CHAPTER THREE

THE TOPOGRAPHY OF ETHIOPIA AND THE

HORN
• Brainstorming questions
• What is ….geology
• What is the
environmental and
socio-economic, and
political implications of
Ethiopian topography?
• What expression of
‘Ethiopia is a roof of
East Africa’ implies?
 3.1 INTRODUCTION
 The topography of Ethiopia is largely determined by the geologic activities of the Cenozoic Era. The
uplifting of the Arabo-Ethiopian swell & the subsequent outpouring, spreading & thick accumulation of
Trapean lava have given rise to an outward sloping highland plateau & mountains.
 The major faulting resulted in the division (bisected) of the plateau (Elevated plain) into two broad
units & the formation of a great structural valley. Faulting elsewhere & on the floor guided part of the
course of some rivers. They also formed depressions on which lakes were subsequently created.
 Geomorphic processes brought some modification to the structural landform by river dissection &
roughening on the highlands, & deposition on the lower areas.
General Characteristics of the Ethiopian Physiography
 The Ethiopian landform is characterized by great diversity where there are flat-topped
plateaus, valleys, high & rugged Mts, deep river gorges & vast plains.
 Altitude varies/ranges from 125m below sea level at the Dallol depression (Kobar Sink) to
4,620 m.a.s.l (Ras Dashen), which is the highest Mt (peak) in Ethiopia & 4th highest Mt
in Africa.

 Ethiopia has the largest proportion of elevated landmass in Africa, which is described as
the Roof of East Africa (because of its height & large area).
 Ethiopian landmass above 1,000m elevation is more than 50% & above 1,500m is 44% - half of this
(22%) exceeds 2,000m a.s.l.

 Most of the Highlands of Ethiopia are in central & northern parts, and its northernmost portion
extends into Eritrea. Altitudes increase from the peripheries to the centers.
 General Characteristics of the Ethiopian Physiography……

 The highland core, on the other hand, is encircled by semi-arid & lowlands. The Ethiopian Highlands
are rugged mass of mountains, situated in the Horn of Africa.

 Highlands are the most significant physical features of the country, which form the largest
continuous area of its elevation in the continent.

 Highlands are dissected by several rivers & ravines (gully-like) which have cut deep gorges. They are
divided into several regions & mountain systems.

 Most of the country consists of high plateau & mountain ranges which are sources of many rivers &
streams that made Ethiopia to be described as the “Water Tower of East Africa.”

 Diversity of the topography contributed/brought for differences in:

 Natural features such as soil, climate, vegetation & wildlife; and

 Socio-cultural & economic phenomena / attributes are also affected by the topography;

 In general, he altitude plays a significant role in determining the climate, natural vegetation, drainage
systems as well human activities in the region.

 The 1,000m elevation is a demarcation between the highland & lowlands of Ethiopia.
 General Characteristics of the Ethiopian Physiography……
Characteristics of Ethiopian highlands:
a) Moderate & high amount of rainfall (>600 mm per/year).

b) Lower mean annual temperature (<200C).

c) Favorable climate for biotic life.

d) Rain-fed agriculture is possible.

e) Free from tropical diseases, and

f) Attractive for human habitation & dense settlement.

 The cumulative effect of all this is that, the highlands have been significant throughout Ethiopian history in the
economic, cultural & political life of the people.

 Highlands constituting 56% of Ethiopia. This further subdivided into: - lower highlands (1,000 - 2,000m a.s.l) –
account 34%; - Higher highlands (>2,000m a.s.l) - constitute 22%.

 Lowlands constituting 44% of Ethiopia are characterized by:

a) Fewer /Low rainfall & high temperature;

b) High prevalence of tropical diseases;

c) Low population densities;

d) Nomadic & semi-nomadic economic activity; and

e) Vast plain land favorable for irrigation farming in lower river basins/catchments.
 3.2 The physiographic division of Ethiopia
• Which geological era and forces were
responsible for the formation of
Ethiopian physiography?
• What are the major physiographic
divisions of Ethiopia?
• What biophysical characteristics can be
mentioned about areas under rift in
Ethiopia?
• Q The difference in altitude between the
lowest and highest point in Ethiopia is
______
 Following the structural divisions brought
about by the geologic processes of the
Cenozoic Era, three major physiographic units
can be identified in Ethiopia (In terms of the
geological & structural features that resulted
from the two types of forces, the relief of
Ethiopia & the Horn can be divided into three
main physiographic divisions).
 3.2 Physiographic Divisions of Ethiopia
 Ethiopia has three major physiographic division/ units, which are shaped by geologic processes (from the two types of
forces/ landforms are the work of two opposite forces ) of Cenozoic Era. These are:
1) The Western highlands & lowlands 44%
2) The Southeastern (Eastern) highlands & lowlands 37%
3) The Rift Valley 18%
3.2.1 The Western Highlands & Lowlands 44%
 This physiographic unit:
 Includes/refers to the whole west of the Rift Valley, which accounts 44% of the country area (It makes up about 44% of the
area of the country.); the 1st largest physiographic region in Ethiopia.
 Extends north-to-south, covering nearly the whole western half of Ethiopia;
 In the east bounded by western escarpment of the Rift Valley;
 Descends gradually in altitude westward until it reaches to the western foothills & lowlands along Sudan & S. Sudan
border.
 This physiographic region is further subdivided into four highland groups (76.3%) & four lowland groups (23.7%):
a) Tigray plateau c) Shewa plateau (central highlands) e) Western lowlands
b) North-Central massif d) Southwestern highlands

The Western Highlands

 Stretch from Ras Kassar in Eritrea to the highlands of Gamo-Goffa in southwestern Ethiopia. This
category, consists the following main categories:
a) The Tigray plateau 13% c) The Shewa plateau (central highlands) 11 %
a) North-Central massif 42.3% d)The Southwestern highlands 22.7
 3.2.1 The Western Highlands & Lowlands….

