COMMUNICATION

Is the process of exchanging information.

 ELECTRONIC
COMMUNICATION
Any transfer of data or intelligence of any
nature transmitted by a wire or radio that
affects interstate or foreign commerce.
 Block Diagram of a Communications System

Information Recipient or
Source Noise Destination

Transmitter Channel Receiver

 Information Source

selects symbols (letters, numbers,

words, sounds, etc) from an alphabet
(or ensemble) of possible symbols

Types of Information
radio, telephony, telegraph,
broadcasting, radar, radio, telemetry,
and radio aids for navigation
Transmitter
a collection of electronic components
and circuits designed to convert the
information into a signal suitable for
transmission over a given
communication medium
Processes Involved

modulation, multiplexing, encoding,

encryption, and pre-emphasis (FM)
Channel
the medium by which the electronic
signal is sent from one place to
another

Receiver
another collection of electronic
components and circuits that accept
the transmitted message from the
channel and convert it back into a
form understandable by humans
 Processes Involved

demodulation, demultiplexing,
decoding, decryption, and
de-emphasis (FM)

Noise
any unwanted form of electrical
energy, random and aperiodic in
character which tends to mutilate the
desired signal
Basic Requirements

1. Accurate Communication
2. Fast Communication

Types of Signal
1. ANALOG
telephone, radio broadcast or
TV signals
2. DIGITAL
comprises of pulses at discrete
intervals of time
Transmission Paths

1. Line Communication
guided media which include
coaxial cable, twisted pair,
optical fibers and waveguides
2. Radio Communications
unguided media
 Basic Concepts

Frequency Wavelength
 number of times a  distance between two points of
particular similar cycles of a periodic wave
phenomenon
occurs at a given
time Bandwidth
 expressed in hertz  portion of the electromagnetic
(1/1 sec) Hz spectrum occupied by a signal
 Nomenclature of Frequency Bands
NAME FREQUENCIES METRIC SUBDIVISION APPLICATIONS

Extremely Low 30 – 300 Hz - Power line transmission

Frequencies (ELF)
Voice Frequencies (VF) 300 – 3000 Hz - Audio

Very Low Frequencies 3 – 30 kHz Myriametric waves Government and military comms.,
(VLF) submarine comms.
Low Frequencies (LF) 30 – 300 kHz Kilometric waves Aeronautical and marine
(long waves) navigation
Medium Frequencies 300 – 3000 kHz Hectometric waves AM radio broadcast
(MF) (medium waves)
High Frequencies (HF) 3 – 30 MHz Decametric waves Shortwave radio broadcast,
(short waves) amateur radio and CB comms.
Very High Frequencies 30 – 300 MHz Metric waves FM broadcast
(VHF)
Ultra High Frequencies 300 – 3000 MHz Decimetric waves UHF TV, land mobile services and
(UHF) cellular telephones, microwave
comms.
Super High 3 – 30 GHz Centimetric waves Satellite comms., personal
Frequencies (SHF) communication systems
Extremely High 30 – 300 GHz Millimetric waves Radar
Frequencies (EHF)
*microwave frequency band: 1 GHz to 300 GHz
**frequencies beyond EHF are optical frequencies
 MODULATION
process by which some
mixing of low frequency characteristic of a high
signals modulating signal) frequency sine wave is
with high frequency varied in accordance with
signals (carrier signal) the instantaneous value of
the signal

imposition of information modification of one signal

on a given signal by another signal
 Types of Modulation
a. According to carrier used

1. Pulse
1. Continuous Wave
carrier is a train of
carrier is a sinusoid
pulses (discrete)
Types of Modulation
a. According to the method used

1. Analog
modulated parameter 2. Digital
is made proportional to change the form of a
the modulating signal given signal
 Needs of Modulation
1. To reduce the antenna lengths

