illnesses. These injuries and illnesses may result from contact with chemical,
radiological, physical, electrical, mechanical, or other workplace hazards.
Personal protective equipment may include items such as gloves, safety glasses
and shoes, earplugs or muffs, hard hats, respirators, or coveralls, vests and full
body suits.

2.4.6.1 WHAT CAN BE DONE TO ENSURE PROPER USE OF

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT?
All personal protective equipment should be safely designed and constructed, and
should be maintained in a clean and reliable fashion. It should fit comfortably,
encouraging worker use. If the personal protective equipment does not fit properly,
it can make the difference between being safely covered or dangerously exposed.
When engineering, work practice, and administrative controls are not feasible or do
not provide sufficient protection, employers must provide personal protective
equipment to their workers and ensure its proper use.

Fig 2.1.1

62
63
 Fig 2.1.2

2.5 INTRODUCTION TO THE PROJECT

During the SWEP in the mechanical engineering department, two projects were
given to the groups (F & G). As a member of group G, the project given to us was;
Selection, Design and Construction of Solar Panel from Solar Cells.
Increasing student skills in the field of work and linking theory with applications
become the motivation to students to join the factories and companies for
achieving this target. One of the most popular manufacturing industries is the Solar
Panel industry. Solar energy is one of the most free and abundant types of energy,
making Solar Panels one of the most useful forms of technologies especially in a
country like Nigeria which faces power supply crises.
Solar Panel manufacturing done by joining the PV (Photo-Voltaic) cells with
tabbing wires which are soldered unto each other to allow currents and voltage to
from one cell to another, through and after manufacturing processes, the Panel is
sent for testing where they are tested to see if they supply the required amount of
power which all depends on the specific function of the panel (i.e., the battery it is
required to charge).

64
This report also contains the detailed methodology of constructing a Solar Panel
from materials such as Monocrystalline PV (Photo-Voltaic) cells, aluminium,
tempered glass, etc. In this write-up the method used was carried out in the
Aerodynamics Laboratory, College of Mechanical Engineering, Covenant
University, Ota.
The scope of this report covers all the materials, tools, procedure, machinery,
precautions and prerequisite knowledge required to successfully design and
fabricate a Solar Panel. The project maximizes the use of Solar panels a renewable
and sustainable form of energy.

2.6 SOLAR POWER SYSTEM

2.6.1 INTRODUCTION

One third of the world’s population of six billion, lives in developing countries.
Many of these people lack access to modern energy services for economic and
social development and some of their present energy systems are unsustainable.
The emergence of perennial fuel crisis in most developing countries has drawn
attention to the need for energy experts to further concentrate on producing viable
alternatives.
The issue of sustainable development is gaining steady momentum. The
renewable energies being inherently sustainable and environment friendly are
gaining popularity. All developed countries and many developing countries in
their energy planning have included renewable energies as important sources of
energy for this century. Many countries are planning to develop renewable
energies (solar, wind, hydro) to cover 10 to 40% of their energy needs within a
couple of decades. Therefore, the development of renewable source of energy
should be taken with a greater sense of urgency.
Among the various types of renewable energy, special attention has been given to
solar energy because it is freely available. According to Bolaji and Ad, solar
energy is the driving force behind several of the renewable forms of energy. Solar
energy is an ideal alternative source of energy because it is abundant, inexhaustible
and renewable.

65
The photovoltaic system has very simple configuration. It has four main
components: photovoltaic modules to convert sunlight into electrical energy;
battery to store and deliver electrical energy in usable form; charge controller to
regulate level of charging to and from the battery; and appliances such as lamps,
computers, d.c motor driven devices and telecommunication equip equipment.
Photovoltaic conversion is useful for several reasons. Conversion from sunlight to
electricity is direct, so that bulky mechanical generator systems are unnecessary.
The solar photovoltaic system has no moving parts, in the field, it requires only
modest amount of skilled labour to install and maintain, making them well suited
for developing countries.

