The relatively young but rapidly expanding

field of formal environmental history informs us ever more about

vital patterns of interactions among humans, other living beings,
and the material world. Climate change, species extinction,
unequally distributed and overstrained essential resources
(including clean air, energy, food, land, and water), and other of
today’s pressing issues can only be understood and mitigated by
understanding the many centuries of dynamic changes that caused
them. The Indian subcontinentFootnote1 has a distinctively complex
environmental history that makes it particularly vulnerable to
current environmental stresses.

: environmentalism, political and ethical

movement that seeks to improve and protect the quality of

the natural environment through changes to
environmentally harmful human activities; through the
adoption of forms of political, economic, and social
organization that are thought to be necessary for, or at least
conducive to, the benign treatment of the environment by
humans; and through a reassessment of humanity’s
relationship with nature.
. In various ways, environmentalism claims that living things
other than humans, and the natural environment as a
whole, are deserving of consideration in reasoning about
the morality of political, economic, and social policies.

Environmentalism o
r environmental rights is a broad philosophy, ideology,
and social movement regarding concerns
for environmental protection and improvement of the
health of the environment, particularly as the measure for
this health seeks to incorporate the impact of changes to
the environment on humans, animals, plants and non-
living matter. While environmentalism focuses more on the
environmental and nature-related aspects of green
ideology and politics, ecologism combines the ideology
of social ecology and environmentalism. Ecologism is
more commonly used in continental European languages,
while environmentalism is more commonly used in English
but the words have slightly different connotations.
Environmentalism advocates the preservation, restoration
and improvement of the natural environment and
critical earth system elements or processes such as
the climate, and may be referred to as a movement to
control pollution or protect plant and animal
diversity.[1] For this reason, concepts such as a land
ethic, environmental ethics, biodiversity, ecology, and
the biophilia hypothesis figure predominantly.
nvironmental history is the study of human interaction with the
natural world over time, emphasising the active role nature plays in
influencing human affairs and vice versa.
Environmental history first emerged in the United States out of
the environmental movement of the 1960s and 1970s, and much of
its impetus still stems from present-day global environmental
concerns.[1] The field was founded on conservation issues but has
broadened in scope to include more general social and scientific
history and may deal with cities, population or sustainable
development. As all history occurs in the natural world,
environmental history tends to focus on particular time-scales,
geographic regions, or key themes. It is also a strongly
multidisciplinary subject that draws widely on both the humanities
and natural science.

The subject matter of environmental history can be divided into

three main components.[2] The first, nature itself and its change
over time, includes the physical impact of humans on the
Earth's land, water, atmosphere and biosphere. The second
category, how humans use nature, includes the environmental
consequences of increasing population, more
effective technology and changing patterns
of production and consumption. Other key themes are the
transition from nomadic hunter-gatherer communities to settled
agriculture in the neolithic revolution, the effects of colonial
expansion and settlements, and the environmental and human
consequences of the industrial and technological
revolutions.[3] Finally, environmental historians study how people
think about nature - the way attitudes, beliefs and values influence
interaction with nature, especially in the form
of myths, religion and science.

Inspired by the Chipko

movement the villagers of Western Ghats, in the Uttar
Kannada region of Karnataka started Appiko Chalewali
movement during September – November, 1983. Here the
destruction of forest was caused due to commercial felling
of trees for timber extraction. Natural forests of the region
were felled by the contractors which resulted in soil erosion
and drying up of perennial water resources. In the Saklani
village in Sirsi, the forest dwellers were prevented from
collecting usufructs like twigs and dried branches and non
timber forest products for the purposes of fuelwood, fodder
.honey etc.They were denied of their customary rights to
these products. In September 1983, women and youth of
the region decided to launch a movement similar to Chipko,
in South India. Women and youth from Saklani and
surrounding villages walked five miles to a nearby forest
and hugged trees there. They forced the fellers and the
contractors of the state forest department to stop cutting
trees. The people demanded a ban on felling of green trees.
The agitation continued for 38 days and this forced the
state government to finally concede to their demands and
withdrew the order for felling of trees. For some time
government stopped felling of trees which was resumed
again after some time which resumed the movement again.

