AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND SINGLE-

SIDEBAND MODULATION
CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
This chapter will help you to:
1. Recognize an AM signal in the time domain (oscilloscope display), the frequency domain
(spectral display), or in trigonometric equation form.
2. Calculate the percentage of modulation of an AM signal given waveform measurements.
3. Calculate the upper and lower sidebands of an AM signal given the carrier and modulating
signal frequencies.
4. Calculate the sideband power in an AM wave given the carrier power and the percentage
of modulation.
5. Define the terms DSB and SSB and state the benefits of SSB over an AM signal.
One of the principal techniques used in electronic
communications is modulation. Modulation is the
process of having the information to be transmitted
alter a higher-frequency signal for the purpose of
transmitting the information somewhere in the
electromagnetic spectrum via radio, wire, or fiber
optic cable. Without modulation, electronic
communications would not exist as we know it
today. Communications electronics is largely the
study of various modulation techniques and of the
modulator and demodulator circuits that make
modulation possible.
The three principal types of electronic
communications are amplitude modulation (AM),
frequency modulation (FM), and phase modulation
(PM). The oldest and simplest form of modulation
is AM. We will cover AM along with a derivation
known as single-sideband modulation in this
chapter. Chapter 3 will cover amplitude modulator
and demodulator circuits.
2-1 AMPLITUDE MODULATION PRINCIPLES
Information signals such as voice, video, or binary data
are sometimes transmitted directly from one point to
another over some communications medium. For
example, voice signals are transmitted by way of wires in
the telephone system. Coaxial cables carry video signals
between two points, and twisted-pair cable is often used
to carry binary data from one point to another. However,
when transmission distances are far, cables are
sometimes impractical. In such cases, radio
communications is used.
2-1 AMPLITUDE MODULATION PRINCIPLES
To carry out reliable long-distance radio communication, a
high-frequency signal must be used. It is simply
impractical to convert the information signal directly to
electromagnetic radiation. Excessively long antennas and
interference between signals would result if information
signals were transmitted directly. For is reason, it is
desirable to translate the information signal to a point
higher in the electromagnetic frequency spectrum. It is the
process of modulation that creates a higher-frequency
signal containing the original information.
Modulation can also be defined as the process of
modifying the characteristic of one signal in accordance
with some characteristic of another signal. In most cases,
the information signal, be it voice, video, binary data, or
some other information, is normally used to modify a
higher-frequency signal known as the carrier. The
information signal is usually called the modulating signal
and the higher-frequency signal which is being modulated
is called the carrier or modulated wave. The carrier is
usually a sine wave, while the information signal can be of
any shape permitting both analog and digital signals to be
transmitted. In most cases, the carrier frequency is
considerably higher than the highest information
frequency to be transmitted.
In AM, the information signal varies the amplitude of the
carrier sine wave. In other words, the instantaneous value
of the carrier amplitude changes in accordance with the
amplitude and frequency variations of the modulating
signal. Figure 2-1 shows a single frequency sine wave
modulating a higher-frequency carrier signal. Note that the
carrier frequency remains constant during the modulation
process but that its amplitude varies in accordance with
the modulating signal. An increase in the modulating
signal amplitude causes the amplitude of the carrier to
increase. Both the positive and negative peaks of the
carrier wave vary with the modulating signal. An increase
or decrease in the amplitude of the modulating signal
causes a corresponding increase or decrease in both the
positive and negative peaks bf the carrier amplitude.
If you interconnect the positive and negative peaks of the carrier waveform with an imaginary
line (shown dashed in Fig. 2-1), then you recreate the exact shape of the modulating
information signal. This imaginary line on the carrier waveform is known as the envelope. And
it is the same as the modulating signal.
Because complex waveforms like that shown in Fig. 2-1
are difficult to draw, they are usually simplified by
representing the high-frequency carrier wave as simply
many equally spaced vertical lines whose amplitudes vary
in accordance with a modulating signal. Figure 2-2 shows
a sine wave tone modulating a higher-frequency carrier.
We will use this method of representation throughout this
book.
The signals illustrated in Figs. 2-1 and 2-2 show the
variation of carrier signal with respect to time. Such signal
are said to be in the time domain. Time-domain signals