2.6.2 ANATOMY OF A SOLAR-ELECTRIC SYSTEM

The science of turning sunlight directly into electricity is known as photovoltaics

(PV), referring to photons of light and volts of electricity. Solar panels, properly
called PV modules contain solar cells, which are most commonly made of layers of
silicon, a semiconductor material made from sand.
When photons of light enter a solar cell, they get absorbed and excite electrons in
the silicon layers, causing them to move and, ultimately, flow continuously
through a circuit of wiring that feeds into the PV system. Harnessing this electron
flow is what gives you electrical power.
The electricity produced by PV modules (and used by all batteries) is direct current
(DC), in which all of the electrons move in one direction only. The home’s
electrical system and most appliances use alternating current (AC) power, in which
the electrons move back and forth, alternating direction about 60 times per second.
Therefore, PV systems include one or more inverters that convert the DC solar-
generated electricity to usable AC power.
All PV systems start with a collection of solar-electric modules, called the PV
array. The array can be installed on a roof or on the ground. The modules in an
array are usually wired together in groups, each called a series-string. The series-
strings are joined near the array at a combiner box or other device, and wiring from
the box brings the power to the rest of the system components at the ground level.

66
The first component that these supply lines connect to depends on the type of
system.

2.6.3 DETAIL OF SOLAR CELL

A standard PV module is little more than a metal frame surrounding a sandwich

made of a rigid backing material, thin layers of silicon solar cells, a transparent
bonding sheet, and a tempered-glass top. The cells are where the magic happens.
Each cell typically measures about 4 to 6 inches square, and a full-size module
usually contains 60 or 72 interconnected cells laid out in a grid pattern. The cells
are most commonly made of crystalline silicon (c-Si), a semiconductor material
capable of producing about 0.5 volt of electricity. (The amount of current, or
amperage, produced by the solar cell depends on its size.)
When you wire cells together in a series, the voltage adds up so that a 60-cell
module produces about 30 volts, and a 72-cell module about 36 volts.

Fig 2.3.1

67
 2.6.4 COMPONENTS OF A SOLAR PV INSTALLATION

 SOLAR PV ARRAY: The function of the solar PV is to trap sunlight and

generate electricity. It exists from various manufacturers at different ratings
and specifications depending on the projected load and cost.

68
 Fig 2.3.2

Solar array can come in different ways;

 Building Integrated PV (BIPV): Building-integrated photovoltaics
(BIPV) are solar power generating systems that are seamlessly
integrated into the building envelope and part of building components
such as facades, roofs or windows.
Building-integrated PV are dual purpose:
they serve as both the outer layer of a structure and generate
electricity for on-site use or export to the grid. BIPV systems can
provide savings in materials and electricity costs, reduce pollution and
add to architectural appeal of a building.

69
70
 Fig 2.3.3 Fig 2.3.4

 Independent Installation: This refers to a system of installation in

which the PV arrays are setup separately from a building. Usually, an
open field or on top water.

Fig 2.3.5

 CHARGE CONTROLLER: The charge controller is a DC-to-DC converter

whose main function is to control the current flow from the Photo-Voltaic
array with the purpose of charging the batteries. Most of these devices can
maintain the maximum charge of a battery without overcharging or reaching
the minimum design charge. The charge controller has two main functions;

- Overcharge Protection: The purpose is to prevent the damages of the

batteries when they are charged and the PV array still supplies energy.
This protection interrupts current flow from the modules to the
batteries and regulates the batteries voltage.

71
 - Over discharge Protection: During periods of excessive use of energy
or little solar irradiation, the charge of the batteries could be affected
approaching to the point of minimum discharge. The charge controller
disconnects the batteries or stop the current flow from the batteries the
load to prevent batteries damages.

They are majorly of two types of charge controllers;

- PWM (Pulse Width Modulation): It serves appropriate for small scale
installations and it is costs less.

- MPPT (Maximum Power Point Tracking): It is better used in large

scale power production.

PWM MPPT
Advantages 1/3 – 1/2 the cost of a MPPT Highest charging efficiency (especially in
controller. cool climates).

Longer expected lifespan due to Can be used with 60-cell panels.

fewer electronic components
and less thermal stress.

Smaller size Possibility to oversize array to ensure

sufficient charging in winter months.

72
Disadvantages PV arrays and battery banks 2-3 times more expensive than a
must be sized more carefully comparable PWM controller.
and may require more design
experience.
Cannot be used efficiently with Shorter expected lifespan due to more
60- cell panels. electronic components and greater
thermal stress.

