UK France
Geography/Demographics Island state; UK consists of England, Scotland,
Northern Ireland & Wales
State formation Evoluntionary development: Magna Carta (1215)
—> first constitution, Treaty of Union (1707) —>
Scotland & England are unified
Political system Parliamentary majoritarianism, constitutional
monarchy, unitary state
Constitution No codified constitution: parliament has ultimate
sovereignty
Executive Prime minister & cabinet (remain MPs): depend
on majority in parliament
Legislature Strong, Asymmetric bicameralism: House of
Commons (650 MPs) + House of Lords (800
MPs —> life peers & hereditary peers)
Judiciary Common law, UK supreme court established in
2009 (consist of Lords, serving until retirement)
Electoral System Plurality system: SMD, 650 constituencies, vote
for parliament —> forms government
Party system Two-party (Or 2,5 parties) system:
Conservatives vs. Labour (+Liberal Democrats,
regional parties (SNP) & Green Party)
Incumbents/Dominant party Boris Johnson (2019): Part of Conservatives
Cleavages Class is central cleavage, religion in NI
(Protestants vs. Catholics), region (England vs.
rest, BREXIT!)
Germany
Continental country (border with Germany!)
Struggle between different regimes since French
Revolution (1789): 5th republic (1958)
Semi-presidentialism, unitary state
Charles de Gaulle in 1958: codified constitution
French President (head of military, referenda,
sign laws, dissolve legislature, but no veto) +
Prime Minister (domestic legislation)
Strong, Asymmetric Bicameralism: Assemblée
nationale (577, cannot bring down president) +
Senate (348 MPs representing regions)
Codified law, Constitutional council (9 members
for 9 years)
President: every 5 years, 2 round system;
Legislature: SMD, 2 round system (12.5% of
vote for 2nd round)
2 block system collapsed in 1990s due to
transnational cleavage: 4 block system with 2
axes (conservative vs. culturally liberal; pro-
globalization vs. anti-globalization); Gaullist,
Parti Socialiste, Front National, En Marche!
Enmanuel Macron (2017): founder of En Marche!
Religion is central cleavage (degree of
secularism, Muslim identity), class plays
secondary role, NEW: transnational cleavage
Center of Europe, 80 million inhabitants
Founded 1871, Third Reich (1933-1945), East &
West Germany (1949-1990), fall of Berlin Wall
1989
Militant democracy, symmetric federalism,
parliamentary system
Grundgesetz (1949): some parts cannot be
changed
Ceremonial Bundespräsident (Head of State) +
Bundeskanzler (Head of Government) —>
depends on parliamentary majority
Symmetric Bicameralism: Bundestag (at least
598 MPs, currently 709) + Bundesrand (69 MPs,
3-5 for each Bundesland)
Basic law stands above all,
Bundesverfassungsgericht (guardian of basic
law, 16 judges for 12 years)
Multi-member Plurality: Erststimme (299 direct
mandates (SMD) + Zweitstimme (compensatory
seasts with list PR)
Multi-party with SPD and CDU as dominant
parties (+FDP, Bündnis 90/Die Grünen, Die
Linke, AfD (🤢 ))
Angela Merkel (2005) for CDU/CSU
Religion and class still dominate (Ruhr
steelworker vs. Bavarian catholic), regional
cleavage since reunification
 USA Russia China

Geography/Demographics 3rd largest territory, 320 million citizens Largest territory worldwide, natural resources Ancient state, most populous country worldwide
(gas)

State formation Independence from Britain (1783), Constitutional Former SU (1922-1991), gradual opening, failed Civil war between KMT & CCP (1927-1937,
Convention (1787), Bill of Rights (1789-1791) coup d’etat, rapid economic and political 1945-1949), then People’s Republic of China
opening (Yeltsin) (1949)

Political system Presidential system, competitive federalism, Authoritarian state (?), semi-presidential system, Communist party authoritarian regime, unitary
majoritarian & liberal elements asymmetric federalism (limited since 2000) state

Constitution Since 1787 —> oldest constitution worldwide Constitutional crisis (1993) —> strong president Vests formal power in party & state executive

Executive President (max. 2x 4-year terms, controls Strong resident (6 years, no term limits) appoints General secretary of CCP = President of PRC
military, veto powers, appoints cabinet, prime minister; Putin most powerful figure (Head of state, titular office) + Politburo
impeachment) (standing committee) = state council (standing
committee)

