Lesson 3 Amplitude Modulation

Overview:

This lesson focuses on amplitude modulation. It’s frequency components, transmission and
reception, and am signal analysis.

Learning Objectives:

After successful completion of this lesson, you should be able to:

1. Explain the concept of modulation.

2. Analyze amplitude-modulated signals in the time and frequency domains.

Course Materials:

Modulation is necessary in order to transmit intelligence over a radio channel. A radio-frequency

signal can be modulated by either analog or digital information. In either case, the information
signal must change one or more of three parameters amplitude, frequency, and phase.

Analog modulation schemes tend to be more intuitive and hence easier to understand
than their digital variants, so they will be considered first. Of the analog schemes, amplitude
modulation (AM) is simplest and was first historically, therefore, it seems logical to begin with it.
Frequency modulation (FM) is more common in modern systems, so it will be discussed next.
Finally, phase modulation (PM) is seen less often than the others in analog systems, but it is
very common in digital communication, so we will introduce it here but leave the details for later.

Amplitude Modulation

An amplitude-modulated signal can be produced by using the instantaneous amplitude of the

information signal (the baseband or modulating signal, to vary the peak amplitude of a higher-
frequency signal. Figure 2.1(a) shows a baseband signal consisting of a 1-kHz sine wave, which
can be combined with the 10-kHz carrier signal shown in Figure 2.1(b) to produce the
amplitude-modulated signal of Figure 2.1(c). If the peaks of the individual waveforms of the
modulated signal are joined, an envelope results that resembles the original modulating signal.
It repeats at the modulating frequency, and the shape of each “half” (positive or negative) is the
same as that of the modulating signal.

Figure 2.1(c) shows a case where there are only ten cycles of the carrier for each cycle
of the modulating signal. In practice, the ratio between carrier frequency and modulating
frequency is usually much greater. For instance, an AM citizens’ band (CB) station would have a
carrier frequency of about 27 MHz and a modulating frequency on the order of 1 kHz. A
waveform like this is shown in Figure 2.2. Since there are thousands of cycles of the carrier for
each cycle of the envelope, the individual RF cycles are not visible, and only the envelope can
be seen.

The AM envelope allows for very simple demodulation. All that is necessary is to rectify
the signal to remove one-half of the envelope, then low-pass filter the remainder to recover the
modulation. A simple but quite practical AM demodulator is shown in Figure 2.3.
 Because AM relies on amplitude variations, it follows that any amplifier used with an AM
signal must be linear, that is, it must reproduce amplitude variations exactly. This principle can
be extended to any signal that has an envelope. This point is important, because nonlinear
amplifiers are typically less expensive and more efficient than linear amplifiers.

Time-Domain Analysis

AM is created by using the instantaneous modulating signal voltage to vary the amplitude of the
modulated signal. The carrier is almost always a sine wave. The modulating signal can be a
sine wave, but is more often an arbitrary waveform, such as an audio signal. However, an
analysis of sine-wave modulation is very useful, since Fourier analysis often allows complex
signals to be expressed as a series of sinusoids.

We can express the above relationship by means of an equation:

If the modulating (baseband) signal is a sine wave, Equation (2.1) has the following form:

EXAMPLE 2.1
A carrier with an RMS voltage of 2 V and a frequency of 1.5 MHz is modulated by a sine
wave with a frequency of 500 Hz and amplitude of 1 V RMS. Write the equation for the resulting
signal.

SOLUTION
First, note that Equation (2.2) requires peak voltages and radian frequencies. We can
easily get these as follows:

So the equation is

Modulation Index

The ratio between the amplitudes of the modulating signal and the carrier is defined as the
modulation index, m. Mathematically,

Modulation can also be expressed as a percentage, by multiplying m by 100. For example, m =

0.5 corresponds to 50% modulation.
Substituting m into Equation (2.2) gives:
 It is worthwhile to examine what happens to Equation (2.4) and to the modulated
waveform, as m varies. To start with, when m = 0, Em = 0 and we have the original,
unmodulated carrier. As m varies between 0 and 1, the changes due to modulation become
more pronounced. Resultant waveforms for several values of m are shown in Figure 2.4. Note
especially the result for m = 1 or 100%. Under these conditions the peak signal voltage will vary
between zero and twice the unmodulated carrier amplitude.