2. To reduce noise / interference

3. For frequency assignments

4. For multiplexing

5. To overcome equipment limitations

6. To increase the Radiated Power of

Antenna
Analog Modulation

1. Amplitude Modulation
 2. Angle Modulation

a. Frequency Modulation b. Phase Modulation

Digital Modulation

1. Pulse Code Modulation

2. Delta Modulation
Consider any sinusoid

ѵ(t)= V sin (ωt + ѳ)

ѵ = instantaneous amplitude
V = peak amplitude
ω = 2Πf; angular frequency
t = instantaneous time
ѳ = phase angle in radians
amplitude

phase
t = 1/f
NOTE
Any type of modulation should be reversible
(get back to the original signal) by process of
demodulation.
 Basic Emission Classification
First Symbol – Type of Modulation of the Main Carrier
Emission of unmodulated carrier N

Emission in which the main carrier is amplitude

-> Double – sideband A

-> Single – sideband, full carrier H

-> Single –sideband, reduced or variable level carrier R

-> Single – sideband, suppressed carrier J

-> Independent sideband B

-> Vestigial sideband C

Emission in which the main carrier is angled modulated

-> Frequency Modulation F

-> Phase Modulation G

 First Symbol – Type of Modulation of the Main Carrier
Emission in which the main carrier is angled and amplitude D
modulated simultaneously
Emission of pulses
-> Sequence of unmodulated pulses P
-> Sequence of pulses
->> Modulated in amplitude K
->> Modulated in width/duration L
->> Modulated in position/phase M
->> The carrier is angle – modulated during the Q
period of the pulse
->> Combination of the foregoing or is produced V
by other means
Cases not covered above or combination of two or more of the W
following modes: amplitude, angle, angle and phase
Cases otherwise not covered X
 Second Symbol – Nature of the Signals Modulating the
Main Carrier
No modulating signal 0

Digitally keyed carrier 1

Digitally keyed tone 2

Analog 3

Multichannel digital 7

Multichannel analog 8

Combination 9

Cases not otherwise covered X

 Third Symbol – Type of Information to be Transmitted
No information transmitted N

Telegraphy – for aural reception A

Telegraphy – for automatic reception B

Facsimile C

Data transmission, telemetry, telecommand D

Telephony (including sound broadcasting) E

Television (video ) F

Combination of the above W

Cases otherwise not covered X

 Fourth Symbol – Details of Signals
Two – condition code with elements of differing numbers A
and/or durations

Two – condition code with elements of the same number and B

duration without error correction

Two – condition code with elements of the same number and C

duration with error correction

Four – condition code in which each condition represents a D

signal element

Multicondition code in which each condition represents a E

signal element

Multicondition code in which each condition or combination F

of conditions represents a character
 Fourth Symbol – Details of Signals
Sound of broadcasting quality (monophonic) G

Sound of broadcasting quality (stereophonic or quadraphonic) H

Sound of commercial quality J

Sound of commercial quality with the use of frequency K

inversion or band splitting

Sound of commercial quality with separate frequency – L

modulated signals to control the levels of
demodulated signal

Monochrome M

Color N

Combination of the above W

Cases not otherwise covered X

 Fifth Symbol – Nature of Multiplexing
None N

Code – division multiplex C

Frequency – division multiplex F

Time – division multiplex T

Combination of frequency – division multiplex and W

time – division multiplex

Other types of multiplexing X

 TRANSMISSION MODES
1. Simplex

Transmissions can occur only in one direction. Sometimes called

oneway-only, receive-only, or transmit-only.

2. Half-Duplex

Transmissions can occur in both directions, but not at the same time.
Sometimes called two-way-alternate, either-way, or over-and-out
systems.
 TRANSMISSION MODES
3. Full Duplex

Transmissions can occur in both directions at the same time.

Sometimes called two-way-simultaneous, duplex, or both-way line.

