Which Electoral system is best for the representation of women and ethno-national

minorities? Why?
Student ID: 2103036

Introduction

To endorse an electoral system that can best represent the electorates represents a desideratum for

every electoral democracy. Therefore, in conjunction with the emergence of newer democracies

which has raised awareness concerning the significance of creating a stable politics that can address

the needs of various groups, electoral-system design is increasingly recognised as the key lever that

can be used to improve the political accommodation of women and offer stability in an ethnically

divided society (Canon, 1999). This essay will therefore argue in favour of the conventional

wisdom which posits that the proportional representation (PR) system is a better electoral system to

catalyse the representation of women and ethno-national minorities, albeit it is important to

recognise that women will perform better in closed-list PR system against the backdrop of gender

inequality, while whether PR is the best for the representation of ethno-national minorities will

depend on their spatial distribution and level of assimilation. This essay will first define the

different forms of electoral systems and representations before pitting the PR system against the

majoritarian system to highlight the theoretical benefits of the PR system in empowering both

women and ethno-national minorities. This essay will then scrutinise the effectiveness of the PR

system by considering its application in different social contexts. Lastly, the essay will conclude

that the adoption of a PR electoral system will contribute to the advancement of women’s political

participation, while a proportional representative system will not always be advantageous for ethnic

minority groups.

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 Which Electoral system is best for the representation of women and ethno-national
minorities? Why?
Student ID: 2103036

Conceptualising different forms of electoral system and representation

The key difference between proportional representative and majoritarian electoral systems lies in

the district magnitude, that is the number of seats per constituency (Salmond, 2006). In a

majoritarian system – first-past-the-post, alternative vote – where only one member is elected

(single-member district, SMD), the district magnitude will be one; therefore, a majoritarian system

would require the candidate to either win a plurality or absolute majority (Norris, 1997). In the case

of a plurality election (first-past-the-post), the candidates neither have to pass a minimum threshold

of votes nor do they require an absolute majority to be elected; in fact, one or more votes than their

closest rival will guarantee their electoral victory (Norris, 1997). Consequently, the majoritarian

system produces an effective working parliamentary majority at the expense of penalising those at

the bottom of the poll - often the minority party (Cannon, 1999; Norris, 1997). Alternatively, under

any proportional system, the total number of seats in a constituency received by each party is

proportional to the share of the popular votes it received (Norris, 1997; Gallagher, Mitchell, 2005).

Therefore, they may provide a more efficient voice for the marginalised social groups in a majority

rule political system (Canon, 1999). Overall, electoral rules are not neutral when determining how

votes are translated into seats, thus the distinction implies that some groups, parties, and

representatives will be ruled into the policy-making process, while some are ruled out (Norris,

1997).

The utilisation of different electoral systems will also influence both descriptive and substantive

representation of women and ethno-national minorities. The former refers to the extent to which the

representatives resemble those being represented (Suzanne, 2018). Indeed, prejudices in the process

of candidate selection and gender norms in contemporary society served as barriers to effective

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 Which Electoral system is best for the representation of women and ethno-national
minorities? Why?
Student ID: 2103036

descriptive representation of women and ethno-national minorities where they are less likely to be

chosen as suitable candidates (Maguire, 2018). The latter, however, is an active form of

representation that is mainly concerned with the activity of the representatives - that is the actions

taken in the interest of the represented (Suzanne, 2018). The ideal electoral system should,

therefore, be one that is capable of helping women break through their glass ceiling within

legislatures and one that serve to include rather than assimilate the voices of the ethnic minorities;

these will therefore improve substantial representation.

Proportional Representation System in promoting descriptive representation

The PR system can better enhance the representation of ethno-national minorities and women to

achieve higher legislative representation than is possible under the plurality system due to the

different incentives they create for candidate selection (Sawer, 2022). Given that the party-list

system permits a broader range of candidates to be nominated, there are more opportunities for

social engineering through ticket balancing (Salmond, 2006). Indeed, the greater visibility of the

whole slate of candidates meant that political parties are incentivised to produce a “balanced ticket”

that reflects the broad spectrum of voters to maximise their appeal (Bird, 2004); in fact, the absence

of a small number of women on a national electoral list could be a negative factor for some of the

electorate (European parliament, 1997). This is also true for the representation of ethno-national

minorities as political parties attempt to capture ethnic voting blocs since even a small increase in a

party’s vote share could mean more legislative seats in the proportional system (Moser, 2008). In

contrast, the slate of candidates cannot be balanced by gender and race within a single-member

district as only one candidate can be elected; she is either a woman or he is not, he or she is either a

minority or he or she isn’t (Salmond, 2006). Therefore, balancing acts becomes easier as district

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 Which Electoral system is best for the representation of women and ethno-national
minorities? Why?
Student ID: 2103036

magnitude increases since the demands for representation of women, rural communities, and ethnic

groups are less likely to be in opposition to each other (Salmond, 2006).

