NORTH LUZON PHILIPPINES STATE COLLEGE

Adal a dekalidad, dur-as ti panagbiag.

GE 8 – ETHICS
LEARNING MATERIALS

LESSON 4. SELECTED ORIENTAL AND WESTERN PHILOSOPHIES

a. Christianity
b. Confucianism
c. Socrates
d. Plato
e. Aristotle

LEARNING OBJECTIVES: After studying this lesson, you should be able to:
a. Explain the ethical principles that lie beneath the teachings of Christianity.
b. Discuss the ethical principles imbibed of Confucius, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle’s
philosophies that are considered important and relevant in understanding contemporary ethics

DISCUSSION:

CHRISTIANITY

Moral Law is given not by an interpreter but by a LAW –

GIVER, Jesus Christ. The moral paradigm used by our Lord
Jesus is similar to those of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle (self –
realization). His moral teachings recognizes no social
stratification. It does not discriminate between a slave and a
freeman, the rich and the poor, or the powerful and the weak.
The Ethics of Jesus shows more preference to the poor and
oppressed. The ethical ideal emphasized by Jesus is for them to
bear their lot and develop a sense of hope for their glorious
future. Jesus said, “Blessed are the poor in spirit: for theirs is
the kingdom of heaven.” (Matthew 5:3 KJV)

The Ethics of Jesus is an Ethics of love. For Jesus, the core of ethics lies in man’s heart,
not in man’s observance of the law or of man’s fidelity to traditional norms. The moral man is he
who loves his neighbors and therefore loves God. The commandment of Christ requires a Christian
to love not only the lovable persons (good ones) but even the unlovable ones (bad ones).
The Ethics of Jesus demands honesty and authenticity. Jesus’ ethics seeks no hypocrisy for
it directly points at one’s heart and one’s mind. He teaches honesty and sincerity. He does not like
people who want to be moral because they are seeking for affirmation or approval from the
common public that they are good. In the scripture Jesus said, “When you pray, you must not be
like the hypocrites, for they like to pray standing in the synagogues and in the corners in order to
be noticed… when you pray go to your room and close the door and pray to your Father who is
unseen and your Father who sees you in secret will repay you.” (Matthew 6:5-7) He also said,
“When you give alms, do not blow a trumpet before yourself, as the hypocrites do, in the
synagogues and the streets to make people praise them… but when you give to charity, your left

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hand must not know what your right hand is doing to that your charity may be in secret, and your
Father who sees what is secret will reward you.” (Matthew 6:1-4)
The Ethics of Jesus is an ethics which teaches faith in the Father. A believer should not worry
for tomorrow, instead he should develop a complete trust in the Father. He said, “Which of you
with all his worry can add a simple hour to his life? Why should you worry about clothing? See
how the wild flowers grow. They do not toil or spin and yet I tell you, even Solomon in all his
splendor, was never dressed like one of them. But if God so beautifully dresses the wild grass
which is alive today and thrown to the furnace tomorrow, will He not much more surely cloth you,
you who have so little faith? So do not worry and say, what shall we have to eat? Or, what shall
we have to drink? Or, what shall we have to wear…” He further said, “For these all the heathen
are in pursuit of and your heavenly Father knows well that you need all this. But you must make
His kingdom and uprightness before you, your greatest care, and you will love all these other things
besides. So do not worry about tomorrow, for tomorrow will have worries of its own. Let each day
be content with its own ills.” (Matthew 6: 27-34)
The Ethics of Jesus is an ethics of peace and reconciliation. One cannot find peace if he is not
at peace with himself. He who is not at peace with himself cannot have peace with others. So if
one is not at peace with himself and with his fellowmen, how can he be at peace with God?
The Ethics of Jesus demands sacrifice and suffering. Beyond any reasonable doubt, to
be poor is to suffer; and to accept one’s dire lot of poverty is more than enough sacrifice. Jesus
said that the road to heavens is thorny; there are no beds of roses toward the glorious future, for it
is wrapped with sorrow, pain and all sorts of tribulations. In the Holy Scripture Jesus said, “If you
want to follow me, you must deny yourself, take up your cross and begin to follow my footsteps.”
(Mark 8:34)

CONFUCIANISM

WHEN Confucius died, it is recorded that his last words were

regrets that none among the rulers then living possessed the
sagacity requisite to a proper appreciation of his ethical philosophy
and teachings. He died unhonored,—died in his seventy-third year,
479 BC, feeling in the flickering beats of his failing heart that his
inspiring pleas for truth and justice, industry and self-denial,
moderation and public duty, though then without having awakened
men’s impulses, would yet stir the depths of the social life of his
land.
Confucius strove to make the human being good—a good
father, a good mother, a good son, a good daughter, a good friend,
a good citizen. Though his truths were unpalatable at the time of
their enunciation, they have lived to bear good fruit, despite the
desperate efforts of Emperor Tsin Shi-hwang to destroy them by
fire, and it is gratifying to see that a still wider sphere is being
more and more developed for them in the West.