1) The Tigray plateau:

 The Plateau of Tigray is the most northerly plateau in Ethiopia.
 Extends from Tekeze Gorge in south to central Eritrean highlands.
 The Tigray plateau is separated from the Eritrean plateau by Mereb/ Gash River.
 It lies to the southeast of the upper course of the Mereb/Gash River & to the northeast of Tekeze River Gorge.
 Constitutes about 13% of the area of the region.
 It is an elongated highland with most of the land being in between 1,000 & 2,000 m a.s.l;
 Is drained by the right bank tributaries of Tekeze (The right bank tributaries of Tekeze drain this plateau);
 It is an area composed largely of sandstones & limestones, as the overlying basalt have been eroded. As a result, the
soils are poor & thin. The plateau has been exposed to severe erosion due to long periods of human
inhabitation.
 Long period of denudation has created residual features of granite hills, rugged topography, & Ambas (Is featured by
granite hills, rugged topography & Ambas created by long period denudation);
 There are high mountains in this plateau with elevations of over 3000 meters, like :
 Mount Tsibet (3988m), Mount Ambalage (3291m) &
 Mount Assimba (3248m a.s.l);
 The famous monastery at Debre-Damo, a tableland that can only be climbed by a rope pulley is also located in this
plateau region.
 3.2.1 The Western Highlands & Lowlands….

2) North Central Massifs:

 Is the largest (with 42.3% area) in the western physiographic region; ( the 1st largest in
the region)
 Much of its northern and southern limit follows the Abay and Tekeze gorges (Is limited
largely by Abay gorge in south & Tekeze gorge in north);
 The Tekezze, together with its tributaries, is the main river that drains the region.
 Is cut (by Abay, Tekeze & their tributaries into a complex/maze system of gorges, steep
river valleys, isolated plateaus, blocks, very steep / precipitous/ tablelands & other rugged
surface forms /landforms);
 Much of its plateau & tablelands (Ambas) are covered/caped/ by Trappean lava;
 In its central part, consists of Lake Tana basin surrounded by plains of Fogera & Dembia
in north & an upland plain in its south;
 Has 58% area being > 2000m a.s.l, making it, next to the Shewan plateau, the 2nd most
elevated region;
 3.2.1 The Western Highlands & Lowlands….

 The region consists of the Gonder, Wello & Gojjam Massifs. Out of the 26 mountain peaks with
altitude of more than 4,000m.a.s.l in Ethiopia, 19 mountain peaks /tops are found in this physiographic
region (The highest number of peak point found in this massif/NCM) .
 These Mts have steep cliffs & rugged terrain that provide scenic views to climbers such as:
 Simen Mt system: Ras Dashen (4,620m), Weynobar/Ancua (4462m), Kidis-Yared (4453m), & Bwahit
(4437m);
 Debre Tabour Mt system: Guna (4,231m),
 Lasta highlands (in Wello): Abune Yoseph (4,260m),
 Choke Mt system (in Gojjam): Birhan (4,154m),
 Mt systems of Gonder & Gojjam are separated from the eastern Mt systems of Wello by
impenetrable & deep gorges even if they are connected by Yeju-Wadla Delanta land bridge (ridge) at
one point. (Tekezze River has divided the North Central Massif area into western (South
Gonder/Semien) & eastern massifs (Lasta & Wollo Massifs. South of these is found the Gojjam
Massif), which are connected by the Yejju-Wadla-Dilanta plateau). The eastern forms the watershed of
the Nile drainage basin.
 Yeju-Wadla Delanta ridge/range had served as a route for Turks, Portuguese & Italians.
 The Woreta-Debre Tabor-Woldya road is constructed on Yeju-Wadla Delanta range to link the NW
region with Asseb through Woldya & Dessie (took advantage of this land bridge).
 3.2.1 The Western Highlands & Lowlands….

3) Shewa Plateau (Central Highlands):

 It is a dome-shaped plateau with a crescent shape at centre that serves as a watershed between the Awash &
Abbay River basins.
 The Shewa Plateau is bounded/ separated/ by:
 the Rift Valley in east & southeast,
 by Abay gorge in north & western limit, and Omo gorge in south & west.
 Is the smallest (11%) sub-region of the Western highlands;
 Occupies a central geographical position in Ethiopia;
 Has 3/4th (75%) area being > 2,000m high, i.e., most elevated from western highlands (It has,
therefore, the largest proportion of elevated ground);
 Is drained, outward in all directions, by tributaries of Abay, Omo & Awash – a watershed/ a water divide/ of these
three rivers (The Plateau of Shewa is drained by the tributaries of the Abbay River in the west & the Awash River in
the east).
 The tributaries of Abay like Guder, Muger, Jema etc. have cut deep gorges and steep sided river valleys.
 Is dissected by tributaries of Omo in southwestern part & by tributaries of Awash in its south & eastern parts.
 They have created several tablelands & isolated plateau units in the north.

 Has relatively extensive flat-topped uplands giving it appearance of a true plateau.

 Has high Mts like Abuye-Meda (4,000m) in North Shewa & Mount Guraghe (3,721m) in the south (Guraghe
Zone);


 3.2.1 The Western Highlands & Lowlands….

4) Southwestern Highlands:

 Consists of highlands of Wellega, Illuababora, Jimma, Kaffa, Gamo & Gofa;

 Is separated from from the adjacent highlands (North-Central Massif) by Abay & (from Shewa
Plateau) by Omo river valley;

 It extends from the Abay gorge in the north to the Kenya border & Chew Bahir
in the south, and the Rift Valley in east;.
 Accounts 22.7% of the Western Physiographic Region & is the 2nd largest in the
region (Western highland) followed by North-Central massif .
 About 70% of its area being b/n 1,000 - 2,000m altitude;
 Is the wettest district (i.e. gets rainfall in most of the year) in Ethiopia;
 3.2.1 The Western Highlands & Lowlands….