4. Full/Full Duplex

Possible to transmit and receive simultaneously, but not necessary

between the same two locations (i.e. one station can transmit to a
second station and receive from a third station at the same time).
TIME DOMAIN REPRESENTATION
It is a plot of amplitude wrt time.
 FREQUENCY DOMAIN REPRESENTATION
It is a plot of amplitude wrt frequency.

Advantages:
1. Less Complexity
2. Stability
3. Filtering
BASEBAND SIGNAL
Pure information

PASSBAND SIGNAL
Signal after modulation
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
A system of
modulation in which
the amplitude of the
carrier is made
proportional to the Information
instantaneous or
AM
amplitude of the modulating modulator Output
modulating voltage. signal (νm) (νAM)

Carrier
Carrier voltage is (νc )
made proportional
to the instantaneous
modulating signal
General Equation of the AM wave

let the carrier voltage be given by

νc(t) = Vc sin ωc t
and the modulating voltage be given by
νm(t) = Vm sin ωm t
then the amplitude resulting from modulation is
A = Vc + νm (t) = Vc + Vm sin ωm t

Since and Vm = Vc ma, then

Therefore A = Vc + Vc ma sin ωm t
A = Vc (1 + ma sin ωm t )

The voltage of the resulting AM wave envelope at any instant is

νAM(t) = A sin ωc t
General Form
νAM(t) = Vc (1 + ma sin ωm t) sin ωc t
Standard Form

νAM(t) = Vc sin ωc t + cos (ωc - ωm) t + cos (ωc + ωm) t

carrier lower sideband upper sideband

LSB USB
where
Vc = carrier signal peak voltage
ωc = 2Π fc = carrier signal angular frequency
ωm = 2Π fm = modulating signal angular frequency
t = instantaneous time
ma = modulation index
Sideband Amplitude

𝒎𝑽𝒄 𝑽𝒎
=
𝟐 𝟐
Frequency Domain of Standard AM

graph of relative amplitude

of signal against frequency Time Domain of Standard AM

νAM(t) carrier

LSB USB

fc - fm fc fc + fm
Envelope

the curve produced by joining the tips of the

individual RF cycles of the AM waveform

envelope
AM Modulation Index (ma)

Modulation index (modulation factor,

modulation coefficient, degree of modulation,
depth of modulation)

where

; 0 < ma < 1
Percent Modulation (Ma)

modulation index expressed

as a percentage

Ma = ma x 100%

Significance of modulation index

Can detect the possibility of phase distortion

Degrees of Modulation

1. Ma < 100%
undermodulation

2. Ma = 100%
modulation

3. Ma > 100%
overmodulation
Example 1:
A modulated wave has a peak value of 2 volts. The carrier wave
equation for the voltage is 1.2 sin(20t + 15). Determine
whether the signal is overmodulated or not.

Given
Vc + Vm = 2 V
Vc = 1.2 V

Solution

ma = 0.67 (undermodulated)
Power Content of an AM Signal

PT = PC + PUSB + PLSB

PT = PC

NOTE
PUSB = PLSB
where PUSB = PLSB = PSBT =
Example 2:
A transmitter supplies 8 kW to the antenna when
unmodulated. Determine the total power radiated when
modulated to 30%.

Given
Pc = 8 kW
ma = 0.3

Solution

PT = 8.36 kW
Current and Voltage Relationships

where
IC = unmodulated carrier
IT = total or modulated current
VC = unmodulated carrier voltage
V T = total or modulated voltage
ma = modulation index
Example 3:
The antenna current of an AM transmitter is 8 A when only
the carrier is sent, but it increases to 8.93 A when the carrier
is sinusoidally modulated. Find the percentage
modulation.

Given
IC = 8 A
IT = 8.93 A

Solution

ma = 0.701

Ma = 70.1%
Simultaneous Modulation

modulation by several carrier

where
V T = total modulated voltage
IT = total modulated current
maT = effective total modulation index
Example 4:
A 360 W carrier is simultaneously modulated by 2 audio
waves with modulation percentage of 55 and 65,
respectively. What is the total sideband power radiated?