Fig 2.3.1

Fig 2.3.6

73
 Fig 2.3.7

 BATTERY: The battery stores electricity for use at night or for meeting
loads during the day when the modules are not generating sufficient power
to meet load requirements. To provide electricity over long periods, PV
systems require deep cycle batteries. These batteries, usually lead-acid, are
designed to gradually discharge and recharge 80% of their capacity hundreds
of times. Automotive batteries are shallow-cycle batteries and should not be
used in PV systems because they are designed to discharge only about 20%
of their capacity. If drawn much below 20% capacity more than a few dozen
times, the battery will be damaged and will no longer be able to take a
charge.
A PV system may have to be sized to store a sufficient amount of power in
the batteries to meet power demand during several days of cloudy weather.
This is known as “days of autonomy.” Batteries are often rated 12V DC
nominal value but different ratings depending on the load requirement. Some

74
can be rated low voltage such as 2V but at higher current for industrial
protection requirement. If the total voltage needs are greater than what one
battery can provide, a number of batteries are connected together to form a
bank. For example, two 12-volt batteries wired in series (positive terminal to
negative terminal), produces a battery bank capable of providing up to 24
volts of DC energy, and four batteries wired in series produces 48 volts.
The performance of a battery is measured by its depth of discharge (DoD).
The most economic value is usually above 50% but must not more than
80%. Because most fully discharged Lithium batteries may not recover
optimally. Most types of batteries contain toxic materials that may pose
serious health and safety problems. The National Electric Code (NEC),
battery companies, and PV system designers recommend that lead acid and
wet cell batteries, which give off explosive hydrogen gas when recharging,
be located in a well-ventilated space isolated from the other electrical
components of the system and away from living spaces.

Fig 2.3.8

75
 Fig 2.3.9

 INVERTER: Energy from an array or a battery bank is direct current (DC).

This will provide for DC loads such a light, fans, pumps, motors, and some
specialty equipment. However, if the energy is to be used to power loads that
operate on alternating current (AC), as what is found in a residence, the
current needs to be converted.
The inverter changes DC energy to AC energy. Inverters are available in
many different sizes for various-sized loads. A small inverter can be plugged
into the power outlet of a vehicle to change the 12-volt DC energy from the
vehicle’s battery, to 120-volt AC energy to power a laptop computer. Larger
inverters are available to power larger loads. For example, a 4000-watt
inverter can be connected to a 12-volt battery and used for energizing small
AC appliances.
A string inverter is used to convert DC power from a solar array to AC
power and can be connected to an AC distribution power panel (service
panel) in a residence or facility. String inverters are available in different
sizes depending on the size of the AC loads.

76
Fig 2.3.10 Fig 2.3.11

77
 BREAKERS: Breakers are very important for protection and isolation.

Fig 2.3.12

2.6.5 TYPES OF SOLAR POWER SYSTEM

 OFF-GRID SOLAR POWER SYSTEM: The ultimate in self-sufficiency,

off-grid systems have no connection to the utility grid and are therefore the
best choice for homes, offices and companies far from utility lines. They
include a bank of batteries for storing solar-generated power during the day
and feeding the load with power at night.

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These systems also may get additional backup power from a fuel-powered
(usually gas, diesel, or propane) generator, which should be installed by an
electrician. All solar electricity goes through the batteries; it does not power
the loads directly from the array. The batteries are charged by DC power
from the array and are monitored and controlled by a device called a charge
controller. Battery power is converted to AC (through a DC–AC inverter)
before supplying.

Fig 2.3.13

CHARACTERISTICS

 Higher initial cost

 Independent generation

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  You do not loose electricity when solar goes down because you generate
independently
 No electricity bills
 Limited storage due to cloudy weather

 GRID-TIED PV SYSTEM: A grid-tied system is by far the most common

type of residential PV system, as well as the simplest and least expensive. It
connects to the electric utility grid and uses the grid for both “storage” and
backup. When the array creates more power than the house uses, the excess
power is fed back onto the grid — turning the utility meter backward — and
you get credited for it. When the house needs more than the solar array
provides, the house automatically pulls power from the grid.

Fig 2.3.14
CHARACTERISTICS
 Cheaper because you use less equipment.

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  Excess power not consumed can be sold back to the utility company
through net-metering.
 Reliable but, when sun goes down, you can lose supply because there is
no direct storage.