are the actual variation of voltage over time. They are
what you would see displayed on the screen of an
oscilloscope. We will show the time-domain signals
created by the various types of modulation. Later you will
see that modulated signals can also be expressed in the
frequency domain.
DEGREE VERSUS RADIAN MEASURE OF ANGLES
You may recall that a sine wave reaches 70.7
percent of its maximum value at a phase angle of
45°. In general, the instantaneous value of a sine
wave can be found by
v = Vm x sin θ
where
v = the instantaneous value
Vm = the maximum value
θ = the phase angle
Example: A 1-MHz sine wave has a peak or
maximum value of 18 V. What is its instantaneous
value at a phase angle of 45°?
sin 45° = 0.707
v = 18 V x 0.707 = 12.7 V
In communications, the phase angle may be stated in an
equivalent way using the frequency of the signal and
sometime of interest. This is known as radian measure.
For example, the instantaneous value of a signal can be
found with:
v = Vm x sin (2π f t)
where
f = the frequency of the signal
t = the time of interest
A 1-MHz signal has a period of 1 µs. One period equals
one cycle with 360°. A phase angle of 45° corresponds to
45/360 or 1/8 cycle, which is a time of 1 µs divided by
8(0.125 µs).
 Example: Use the second equation for finding the
instantaneous value of a 1-MHz sine signal with a peak
value of 18 volts (V) at a time of 0.125 µs. (Your
calculator must be in the radian mode.)
v = 18 V x sin (6.28 x 1 MHz x 0.125 µs)
= 12.7 V
Conclusion: The two equations for finding v are
equivalent. The first is based on angular measure, and the
second is based on radian measure. Keep in mind that 1
rad = 57.3°. In our example, 45° = 45/57.3 = 0.785 rad.
sin 0.785 = 0.707
As you know, sinusoidal alternating current (ac) signals
can be represented mathematically by trigonometric
functions. For example, we can express the sine wave
carrier with the simple expression
vc = Vc sin 2π fc t
In this expression, vc represents the instantaneous value
of the sine wave voltage at some specific time in the
cycle. The Vc represents the peak value of the sine wave
as measured between zero and the maximum amplitude
of either the positive or negative-going alternations. See
Fig. 2-1. The term fc is the frequency of the carrier sine
wave. Finally, t represents some particular point in time
during the ac cycle.
In the same way, a sine wave modulating signal
can also be expressed with a similar formula:
vm = Vm sin 2π fm t
where
fm = the frequency of the modulating signal
Referring back to Fig. 2-1, you can see that the
modulating signal uses the peak value of the carrier rather
than zero as its reference point. The envelope of the
modulating signal varies above and below the peak carrier
amplitude. That is, the zero reference line of the
modulating signal coincides with the peak value of the un-
modulated carrier. Because of this, the relative amplitudes
of the carrier and modulating signal are important. In
general, the amplitude of the modulating signal should be
less than the amplitude of the carrier. If the amplitude of
the modulating signal is greater than the amplitude of the
carrier, distortion will occur. Distortion causes incorrect
information to be transmitted. It is important in AM that the
peak value of the modulating signal be less than the peak
value of the carrier.
Using the mathematical expressions for the carrier and
the modulating signal, we can create a new mathematical
expression for the complete modulated wave. First, keep
in mind that the peak value of the carrier is the reference
point for the modulating signal. The modulating signal
value adds to or subtracts from the peak value of the
carrier. This instantaneous value of either the top or
bottom voltage envelope can be computed by the simple
expression
v 1 = Vc + v m
Substituting the trigonometric expression for vm we get
v1 = Vc + Vm sin 2π fm t
All this expression says is that the instantaneous value of the
modulating signal algebraically adds to the peak value of the
carrier. As you can see, the value of v 1 is really the envelope of the
carrier wave. For that reason, we can write the instantaneous value
of the complete modulated wave v2 as
v2 = v1 sin 2π fc t
In this expression, the peak value of carrier wave Vc from the first
equation given is replaced by v 1. Now, substituting the previously
derived expression for v 1 and expanding, we get
v2 = (Vc + Vm sin 2π fm t) sin 2π fc t
= Vc sin 2π fc t + (Vm sin 2π fm t) (sin 2π fc t)
Carrier + modulation x carrier
This expression consists of two parts: the first part
is simply the carrier waveform, and the second part
is the carrier waveform multiplied by the
modulating signal waveform. It is this second part
of the expression that is characteristic of AM. A
circuit must be able to produce mathematical
multiplication of analog signals in order for AM to
occur.
The circuit used for producing AM is called modulator. Its
two inputs, the carrier and the modulating signal, and the
resulting output are shown in Fig. 2-3. Amplitude
modulators compute the product of the carrier and
modulating signals.
2-2 MODULATION INDEX AND PERCENTAGE OF MODULATION