Legislature Bicameralism: Congress (435 MPs for 2 years) + Weak, asymmetric bicameralism: Duma (450 Unicameralism, National People’s Congress
Senate (100 members, 2 per state) MPs, 5-year terms) + Federation Council (170 (3000 MPs, 5-year terms): only convenes 1x per
members from regions) year for 2 weeks

Judiciary Common law, Supreme court (8 judges + chief Constitutional court (19 members), formally Supreme People’s Court (nominal authority
justice, appointed for life) —> constitutionality of judicial review, but does no challenge Putin in only), rule by law (not rule of law), criminal code
laws practice
only since 1978
2020 referendum: Federation Council can
remove judges

Electoral System Separate elections for president & legislature, President: 2 round system (majority)
People’s Congress elected by provincial
Plurality system (except for Maine & Nebraska), Duma: Since 2016, Mixed Member Majoritarian people’s assembly, nomenklatura system
electoral college (2 votes: district + national)

Party system 2 party system: Democrats vs. Republicans Dominant party (basis for Putin) + systemic One-party state, parallel institutions, controls
opposition + restricted anti-systemic opposition civil society

Incumbents/Dominant party Donald Trump (2016): Republicans Vladimir Putin (2001): United Russia Xi Jinping (2013)

Cleavages Religion (New Christian Right since 1980s), Cannot be expressed, but ethnic (Muslim Cannot be expressed, but rising inequality,
class unimportant (American Dream), racial minority), regional and class tensions persist religion (Falun Gong), concentration camps in
cleavage! Tibet & Xinjiang
 Brazil South Africa Iran

Geography/Demographics Largest territory in Latin America, Amazon Rainbow nation (?), 11 official languages, gold & 80 million citizens, vast oil & gas reserves
rainforest, 200 million citizens diamonds

State formation Non-violent revolutions, military regime until Apartheid (1948-1994), interim constitution Pahlavi Dynasty (1925-1979), Islamic Revolution
(1964-1985), Third Wave of Democracy (1993), first democratic elections (1994) (1979), referendum on March 30

Political system Presidential system, symmetric federalism Mixed Republican system (parliamentary with Semi-presidential theocracy, unitary state
string executive), unitary state

Constitution Militant democracy —> rigid constitution (1988) Emphasis on minority rights & affirmative action, Product of revolution, based on Koran —>
militant democracy, adopted 1996 Sharia law, republican elements

Executive President (max 2x 4-year term): appoints President (Head of state & government, The supreme leader (for life, selected by
cabinet, initiates 80% of legislation, never has depends on parliamentary majority): stronger assembly of experts) —> can impeach president
majority in parliament (coalitional than typical prime minister (2x 4-year terms): day-to-day caretaker
presidentialism)

Legislature Symmetric bicameralism: Chamber of deputies Asymmetric bicameralism: National Assembly Majlis (290 MPs, 4-year terms, candidates) have
(513 MPs, 4-year terms) + Federal Senate (81 (400 MPs, 5-year terms, 2/3 majority override to be approved by Guardian Council: limited
MPs, 8-year terms, 3 senators per state) decisions of Upper House) + National Council of powers, conflicts with president
Provinces (90 MPs, 10 per province)

Judiciary Supreme federal court (11 judges, not longer Constitutional Court (11 members, 12-year Supreme Court (Chief justice + clerics): Sharia
than 30 years, max. age 75): judicial review + terms): most independent in Africa, very law, often different interpretations —>
corruption scandals powerful dysfunctional

Electoral System President: two-round system

List PR: vote for party not MP, strong ties to President: Two-round system, approval by
Chamber of Deputies: Open list PR, no party and weak ties to constituencies Guardian Council

threshold
Majlis: Mixed single- and multi-member
Federal Senate: SMD/FPTP, staggered elections districts: (a) more than 25% = winner, (b) vote
for each seat

Party system Multi-party system (26 parties in parliament), Dominant party system: ANC (+ Democratic Only loose coalitions of parties & politicians, but
clientelism and porkbarrel politics rather than Alliance, EFF, Inkatha Freedom Party) 2 factions (conservatives/principlists vs.
party discipline reformists)

Incumbents/Dominant party Jair Bolsonaro (2018): Alliance for Brazil Ramaphosa (2017): ANC Supreme leader: Khamenei (1989)

President: Rouhani (2013)

Cleavages Regional cleavage most important (overlaps Race & language (education), race & class Ethnic/regional cleavage (Azeri, Kurdish,
with class & race), clientelism more important (highest Gini coefficient worldwide, white Baluchs)
than ideology population owns land)