4) Southwestern Highlands…

 Is drained by:
 Dabus, Deddessa (Abay tributaries) northwards,
 Baro, Akobo (westwards)&
 Ghibe/Omo rivers (southwards), which ends in Lake Turkana (southwards). Eastwards, by
the right-bank tributaries of the Omo-Ghibe (the GojebGhibe River of Jima & Yem
zone)
 The numerous streams have cut these highlands to produce the most dissected & rugged
terrain that hosted the most diverse ethnic-linguistic groups in Ethiopia.
 The general elevation of these highlands is relatively low, when compared to that of the Northern &
Eastern Highlands. Only a few areas are above 2500 meters.

 Its highest peak is Guge Mt (4,200m a.s.l), which is part of Gamo plateau
(highlands);
 3.2.1 The Western Highlands & Lowlands….

5) The Western Lowlands (Along Ethio-Sudan boarder):

 These are the western foothills & border plains extending from Western Tigray (in the north ) to southern Gamo-Gofa (in the
South).

 Their continuity is interrupted by part of the highlands in certain places (In certain places, ridges or part of the
highlands protrude into the lowlands, interrupting their continuity).
 Account 11% area of the western physiographic region.
 Has elevation ranges of 500 - 1000m a.s.l.

 This physiographic sub-region is further subdivided into four by the protruding ridges. These are:
 Tekeze lowland,
 Abay-Dinder lowland,
 Baro lowland, &
 Ghibe lowland from north to south;

 With the except of Baro-lowland, the region is characterized by arid or semi-arid condition;
 Is dominated by pastoral or semi-pastoral economic activities;
 Its aridity increases from South-to-North, making rain-fed farming more difficult;
 3.2.1 The Western Highlands & Lowlands….

5) The Western Lowlands (Along Ethio-Sudan boarder)…..

 Since one or two rivers cross all of these lowlands, irrigation agriculture is highly feasible (Is
largely suitable for irrigation farming since these lowlands);
a) Are crossed by Baro, Abay, Tekeze rivers & their tributaries;
b) Have extensive cultivable land; e.g. Baro-lowland is suitable for mechanized farming:
(For example, the Baro lowland has an extensive flat area suitable for mechanized agriculture);
 The Ghibe/Omo lowland (Includes lower Ghibe/Omo Valley & northern Turkana basin) is
classified in the Western lowlands from its geographical location (due to its vicinity to the sub-
region); but structurally it also belongs to the Rift Valley.
 It is an area, which is both faulted & tectonically depressed
 In the Western lowlands, there are small but important towns. Consists of vital towns (in terms
of agriculture, history, or are simply border towns & frontier ports) like Humera, Metema,
Omedla, Kurmuk, Gambella, etc. that serve as business centres for the communities living along
the Ethio Sudanese border.
 3.2.2 The Southeastern Highlands & Lowlands

3.2.2 The Southeastern (Eastern) Highlands & Lowlands 37%

 The Southeastern Highlands (46%) & Lowlands Region (54%) :
 With 37% area of Ethiopia is the 2nd largest physiographic region (It accounts for 37% of the area of
Ethiopia).
 The highlands make up 46% of the physiographic division while the lowlands accounts 54 % area
 In the west and north, the eastern escarpment of the Rift Valley makes the western and northern limit
 In many places the land raises so abruptly that from the edge of the plateau one literally looks down the
Rift Valley.
 Its land descends southeastward to the southeastern lowlands & Somalia plains;
 Is sub-divided into Two units of highlands & Two units/ groups of extensive lowlands :
 Two units of highlands: i- Arsi-Bale-Sidama Highlands & ii- Hararghe Plateau
 Two units/ groups of extensive lowlands: i- Wabishebelle Plain (60%) & ii- Ghenale Plain (40%)
 3.2.2 The Southeastern Highlands & Lowlands…

 Two groups of Southeastern Highlands:

1) Arsi-Bale-Sidama Highlands: Are found east of the Rift Valley Lakes Region.
 Are located in the southwestern part of the physiographic region.
 Accounts 62% of the SE- highlands & 28.5% of the area of the region
 The Aris Highland
 are made up of flat rolling uplands & dissected mountains
 The well known Mts like- Kaka (4,180 m), Bada (4,139m) & Chilalo (4,036m) a.s.l.

 Bale highlands
 are separated from Arsi highlands by the head (upper) & main stream of Wabishebelle river.
 Consists of a platform looking basaltic plateau in its north-central part & high Mt massifs in its south;

 Afro-Alpine summit of Senetti plateau is found Bale.

 Tulu-Demtu (4,377m) & Batu (4,307m) are the highest Mt peaks;

 Has erosion features belonging to Pleistocene glaciation, which were modified by fluvial processes like trough-like gorges,
hanging valleys, & depressions.

 The Arsi-Bale Highlands are important grains producing areas with still high potential.
 3.2.2 The Southeastern Highlands & Lowlands…

 The Sidama Highlands

- Are separated from Bale Highlands by Ghenale river valley
- They occupy the southwestern corner of this region.
- The prominent feature here is the Jemjem plateau, an important
coffee growing area.

