Data Link Layer Fundamentals

© 2004 - iPMAC Informatics Technology J.S.C

Cisco Icons and Symbols

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Overview

ƒ Different Layer 2 features

ƒ Ethernet and the LAN standards today.
ƒ Operation of hubs and switchs.
ƒ Ethernet family and its Future

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Typical LAN Features for OSI Layer 1

ƒ The physical layer defines the standards used to send and

receive bits across a physical network.
ƒ The physical layer defines the details of cabling:
ƒ The maximum length allowed for each type of cable.
ƒ The number of wires inside the cable.
ƒ The shape of the connector on the end of the cable…
ƒ Most cable include several conductors (wires) inside the
cable.
ƒ The endpoint of these wires are called pins, which end
inside the connector.
ƒ The physical layer also must define the purpose of each
pin.
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CAT5 Cable with RJ-45 Connector

ƒ RJ-45 is a typical connector used with Ethernet cabling today.

ƒ One pair of wires is used for transmitting data, using pins 1 and
2.
ƒ One pair of wires is used for receiving data, using pins 3 and
pins 6.

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Typical LAN Features for OSI Layer 2

ƒ The data link layer defines the standards and protocols used to
control the transmission of data across a physical network.
ƒ Each data link protocol “controls” a particular type of physical
layer network, the details of how a data link protocol functions
must include some consideration of the physical network.
ƒ Most of data link protocols perform the following functions:
ƒ Arbitration
ƒ Addressing
ƒ Error detection
ƒ Identification of the encapsulated data

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Data Link Function 1: Arbitration

ƒ With some type of physical networks, data frames can

collide if devices can send any time they want.
ƒ When frames collide in a LAN, the data in each frame is
corrupted and the LAN is unusable for a brief moment.
ƒ The specifications for these data-link protocols define how
to arbitrate the use of the physical medium to avoid
collisions, ar at least to recover from the colisions when
they occur.
ƒ Ethernet uses the carrier sense multiple access with
collision detection (CSMA/CD) algorithm for arbitration.

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Data Link Function 2: Addressing

ƒ Many physical networks allow more than two devices

attached to the same physical network.
ƒ Data-link protocols define addresses to make sure that the
correct device listens and receives the data that is sent.
ƒ By putting the correct address in the data-link header, the
sender of the frame can be relatively sure that the correct
receiver will get the data.
ƒ Each data-link protocol defines its own unique addressing
structure
ƒ Ethernet uses Media Access Control (MAC).
ƒ Frame Relay uses data-link connection identifier (DLCI).

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Data Link Function 3: Error Detection

ƒ Error detection discovers whether bit errors occurred

during the transmission of the frame.
ƒ Most data-link protocols include a frame check sequence
(FCS) or cyclical redundancy check (CRC) field in the data-
link trailer.
ƒ This field contains a value that is the result of a
mathematical formula applied to the data in the frame.
ƒ If the FCS sent by the sender matches the FCS calculated
by the receiver, the frame did not have any errors.
ƒ Error detection does not imply recovery.
ƒ The FCS allows the receiving device to notice that errors
accurred and then discard the data frame.
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Data Link Function 4: Identifying the Encapsulated Data

ƒ This function identifies the contents of the Data field in

the frame.
ƒ Each data-link header has a Type field to identify the type
of protocol that sits inside the frame’s data field.
ƒ IEEE Ethernet 802.2 Logical Link Control (LLC) uses a field
in its header to identify the type of data in the Data field.

Coming up … Ethernet Standard

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Early Ethernet Standards

ƒ In this section, you learn about the three earliest

types of Ethernet networks.
ƒ The term Ethernet refers to a family of protocols and
standards that together define the physical and data
link layers of LAN.
ƒ There are many variations of Ethernet
ƒ More popular: 10BASET, Fast Ethernet, Giganet
ƒ Older types: 10BASE2, 10BASE5

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Ethernet Standards Overview

ƒ Xerox needed an effective way to allow a new invention, called

the personal computer, to be connected in its offices.
ƒ Xerox teamed with Intel and Digital Equipment Corp. (DEC) to
further develop Ethernet.
ƒ The original Ethernet became known as DIX Ethernet, meaning
DEC, Intel, and Xerox.
ƒ The IEEE created a standardized version of Ethernet base on
the work performed by DEC, Intel, and Xerox.