Given
PC = 360 W
Ma1 = 55%
Ma2 = 65%

Solution

PSBT = 130.5 W
 Bandwidth Formula for AM
BW = 2 x fm (single carrier modulation)

BW = 2 x fmhighest (simultaneous modulation)

Efficiency

Percentage Power Saving

NOTE:
Efficiency and power saving depends on the type of
transmission but the total transmitted power is
computed on the basis of double sideband full carrier.
Example 5:
How many AM broadcast stations can be accommodated in a
100 kHz bandwidth if the highest modulating frequency is
5 kHz?

Given
BW = 100 kHz
fmhighest = 5 kHz

Solution
BW = 2 x fmhighest
BW = 2 x 5 kHz
BW = 10 kHz
10 stations
 Types of AM Transmission Frequency Domain
1. A3E – Standard AM (DSBFC)
- Double Sideband Full Carrier
- used for broadcasting

2. A3J – DSBSC
- Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier

3. H3E – SSBFC
- Single Sideband Full Carrier
- could be used as a compatible AM
broadcasting system with A3E receivers

4. J3E – SSBSC
- Single Sideband Suppressed Carrier
- The carrier is suppressed by at least 45 dB
in the transmitter
 Types of AM Transmission Frequency Domain
5. R3E – SSBRC
- Single Sideband Reduced Carrier
- An attenuated carrier is reinserted into the
SSB signal to facilitate receiving tuning and
demodulation.
6. B8E – Independent Sideband Emission
- Two independent sidebands, with a carrier
that is most commonly attenuated or suppressed.
- Used for HF point – to – point radiotelephony
in which more than one channel is required.
7. C3F – Vestigial Sideband
- A system in which a vestige, i.e., a trace, of the
unwanted sideband is transmitted usually with
a full carrier.
- Used for video transmissions in all the world’s
various TV systems to conserve bandwidth.
8. Lincompex (for PCM)
- “Linked Compressor and Expander”
- Basically a system in which all audio
frequencies above 2.7 kHz are filtered out to
allow the presence of a control tone of 2.9 kHz
of 120 Hz.
NOTE
a) Information is present only in the sidebands.
b) During 100% modulation, 2/3 of the total power is
wasted in the carrier. The carrier power
percentage is 33.33% of the transmitted AM.
c) Information on the LSB is the same as the
information on the USB.

Single Sideband Modulation

 single sideband suppressed carrier (J3E)

 a form of amplitude modulation in which
the carrier has been cancelled out with the
balanced modulator and one of the
sidebands has been removed by using one
of the three different methods: filtr, phse-
shift and third or weaver method
Example
An AM transmitter is rated 100 W at 100% modulation. How
much is required for the carrier? What is the power required
for the audio signal?

Given
PT = 100 W
Ma = 100%

Solution
PSBT = PT – PC
PSBT = 33.33 W

PC = 66.67 W
Product Detector

 a means of single sideband detection

 mixing of high frequency component and an
incoming modulated signal on a
multiplier circuit followed by a low pass
filter

Advantages of SSB

1. power saving
2. less bandwidth
3. less noise
4. less fading
Independent Sideband (ISB) Systems

 multiplex techniques used for high – density

point – to – point communications

 simultaneously convey a totally different

transmission, to the extent that the upper
sideband could be used for telephony while the
lower sideband carries telegraphy. It consist of
two SSB channels added together to form two
sidebands around reduced carrier.
Double-Sideband Suppressed-Carrier (DSB-SC)
Single-Sideband Full-Carrier (SSB-FC)
Single-Sideband Suppressed-Carrier
Single-Sideband Reduced-Carrier (For 90% Suppression)
Percentage Power Saving
Example
Determine the power saving in percent when the carrier is
suppressed in an AM signal modulated to 80%

75.75%

PSBT = PT – PC