 Rivers Wabishebelle & Ghenale along with their tributaries have dissected this
physiographic region.
 Specially, Weyb River, tributary of Ghenale, has cut an underground passage (Sof Omar
cave, near Bale Mts) through Mesozoic Limestone rocks.
 It is one of the World's most spectacular & extensive underground caverns creating
accessible only by underground stream.
 3.2.2 The Southeastern Highlands & Lowlands…

2) Hararghe Plateau:
 This plateau is a north-easterly extension of the south-eastern highlands.
 It is a low-lying & elongated region;
 Extends from Chercher highlands (in the S. west) to Jigjiga (in east);
 Accounts 38% of the southeastern (Eastern) highlands & 17.4% of the whole physiographic
region.
 Has the smallest proportion of upper highland (>2,000m meters).
 Rising sharply from the Rift Valley floor, it immediately but gently descends east & southeastward

 The left-bank tributaries of Wabishebelle drain it (Is drained by left-bank tributaries of

Wabishebelle).

 Its Mesozoic rocks are widely exposed since much of its Trappean lava is removed;
 Has its highest peak (Mt.) Gara-Muleta (3,381m a.s.l);
 Southeastern Lowlands
The Southeastern Lowlands
 Located in the south-eastern part of the country.
 The most extensive lowlands in Ethiopia & is make up around 1/5th of Ethiopia;
 Account 54% of the southeastern region, which are grouped into:
1) Wabishebelle Plain: accounts 60% of the southeastern lowlands
2) Ghenale Plain: accounts 40% of the southeastern lowlands;
 The Southeastern lowlands:
 Include plains of Ogaden, Elkere & Borena.
 Are characterized by southeastward sloping plain.
 These extensive plains are interrupted by low hills & ridges, inselbergs, shallow & broad river valleys, etc.;
 Because of the harsh climatic conditions, these lowlands are little used & support very small population.
 They are sparsely inhabited by pastoral & semi-pastoral communities.
 Economic potential for animal husbandry/rearing, irrigation, agriculture & petroleum & natural gas extraction.
 3.2.3 Rift Valley

3.2.3 Rift Valley: the Ethiopian Rift Valley:

 Is a tectonically formed structural depression;
 Is bounded by two major (more or less) parallel escarpments;
 The formation of the Rift Valley has separated the Ethiopian Highlands and Lowlands in to two (Has separated
Ethiopian highlands & lowlands into two: NW & SE);
 Extends from Afar triangle (north) to Chew Bahir (south) for about 1,700 km2.
 Covers 18% of the area of Ethiopia.
 Is elongated & funnel shaped, with a NE-SW orientation.
 Is the widest in Afar Triangle & narrows down to the south (It opens out in the Afar Triangle, where it is the widest,
& narrows down to the south).
 The floor of RV is made up of interconnected troughs/depressions, grabens, volcanic rocks, fluvial & lacustrine
deposits;
 In many places, numerous volcanic domes, hills & cinder cones rise from the floor.
 Altitude in the floor ranges from 125m below sea level at Dallol Depression, to as high as 2,000m a.s.l in the Lakes
region.
 The bounding escarpments are also of varying heights. Height of RV escarpments (from the floor to its tips) vary
from 200 to 1500m.
 3.2.3 Rift Valley

 Because of its altitudinal variation & positional differences, the climate

also varies from warm, hot & dry to cool & moderately moist conditions.
 Its social & economic life reflects pattern of climate variations; i.e. where some people practice
pastoralism (desolate /isolated& sparsely inhabited) & others rain-fed farming;

 The Rift Valley is divided into three physiographic sub-regions: The:

i) Afar Triangle 54%

ii) Main Ethiopian Rift (Lakes Region)

iii) Chew Bahir Rift

 3.2.3 Rift Valley…

i) Afar Triangle: the largest & widest part of the Rift Valley, constituting 54% of the Rift Valley area;

 Is bounded by high western (in the west) & eastern escarpments (in the east), and by Afar & Aisha Horst in
northeast;
 Is low in altitude (300 – 700 m); generally hot & dry
 Is triangular-shape lowland where elevation drops uniformly from 1,000m in its SW to below sea level in its
north (Danakil depression) & where shores of Lake Asale fluctuate at 125m b.s.l. in east, represent the lowest
subaerial point in Africa;
 The depression is one of the most hostile env’ts on earth where Mx temperature exceed 50°C during summer at
Dallol (northern tip of Afar);
 Characterized by faulted depressions/grabens, volcanic hills, active volcanoes, volcanic ridges, lava fields & low
lava platforms.
 Some of its basins are occupied by Abe, Asale & Afrera lakes.
 A prominent feature in this region is the Denakil Depression (Kobar Sink). Which is :
- Separated from Red Sea by land barrier with 200m high;
- A larger part of this is covered by thick & extensive salt plain;
 Lake Asale & Lake Afrera occupy the lowest parts of this sunken depression
 The economic importance includes salt extraction, irrigation (along Awash River) & electric potential from
geothermal energy;
 3.2.3 Rift Valley

ii) The Main Ethiopian (Central) Rift or Lakes Region:

 Is the narrow belt of Rift Valley extending from Awash River in north to Chamo lake in south.

 It is bounded by the western & eastern escarpments.

 Except Arba-Minch (area where escarpments are high), the bounding escarpments are generally low;

 This part of the Rift Valley is the narrowest (average width of 50-80 km) & the highest 1,000 - 2,000m
a.s.l).

 The floor is dotted by cinder cones & volcanic Mts, e.g. Fentale, Boseti-guda (near Adama), Aletu (north
of Lake Ziway) & Chebi (north of Lake Hawasa)

 Is featured by numerous lakes formed on tectonic sags & fault depressions.

 Because of altitude, the lakes region of the Main Ethiopian Rift is generally milder & watery & where rain-
fed agriculture is practiced (Sedentary farming is practiced here);

 Is useful for recreation (i.e. the lakes), for agriculture (streams & lakes), and for geothermal energy.
 3.2.3 Rift Valley

iii) Chew Bahir Rift (Southern Subdivision): It is also known as the Omo-Ghibe trough.