 HYBRID SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEM: Solar hybrid power systems are

hybrid power systems that combine solar power from a photovoltaic system
with another power generating energy source.
A common type is a photovoltaic diesel hybrid system combining
photovoltaics (PV) and diesel generators, or diesel gensets, as PV has hardly
any marginal cost and is treated with priority on the grid. The diesel gensets
are used to constantly fill in the gap between the present load and the actual
generated power by the PV system.

Fig 2.3.15
CHARACTERISTICS

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  Very Reliable
 No downtime
 Excess energy can be stored for later use, this saves cost.
 Installation requires high level expertise

2.6.6 DESIGN AND SIZING OF SOLAR PV SYSTEM

Determine power consumption demands

The first step in designing a solar PV system is to find out the total power
and energy consumption of all loads that need to be supplied by the solar PV
system as follows:

- Calculate total Watt-hours per day for each appliance used. Add the
Watt-hours needed for all appliances together to get the total Watt-
hours per day which must be delivered to the appliances.

- Calculate total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules.

Multiply the total appliances Watt-hours per day times 1.5 (the energy
lost in the system) to get the total Watt-hours per day which must be
provided by the panels.

Size the PV modules

Different size of PV modules will produce different amount of power. To
find out the sizing of the PV module, the total peak watt produced needs.
The peak watt (Wp) produced depends on size of the PV module and climate
of site location. We have to consider panel generation factor which is
different in each site location. For Thailand, the panel generation factor is
3.43. To determine the sizing of PV modules, calculate as follows:

- Calculate the total Watt-peak rating needed for PV modules

Divide the total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules by
3.43 to get the total Watt-peak rating needed for the PV panels needed
to operate the appliances.

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 - Calculate the number of PV panels for the system
Divide the answer obtained by the rated output Watt-peak of the PV
modules available to you. Increase any fractional part of result to the
next highest full number and that will be the number of PV modules
required.

Result of the calculation is the minimum number of PV panels. If more PV

modules are installed, the system will perform better and battery life will be
improved. If fewer PV modules are used, the system may not work at all
during cloudy periods and battery life will be shortened

Inverter sizing
An inverter is used in the system where AC power output is needed. The
input rating of the inverter should never be lower than the total watt of
appliances. The inverter must have the same nominal voltage as your
battery.
For stand-alone systems, the inverter must be large enough to handle the
total amount of Watts you will be using at one time. The inverter size should
be 25-30% bigger than total Watts of appliances. In case of appliance type is
motor or compressor then inverter size should be minimum 3 times the
capacity of those appliances and must be added to the inverter capacity to
handle surge current during starting.
For grid tie systems or grid connected systems, the input rating of the
inverter should be same as PV array rating to allow for safe and efficient
operation.

Battery sizing
The battery type recommended for using in solar PV system is deep cycle
battery. Deep cycle battery is specifically designed for to be discharged to
low energy level and rapid recharged or cycle charged and discharged day
after day for years. The battery should be large enough to store sufficient
energy to operate the appliances at night and cloudy days. To find out the
size of battery, calculate as follows:

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 - Calculate total Watt-hours per day used by appliances
- Divide the total Watt-hours per day used by 0.85 for battery loss
- Divide the answer obtained by 0.6 for depth of discharge.
- Divide the answer obtained by the nominal battery voltage.
- Multiply the answer obtained with days of autonomy (the number of
days that you need the system to operate when there is no power
produced by PV panels) to get the required Ampere-hour capacity of
deep-cycle battery.

Battery Capacity (Ah) = Total Watt-hours per day used by appliances x

Days of autonomy / (0.85 x 0.6 x nominal battery voltage)

Solar charge controller sizing

The solar charge controller is typically rated against Amperage and Voltage
capacities. Select the solar charge controller to match the voltage of PV
array and batteries and then identify which type of solar charge controller is
right for your application. Make sure that solar charge controller has enough
capacity to handle the current from PV array.
For the series charge controller type, the sizing of controller depends on the
total PV input current which is delivered to the controller and also depends
on PV panel configuration (series or parallel configuration).
According to standard practice, the sizing of solar charge controller is to take
the short circuit current (Isc) of the PV array, and multiply it by 1.3
Solar charge controller rating = Total short circuit current of PV array x 1.3