In order for proper AM to occur, the modulating signal voltage Vm

must be less than the carrier voltage Vc. Therefore, the relationship
between the amplitudes of the modulating signal and carrier is
important. This relationship is expressed in terms of a ratio known
as the modulation index m (also called modulation factor,
modulation coefficient, or the degree of modulation). The m is
simply the ratio of the modulating signal voltage to the carrier
voltage:

Vm
m=
Vc
The modulation index should be a number between 0 and 1. If the
amplitude of the modulating voltage is higher than the carrier
voltage, m will be greater than 1. This will cause severe distortion
of the modulated waveform. This is illustrated in Fig. 2-4. Here a
sine wave information signal modulates a sine wave carrier, but the
modulating voltage is much greater than the carrier voltage. This
condition is called over-modulation. As you can see, the waveform
is flattened near the zero line. The received signal will produce an
output waveform in the shape of the envelope, which in this case is
a sine wave whose negative peaks have been clipped off. By
keeping the amplitude of the modulating signal less than the carrier
amplitude, no distortion will occur. The ideal condition for AM is
where Vm = Vc or m = 1, since this will produce the greatest output
at the receiver with no distortion.
The modulation index can be determined by measuring
the actual values of the modulation voltage and the carrier
voltage and computing the ratio. However, it is more
common to compute the modulation index from
measurements taken on the composite modulated wave
itself. Whenever the AM signal is displayed on an
oscilloscope, the modulation index can be computed from
Vmax and Vmin as shown in Fig. 2-5.
The peak value of the modulating signal Vm is one-half the
difference of the peak and trough values and is computed with the
expression

Vmax –Vmin
Vm =
2
By observing Fig. 2-5, you can see Vmax is the peak value of the
signal during modulation, while Vmin is the lowest value, or trough,
of the modulated wave. The Vmax is one-half the peak-to-peak
value of the AM signal or Vmax (p-p) /2. Subtracting Vmin from Vmax
produces the peak-to-peak value of the modulating signal. One-half
of that, of course, is simply the peak value.
The peak value of the carrier signal Vc is the average of
the Vmax and Vmin values and is computed with the
expression
Vmax +Vmin
Vc =
2
Substituting these values in our original formula for the modulation
index produces the result
Vmax −Vmin
m=
Vmax +Vmin