 Is the smallest & the southern-most part of the Rift Valley.

 Gneissic highlands of Konso & the surrounding highlands separate it from the Main Ethiopian
Rift to the north;

 Is featured characterized by broad & shallow depression, which is a marshy area covered by tall
grass, into which Segen & Woito streams empty/discharge.
 3.3 Impacts of Relief on Biophysical & Socioeconomic Conditions

3.3 Impacts of Relief on Biophysical & Socioeconomic Conditions

 Topography influences biophysical conditions of Ethiopia such as:
1) Impacts on Climate:
 The climate of Ethiopia is a result of the tropical position of the country & the great altitudinal
variation of the general topography.

 Highlands have high rainfall, low evapo-transpiration & moisture surplus;

 Lowlands have low rainfall, high evapo-transpiration & moisture deficit;
2) Impacts on Soil: Steep Mt slopes provide low angle of rest, unstable surface materials and
subject to degradation processes and relatively form shallow and little developed soils.

3) Impacts on Natural vegetation: Relief through its effect on climate & hydrology affect the
type of natural vegetation grown in an area (topography indirectly influences distribution of
vegetation by directly affecting rainfall, temperature & soil).
 3.3 Impacts of Relief on Biophysical & Socioeconomic Conditions

 Landscape influences socio-economic conditions of Ethiopia such as:

Agricultural practices, Settlement pattern, Transport & communication,
Hydroelectric potential & Socio-cultural feeling.
1) Agricultural practices: the relief/rugged topography affects/influences:
 Farm-size, shape, methods/techniques & tools of farming; e.g. mechanized farming are
difficult to practice (In an area of rugged terrain the farmlands are small in size &
fragmented and tend to be irregular in shape);
 Crop types grown/production; e.g. barley & wheat in highlands & maize & sorghum in
lowlands;

 Animal husbandry; e.g. equines/mule/horse/ & sheep are reared in highlands

& camels & goat in lowlands;
 3.3 Impacts of Relief on Biophysical & Socioeconomic Conditions

2) Settlement pattern: is affected by topography; for example:

 Highlands of Ethiopia that experience a temperate/cool type of climate that are mainly free from most of the
tropical diseases are densely settle;
 The Dev’t & expansion of settlement is hindered by rugged & difficult terrain ;
 Settlements are sedentary life & permanent in highlands & temporary & inhabited by pastoralists in
lowlands;

Q Where do we commonly find temporary settlements in Ethiopia?

3) Transport & communication: the rugged & dissected landscape:
 Is hindering transport dev’t, which led to isolation of several communities;
 Has made dev’t & maintenance of infrastructures costly (expensive);
 Is restricting TV & radio communication;

 Has made rivers less navigable due to waterfalls, deep & steep gorges.
 3.3 Impacts of Relief on Biophysical & Socioeconomic Conditions

4) Hydroelectric potential: the high altitudinal difference coupled with high rainfall created suitable
conditions for very high hydro-power generating potential in Ethiopia;

5) Socio-cultural feeling: the rugged & dissected terrain resulted in:

 Long-term isolation of communities leads to the occurrence of diverse cultures;

 People who live in highlands identifying themselves as Degegnas (mountaineers) & those who live
in lowlands as Kolegnas (Lowlanders).

Review QuestionsAnswer the following questions briefly.

1. What are the impacts of relief on the biophysical and socioeconomic conditions of
Ethiopia?

2. Discuss the physiographic characteristics of the southeastern highlands and lowlands.

 CHAPTER FOUR
DRAINAGE SYSTEMS AND WATER RESOURCE
OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
• Brain storming activity
• What is drainage and
drainage system?
• What is mean by Ethiopia is
‘Water Tower of Eastern
Africa’?
• What are the Major
Drainage Systems of
Etiopia?
4.1 Introduction
4.1 Introduction: 71% of earth surface is water; i.e. largely seas & oceans.

 Of this, nearly 97.5% is alkaline accumulated in seas & oceans. Most of the Earth's water is in salty oceans & sea

 The rest 2.5% is fresh water (Water that contains little or no dissolved salt ), of which nearly:

 68.7% is deposited in glaciers, 1.71 (Not easily available for human use)

 30.1% is ground water (The supply of freshwater under the Earth's surface), 0.75

 0.8% is permafrost (permanently frozen), 0.2 and

 0.4% is surface water. 0.01 (The smallest percentage of fresh water)

 surface water are Water in lakes, rivers, atmosphere, soils & wetlands .
4.1 Introduction…
 Surface & ground water is most abundant & easily available fresh water.

 However, fresh water is distributed unevenly throughout the world following varied latitudinal
locations, climatic & topographic setups. Ethiopia’s surface water potential is estimated at 124.4
billion m3.

 That is why Ethiopia is said water tower of Eastern Africa;

 Around 0.7 % of the total land mass of Ethiopia is covered by water bodies.

4.2 Major Drainage System of Ethiopia:

 Drainage – is the flow/removal of water through well-defined channel;

 System – is a whole made up of d/t component parts (Systems refers to the direction & destination of the rivers);

 Drainage system is made up of a principal river & its tributaries (the rivers that flow into it);

 A river system begins at a place called the source or headwater & ends at a point called mouth (Where
the river meets the sea).

 Therefore, a drainage system (drainage network) is branched network of stream channels together
with the adjacent land slopes they drain. It is expressed as endoric, exotric and aeric.