The fact that only one candidate is elected in a pluralist election also meant that a heavier emphasis

is placed on an individual’s characteristics than on the parties; the candidate’s sex and ethnicity

could therefore play an important role under proportional arrangements (Profeta, Woodhouse 2022).

Indeed, Reynold (1999, 555) argues that party leaders are more inclined to nominate lowest-

common-denominator candidates with the broadest appeal, experience, or voter base within a

pluralist election and such candidates are rarely women or ethnic minorities since they are perceived

as less likely to be elected due pre-existing gender stereotypes within the political arena. Therefore,

the endorsement of the proportional representative system implies that the selection of candidates

for the parties will also depend on other factors in addition to a candidate’s personal appeal

(European parliament, 1997). Scholars also argue that the larger district magnitude incentivises

political parties to pull from deeper in their lists, hence it is not surprising that women and

minorities will do better in a PR system where there are more seats to be filled per constituency due

to larger district magnitudes (Profeta, Woodhouse 2022).

Overall, the PR system allows existing prejudice and discrimination to be overcome by

incentivising “balancing” when political parties are constructing the party lists. Similarly, it alters

the voters’ criteria when selecting a candidate to increase the opportunities for women and ethno-

national minorities hence promoting descriptive representation. Evidently, countries such as

Sweden, Norway, Finland, Denmark, and the Netherlands with 30% or more female

parliamentarians in their single or lower house are either PR or mixed electoral systems with none

having a majoritarian system (European parliament, 1997). Barker and Coffé (2017) also argue that

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 Which Electoral system is best for the representation of women and ethno-national
minorities? Why?
Student ID: 2103036

New Zealand’s mixed-member proportional representation has led to a greater level of descriptive

representation for the Pasifika and Māori.

Proportional Representation System in promoting substantive representation

A proportional representative system is also recognised for its essentiality in promoting substantive

representation through multipartyism (Profeta, Woodhouse, 2022; Norris, 1997). Indeed, a larger

district magnitude is associated with higher numbers of parties in the political system that seek to

represent and act in the interest of women and ethno-national minorities (Salmond, 2006). Minor

parties rarely garner sufficient votes within a majoritarian system to elect their own representative,

thus they are often excluded from the legislative bodies and are under-represented; conversely, the

PR system assures a fair representation for both majorities and minorities where they are allowed to

influence policy outcomes (Amy, 1995). Such is epitomised by the case of Israel’s election in

2006, where seven parties representing specific ethnic constituencies out of a total of twelve parties

won seats in the election to the Knesset (Moser, 2008). Similarly, the inclusion of smaller and

newer parties in legislatures such as the Green or Women Equality Party in the UK where women

play a relatively significant role also contributes to the substantive representation of women (Moser,

2008).

The diversification in the composition of the parliament due to the PR system is also associated

with the broadening of political dialogues within the legislature as women and ethno-national

minorities contribute their perspectives on issues like unemployment, welfare reform, and

affirmative action (Amy, 1995). Indeed, the arrangement of PR ensures that one party rarely has

the majority in a multi-party system, hence a party will need the votes of the minority party to pass

legislation; conversely, the minority party could withhold its support until it was given real

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 Which Electoral system is best for the representation of women and ethno-national
minorities? Why?
Student ID: 2103036

concessions on issues that could benefit either women or ethno-national minorities (Amy, 1995).

The proportional representative system, therefore, moves away from the arbitrary rule of one party

and incentivises legislative coalition between parties in parliament to encourage greater substantive

representation for women and ethno-national minorities specifically in policy decisions that

influence the welfare of these marginalised social groups.

Multipartyism produced by the PR system also gives rise to the contagion effect which could steer

political transformation and policy direction in favour of women and ethno-national minorities.

Policy contagion refers to the phenomenon whereby the insecurity of the party in power coupled

with the policy distinctiveness of the opposition, results in the former striving to emulate the policy

position of the latter as a means to maintain its position of power while undermining its opposition’s

appeal (Chandler, 1977). Indeed, the inclusion of small liberal-left parties that make gender

egalitarianism a point of difference between themselves and other parties is likely to aid the

contagion effect (Chandler, 2009). Another form of “contagion effect” is evidenced by the short-

lived women’s parties that emerged in many countries at the height of feminist mobilisation; these

parties –such as the Iceland women’s list that won seats in the national parliament in 1983– serve

to galvanise other political parties into running more women candidates to diminish their appeals

(Sawer, 2010). Similarly, if one party selects an ethnic minority candidate in a constituency with a

concentrated ethnic population, other parties will also be pressured into naming ethnic candidates as

well (Moser, 2008). As a consequence, substantive representation of women and ethno-national

minorities is improved.

Overall, the PR system will empower women and ethno-national minorities who are presently

alienated by their lack of meaningful political power to work within the political process by

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 Which Electoral system is best for the representation of women and ethno-national
minorities? Why?
Student ID: 2103036

encouraging multipartyism, genuine coalition, and healthy competition between parties (Norris,

1997). Such led to the genuine substantive representation, where opportunities to overcome

women’s glass ceiling are provided, while a diverse array of political interests and voices within the

legislature are synthesised.

