We'Ve Been Killing Deadly Germs With UV Light For More Than A Century - IEEE Spectrum

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ARTICLE HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY
We’ ve B e e n K i l l i ng D e a d ly G e r m s Wi t h U V
L ig ht for More Tha n a Ce nt ur y Niels Ryberg
Finsen pioneered therapeutic ultraviolet lamps and
won himself a Nobel Prize
BY ALLISON MARSH
25 AUG 2020 9 MIN READ
A quartz lens from a Finsen lamp, used to administer UV phototherapy to patients.

PHOTO: SCIENCE MUSEUM GROUP COLLECTION
2 of 19 20/06/2022, 8:50 am
  
TAGS
DAWN OF ELECTRONICS MEDICAL DEVICES COVID�19 PAST FORWARD UV LIGHT
ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT
3 of 19 20/06/2022, 8:50 am
As researchers race to find successful treatments and an eventual cure for

COVID-19, everyone is getting a real-time glimpse into the messiness of
scientific discovery. We’re all impatient for solid recommendations based
on rigorous testing and established facts, but in a fast-moving field, that’s
rarely possible. And someone always has to be the guinea pig. This was
just as true 130 years ago when Niels Ryberg Finsen began experimenting
with treating disease with UV light. He started by testing on himself.
The germ-killing properties of the sun

Finsen was far from the first to consider the disease-fighting e�ects of
light. By the end of the 19th century, the germ theory of disease had taken
root, and doctors and scientists eagerly sought treatments that had
antimicrobial properties. One of the earliest sources of hope was simple
sunlight.
In the 12 July 1877 issue of Nature, public health experts Arthur Downes
and Thomas P. Blunt published a short note called “The Influence of Light
Upon the Development of Bacteria” [subscription required]. Their claim:
Sunlight is inimical to bacteria. The authors recognized that it had long
been known that light was not essential for the development of germs, but
they thought they were the first to systematically study the e�ects and
prove that sunlight destroyed bacteria.
Downes and Blunt were clear in their stated intentions: They wanted to
link observed facts to the underlying chemical processes, and then to
extend their observations to other phenomena. They were also clear on
the limits of their inquiry. Although they hoped to report on the influence
4 of 19 20/06/2022, 8:50 am
the limits of their inquiry. Although they hoped to report on the influence
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
of refracted sunlight, they reached no definitive conclusions.
Allison Marsh is a professor at the University of South Carolina and codirector of the
university's Ann Johnson Institute for Science, Technology & Society. See full bio →
READER RESPONSES SORT BY POPULAR
Their report touched o� a flurry of scientific inquiry. John Tyndall, a

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physicist and Fellow of the Royal Society, attempted to reproduce
Downes and Blunt’s experiments, albeit under slightly di�erent PUBLISH
circumstances.
READ ALSO
Downes and Blunt had used thin glass test tubes
containing a sterilized Pasteur salt solution, which they monitored under
direct and indirect sunlight in suburban London. Tyndall conducted his
NEWS ROBOTICS
experiments in the Alps with hermetically sealed flasks of infusions of
cucumber and turnip. Video Friday: Baby Clappy
17 JUN 2022 2 MIN READ
Tyndall’s initial findings aligned with those of Downes and Blunt: Flasks
INTERVIEW ROBOTICS
exposed to strong sunlight remained free of bacteria. But when Tyndall
moved them to a warm4,000room, Robots Roam the
they developed Oceans,
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led him to
conclude that sunlight Their Crosshairsthe growth of bacteria rather than
only suppressed
17 JUN 2022 13 MIN READ
killing it outright.
Tyndall published his results

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16 JUN Dr. 3Arthur
MIN READDownes and Mr. Thomas Blunt....
Their observations are so definite that it is hardly possible to doubt their

accuracy. But they noticed anomalies which it is desirable to clear up....
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irregularities, coupled with the results above recorded, will, I trust,
induce them to repeat their experiments, with the view of determining
5 of 19 20/06/2022, 8:50 am
induce them to repeat their experiments, with the view of determining

the true limits of the important action which those experiments reveal.”
It was a polite but firm takedown. More work was needed to elucidate the
science behind the germ-killing e�ects of sunlight.
Over the next two decades, the messiness that is the process of discovery
continued to play out as investigators nailed down details in di�erent
experiments. Downes and Blunt went on to demonstrate that the
e�ectiveness of light to neutralize bacteria depended on the light’s
intensity, duration, and wavelength. Later researchers repeating Tyndall’s
experiments determined that the high particle concentration in his flasks
shielded some of the bacteria from the sun’s damaging rays. Numerous
scientists questioned, confirmed, extended, and complicated these initial
claims, as Philip Hockberger, a physiologist at Northwestern University,
has outlined in his review of the history of ultraviolet photobiology.
The Finsen lamp treated tuberculosis of the skin