 The drainage pattern of an area is the outcome of the geological processes, nature & structure of
rocks, topography, slope, amount & the periodicity of the flow (Patterns is the fabric or surface
arrangement of the main rivers & their tributaries).
 4.2 Major Drainage System of Ethiopia
 The drainage patterns & systems of Ethiopia are the results of various structural events that took place in the
Cenozoic era.

 A drainage basin is the topographic region from which a river & its tributaries collect both the surface
runoff & subsurface flow (The area of land where rain is collects). A drainage/ a river basin - An area
drained by a river & its tributaries.

 It is bounded by & separated from other river basins by a water divide or topographic divide (Is
bounded by & separated from other river basins by a ridge/range known as watershed /topographic
divide/parting); Q What divides drainage basin?

 The general patterns of major river basins in Ethiopia are determined by topographical structures which can be
clarified as:

a) The Topography of the Outward sloping landscape of Western & Southeastern plateaus/highlands;

b) Inward-sloping structures (escarpments) of Rift-Valley that resulted in inland-drainage systems;

c) Faults & joints that structurally affected part of courses of many rivers;

The Major Drainage Systems

Why do rivers rise from higher slope and flow towards the lower? Which is a factor affecting classification of drainage system?

 Following the complex physiographic setup & geological makeup, Ethiopia has 3 broad drainage systems: (1) The
Western drainage system, (2) The Southeastern drainage system, & (3) Rift Valley drainage system;

 Western & the South-eastern drainage systems are separated by the Rift Valley system
.
 4.2.1 The Western (Mediterranean) Drainage System: (WDS)
 Is the largest of all drainage systems both in aerial extent & volume of water outflow, draining 40% of Ethiopian area;
and carry 60% of the annual water flow of the country. Carry 87.7% (102.4 billion m3) of the annual water flow of
Ethiopia;

 Largely coexists with the westward-sloping western highlands & lowlands;

 Comprises 4 major river basins: Tekeze, Abay, Baro-Akobo & Ghibe (Omo);

 Unlike its other rivers, Ghibe (Omo) flows southward;

 Abay, Tekeze & Baro flow westward, join Nile & end at Mediterranean Sea.
1) Abay: in the Western Drainage System (WDS), Abay:
 The largest river both in volumetric discharge (annual water flow & coverage /area (199,812km2) in the WDS
 Covers parts of Amhara, Oromia & Benishangul-Gumuz regions;
 Together with its tributaries, most of which are left-bank tributaries; it carries 65 % of the annual water flow of the
region.
 Originates from Tana (or Sekel, Choke Mt), flows about 1450km, joins the White Nile at Khartoum (Sudan) &
forms Nile River;

 Is drained by over 60 streams with elevation ranging 500 – 4261m a.s.l & of which Gilgel-Abay is the largest;

 Flows eastward, turns 1800 making huge bend & deep gorge emerges out in the west.
4.2.1 The Western drainage system …
2) Tekeze: in the Western Drainage System (WDS), Tekeze:
 Has an estimated mean total annual flow of 8.2 billion m3.

 Accounts 8% of the annual water flow of the region (WDS);

 Tekeze & its tributaries, carrying 12 % of the annual water flow of the region, drains 82,350 Km2
area with elevation ranging 536 – 4517m;

 Has large tablelands, plateaus & isolated Mts resulted from erosion;

 Has two main tributaries (Angereb & Goang), which rises from northern highlands of Ethiopia.

 Is known as Atbara in Sudan, which is a tributary of the Nile River.

3) Baro-Akobo: in the Western Drainage System (WDS), Baro-Akobo:
 Has an estimated mean total annual flow of 23.6 billion m3;

 Caries 17% of the annual water flow of the region (WDS);

 Drains 75,912 km2 area in the wettest highlands (in the southwestern) district;

 Covers parts of Benishangul-Gumuz, Gambella, Oromia & SNNPR;

 Flows across extensive marshy plain in lower course of Baro;

 Is known as Sobat River in South Sudan (The Baro together with Akobo forms the Sobat River in South Sudan ).
4.2.1 The Western drainage system …
4) Ghibe-Omo: in Western Drainage System (WDS), Ghibe-Omo basin:
 Has an estimated mean total annual flow of 16.6 billion m3/BMC;

 Caries 6% of the annual water flow;

 Drains 79,000 km2 area in the wettest south & southwestern part;

 Empties/drains into Chew-Bahir at the mouth of an elongated Rift-Valley lake i.e. Turkana (also
called Lake Rudolph) - thereby forming an inland drainage;

 Is not part of the Rift-Valley DS since its largest share (%) of catchment area & water flow is from
the western highlands.

 The Baro-Akobo & Ghibe / Omo rivers drain the wettest highlands in the south & S.western
Ethiopia.

4.2.2 The Southeastern Drainage System (SDS)

 SDS: - covers nearly the entire southeastern region of Ethiopia is drained by the SDS;
- Has mainly drained by Wabishebelle & Ghenale, slopes south-eastwards across
large water deficient plains;
- Covers Arsi, Bale, Sidama & Harerghe highlands & plateau;
 Wabshebelle & Ghenale rivers cross the border into Somalia, carrying 25 % of the annual
water flow of Ethiopia. This system is the second largest drainage system.
4.2.2 The Southeastern Drainage System (SDS)
1) Wabishebelle River Basin: in the SDS, Wabishebelle basin:
 Has the largest river in terms of catchment area (202,697 km2) in Ethiopia;

 Drains parts of Oromia, Harari & Somali regions;

 Has annual flow of 3.4 billion m3 ;

 It is the longest river in Ethiopia;

 Its tributaries are largely left-bank & mostly intermittent;

 Disappears in the sands of Somalia near Juba river (does not/fails reach Indian Ocean).