Overmodulation

When the modulation index is greater than one, the signal is said to be overmodulated. There is
nothing in Equation (2.4) that would seem to prevent Em from being greater than Ec, that is, m
greater than one. There are practical difficulties, however. Figure 2.5(a) shows the result of
simply substituting m = 2 into Equation (2.4). As you can see, the envelope no longer resembles
the modulating signal. Thus, the type of demodulator described earlier no longer gives
undistorted results, and the signal is no longer a full-carrier AM signal.
Whenever we work with mathematical models, we must remember to keep checking
against physical reality. This situation is a good example. It is possible to build a circuit that
does produce an output that agrees with Equation (2.4) for m greater than 1. However, most
practical AM modulators produce the signal shown in Figure 2.5(b) under these conditions. This
waveform is completely useless for communication. In fact, if this signal were subjected to
Fourier analysis, the sharp “corners” on the waveform as the output goes to zero on negative
modulation peaks would be found to represent high-frequency components added to the original
baseband signal. This type of overmodulation creates spurious frequencies known as splatter,
which cause the modulated signal to have increased bandwidth. This can cause interference
with a signal on an adjacent channel.
From the foregoing, we can conclude that for full-carrier AM, m must be in the range
from 0 to 1. Overmodulation creates distortion in the demodulated signal and may result in the
signal occupying a larger bandwidth than normal. Since spectrum space is tightly controlled by
law, overmodulation of an AM transmitter is actually illegal, and means must be provided to
prevent it.
Modulation Index for Multiple Modulating Frequencies

Practical AM systems are seldom used to transmit sine waves, of course. The information signal
is more likely to be a voice signal, which contains many frequencies. When there are two or
more sine waves of different, uncorrelated frequencies (that is, frequencies that are not
multiples of each other) modulating a single carrier, m is calculated by using the equation

Measurement of Modulation Index

If we let Em and Ec be the peak modulation and carrier voltages respectively, then we can see,
from Equation (2.4), that the maximum envelope voltage is simply

and the minimum envelope voltage is

Note, by the way, that these results agree with the conclusions expressed earlier:for m =
0, the peak voltage is Ec, and for m = 1, the envelope voltage ranges from 2Ec to zero.
Applying a little algebra to the above expressions, it is easy to show that
Frequency Domain Analysis

So far we have looked at the AM signal exclusively in the time domain, that is, as it can be seen
on an oscilloscope. In order to find out more about this signal, however, it is necessary to
consider its spectral makeup. We could use Fourier methods to do this, but for a simple AM
waveform it is easier, and just as valid, to use trigonometry.
If an AM signal is not a sine wave, then what is it? We already have a mathematical
expression, given by Equation (2.4):

Expanding it and using a trigonometric identity will prove useful. Expanding gives

The first term is just the carrier. The second can be expanded using the trigonometric identity

to give

which can be separated into three distinct terms:

We now have, in addition to the original carrier, two other sinusoidal waves, one above the
carrier frequency and one below. When the complete signal is sketched in the frequency
domain as in Figure 2.6, we see the carrier and two additional frequencies, one to each side.
These are called, logically enough, side frequencies. The separation of each side frequency
from the carrier is equal to the modulating frequency; and the relative amplitude of the side
frequency, compared with the carrier, is proportional to m, becoming half the carrier voltage for
m = 1. In a real situation there is generally more than one set of side frequencies, because there
is more than one modulating frequency. Each modulating frequency produces two side
frequencies. Those above the carrier can be grouped into a band of frequencies called the
upper sideband. There is also a lower sideband, which looks like a mirror image of the upper,
reflected in the carrier.
 From now on we will generally use the term sideband, rather than side frequency, even
for the case of single-tone modulation, because it is more general and more commonly used in
practice.
Mathematically, we have:
Next we have to determine the amplitudes of the three components. The carrier is unchanged
with modulation, so it remains at 1 V peak. The two sidebands have the same peak voltage:

Bandwidth

Signal bandwidth is one of the most important characteristics of any modulation scheme. In
general, a narrow bandwidth is desirable. In any situation where spectrum space is limited, a
narrow bandwidth allows more signals to be transmitted simultaneously than does a wider
bandwidth. It also allows a narrower bandwidth to be used in the receiver. The receiver must
have a wide enough bandwidth to pass the complete signal, including all the sidebands, or
distortion will result. Since thermal noise is evenly distributed over the frequency domain, a
narrower receiver bandwidth includes less noise and this increases the signal-to-noise ratio,
unless there are other factors.
The bandwidth calculation is very easy for AM. The signal extends from the lower side
frequency, which is the difference between the carrier frequency and the modulation frequency,
to the upper side frequency, at the sum of the carrier frequency and the modulation frequency.
The difference between these is simply twice the modulation frequency. If there is more than
one modulating frequency, the bandwidth is twice the highest modulating frequency.
Mathematically, the relationship is:
Power Relationships