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Introduction to Ethernet

ƒ Most of the traffic on the Internet originates and

ends with Ethernet connections.
ƒ The success of Ethernet is due to the following
factors:
ƒ Simplicity and ease of maintenance
ƒ Ability to incorporate new technologies
ƒ Reliability
ƒ Low cost of installation and upgrade
ƒ Bandwidth can be increased without changing underlying
technology

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Ethernet and the OSI model

ƒ Divided OSI Layer 2 into two sublayers

ƒ Media Access Control (MAC) – Traditional L2 features
ƒ Transitions down to media
ƒ Logical link control (LLC) – New L2 features
ƒ Transitions up to the network layer
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LLC sublayer

Packet

Packet LLC PDU

Packet Frame

ƒ LLC PDU includes:

ƒ DSAP: Destination service access point
ƒ SSAP: Source service access point
ƒ Supports connection control methods specified by upper protocols

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Original Ethernet Standard: 10BASE5

ƒ The original 1980 Ethernet product 10BASE5 transmitted 10

Mbps over a single thick coaxial cable bus.
ƒ 10BASE5 was the first medium used for Ethernet.
ƒ The primary benefit of 10BASE5 was length.
ƒ 10BASE5 systems also represent a single point of failure.
ƒ Each of the maximum five segments of thick coax may be up to
500 m (1640.4 ft) in length.
ƒ Because the medium is a single coaxial cable, only one station
can transmit at a time or else a collision will occur.
ƒ 10BASE5 only runs in half-duplex resulting in a maximum of 10
Mbps of data transfer.

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Original Ethernet Standard: 10BASE2

ƒ 10BASE2 was introduced in 1985.

ƒ Installation was easier because of its smaller size, lighter
weight, and greater flexibility.
ƒ Computers on the LAN were linked together by an unbroken
series of coaxial cable lengths.
ƒ Each of the maximum five segments of thin coax may be up to
185 meters long and each station is connected directly to the
BNC “T” connector on the coax.
ƒ Only one station can transmit at a time or else a collision will
occur.
ƒ 10BASE2 also uses half-duplex.
ƒ The maximum transmission rate of 10BASE2 is 10 Mbps.
Coming up … CSMA/CD
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What is CSMA/CD?

ƒ If two or more signals were sent at the same time, the two
would overlap and collide
ƒ Ethernet defined a specification for how to ensure that only one
device sends traffic on the Ethernet at one time.
ƒ The algorithm is carrier sense multiple access with collision
detection (CSMA/CD).
ƒ CSMA/CD logic helps prevent collisions an also defines how to
act when a
collision does occur.

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How CSMA/CD works?
1. A device with a frame to send listens
until the Ethernet is not busy.
2. When the Ethernet is not busy, the
sender begins sending the frame.
3. The sender listens to make sure that
no collision occurred.
4. Once the sender hear the collision,
they each send a jamming signal, to
ensure that all stations recognize the
collision
5. After the jamming is complete, each
sender randomizes a timer and waits
that long (backoff algorithm).
6. When each timer expires, the process
stars over with step 1.

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Repeaters

ƒ 10BASE5 and 10BASE2 had limitations on the total length of

cable.
ƒ The signal sent by one device could attenuate too much if the
cable was longer than 500m or 185m.
ƒ Repeaters take an incoming signal, regenerate it and pass it on.

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10BASE-T Ethernet

ƒ 10BASE-T solved several problems with the early Ethernet

specifications
ƒ 10BASE-T allowed the use of telephone cabling that was
already installed, or simply allowed the use of cheaper, easier-
to-install cabling when new cabling was required.
ƒ 10BASE-T networks make use of devices called hubs.

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Hubs

ƒ The hubs are multiport repeaters.

ƒ The hub simply regenerates the electrical signal that come in
one port and sends the same signal out every other port.
ƒ By doing so, 10BASE-T creates an electrical bus, just like
10BASE5 and 10BASE2.
ƒ Collisions can still occur, so CSMA/CD access rules
continue to be used.
ƒ With 10BASE-T, a cable is run from each device to a hub, so
a single cable problem affects only one device.
ƒ All devices are sharing a single bus, so we call this shared
Ethernet.

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10BASE-T Hub operation

1. NIC sends a frame.

2. NIC loops the frame back.
3. Hub receives the frame.
4. Hub sends it to all ports,
except the received port.
5. Hub sends the frame out.

If two PCs sent a frame

at the same time, a
collision would occur.

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Collisions and Duplex Settings

ƒ 10BASE2, 10BASE5, and 10BASE-T Ethernet would

not work without CSMA/CD.
ƒ With CSMA/CD algorithm, Ethernet becomes more
inefficient under higher loads.
ƒ In the next section, you will read about two things
that have improved network performance, both
relating to the reduction or even elimination of
collisions:
ƒ LAN Switching
ƒ Full-Duplex Ethernet.

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Reducing Collisions - LAN Switching

ƒ LAN switches overcome the

problems created by collisions and
the CSMA/CD algorithm by removing
the possibility of a collision.
ƒ Switches do not create a single
shared bus, they treat each
individual port as a separate bus.
ƒ Switches use memory buffers to hold
incoming frame.
ƒ Switch performs OSI Layer 2
functions by interpreting Ethernet
header information to make
forwarding decisions.

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Full-Duplex Ethernet

ƒ The original Ethernet specifications used a shared bus, over

which a single device could not be sending a frame and
receiving a frame at the same time because it would mean that
a collision was occurring.
ƒ That logic is called half-duplex logic.
ƒ Ethernet switches allow multiple frames to be sent over
different ports at the same time.
ƒ If only one device is connected to a switch port, there is never
a possibility that a collision could occur.
ƒ LAN switches with only one device cabled to each port of the
switch can send and receive concurrently.
ƒ This is full-duplex operation.