2) Genale-Dawa River Basin: in the SDS, Genale basin:

 Has fewer tributaries but carries more water than Wabishebelle (having 3.4 billion m3);

 Reaches the Indian Ocean;

 Has catchment area of 171,042 km2; covering parts of Oromia, SNNPR, & Somali regions

 Has an estimated annual flow of 5.8 billion m3

 Drains areas with elevation ranging within 171 - 4385 m;

 Is known as Juba River in Somalia;

Figure: Drainage Basins of Ethiopia

Source: CSA shapefile, 2012

4.2.3 The Rift-Valley Drainage System (RVDS):
 Receives low rainfall & experiences high evaporation;
 Has small catchment area;
 Is restricted by the outward-sloping highlands, which start just from edges of its (RV) escarpments;
 Its catchment area is limited to slopes of its escarpments & its floor;
 Has many streams, which are largely intermittent;
 Has no one general flow direction as its streams flow in all directions;

 Has only one major river, i.e. Awash Basin;

 Awash River Basin: Has catchment area of 114,123 km2;
 average annual flow of 4.9 billion m3 (4.2% of the annual flow of Ethiopia);

 Originates/Stems from Shewan plateau (in the central highlands of Ethiopia);

 Flows 1250 km in northeast direction to lake Abe at Ethio-Djibouti border;

 Ends in a maze of small lakes & marshy area, of one is lake Abe;

 Covers parts of Amhara, Oromia, Afar, Somali, Dire Dawa & Addis Ababa

 Awash is the most utilized river in the country.

 The RVDS:
 Contains Afar-drainage basin, which has no stream flow due to little rainfall, & high temperature
& high evaporation;

 Has Afrera & Asale lakes which are the only surface water in Afar basin which are not the result of
any meaningful surface flow. Their formation is related to tectonic activities.

 Has many lakes & small streams in its middle & southern part; i.e. the part known as the Lakes
Region (The Southern part of the Rift Valley sub-basin is characterized by a number of lakes & small
streams. It is also described as lakes region), where there are:

 A number of lakes that occupied fault depressions, and;

 Small streams flowing down from the Mts & supply water to the lakes;

 For example: - Meki & Katar Rivers flow into Ziway;

• - Bilate into Abaya; and

• - Segen into Chew Bahir.

 Some of these lakes are interconnected: Ziway & Langano drain into lake Abijiata through
Bulbula & Horakelo streams, respectively (Ziway drain into lake Abijiata through Bulbula &
Langano drain into lake Abijiata through Horakelo streams) ;
4.3 Water Resources: Rivers, Lakes & Sub-Surface Water
Why do majority of Ethiopian rivers end at seas and oceans?

4.3.1 Rivers of Ethiopia

 Unlike many other African countries, Ethiopia is endowed with many rivers.

 Most rivers originate from highlands & cross the boundary of Ethiopia.

 The rivers formed 12 major catchments separating the Mediterranean Sea Drainage Systems (DS)
from the Indian Ocean DS;
 Table 4.1: Data on major Ethiopian rivers

Table 4.1 Volume (billion m3), Area (km2) & Tributaries of Major Rivers:

N0 River Name V (billion m3) Area (km2) Main Tributaries Mouth

1 Tekeze 8.2 82,350 Goang & Angereb M. sea

2 Abay 87.9 199,812 Dabus, Dedessa, Fincha, Guder, M. sea
Muger, Jema, Beshilo
3 Baro-Akobo 23.6 75,912 Akobo M. sea

4 Ghibe-Omo 16.6 79,000 Gojeb Chew B

5 Wabishebelle 3.4 202,697 Ramis, Erer, Daketa, Fafan Indian O

6 Genale-Dawa 5.8 171,042 Dawa, Weyb, Welmel, Mena Indian O

7 Awash 4.9 114,123 Akaki, Kesem, Borkena, Mile Abe L.
 Table 4.1: Data on major Ethiopian rivers

Table 4.1 Volume (billion m3), Area (km2) & Tributaries of Major Rivers:
 General Characteristics of Ethiopian Rivers
 Owing to the highland nature, surface ruggedness, the outward inclination of the
highlands, & the climatic conditions, most major rivers of Ethiopia are
characterized by:
1) Sources from highlands with over 1500 m elevation;

2) Trans-boundary (cross Ethiopia’s boundary);

3) Seasonal fluctuation in their water flow due seasonality of rainfall;

4) Rapids & waterfalls along their courses due to rugged landscape;

5) Cuts, steep-sided valleys & deep gorges along their courses;

6) Flows on steep slopes having steep profiles (vertical section);

7) Courses serving as domestic & international boundary;

4.3.2 Lakes of Ethiopia:

Why do majority of lakes in Ethiopia are clustered in rift valley system?
 4.3.2 Lakes of Ethiopia
 Ethiopia is somewhat rich in lakes.

 Most lakes (not all) are result of tectonic process during Quaternary period of Cenozoic era.

 Natural Lakes are grouped into two: (a) Rift valley, and (b) Highland lakes;

 Most lakes are located within Rift Valley (RV) System.

 Most RV lakes are:

 Formed on faulted depressions; and Clustered along the system forming linear pattern.

 Tana Lake: is formed on shallow depression of northwest highlands;

 Is the largest lake in Ethiopia;

 Is formed following slower sinking & reservoir by lava flow b/n Gojam & Gondar;

 Ethiopia is also rich in crater lakes made on tectonic basins; for e.g.:

 Horra, Cheleleka & Bishoftu lakes (at & around Bishoftu area),

 Wonchi (nearby Ambo) & Hayk (nearby Dessie),

 Ziquala Crater lake on Mt Ziquala, & Ashenge (in Tigray) is formed on a tectonic basin;

 Ethiopia has man-made lakes; e.g. Koka, Fincha & Melka Wakena, etc and many other lakes
dammed following hydroelectric power generation projects..
4.3.2 Lakes of Ethiopia ………….