2.6.7 SOLAR POWER INSTALLATION STEPS

j. Erect scaffolding to ensure safety during roof installation

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 k. Install Solar Panel Mounts tilted at about 10 to 45 degrees
l. Install Solar Panels
m. Wire the panels – either in parallel and series depending on
requirement
n. Install charge controller
o. Install Inverter
p. Connect charge controller to the battery and battery to the inverter
q. Connect inverter to consumer unit. You can also connect charge
controller directly to DC load.
r. Test installation

2.6.8 FAILURE ANALYSIS ON SOLAR PANELS

The performance of solar PV module is related with its output. The higher of PV
output, the better efficiency and hence better performance. The efficiency of cells
depends on several factors; its ability to capture incoming sunlight, to convey it to
electrons that have the right energy state. Energy efficiency factors must be
carefully considered while designing any solar PV systems. The major factors
affecting solar module PV system are:

i) Temperature: Module output reduces as temperature increases. Solar cells

perform better in cold rather than in hot climate and as things stand, panels are
rated at 25˚C which can be significantly different from the real outdoor situation.
For each degree rise in temperature above 25˚C the panel output decays by about
0.25% for amorphous cells and about 0.4-0.5% for crystalline cells.

ii) Shading: A shadow on even a small part of the panel can have a surprisingly
large effect on the output. The cells within a panel are normally all wired in series
and the shaded cells affect the current flow of the whole panel. But there can be
situations where it cannot be avoided, and thus the effects of partial shading should

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be considered while planning. If the affected panel is wired in series (in a string)
with other panels, then the output of all those panels will be affected by the partial
shading of one panel. In such a situation, an obvious solution is to avoid wiring
panels in series if possible.

iii) Dirt and Dust: Dirt and dust can accumulate on the solar module surface,
blocking some of the sunlight and reducing output.

iv) Solar spectrum: It influences the current generated by a solar cell is

influenced by the spectral distribution (spectrum) of sunshine. The solar spectral
effect can be empirically related to absolute air mass, resulting in the Air-Mass
(AM) function. This function is technology specific, depending on the spectral
response of the module, and also cite specific, depending on the site’s atmospheric
characteristics.

v) Solar angle of incidence: Photovoltaic modules have an angle of incidence

dependent optical behavior that can be measured and used to improve the analysis
of array performance. Like absolute air mass, solar angle-of-incidence is time-of-
day dependent. Its effect on the short-circuit current (Isc) of a photovoltaic module
result.

vi) Mismatch and wire loss: The maximum power output of the total PV array is
always less than the sum of the maximum output of the individual modules. This
difference is a result of slight inconsistencies in performance from one module to
the next and is called module mismatch and amounts to at least a 2% loss in system
power. Power is also lost to resistance in the system wiring. These losses should be
kept to a minimum but it is difficult to keep these losses below 3% for the system.

2.6.9 ADVANTAGES OF PV SYSTEM

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Photovoltaic systems can be an ideal solution for covering basic energy needs of
contemporary and next generation societies. PV systems can facilitate a sustainable
energy mix. There are numerous advantages of PV system, especially in
comparison with the conventional fossil fuels. The advantages of PV system are as
follows:

i) Cleanliness: PV systems use solar power, a renewable green energy source, to

generate electricity and thus they help reduce CO2

ii) Reliability: Moreover, PV systems, as any other renewable green energy

technology, avoid adverse effect to the atmosphere which is beneficial to the public
health and the environment. The life of PV systems is expected to 30 year and can
be installed in various regions and climate where exposure to the sun is optimal.
The system does not contain any mechanical and moving devices so requires
minimum maintenance. Only minor checking of cable connections and basic
regular cleaning of panel surface is adequate to keep it in operation for several
years.

iii) Safety: The PV systems require sunlight to operate. It does not require any
materials that can combust or explode when ignited, or remain toxic for several
years so makes PV system safer. However, some PV products use toxic materials
which can create an increased hazard in future.

iv) Reduced Operating Costs: PV systems do not require any fuel for run rather
require only sun light, which comes at no charge. Additionally, the minimum
maintenance is required so reduces maintenance costs. Hence overall running costs
of PV system is much less.

v) Silence: Unlike generator and other sources of power and its generating system,
PV makes no noise.