Confucius believe that life is not a delusion, a curse and misery as assumed by Buddha. He
stressed that life is a reality, a blessing, a natural priceless right and an opportunity to be with
fellows to work for common good and attain final destiny – happiness.

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Adal a dekalidad, dur-as ti panagbiag.

Man’s perfection and happiness is realized and attained in social life i.e. harmony among
men in society. Confucius philosophy of man is focused with reconciliation of conflicts and
advocated harmony among men in society. Social order as Confucius envisioned to be patterned
after the natural order of things in the universe and the moral order reflected and exemplified in
the life of the moral man. Thus, the life of the moral man is an exemplification of the universal
moral order.
In justice, Confucius believe in the principle from which the golden rule of action is
derived. “Treat others as you wish them to treat you.” Do not do unto others what you yourself do
not like others to do to you. If all men observe the golden rule, there will be no conflict, but peace
and harmony in the society. Confucius stressed that in order to attain order and harmony, it should
start in the inner nature of man.
In order for man to put order and beauty in his life, he should constantly balance and
harmonize the conflicting claims and the counterclaims of his unruly components i.e. body and
soul, matter and mind, reason and passion, intellect and senseless, flush and spirit. With all these,
there ceaseless warring and wrangling. Man should balance and harmonize it, by regulating the
movements of lower appetite and passions.
About the moral law, Confucius says: There is nothing more real than that which the eyes
cannot see. There is nothing more audible than that which the ears cannot hear. Like truth, the
moral law is invisible, intangible, imponderable, yet it is everywhere.
In self-control, Confucius says: He who conquers others is strong. He who conquers
himself is the greatest victor. The conqueror as it something happens, becomes the vanquished
because he is conquered and enslaved by his own passions, perverted and poisoned by the pride of
the victory. On the contrary, the captured prisoner of war is a conqueror even if in prison, if he
controls his person and is a master of himself.
In passion and happiness, Confucius says, that the greater obstacle to human happiness is
the ego, the center seat of selfishness and elfish desires fired and fanned by man’s lower appetites.
To be happy, man must be subjugate the ego, he must deny himself. This is a necessary prerequisite
to the practice of virtue and the attainment of perfect and happiness.
To Confucius, the principle of justice is embodied in the golden rule – “Treat
others as you wish them to treat you”. He stressed that if all men observe the golden rule in their
lives, there will be no conflict but peace and harmony among men in society. Justice and love
always go together. Common sense tells that justice is the application and distribution of love to
our fellowmen. Love is the heart of the harmony of all things.

SOCRATES

Socrates, an Athenian Greek of the second half of the

fifth century BC, wrote no philosophical works but was
uniquely influential in the later history of philosophy. His
philosophical interests were restricted to ethics and the conduct
of life, topics which thereafter became central to philosophy.
He discussed these in public places in Athens, sometimes with
other prominent intellectuals or political leaders, sometimes
with young men, who gathered round him in large numbers,
and other admirers. Among these young men was Plato.
Socrates' philosophical ideas and - equally important for his
philosophical influence - his personality and methods as a
Socrates, (470-399 BCE, Athens, A 'teacher' were handed on to posterity in the 'dialogues' that
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Adal a dekalidad, dur-as ti panagbiag.

Greek philosopher whose way of life, several of his friends wrote after his death, depicting such
character, and thought exerted a
profound influence on ancient and discussions.
modern philosophy.
Ethics are the norms by which acceptable and unacceptable behavior are measured.
According to the beliefs of the ancient Greek philosopher Socrates, one develops ethics through
maturity, wisdom and love. Socrates introduced the concept of teaching ethics and acceptable
standards of conduct in 400 B.C. and has had a profound and lasting impact on the course of
Western philosophy and history ever since. He believed virtue was found primarily in human
relationships, love and friendship, not through material gains.

The Socratic method of teaching consist of two processes:

 Ironic Process serves to make the seeker of knowledge clear his mental checks for
action. It rids the mind of prejudices and leads to a humble and sincere confession
of ignorance.
 Maieutic Process i.e. to draw truth out of the pupils mind. This can be done by
means of a dialogue or a conversation. The ideas were implanted and stored by the
divine creator in the mind of man.

Virtue
In man and Virtue, Socrates believed that virtue is a natural endowment i.e. inborn. Virtue
may, indeed, be taught, but this is to be understood not as introducing something foreign to the
mind but rather, as merely awakening of that perhaps lie dormant in mind.
Socrates saying: “Knowledge is virtue: Ignorance is vice.”