Niels Ryberg Finsen entered into this fray in the 1890s. Despite an
unimpressive school record, he had studied medicine at the University of
Copenhagen. Following his graduation in 1890, he got a job preparing
dissections for anatomy classes, but he quit after three years to focus on
his research.
6 of 19 20/06/2022, 8:50 am
Niels Ryberg Finsen showed that UV light could cure tuberculosis of the skin. His
lamp could treat multiple patients at the same time. PHOTOS: WELLCOME COLLECTION
Finsen’s personal experience with illness prompted his investigations into

the medicinal qualities of light. While in his 20s, he developed what is
now known as Niemann-Pick disease, a rare genetic disorder that a�ects
the body’s ability to metabolize fats. His initial symptoms included
anemia and fatigue; by the time he died at age 44, he was in a wheelchair.
Because Finsen lived in a north-facing house, he wondered if more
exposure to sunlight would help. But being a medical man, he also
thought it would be inappropriate to apply a theory if it were not built
upon scientific fact. He decided to undertake formal studies of both
sunlight and artificial light.
Finsen began with the e�ects of sunlight on insects and amphibians,

publishing papers in 1893 and 1894, but he soon turned to the
7 of 19 20/06/2022, 8:50 am
publishing papers in 1893 and 1894, but he soon turned to the

e�ectiveness of artificial ultraviolet light. Light rays outside of the visible
spectrum and adjacent to the blue-violet were then known as “chemical
rays,” because of their ability to stimulate chemical reactions, such as
oxidizing the metallic salts used in early photography. Chemical rays were
distinct from the “heat rays” adjacent to the red-orange end of the visible
spectrum and now known as the infrared.
There were many conditions that Finsen thought might benefit from UV
light, including smallpox, typhoid, and anthrax. But he had to start
somewhere, and he made his choice almost at random. In 1895 he had
arranged to use the laboratory of the Copenhagen Electric Light Works.
One of their engineers, Niels Mogensen, su�ered from lupus vulgaris, a
skin condition that results in disfiguring lesions on the neck and face,
caused by the same bacterium responsible for tuberculosis in the lungs.
Having already tried medication and surgery, Mogensen was willing to be
Finsen’s guinea pig. After only four days of treatment with artificial light,
he showed improvement.
Finsen published the first report of his findings the next year, with details
on 11 patients with lupus vulgaris. Critics claimed that the sample size
was too small, but Finsen responded that because the treatment was
localized—light directed at a specific spot for a fixed duration—the
causality was clear. Score one for clinical tests.
For his treatments, Finsen developed an electric carbon arc light that
became known as the Finsen lamp. Initially, he used regular glass in the
lens, but soon replaced it with a fused quartz lens that provided more
uniform transmission of UV rays. A single lamp could have four to eight
8 of 19 20/06/2022, 8:50 am
uniform transmission of UV rays. A single lamp could have four to eight

tubes or arms, each of which looked like a telescope. The tubes could
direct light to multiple patients at the same time.
A nurse would press a disk firmly against the patient’s skin to prevent
blood from entering the treatment area and hindering the light’s
penetration. The light was so intense that both patients and medical
practitioners wore dark glasses to shield their eyes. Treatment occurred
daily, lasting for 1 to 2 hours per day. Mild cases could be cured in a
matter of weeks, but the average treatment lasted about seven months,
with severe cases taking over a year.
With the help of the mayor of Copenhagen and some philanthropic