Fig. Location of lakes of Ethiopia

 4.3.2 Lakes of Ethiopia ………….

 Lake Abaya is the largest of all RV lakes.

 Shala is the deepest lake & Ziway is the shallowest one.

 Chew Bahir is formed on a marshy-land in southern tip of RV, which is drained

by Segan & Woito rivers.
 4.3.2 Lakes of Ethiopia ………….

Table 4.2 Area (km2) & Maximum Depth (m) of Selected Lakes of Ethiopia

N0 Lake Area (km2) Max Depth (m) N0 Lake Area (km2) Max Depth (m)

1 Tana 3600 9 7 Abijata 205 14

2 Abaya 1162 13.1 8 Awassa 129 10

3 Chamo 551 13 9 Ashenge 20 25

4 Ziway 442 8.95 10 Hayk 5 23

5 Shala 409 266 11 Beseka 48.5 11

6 Langano 387 - 12 Koka 205 9

4.3.3. Subsurface (Ground) Water Resource of Ethiopia

• Brainstorming questions:
1. What factors can determine
the availability of ground
water resources?
2. The potential of exploitable
water in Ethiopia is huge, so
why our agriculture is still
rain fed?
3. What do you think that
Ethiopian rivers are not
conducive for navigation?
4. What factors made
Ethiopia’s water resources
being underutilized?
 4.3.3 Sub-surface (Ground) Water Resource of Ethiopia
 Ethiopia has smaller groundwater potential (2.6 - 6.5 billion m3) than surface water (124.4 billion m3).

 But there is higher overall exploitable groundwater potential.

 Groundwater is determined by climatic & geophysical conditions.

 Groundwater potential of Ethiopia is estimated at 2.6 - 6.5 billion m3 (Based on existing scanty knowledge)

 But, this estimate is considered to be underestimated. Hence, the groundwater potential is believed to be 12 –
30 billion m3.
4.4 Water Resources Potentials & Development in Ethiopia
 Ethiopia is the second richest country in Africa in terms of water resources.

 Water resource of Ethiopia is under-utilized due to various reasons.

 Some of the dev’t potentials of water resources of Ethiopia:

1) Hydro-Electric Power (HEP): Ethiopian rivers have a very high potential for generating electricity. The
exploitable potential of hydroelectric power (HEP)is estimated at about 45,000 megawatts.

 The first HEP generation plant was installed on Akaki River (Aba Samuel) in 1932.

 Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) is the country’s largest dam under construction aiming to
generate 6400 megawatts & Gilgel-Gibe III (1870mw),
 Currently Ethiopia is administering 14 hydroelectric power plants constructed;
 4.4 Water Resources Potentials & Development in Ethiopia….
 Nearly 4,000mw HEP is now generated on Lake Aba Samuel, Koka, Tis-Abay, Awash, Melka-Wakena, Sor,
Fincha, Gibe-Omo, Tana Beles & Tekeze, etc.

 Besides the domestic use of generated electricity, the country is exporting to the neighboring countries.

 The major problem related to the use of Ethiopian rivers for the generation of HEP is seasonal fluctuation of
discharge of rivers, & climate change & variability;
 The severe erosion from the highlands & sedimentation in the reservoirs is also a critical problem for HEP.

2) Irrigation & transportation:

 Irrigation & transport potential of water is limited by rugged landscape/terrain; i.e. it is obstacle in the
highlands by rapids, waterfalls, narrow & deep valleys & gorges;

 But on the lowlands, their demand for irrigation is high.

 Irrigation potential of water is estimated at 5.3 million ha.

 Baro-Akobo & Genale-Dawa basins have large irrigation potentials compared with others;

 Over 60% of the irrigated area is located in the Rift Valley system;

 Most HEP reservoirs are expected to be used for irrigation.

 Most Ethiopian rivers are not suitable for transport, except the lower course of Baro (the only navigable river).
No Ethiopian river is navigable except Baro.

 Lakes are more suitable for transportation than rivers.

 Tana & Abaya lakes are used for transportation most.

 4.4 Water Resources Potentials & Development in Ethiopia….
3) Fishing & Recreation:
 Ethiopian lakes are rich in fish; Currently the annual fish production is estimated at 31.5 thousand tons.

 But the exploitable potential is by far larger than the current production.

 Exploitable fish potential varies from lake to lake. For e.g.:

 Lake Tana leads the potential by estimated 8,000 - 10,000 tons per/year.

 Fish catch potential of Chamo is estimated at 4,500 tons per/year.

 But over 60% of fish supply comes from the main Rift Valley lakes.

 Some of the lakes are now threatened by:

- Sedimentation (by runoff) e.g. Abaya lake

- Invasive species (water hyacinth-perennial herbs) e.g. Tana & Abaya

- Over exploitation e.g. Ziway, Chamo, Awassa, Tana, etc.

- Expansion of farm investments (e.g. fruits, vegetables, etc.) e.g. Abaya, Chamo, Ziway, etc.

- There are a variety of fish, birds & other aquatic life forms in the lakes.

- This & the scenic beauty of the lakes, the hot springs around them, the spectacular river gorges & the most
impressive waterfalls make Ethiopian rivers & lakes important recreational & tourist attractions.

- As they are the natural habitat of a variety of wild life, some of which are only endemic to Ethiopia, their value for
scientific purposes is immense.
Watersheds of Ethiopia
Activities

Check!
1. Discuss the major drainage systems of Ethiopia.
2. Explain the hydroelectric and fishing potential of Ethiopian water resource.
3. State the major characteristics of Ethiopian rivers?
4. How do you justify the origin and flow direction of Ethiopian rivers?