Socrates equated knowledge with virtue, which ultimately leads to ethical conduct. He
believed that the only life worth living was one that was rigorously examined. On the contrary, He
believes “the unexamined life is not worth living.” One must seek knowledge and wisdom before
private interests. In this manner, knowledge is sought as a means to ethical action.
Since knowledge is inborn as Socrates taught, virtue likewise is a natural endowment.
Thus, when we say that virtue may be taught, it has to be understood not as introducing something
new to the mind but rather merely awakening the seeds of good deeds that perhaps lie dormant in
the mind and heart of man. And, since virtue is inborn in the mind and self-knowledge is the source
of all wisdom, then the only way to acquire virtue is to know what is in the mind in the self. Virtue
then depend on knowledge and could be defined as true knowledge of one’s self. So goes the
famous Socratic saying: “Knowledge is virtue: Ignorance is vice.”
Moreover, true-knowledge according to Socrates, includes with it the application.This
holds true especially in the field of human conduct. Man must not only know to rules of right
living; he should live them. The wise man, the superior man, the moral man, does not only know
the meaning of virtue; he should lead and live a virtuous life. To Socrates, true knowledge means
wisdom which, in turn, means virtue.

Man and the Problem of Evil: Socrates believes that evil is the result of ignorance, the
opposite of knowledge. Man does evil because he does not know any better or, his knowledge is
imperfect or inadequate.
Socrates states no one chooses evil; no one chooses to act in ignorance. We seek the good,
but fail to achieve it by ignorance or lack of knowledge as to how to obtain what is good. He
believes no one would intentionally harm themselves. When harm comes to us, although we

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 NORTH LUZON PHILIPPINES STATE COLLEGE
Adal a dekalidad, dur-as ti panagbiag.

thought we were seeking the good, the good is not obtained in such a case since we lacked
knowledge as to how best to achieve the good.

PLATO

Plato believed that soul pre-existed his body. Man’s soul

Plato (ca. 427-347 B.C.E.) was an
Athenian philosopher who is widely
recognized among the most
important philosophers of the
Western world.
or pure mind in the realm of ideas, man know all things by
direct intuition and all his knowledge stored in his mind. But
his coming into this world of sense, he forgot all or most of
what he knew.
Man’s problem is caused by his ignorance or lack of
knowledge and the solutions is found by recalling all what he
know clearly in his former existence. The counsel of Socrates
to man is to know himself.
In his theory of Idealism, Plato viewed that man in his
present earthly existence is only an imperfect copy of his real
original self, the perfect man, in the realm of ideas. Thus,
man’s perfection was lost during his long earthly exile. He
believed that man’s imprisonment in the body is a punishment
for sin. Thus, man now is imperfect but can be perfect again
through constant recollection and imitation of his former
perfect self.

Man and Knowledge

According to Plato, man was omniscient, all-knowing, before he came to be born into this
world. Man’s separation from the paradise of truth and knowledge—his exile on earth, he
forgot most of the knowledge he had. Constant remembering and doing well, he can be
made perfect.

The Perfect Model

Man, according to Plato, while exile on earth has a guiding star, a model—a divine
exemplar of virtue which is embodied in his former perfect self. Man must follow, initiate
the example of his former state. Happiness is attained by constant following the guiding
star. Happiness is the fruit of virtue.

Contemplation and Imitation

Contemplation to Plato means recollection or remembering of past perfect knowledge.
Contemplation in the Platonic sense, is the constant doing of the good i.e. imitating the
good exemplar and living the good by leading a good life. Happiness in the Platonic sense
consist not merely in constant feeling good but in being and doing well.

Love compared to a Ladder

 The higher you step in the order of any succession of love the more you appreciate the
beauty of it and the deeper the root of foundation is laid the stronger the love you behold.

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 The lowest type of love according to Plato is based only on Physical Attraction i.e.
sensual e.g. love at first sight.
 The characteristic of highest form of love according to Plato is the absence of
separateness or individuality—the union of the soul with the idea id the Good—where
there is the true beauty—the divine beauty. Where there is satisfaction.
 Bodily love is primarily for procreation. Sex is merely a means of not even the end of
bodily love.

For Plato, ethics comes down to two basic things: eudaimonia and arete. Eudaimonia, or
"well- being," is the virtue that Plato teaches we must all aim toward. The ideal person is the
person who possesses eudaimonia, and the field of ethics is mostly just a description of what
such an ideal person would truly be like. However, achieving eudaimonia requires something
extra, which Plato calls arete, or excellence. Possessing arete is the way that one can reach a
state of eudaimonia. A person with arete is a person who has the character traits that would lead
to a eudaimonious life. If given enough time, the set of virtues will help anyone to become
eudaimonious. Most of Plato's writings about ethics focuses on what arete is, with the idea that
if one can figure that out, then eudaimonia will follow shortly after.
(https://classroom.synonym.com/platos-beliefs-on-ethics-12085987.html)

Contemporary philosophers still disagree on what exactly the term "ethics" means. Many
such philosophers today consider ethical language to be nothing more than a moral fiction.