donors, Finsen established the Medical Light Institute to treat lupus
vulgaris. On 12 August 1896, the institute welcomed its first two patients.
By 1901 it had treated 804 patients and claimed an impressive cure rate of
83 percent. Patients came from across Denmark and Europe, paying the
equivalent of US $18 per month for Danish citizens and $30 for
foreigners. Danes without the means to pay had their costs defrayed by
their home districts.
As word of Finsen’s success spread, Finsen Institutes began popping up

across Europe and North America. In 1900, Princess Alexandra, wife of
the future King Edward VII of the United Kingdom, was instrumental in
bringing the Finsen lamp to the U.K. Alexandra was Danish and
supported the work of her countrymen. She presented a lamp to the
Royal London Hospital, one of the lenses of which is featured at top.
Other forms of light therapy, based on sunlight and artificial light, also
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Other forms of light therapy, based on sunlight and artificial light, also
grew in popularity, for treating TB, circulatory disorders, varicose veins,
degenerative diseases, and delicate constitutions. Light therapy for pets
was faddish for a time, too.
A dog undergoes UV-ray therapy, which was thought to be effective against skin
disorders, rickets, and lameness. PHOTO: FOX PHOTOS/GETTY IMAGES
As might be expected, some of the treatments for both humans and

animals didn’t hold up to scientific scrutiny. In 1928, for example, the
medical researcher Dora Colebrook published in The Lancet a study of
237 children that showed no beneficial e�ects of therapy with sunlight or
artificial light. She was swiftly denounced in both medical journals and
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artificial light. She was swiftly denounced in both medical journals and
popular newspapers. The public—and many practicing physicians—were
convinced it worked, and treating patients and building the associated
electrical equipment were big business.
The shift to using UV lights to disinfect

In 1903, Finsen was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine, although the
award was not without controversy. Some critics argued that his
contribution did not have su�cient theoretical backing, which Finsen
didn’t deny. But he contended that if clinical experiments alone could lead
to the treatment of disease, it served no purpose to wait until an
explanation was found in a lab. Other critics saw his investigations as
superfluous, considering that knowledge of the bactericidal e�ects of UV
light had been known for decades.
Meanwhile, supporters found his treatment innovative and in the spirit of

Alfred Nobel because it benefited humanity. Those who su�ered from
lupus vulgaris faced discrimination and ostracism. In fact, Finsen’s out-
of-town patients sometimes had trouble obtaining lodging due to their
appearance. That predicament was remedied when two former patients
established a boarding house for those undergoing treatment, which
turned out to be a very lucrative investment. Finsen’s phototherapy
transformed his patients’ appearances and allowed them to live normal,
active, social lives.
Finsen was too sick to attend the Nobel Prize ceremony, and he died less
than a year later. He donated a significant portion of his prize money to
his institute, which was matched by two other donors. He also gave a
11 of 19 20/06/2022, 8:50 am
his institute, which was matched by two other donors. He also gave a
large sum to a sanatorium for heart and liver disease.
The use of phototherapy for lupus vulgaris eventually declined, especially

after penicillin became widely available. The Royal London Hospital’s
lamp was repurposed to treat rickets. In 1953, the hospital transferred the
lamp to the Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, and it now
resides in the collections of the Science Museum, London.
But even as Finsen lamps were being retired, research on UV light was
taking o� in a new direction: killing germs in the environment before they
had a chance to infect anyone.
In the 1930s, William F. Wells, an instructor in sanitary science at the

Harvard School of Public Health, introduced the idea of aerosolized
infection—droplets containing an infectious disease suspended in the air
for hours. He postulated that a room could be rid of these airborne germs
by an ultraviolet lamp and proper air circulation.
UV ventilation systems were soon being installed in schools and barracks

with the hope of controlling the spread of tuberculosis and measles.
Several later studies, though, were unable to reproduce Wells’s success.
But Richard Riley, a medical student who worked in Wells’s lab, continued
to believe and to research the e�ects of UV ventilation systems.
During the early 1970s, Riley and his colleagues published numerous
papers that confirmed aerosolized TB could be controlled through UV
ventilation. They also showed that relative humidity, temperature, the
placement of the lights, and airflow a�ected how well it worked. In the
1980s, the United States saw a spike in tuberculosis, some strains of
12 of 19 20/06/2022, 8:50 am
1980s, the United States saw a spike in tuberculosis, some strains of