The values for Vmax and Vmin can be read directly from an
oscilloscope screen and plugged into the formula to compute the
modulation index.
For example, suppose the Vmax value read from the graticule on the
oscilloscope screen is 4.6 divisions and Vmin is 0.7 divisions. The
modulation index is then
4.6 − 0.7
m=
4.6 + 0.7
3.9
=
5.3
= 0.736
Whenever the modulation index is multiplied by 100, the degree of
modulation is expressed as a percentage. The amount or depth of
AM is more commonly expressed as percent modulation rather
than as a fractional value. In the example above, the percentage of
modulation is 100% x m or 73.6 percent. The maximum amount of
modulation without signal distortion, of course, is 100 percent
where Vc and Vm are equal. At this time, Vmin = 0 and Vmax = 2Vm,
where Vm is the peak value of the modulating signal.
In practice, it is desirable to operate with as close to 100 percent
modulation as possible. In this way, the maximum information
signal amplitude is transmitted. More information signal power is
transmitted, thereby producing a stronger, more intelligible signal.
When the modulating signal amplitude varies randomly over a wide
range, it is impossible to maintain 100 percent modulation. A voice
signal, for example, changes amplitude as a person speaks. Only
the peaks of the signal produce 100 percent modulation.
2-3 SIDEBANDS AND THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN
Whenever a carrier is modulated by an information signal, new
signals at different frequencies are generated as part of the
process. These new frequencies, called side frequencies or
sidebands, occur in the frequency spectrum directly above and
directly below the carrier frequency. More specifically, the
sidebands occur at frequencies that are the sum and difference of
the carrier and modulating frequencies. Assuming a carrier
frequency of fc and a modulating frequency of fm, the upper
sideband fUSB and lower sideband fLSB are computed as follows:
fUSB = fc + fm
fLSB = fc - fm
2-3 SIDEBANDS AND THE FREQUENCY DOMAIN
The existence of these additional new signals that result
from the process of modulation can also be proven
mathematically. This can be done by starting with the
equation for an AM signal v2 described previously.
v2 = Vc sin 2π fc t + (Vm sin 2π fm t)(sin 2π fc t)
There is a trigonometric identity that says that the product of two
sine waves is
cos (A − B) cos (A + B)
sin A sin B = −
2 2