The movement was backed by the local people. Even the

daily wage labourers hired by the contractors to fell tree
stopped doing their work. In October, the movement
entered into its second phase and this took place in
Bengaon forest Here the forest was of mix tropical semi–
evergreen type and mostly on hilly terrain. The inhabitants
of the region who were primarily tribal or the indigenous
people depended on the forest for their survival and
livelihood. Disappearance of bamboo due to commercial
felling deprived them of the basic source to make items like
baskets, mats, etc. The main source of their income was the
sale these items. When felling of trees did not stop people
started the movement. The movement was spontaneous in
nature. The local indigenous people hugged tree to stop
them from cutting and finally the government had to give in
to their demands. Similar movements also started in other
areas like Husri. It also inspired the local people to launch
the movement. In fact Appiko movement became a symbol
of people’s power for their rights of natural resources vis-a-
vis the state. In November, the movement spread to Nidgod
village in Siddapur taluka preventing the state from
commercial felling of trees in this deciduous forest of the
region. The Appiko movement was successful in its three
fold objectives, i.e., protection of the existing forest cover,
regeneration of trees in denuded lands and utilising forest
wealth with proper consideration to conservation of natural
resources. The movement also created awareness among
the villagers throughout the Western Ghats about the
ecological danger posed by the commercial and industrial
interests to their forest which was the main source of
sustenance. Like the Chipko, the Appiko 153 movement
revived the Gandhian way of protest and mobilisation for
sustainable society in which there is a balance between
man and nature.
 As mentioned earlier, the
origin of modern environmentalism and environmental
movements in India can be ascribed to the Chipko
movement in the central Himalayan region in the early
1970s. Chipko movement, launched to protect the
Himalayan forests from destruction, has its’ roots in the
pre-independence days. Many struggles were organised to
protest against the colonial forest policy during the early
decades of 20th century. Peoples’ main demand in these
protests was that the benefits of the forest, especially the
right to fodder, should go to local people.

These struggles have continued in the post-independent era

as the forest policies of independent India are no different
from that of colonial ones. The origin of ‘Chipko’ [chipak
jayenge - to hug] took place during 1973. In the early 1973
the forest department refused to allot ash trees to the
Dashauli Gram Swarajya Sangha (DGSS), a local cooperative
organisation based in Chamoli districts, for making
agricultural implements. On the other hand, the forest
department allotted ash trees to a private company, i.e.,
Symonds Co. This incident provoked the DGSS to fight
against this injustice through lying down in front of timber
trucks and burning resin and timber depots as was done in
Quit India movement. When these methods were found
unsatisfactory, Chandi Prasad Bhat - one of the leaders,
suggested of embracing the trees and thus ‘Chipko’ was
born (for details see Bahuguna, 1990 and Guha, 1989). This
form of protest was instrumental in driving away the
private company from felling the ash trees. With its success
the movement spread to other neighbouring areas and
subsequently the movement came to be popularly known
as Chipko movement internationally. From its beginning the
Chipko movement concentrated on ecological issues such as
depletion of forest cover and soil erosion. Three important
aspects were responsible for the success of Chipko
movement. First, the close links between the livelihoods of
the local people and the nature of the movement. The local
people consider Chipko as a fight for basic subsistence
which have been denied to them by the institutions and
policies of the State (Guha, 1989). In addition, specificity of
the area where Chipko movement took place; involvement
of women in the contribution to households’ subsistence
and the overwhelming support to anti-alcohol campaign
have led to the overwhelming support of women which is
unique to the Chipko movement. The second aspect is with
regard to the nature of agitation. Unlike other
environmental movements Chipko has strictly adhered to
the Gandhian tradition of freedom struggle, i.e., non–
violence. Third, the simplicity and sincerity of the leaders
like Sunderlal Bahuguna and their access to national leaders
like Mrs. Indira Gandhi, other politicians and officials also
helped to the success of the movement to a large extent.

✓ Year: 1700s
 Place: Khejarli, Marwar region,Rajasthan state
 Leaders: Amrita Devi along with Bishnoi villagers in
Khejarli and surrounding villages.
 Aim: Save sacred trees from being cut down by the king’s
soldiers for a new palace.
The Bishnois living in western Rajasthan on the fringe of
the Thar desert, for centuries, have been conserving the
flora and fauna. For them nature-loving people, protection
of the environment, wildlife, and plants is a part and parcel
of their sacred traditions. In the fifteenth century, Jambhoji,
a resident of a village near Jodhpur, had a vision that the
cause of the drought that had hit the area and hardship that
followed was caused by people’s interference with nature.
Thereafter, he became a ‘sanyasi’ and came to be known as
Swami Jambeshwar Maharaj. This was the beginning of the
Bishnoi sect. He laid down 29 tenets for his followers which
included Jeev Daya Palani – Be compassionate to all living
beings and Runkh Lila Nahi Ghave – Do not cut green trees.
Nature protection was given foremost importance in these
tenets. The sacrifice made by Amrita Devi and over 350
others is a heart-rending example of their devotion. The
Maharaja Abhay Singh of Jodhpur wanted to build a new
palace and required wood for it. To procure this his men
went to the area around the village of Jalnadi to fell the
trees. When Amrita Devi saw this she rushed out to prevent
the men and hugged the first tree, but the axe fell on her
and she died on the spot. Before dying she uttered a
couplet, ‘A chopped head is cheaper than a felled tree’.
People from 83 surrounding villages rushed to prevent the
men from felling the trees and by the end of the day more
than 363 had lost their lives. When the king heard about
this, he felt remorseful and personally came to village to
apologize to the people. He promised them that they would
never be asked to provide timber to the ruler, no khejri tree
would be cut and hunting would be banned near the
Bishnoi villages. The village of Jalnadi thus came to be called
Khejarli.