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vi) Modularity: The size and scope of PV system is not fixed. PV systems are
scalable and can be expanded at any time to increase the amount of power. The
growing trend towards inverter of modular design. Components are individually
replaceable in case of failure.

vii) Independence: Because PV systems can be used for remote and small power
generation plants, they are more decentralized and consistent power grid that is less
dependent on utility companies. They are also for distributed power generation.

2.6.10 LIMITATIONS OF PV SYSTEM

Although the advantages of PV systems are becoming more apparent as society

develops, PV systems do possess limitations which should be considered. The
limitations of PV systems are discussed below:

I) High Initial Cost: The cost of PV systems is in operation is almost negligible

but it requires high initial investment cost than those of conventional power
sources. The PV system produces DC current and voltage so requires inverter and
other extra devices (e.g., synchronizer for Grid Tied PV system) for AC supplies
which increase the costs of installation of PV system.

ii) Efficiency: The efficiency of solar cell is improved and it is still in range of
14% to 40% which is much less than the other sources of power. Due to its
inefficiency, more solar power is required to operate same device.

iii) Manufacturing, Storage and Handling: After installation, PV system is

almost safe but their manufacturing, handling and storage comes with various
hazards. Potentially explosive gases like phosphine and diborane are used in

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making PV module. Thin-film technologies uses cadmium telluride and other
hazardous materials may create long term hazardous waste. PV system installer
also needs proper training in handling the components. The durability of proper
designed and installed PV systems often justifies and overweighs the associated
costs and risks.

iv) Require Large Area: The PV system installation requires large area for the
deployment. If installed on land the cause associated land use problems because it
is used for 25 years or longer. The large area exposure to light is not always
available on roof of the buildings to meet the required area of installation.

v) Need of Energy Storage Devices: Sunlight is not always available to power

the PV systems so requires energy storage device such as batteries to provide
consistent and reliable power supply. The batteries and other storage device
increase the cost.

vi) Inconsistent source of energy: Sun doesn’t always shine in day time. In
addition to this, geographic location, climate and other environmental conditions
affect the amount of exposure to any available sunlight. Thus, it creates
inconsistent source of energy.

vii) Lack of Awareness: The more technology and its knowledge, the more power
will receive society from sun in affordable and practical way. The lack of
knowledge slows the growth of alternative energy market as well as PV system.

2.6.11 ENVIRONMENT, HEALTH AND SAFETY ISSUE

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The cleaner energy as electricity can be available from the PV system without
affecting the environment and health because it doesn’t produce GHG gases and
toxic materials when under operation. PV system has many environmental
advantages for generation of electricity over other conventional sources. However,
if the lifecycle of PV system is considered then there are environmental, health and
safety hazards associated with the manufacture of solar cells and installation of PV
system.

The PV industry uses toxic chemicals in manufacturing process of the PV cells.

The hazards differ for different thin film technologies and deposition process. The
environmental issues are related to the generation of liquid- and solid-wastes
during wafer slicing, cleaning, and etching, and during processing and assembling
of solar cells. In thin-film technologies, Silane used in bulk quantities which may
facilities may pose hazards to the surrounding community if adequate separation
zones do not exist. PV modules will have to be decommissioned at the end of their
useful life, 20 to 30 years after their initial installation. In decommissioning these
devices, the principal concern will be associated with the presence many hazardous
chemicals.

The different health problems are associated with the toxic materials. In production
facilities, workers may be exposed to Cd compounds through the air they breathe,
as well as by ingestion from hand-to-mouth contact. Inhalation is probably the
most important pathway, because of the larger potential for exposure, and higher
absorption efficiency of Cd compounds through the lung than through the
gastrointestinal tract. Although elemental selenium has only a mild toxicity
associated with it, hydrogen selenide is highly toxic. It has an Immediately
Dangerous to Life and Health concentration of only 1 ppm. Potential public health
issues are related to the use of hydrogen selenide in facilities that use hydrogen

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selenide as a major feedstock material. Associated hazards can be minimized by
using safer alternatives, limiting inventories, using flow restricting valves and
other safety options.