By substituting this identity into the expression for our modulated

wave, the instantaneous amplitude of the signal becomes

Carrier LSB USB

Vm Vm
e2 = Vc sin 2π fc t + cos 2π t (fc - fm) - cos 2π t (fc + fm)
2 2

As you can see, the second and third terms of this expression
contain the sum fc + fm and difference fc - fm of the carrier and
modulating signal frequencies. The first element in the expression
is simply the carrier wave to which is added the difference
frequency and the sum frequency.
By algebraically adding the carrier and the two
sideband signals together, the standard AM
waveform described earlier is obtained. This is
illustrated in Fig. 2-6. This is solid proof that an AM
wave contains not only the carrier but also the
sideband frequencies. Observing an AM signal on
an oscilloscope, you can see the amplitude
variations of the carrier with respect to time. This is
called a time-domain display. It gives no indication
of the existence of the sidebands, although the
modulation process does indeed produce them.
Another method of showing the sideband signals is to plot
the carrier and sideband amplitudes with respect to
frequency. This is illustrated in Fig. 2-7. Here the
horizontal axis represents frequency, and the vertical axis
represents the amplitudes of the signals. A plot of signal
amplitude versus frequency is referred to as a frequency-
domain display. A test instrument known as a spectrum
analyzer will display the frequency domain of a signal.
Whenever the modulating signal is more complex than a single
sine wave tone, multiple upper and lower side frequencies will be
produced. For example, a voice signal consists of many different-
frequency sine wave components mixed together. Recall that voice
frequencies occur in the 300- to 3000-Hz range. Therefore, voice
signals will produce a range of frequencies above and below the
carrier frequency as shown in Fig. 2-8. These sidebands take up
spectrum space. You can compute the total bandwidth of the AM
signal by computing the maximum and minimum sideband
frequencies. This is done by finding the sum and difference of the
carrier frequency and maximum modulating frequency, 3000 Hz, or
3 kHz, in the audio example above. If the carrier frequency is 2.8
MHz, or 2800 kHz, then the maximum and minimum sideband
frequencies are
fUSB = 2800 + 3 = 2803 kHz
fLSB = 2800 – 3 = 2797 kHz
The total bandwidth (BW) then is simply the
difference between the upper and lower sideband
frequencies or
BW = fUSB - fLSB
BW = 2803 kHz – 2797 kHz
BW = 6 kHz
As it turns out, the bandwidth of the AM signal is
simply twice the highest frequency in the
modulating signal. With a voice signal whose
maximum frequency is 3 kHz, the total bandwidth
would simply be twice this, or 6 kHz.
When other complex signals such as pulses or
rectangular waves modulate a carrier, again a broad
spectrum of sidebands will be produced. According to the
Fourier theory, complex signals such as square waves,
triangular waves, saw-tooth waves, or distorted sine
waves are simply made up of a fundamental sine wave
and numerous harmonic signals at different amplitudes.
The classical example is that of a square wave which is
made up of a fundamental sine wave and all odd
harmonics. A modulating square wave will produce
sidebands at frequencies of the fundamental square wave
as well as at the third, fifth, seventh, etc., harmonics.
The resulting frequency-domain plot would appear like that shown in Fig. 2-9(a) on the next
page. As you can see, pulses generate extremely wide bandwidth signals. In order for the
square wave to be transmitted and received without distortion or degradation, all the
sidebands must be passed by the antennas and the transmitting and receiving circuits.
Figure 2-9(b) shows the relationship between the time and frequency domain presentations of
the modulating square wave. The time domain shows the individual sine wave harmonics that,
when added together, produce the square wave. The frequency domain shows the signal
amplitudes of the harmonics that modulate the carrier and produce side bands.
2-4 AMPLITUDE MODULATION POWER DISTRIBUTION

To communicate by radio, the AM signal is amplified by a

power amplifier and fed to the antenna with a
characteristic impedance R. The total transmitted power
divides itself between the carrier and the upper and lower
sidebands. The total transmitted power PT is simply the
sum of the carrier power Pc and the power in the two
sidebands PUSB, and -PLsb- This is expressed by the
simple equation below
PT = Pc + PLSB + PUSB
2-4 AMPLITUDE MODULATION POWER DISTRIBUTION

The power in the sidebands depends upon the

value of the modulation index. The greater the
percentage of modulation, the higher the sideband
power. Of course, maximum power appears in the
sidebands when the carrier is 100 percent
modulated. The power in each sideband Ps is
given by the expression
P cm 2
PS = PLSB = PUSB =
4
Assuming 100 percent modulation where the modulation
factor m = 1, the power in each sideband is one-fourth, or
25 percent, of the carrier power. Since there are two
sidebands,, their power together represents 50 percent of
the carrier power. For example, if the carrier power is 100
watts (W), then at 100 percent modulation, 50 W will
appear in the sidebands, 25 W in each. The total
transmitted power then is the sum of the carrier and
sideband powers or 150 W.
As you can see, the carrier power represents two-thirds of
the total transmitted power assuming 100 percent
modulation. With a carrier power of 100 W and a total
power of 150 W, the carrier power percentage can be
computed.
100
Carrier power percentage =
150
= 0.667 (or 66.7%)
The percentage of power in the sidebands can be
computed in a similar way:
Sideband power percentage =
= 0.333 (or 33.3%)
The carrier itself conveys no information. The carrier can
be transmitted and received, but unless modulation
occurs, no information will be transmitted. When
modulation occurs, sidebands are produced. It is easy to
conclude, therefore, that all the transmitted information is
contained within the sidebands. Only one-third of the total
transmitted power is allotted to the sidebands, while the
remaining two-thirds of it is literally wasted on the carrier.
Obviously, although it is quite effective and still widely
used, AM is a very inefficient method of modulation.