which were resistant to antibiotics, and interest in Riley’s and Well’s
research was renewed.
UV lights were also found to disinfect drinking water and kill germs on
surfaces. The first UV water treatment plant was prototyped in
Marseilles, France, in 1910, but the lamp technology needed to improve
before the technology could see widespread adoption. Commercial water
treatment with UV began in the 1950s and really took o� after research in
1998 showed that UV was e�ective at killing chlorine-resistant protozoa,
such as giardia and cryptosporidium. Today, there are a whole host of
consumer products that tout the benefits of UV sterilization. I recently
bought my mom one of those pouches that have tiny UV lights for
sterilizing your keys and cellphone.
13 of 19 20/06/2022, 8:50 am
A bus in Shanghai is disinfected with UV light, to help slow the spread of the virus
that causes COVID�19. PHOTO: ZHANG HENGWEI/CHINA NEWS SERVICE/GETTY IMAGES
These days, the germicidal benefits of both sunlight and artificial UV light
are back in the spotlight as potential weapons against the coronavirus.
Much is still unknown about the virus that causes COVID-19—how it
spreads, whether immunity is short-lived or enduring, why the list of
symptoms keeps growing, why it makes some people very sick and others
not at all. As we watch this scientific process play out in real time, it might
be helpful to remember the words of Finsen upon his acceptance of the
Nobel Prize: “The supreme qualities of all science are honesty, reliability,
and sober, healthy criticism.” Trial and error, proposal and critique,
success and failure are all part of the messiness of science.
An abridged version of this article appears in the September 2020 print

issue as “The Healing Light.”
Part of a continuing serieslooking at photographs of historical artifacts

that embrace the boundless potential of technology.
About the Author

Allison Marsh is an associate professor of history at the University of
South Carolina and codirector of the university’s Ann Johnson Institute
for Science, Technology & Society.
TAGS
DAWN OF ELECTRONICS MEDICAL DEVICES COVID�19 PAST FORWARD UV LIGHT ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT
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I n o n e c o r n e r stood the defending champion, Texas Instruments. In

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eventually purchased by millions of people.
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Keep Reading ↓
19 of 19 20/06/2022, 8:50 am

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ARTICLE HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY

A quartz lens from a Finsen lamp, used to administer UV phototherapy to patients.

DAWN OF ELECTRONICS MEDICAL DEVICES COVID�19 PAST FORWARD UV LIGHT

As researchers race to ﬁnd successful treatments and an eventual cure for

The germ-killing properties of the sun

READER RESPONSES SORT BY POPULAR

Their report touched o� a ﬂurry of scientiﬁc inquiry. John Tyndall, a

Tyndall published his results

Proceedings of the Royal London, ending

Their observations are so deﬁnite that it is hardly possible to doubt their

induce them to repeat their experiments, with the view of determining

The Finsen lamp treated tuberculosis of the skin

Finsen’s personal experience with illness prompted his investigations into

Finsen began with the e�ects of sunlight on insects and amphibians,

publishing papers in 1893 and 1894, but he soon turned to the

uniform transmission of UV rays. A single lamp could have four to eight

With the help of the mayor of Copenhagen and some philanthropic

As word of Finsen’s success spread, Finsen Institutes began popping up

As might be expected, some of the treatments for both humans and

The shift to using UV lights to disinfect

Meanwhile, supporters found his treatment innovative and in the spirit of

The use of phototherapy for lupus vulgaris eventually declined, especially

In the 1930s, William F. Wells, an instructor in sanitary science at the

UV ventilation systems were soon being installed in schools and barracks

1980s, the United States saw a spike in tuberculosis, some strains of

An abridged version of this article appears in the September 2020 print

Part of a continuing serieslooking at photographs of historical artifacts

About the Author

ARTICLE HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY

Charles Babbage’s Difference Engine Turns 200

ARTICLE HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY

Did J.J. Thomson Discover the Electron?

NEWS CONSUMER ELECTRONICS

Evaluating Mobile Health Tools Is Comparing Apples to Oranges

FEATURE HISTORY OF TECHNOLOGY

11 JUN 2022 15 MIN READ   

I n o n e c o r n e r stood the defending champion, Texas Instruments. In

pioneering product introduced in 1972 as the SX-70, a camera

As the embodiment of truly automated instant photography, the SX-70

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