The manufacture of photovoltaic modules uses some hazardous materials such as

Arsine, Cadmium compounds, Hydrogen selenide. These can present health and
safety hazards, if adequate precautions are not taken. Routine conditions in
manufacturing facilities should not pose any threats to health and the environment.

CHAPTER 3
PRACTICAL EXPERIENCE GAINED

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 5.0 INTRODUCTION

“Since we live in age of innovation, a practical education must prepare a man for work that
does not yet exist and cannot yet be defined clearly”
- Peter Drucker

It has always been believed that along with theoretical knowledge from textbooks,
practical knowledge is equally important. The theoretical knowledge gives an idea
of how things work, but when the students conduct experiments or laboratory
works on their own, they can easily understand the various aspects and points that
they discover during the performing the tasks or experiments. 
During the SWEP period, students performed practical in line with the theoretical
knowledge gained to further reinforce what we have learned. Students were
divided into three groups and each constructed Solar Panels.

3.0.1 REVIEW OF THE WORK DONE IN INSTALLATION OF

SOLAR PANEL INSTALLATION

MATERIALS USED:
- Silicon Photo-Voltaic cells
- Aluminium (Metal frame)
- Glass Sheet (Tempered glass)
- Tabbing wire
- Bus wire
- Junction box
- Back sheet (Acco Board)
- Silicon Sealant
- Flux Pen

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 3.0.1.1 DESIGN CALCULATIONS

DIMENSIONING
o Photovoltaic cells (125mm x 125mm)
o Cell spacing (30mm)
o A margin from the left and right edges (50mm)
o A margin from the top and bottom edges (45mm and 55mm)
So, the dimensioning of the panel would be;
- Glass Sheet – 1320mm by 670mm
- Back sheet – 1320 mm by 670mm
- Aluminium frame – 1400mm by 750mm

CALCULATIONS
Solar Panel Array →8 X 4 cells
Voltage to be produced → 8 X 4 cells
Total of 32 cells where each cell produces a voltage of 0.5V
Therefore, 32 * 0.5 = 16V

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 3.0.1.2 SOLAR PANEL COST BREAKDOWN
ACCO BOARD – NGN 4,500.00
PHOTO-VOLTAIC CELLS – NGN 2,000.00 (per cell).
ALUMINUM (For the framing) – NGN 3,500.00
TABBING WIRE – NGN 5,000.00
SILICON SEALANT – NGN 1,000.00 to NGN 2,000.00 (per tube)

3.0.1.2 PROCEDURES TAKEN

 Phase 1: Cutting the Glass
 Purchased a piece of tempered glass. It was cut to fit the desired
measurements required for the project (i.e.,1320mm X 670mm). We
made sure that we used tempered glass and not ordinary glass, as glass
is prone to breaking or chipping.
 Once the glass was cut, it was then cleaned and mounted on the
worktable.

 Phase 2: Preparing the Cells.

 Observing the cells, there are a number of faded-like lines going in
one direction (long distance) and in the other direction there are five
lines moving in the other direction (short direction). We are making
use the lines moving in the short direction. With the use of our tabbing
wires, we set the tabbing wires across two PV (Photo-Voltaic) cells
leaving about 3mm space between them and the measurement was
taken. Using that same measurement, we cut strips of tabbing wires
(three for each cell) of the measured length. Enough strips of tabbing
wire were cut.

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 Using the flux pen, we ran down 3 lines on each of the cells (since
there were three lines, we made use of the first, middle and last line).
We also did this on the back of the cells too. This is to keep the heat
of the soldering iron from causing oxidation.

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 Fig 3.0.1
 Making use of our soldering iron, we soldered the tabbing wires (the
strips we cut earlier) to the PV cells along the lines we’ve drawn with
our flux pen on the negative face (Blue-coloured side). We
successfully soldered the required amount if cells needed.

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 Fig 3.0.2
 Phase 3: Connecting & Arranging the Cells
 Now our PV cells have been tabbed. From our design plans, our Solar
Panel is array is 8 X 4 cells. So, to begin our first row, we took a
tabbed cell and placed it at our starting point.

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98
 Starting Point

Fig 3.0.3

 With our glass sheet placed down on the worktable we placed our first
tabbed cell from our starting point. We gave spacing above and to the
side (edges of the board for the frame).