Power is important in any communication scheme, because the crucial signal-to-noise ratio at
the receiver depends as much on the signal power being large as on the noise power being
small. The power that is most important, however, is not the total signal power but only that
portion that is used to transmit information. Since the carrier in an AM signal remains
unchanged with modulation, it contains no information. Its only function is to aid in demodulating
the signal at the receiver. This makes AM inherently wasteful of power, compared with some
other modulation schemes to be described later.
The easiest way to look at the power in an AM signal is to use the frequency domain.
We can find the power in each frequency component, then add to get total power. We shall
assume that the signal appears across a resistance R, so that reactive volt-amperes can be
ignored. We will also assume that the power required is average power.
Suppose that the modulating signal is a sine wave. Then the AM signal consists of three
sinusoids, the carrier and two sidebands, as shown in Figure 2.6.
The power in the carrier is easy to calculate, since the carrier by itself is a sine wave.
The carrier is given by the equation
 The next step is to find the power in each sideband. The two frequency components
have the same amplitude, so they have equal power. Assuming sine-wave modulation, each
sideband is a cosine wave whose peak voltage is given by Equation (2.12)

Elsb = Eusb = mEc /2

Since the carrier and both sidebands are part of the same signal, the sidebands appear
across the same resistance, R, as the carrier. Looking at the lower sideband,

Since the two sidebands have equal power, the total sideband power is given by

The total power in the whole signal is just the sum of the power in the carrier and the sidebands,
so it is,
 These latest equations tell us several useful things:
 The total power in an AM signal increases with modulation, reaching a value 50%
greater than that of the unmodulated carrier for 100% modulation.
 The extra power with modulation goes into the sidebands: the carrier power does not
change with modulation.
 The useful power, that is, the power that carries information, is rather small, being a
maximum of one-third of the total signal power for 100% modulation and much less at
lower modulation indices. For this reason, AM transmission is more efficient when the
modulation index is as close to 1 as practicable.

Measuring Modulation Index in the Frequency Domain

Since the ratio between sideband and carrier power is a simple function of m, it is quite possible
to measure modulation index by observing the spectrum of an AM signal. The only complication
is that spectrum analyzers generally display power ratios in decibels. The power ratio between
sideband and carrier power can easily be found from the relation:
SOLUTION:
First let us find ƒm. The difference between the carrier and either sideband is 2 divisions at 5
kHz/division, or 10 kHz. So ƒm = 10 kHz. Next, we need to find the modulation index. The two
sidebands have the same power, so we can use either. The spectrum analyzer is set for 10
dB/division, and each sideband is 1.5 divisions, or 15 dB, below the carrier. This corresponds to
a power ratio of
AM Transmitter
AM transmitter takes the audio signal as an input and delivers amplitude modulated wave to
the antenna as an output to be transmitted. The block diagram of AM transmitter is shown in
the following figure.

The working of AM transmitter can be explained as follows.

 The audio signal from the output of the microphone is sent to the pre-amplifier, which
boosts the level of the modulating signal.
 The RF oscillator generates the carrier signal.
 Both the modulating and the carrier signal is sent to AM modulator.
 Power amplifier is used to increase the power levels of AM wave. This wave is finally
passed to the antenna to be transmitted.
Superheterodyne Receiver Block Diagram
The superhet radio receiver is used in many forms of radio broadcast reception, two way radio
communications and the like.

It is useful to have an understanding of the different signal blocks, their functions, and the
overall signal flow, not only for the RF circuit design, but also from an operational viewpoint. It is
possible to get the best performance by understanding its internal RF design and function.
Superheterodyne receiver block diagram explanation

Signals enter the receiver from the antenna and are applied to the RF amplifier where they are tuned
to remove the image signal and also reduce the general level of unwanted signals on other
frequencies that are not required.

The signals are then applied to the mixer along with the local oscillator where the wanted signal
is converted down to the intermediate frequency. Here significant levels of amplification are
applied and the signals are filtered. This filtering selects signals on one channel against those
on the next. It is much larger than that employed in the front end. The advantage of the IF filter
as opposed to RF filtering is that the filter can be designed for a fixed frequency. This allows for
much better tuning. Variable filters are never able to provide the same level of selectivity that
can be provided by fixed frequency ones.

Once filtered the next block in the superheterodyne receiver is the demodulator. This could be
for amplitude modulation, single sideband, frequency modulation, or indeed any form of
modulation. It is also possible to switch different demodulators in according to the mode being
received.

The final element in the superheterodyne receiver block diagram is shown as an audio amplifier,
although this could be any form of circuit block that is used to process or amplified the
demodulated signal.

Sources:

Wireless Communication Technology by Blake.pdf

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/analog_communication/analog_communication_transmitters.htm
https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/radio/superheterodyne-receiver/block-diagram.php

Activities/Assessments:

1. What is meant by the “envelope” of an AM waveform, and what is its significance?

2. Why is it desirable to have the modulation index of an AM signal as large as possible,
without overmodulating?
3. Describe what happens when a typical AM modulator is over modulated, and explain why
overmodulation is undesirable.
4. How does the bandwidth of an AM signal relate to the information signal?
5. Describe two ways in which the modulation index of an AM signal can be measured.