Not all proportional representative systems are equal in terms of women’s representation

Despite proportional electoral systems are generally more favourable to women’s political

representation than single-member or majoritarian systems, some forms of PR systems are more

favourable than others (Sawer, 2010). Indeed, the PR system can be further divided into a closed

party list system and an open party-list system. The former implies that voters can only select the

party, while the ranking of the candidates is determined by the political party; the latter, however,

allows voters to express their preferences for a particular candidate within the list (Norris, 1997).

On one hand, an open list is preferable as voters can express a preference in favour of women

candidates hence moving them higher onto the list, while simultaneously preventing a party from

restraining women’s participation by positioning them low on the list (Norris, 1997). Nevertheless,

such may not be the case as Lopvenduski and Norris (1993) argued that the cultural context can

strongly influence the opportunities for women in elections. Indeed, patriarchal values and gender

norms have often confined women to the “private sphere” of family and child care; therefore it

remains difficult for women to penetrate the public sphere, especially when the voters harbour anti-

female biases due to their lack of exposure to female politicians (Sawer, 2010). Evidently, more

women were elected in some majoritarian systems like Canada than in other countries with PR

systems like Israel (Norris, 1997). Additionally, the rise in issues revolving around national

security and military crisis has served to reinforce the citizen’s preference for “masculine” traits and

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 Which Electoral system is best for the representation of women and ethno-national
minorities? Why?
Student ID: 2103036

their beliefs that men are more qualified to handle military crises while women are better at tackling

issues revolving around poverty and children (Lawless, 2004). Such is the case for the US in the

post-September 11th era wherein the political climate dominated by foreign policy and military

concerns significantly reduced the women candidates’ electoral viability for high-level office

(Lawless, 2004).

Therefore, it is possible to conclude that the close party system is the most positive for the

representation of women against the backdrop of gender stereotyping that continues to exist within

the political arena, albeit the argument that an open list proportional representation system is

relatively democratic and legitimate.

Is the proportional representative system the best in representing ethno-national minorities

The efficiency of the PR system in facilitating the representation of ethno-national minorities is

determined by the minority’s level of assimilation and spatial distribution (Moser, 2008) Ethno-

national minorities that are geographically concentrated and less assimilated rely primarily upon

coethnic voters for electoral victory, hence they tend to perform better in single-member districts

where the absolute threshold for gaining a single seat in the legislature is relatively lower (Moser,

2008); such is especially true when their geographic concentration coincides with the constituency

boundaries (Bird, 2004). Indeed, a major cause of African Americans’ and Latinos’

underrepresentation in the US’s state legislative could be attributed to their dispersed population

(Norris, 1997). In contrast, ethno-national minorities that are large, geographically dispersed, and

less assimilated will achieve higher levels of legislative representation in a proportional

representation than in the majoritarian system as they are capable of either marshalling the support

of a significant voting bloc on a national scale or sustaining a viable ethnic party (Bird, 2004). This

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 Which Electoral system is best for the representation of women and ethno-national
minorities? Why?
Student ID: 2103036

makes them attractive candidates for multi- and nonethnic parties (Moser, 2008). Interestingly, a

high level of assimilation will diminish the impact of the electoral systems on minority

representation by lessening the perceived differences between the assimilated minority and the

majority population (Moser, 2008).

Therefore, the endorsement of a PR system may increase the likelihood that ethnic parties will

emerge but it provides no guarantee (Moser, 2008). A geographically concentrated group of ethno-

minorities will have greater opportunities for representation through SMD elections, while ethnic

minorities that are highly assimilated will experience little difference between SMD or PR systems.

Conclusion

The choice of electoral systems reflects an attempt at constitutional engineering designed to achieve

certain objectives (Norris, 1997). While there is a consensus in the literature on the political

representation that countries applying a PR system are associated with a higher number of women

in their national parliament than those with majoritarian rules (Profeta, Woodhouse, 2022), it is

important to recognise that the political opportunities and constraints for women are structured

largely by macro-level factors – electoral system and cultural beliefs (Bird, 2004). The

opportunities and constraints for ethnic minorities however are shaped by a combination of micro-

level – assimilation, and spatial concentration of ethnic population – and macro-level factors (Bird,

2004). These micro-level factors tend to be more important than macro-level factors in impacting

the political representation of ethno-national minorities (Bird, 2004). Therefore, advocates of

greater women's representation are right to pursue an electoral system of proportional

representation; proponents of greater ethno-national representation however will have to choose

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 Which Electoral system is best for the representation of women and ethno-national
minorities? Why?
Student ID: 2103036

between either proportional representation or a majoritarian system depending on the social context

of the country.

Bibliography

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minorities? Why?
Student ID: 2103036

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