Fig 3.0.4

 Placing the cells (blue side faced down) on the glass sheet and
applying the flux to the length of the thick lines on each, we then took

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 the free sections of the tabbing wire and soldered them together to the
entire length of the pads.

NB: The tabbing wire connected to the back of one cell should be
connected to the front of the next cell in every case.

 At the beginning of the first row, we soldered the tabbing wire to the
front of the first cell. The tabbing wire should be about an inch (2.5
cm) longer than needed to cover the lines, and should extend towards
the extra gap on the board. We soldered those two wires together with
a piece of bus wire that’s the same size as the distance between the
thick lines of the cell.
 We connected the end of the first row to the beginning of the second
row with a long piece of bus wire that extends between the edge of the
panel and the wire that’s the furthest away in the next row. We
prepared the first cell of the second row with an extra tabbing wire, as
we did with the first. We connected all four wires to the bus wire.
 We continued connecting the rows with the long bus wires until we
reached the end, where we connected it with a short bus wire again.

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 Fig 3.0.5
 We then took a positive
(red) wire and a
negative (black) wire
and soldered them to
both the positive and
negative terminals
successfully (This
would be used to form
our junction box).
 We made use of cello-
tape to provide more
rigidity to the
connections.

 Phase 4: The Acco Board

 Using the same measurements as we did with the glass sheet
(1320mm X 670mm), we cut the Acco board to this precise
measurement.

101
 Fig 3.0.6

 Then we made holes into the Acco board to allow passage of the
wires through it to be able to form our junction box.
 On the top, we placed the Acco board and made use of cello-tape to
provide a firmer arrangement.

 Phase 5: Framing
 For our project the desired measurements of the frame 1400mm X
75mm with 50mm depth and chamfered at the edges by 45o.
 We used a hacksaw to cut pieces of aluminium to get the four edges
needed for the framing of the panel.

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 Fig 3.0.7

 We then attached the aluminium to the panel using a drill to bore into
the sides of the aluminium and then used deck screws to fasten them.

 Phase 6: Setting up the Junction Box

 With both wires (Positive & Negative) passing through the panel to
the outside of the Acco board. We attached a plastic box on the back
of the panel and then passed the wires through the box.
 We used silicon sealant to further provide a very firm panel and too
also prevent water from getting into the panel.

Fig 3.0.8

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 3.0.1.3 SUMMARY RESULTS
With the successful completion of the solar panel, it was time to test the efficiency
of the solar panel. From our design calculations our solar panel should be capable
of providing up to 16V of dc voltage. So, we took the panel outside on a sunny
afternoon and took readings of the voltage and current generated by the panel. It
was mounted at 10o. Readings were taken every 5 minutes for 50 minutes. The
readings are shown below;
Time Voltage (V) Current (A)
1:00 PM 17.18 3.70
1:05 PM 16.96 3.07
1:10 PM 17.00 4.08
1:15 PM 16.75 2.46
1:20 PM 16.67 1.96
1:25 PM 8.62 1.96
1:30 PM 8.64 1.82
1:35 PM 8.62 1.85
1:40 PM 9.11 1.68
1:45 PM 8.67 1.60
1:50 PM 8.62 1.42

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 Fig 3.0.1
From the table, we can observe that the solar panel produced readings as up to
17.18 volts with a current of 3.70 amperes. The readings reduced as the time went
on due to the drop in sunlight coming from the sun. Therefore, the Solar panel is
capable of charging a 12V battery.

CHAPTER 4
CONCLUSION

6.0 CONCLUSION
The student experience work program has helped me apply my theoretical
knowledge to real practical situations. It opened my eyes to the various
expectations from the engineer by the society. I also learnt some of the challenges
facing the profession from experience. I learnt that safety is key in the profession.
The five weeks spent has provided the opportunity to master practical skills in
solar panel design and installations.

105
Student Work Experience program (SWEP) has proven to be very impactful in the
lives of every participating student and to that end, continuity in this program
would advance the level of exposure and technical knowledge of the students.

106
 7.0 RECCOMENDATIONS
The student Work Experience programme can be further improved by increasing
the amount of practical’s done and increasing the student involvement to let
students have a vast understanding of the practical world of engineering.

8.0 REFRENCES
 https://www.wikipedia.org/
 https://www.dhs.gov/
 https://www.wikihow.com/Build-a-Solar-Panel

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