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Ethernet Addressing

ƒ Ethernet LAN addressing identifies either individual

devices or groups of devices on a LAN.
ƒ Unicast Ethernet addresses identify a single LAN card.
ƒ Each address is 6 bytes long, is usually written in
hexadecimal, with periods separating each set of four hex
digits.
ƒ For example, 0000.0C12.3456 is a valid Ethernet address.
ƒ Computers use these addresses to identify the sender and
receiver of an Ethernet frame.
ƒ IEEE calls them MAC addresses.

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Unicast Ethernet Address

ƒ The IEEE requires globally unique unicast MAC addresses

on all LAN interface cards.
ƒ To ensure a unique MAC address, the Ethernet card
manufacturers encode the MAC address onto the card,
usually in a ROM chip.
ƒ Is is also called burned-in address (BIA).
ƒ The first half of the address identifies the manufacturer of
the card, is called the organizationally unique identifier
(OUI).
ƒ The second half of the address being assigned a number
that this manufacturer has never used on another card.

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Group addresses

ƒ Group addresses identify more than one LAN

interface card.
ƒ The IEEE defines two general categories of group
addresses for Ethernet:
ƒ Broadcast addresses – the broadcast address, has a
value of FFFF.FFFF.FFFF (hexadecimal notation). The
broadcast address implies that all devices on the LAN
should process the frame.
ƒ Multicast addresses – Multicast addresses are used to
allow a subset of devices on a LAN to communicate.

Coming up … Ethernet family

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Recent Ethernet Standards

ƒ Fast Ethernet
ƒ Gigabit Ethernet
ƒ 10-Gigabit Ethernet

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Fast Ethernet

ƒ Fast Ethernet, as defined in IEEE 802.3u, is also known as 100-

Mbps Ethernet.
ƒ The two technologies that have become important are
100BASE-TX, which is a copper UTP medium and 100BASE-FX,
which is a multimode optical fiber medium.
ƒ The CSMA/CD logic can be disabled for full-duplex point-to-
point topologies.
ƒ The 802.3u specification calls for the use of the same old IEEE
802.3 MAC and 802.2 LLC framing for the LAN headers and
trailers.
ƒ Both Fast Ethernet shared hubs and switches can be deployed.

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Fast Ethernet (cont)

ƒ Fast Ethernet’s autonegotiation function allows an

Ethernet card or switch to negotiate dynamically to
discover whether it should use either 10 or 100 Mbps.
ƒ Many Ethernet cards and switch ports are called 10/100
cards or ports today because they can autonegotiate the
speed.
ƒ The endpoints autonegotiate whether to use half duplex
or full duplex as well.
ƒ If autonegotiation fails, it settles for half-duplex operation
at 10 Mbps.

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Gigabit Ethernet

ƒ The IEEE defines Gigabit Ethernet in standards 802.3z for

optical cabling and 802.3ab for electrical cabling.
ƒ CSMA/CD still is used and can be disabled for full-duplex
support.
ƒ The 802.3z and 802.3ab standards call for the use of the same
old IEEE 802.3 MAC and 802.2 LLC framing for the LAN headers
and trailers.
ƒ The most likely place to use Gigabit is between switches,
between switches and a router, and between a switch and a
server.
ƒ The same Ethernet headers and trailers are used, regardless of
whether it’s 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, or 1000 Mbps.
ƒ Gigabit Ethernet is obviously faster, at 1000 Mbps, or 1 Gbps.
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10-Gigabit Ethernet

ƒ 10 Gig Ethernet, defined in IEEE 802.3ae, runs at 10

Gbps.
ƒ It uses the same 802.3 MAC and 802.2 LLC as the other
types of Ethernet.
ƒ It have some differences with the other types:
ƒ It allows only a point-to-point topology because it is
intended for connectivity between switching devices.
ƒ It allows only full-duplex communication.
ƒ It specifies only optical fiber - no copper cabling. (Support
for copper wiring might be added later.)
ƒ 10 Gig Ethernet using SM fiber for up to 40km.

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Future of Ethernet

ƒ Ethernet has gone through an evolution from Legacy → Fast →

Gigabit → MultiGigabit technologies.
ƒ The future of networking media is threefold:
ƒ Copper (up to 1000 Mbps, perhaps more)
ƒ Wireless (approaching 100 Mbps, perhaps more)
ƒ Optical fiber (currently at 10,000 Mbps and soon to be more)
ƒ Some discussions between IEEE members have begun that suggest the
possibility of standards for 40-, 80-, and even 100-Gbps Ethernet.
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Summary

ƒ The basics of Ethernet technology

ƒ How Ethernet and the OSI model interact
ƒ Ethernet frame field names and purposes
ƒ 10Base2, 10Base5, 10BaseT
ƒ The characteristics and function of CSMA/CD
ƒ The backoff algorithm and time after a collision
ƒ Ethernet errors and collisions
ƒ Auto-negotiation in relation to speed and duplex
ƒ Characteristics and varieties of 100-Mbps and 1000-Mbps Ethernet

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 Stop here!

It’s time for questioning.

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