The Bishnois will go to any extent to protect the wildlife

and the forests around them. Recently this sect was in the
news due to the hunting of Black buck by some Mumbai
film group. The heartland of the Bishnois in the forests near
Jodhpur is abundant in trees and wildlife. The landscape
here is greener than elsewhere and the animals mainly
antelopes, particularly the blackbuck and the chinkara, in
these forests are not afraid of humans and are often seen
near the villages eating out of the villagers’ hands. The
Bishnois have indeed proved that human lives are a small
price to pay to protect the wildlife and the forests around
them. Though they are staunch Hindus but they do not
cremate their dead but bury them, as they are not
permitted to use wood for the cremation. There is a saying
that goes “Sir santhe rooke rahe to bhi sasto jaan” this
means that if a tree is saved from felling at the cost of one’s
head, it should be considered as a good deed.

Year: 1978
• Place: Silent Valley, an evergreen tropical
forest in the Palakkad district of Kerala, India.
•Leaders: The Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad
(KSSP), many NGOs and the poet-activist
Sughatha kumari.
•Aim: To protect the moist evergreen forest
in Palakkad district from being destroyed by a
hydroelectric project.
Silent valley was named by English man
during colonial rule, who found that there was no
noise of cicadas after dark. It is one of rich bio
diverse areas of India. It has a triangular shape.
On two sides are the Kozhikode and Palghat cities
in Kerala and on the other side is located the
Coimbatore city in neighboring Tamil Nadu.
Kunthipuza is a major river that flows 15 km
southwest from silent valley. The idea of a dam
was first proposed in 1920s by British technical
expert. The first survey on this project was carried
out in 1958. In 1970, the Kerala State Electricity
Board (KSEB) proposed a hydroelectric dam across
the Kunthipuzha river that would have submerged
8.3 sq km of untouched moist evergreen forest.
Steven Green in 1972, expressed his concerns
about the possible threats to the rare lion-tailed
macaque from the project.

Around the same time, herpetologist

Romulus Whitaker wrote to the Bombay Natural
History Society about the need to conserve the
Valley. Reports like these alert other naturalists.
But, the Planning Commission approved this
project in 1973. The project planned to generate
120 megawatt of electricity initially and 240
megawatt subsequently. However, due to lack of
sufficient funds, implementation was delayed.
There was not much protest initially. In 1976, the
project attracted the attention of some
environmentalists. A task-force was formed under
the chairmanship of the Zafar Futehally. This task
Force recommended that scrapping of project,
with a loophole that, if abandoning the project
was not possible, a series of safeguards should be
implemented. The Kerala government decided to
proceed with safeguards. In the same year, M.K
Prasad wrote an article about the disastrous
effect of project on silent valley in Kerala Sasthra
Sahitya Parishad (KSSP). His article got huge
response. The General Assembly of the IUCN,
many eminent people like Salim Ali, Madhav
Gadgil, CV Radhakrishnan, MS Swaminathan,
Subramaniam Swamy, etc. also wrote to central
government not to sanction the project. However,
then Prime Minister Morarji Desai rejected all the
appeals and recommended the proposal. A public
interest litigation was filed in the High Court in
1979. The Silent Valley Samrakshana Samiti and
Kerala Sastra Sahitya Parishad started awareness
campaigns, held protest meetings, rallies and
debates all over the state, turning the campaign
into a mass people’s movement. Famous writers
from Kerala also joined the movement. The then
PM Charan Singh instituted a Central Committee
to re-investigate the issue, headed by M.S.
Swaminathan. In 1980, the High Court rejected
plea. Then, a small group of campaigners met the
Kerala Governor and requested her to issue a stay
order untill Committees’ report was issued. Work
was halted once again. But the awareness
campaigns continue. PM Charan Singh was
replaced by Indira Gandhi.She took active interest
in silent valley project. She constituted M.G.K.
Menon Committee in 1983 to re-examine the
project, which recommended abandoning of the
project. Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi formally
inaugurated Silent Valley National Park in 1985.
The silent valley movement saw many twists and
turns in politics but it gave birth to the idea of
environment impact assessment of every project
before its initiation.
environmental and ecological
movements became prominent in India since the
1970s, like other such movements. The concerns
of these movement are not confined to any
particular groups. They are all encompassing – the
entire village and urban communities, women,
tribals, peasants, middle classes and nature. Even
the issues raised by them concern all sections of
society in varying degrees. These issues are:
protection of people’s right to access of natural
resources, prevention of land degradation,
preventing commercialisation of nature resources
and environmental pollution, maintenance of
ecological balance, rehabilitation of displaced
people, etc. These issues are also related to
people’s dignity, environmental rights and their
decision-making rights on the issues concerning
them.