Nevertheless, the general consensus in the field diverges among three major branches:
consequentialism, deontologicalism and virtue ethics. The first two are relatively recent ideas,
but virtue ethics has been around since the time of Plato. Virtue ethics focuses on the idea that
what we call good is not dependent on the actions we take (deontologicalism) nor the results of
those actions (consequentialism), but instead focuses on the person that we are. To a virtue
ethicist like Plato, actions are only good to the extent that virtuous persons take such actions.
When Plato talks about what is good, he always means for us to think of an ideal good
person. In this way, Plato would agree wholeheartedly with the basic idea of the "What Would
Jesus Do?" movement since the focus is on what a good person is rather than what good actions
or good consequences are.

Plato’s Virtue Ethics

“Human behavior flows from three main sources: desire, emotion, and
knowledge.” Virtue ethics says that the reasoning of what is moral is decided by the
person instead of by rules or consequences. You decide what’s moral and right, not by
what will happen.
Plato believed that the human soul is divided into three parts.
1. Reason: our thinking ability to judge
2. Spirit: our emotional ability to feel empathy
3. Appetite: our desires
According to Plato, we should balance these three parts of our souls to make good
decisions and moral choices. Letting one take too much control of our minds is not good for us
and leads to bad decisions.

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Adal a dekalidad, dur-as ti panagbiag.

ARISTOTLE

Aristotle was a former Student of Plato. Like his mentor

he also believed that the soul pre-existed his body. However, he
viewed Plato’s concept about man as too idealistic. He modified
Plato’s concept with his idea of man with realism. Man in his
present earthly existence, is a composite nature of body and
soul, mind and matter, sense and intellect, passion and reason.

Man and Reason

Aristotle upholds the theory of Rationalism (ratio, Latin
for reason). It is reason according to him that makes man
superior over creations. It is reasons that makes man resemble
Aristotle (c. 384 B.C. to 322 B.C.) the Supreme Reason that rules and guides the destinies of
was an Ancient Greek philosopher individual and nations, and leads all things to their proper ends.
and scientist who is still considered
one of the greatest thinkers in
politics, psychology and ethics.

Aristotle’s ethics is a common sense ethics built on naturalism and self-realization. Of all
the classical theories, Aristotle’s is the farthest from an ethics of self-interest.
The Good Character.
People have a natural capacity for good character, and it is developed through practice. The
capacity does not come first--it's developed through practice.
With respect to the good, right, happiness, the good is not a disposition. The good involves
a teleological system that involves actions. Good is that which all things aim. Something is good
if it performs its proper function. E.g., a good coffee cup or a good red oak.

A right action is that which is conducive to the good, and different goods correspond to
the differing sciences and arts.
"The good" or best good is that which is desired for its own sake and for the sake which we
desire all other ends or goods. For human beings, eudaemonia is activity of the soul in accordance
with arete (excellence, virtue, or what it's good for). Eudaemonia is living well and doing well in
the affairs of the world.
The good of human beings cannot be answered with the exactitude of a mathematical
problem since mathematics starts with general principles and argues to conclusions. Ethics starts
with actual moral judgments before the formulation of general principles.
Aristotle presupposes natural tendencies in people. He distinguishes between happiness
(eudaemonia) and moral virtue: Moral virtue is not the end of life for it can go with inactivity,
misery, and unhappiness. Happiness, the end of life, that to which all aims, is activity in
accordance with reason (reason is the arete or peculiar excellence of persons). Happiness is an
activity involving both moral and intellectual arete. Some external goods are necessary in order
to exercise that activity. Aristotle stressed that a good and happy life is a well- ordered one, guided
by and lined in accordance with reason. Unhappy life is a disordered life dominated by passion
and the lower nature of man. Happiness is the fruit of virtues living, the constant and proper
exercise of reason in all man’s actions and endeavors. Human happiness comes from the
harmonious exercise and development of the whole man – Primarily his rational prerogatives and
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Adal a dekalidad, dur-as ti panagbiag.

secondary his physical and emotional attributes. Happiness is the rationally organized activity of
the whole man.

The Theory of the Golden Mean

Truth and Virtue are found midway between two false and vicious extremes i.e. the two
“too’s” (too much and too little). Anything done excessively or inadequately become unreasonable
or unfitting to man’s rational nature. The counsel of Aristotle is, practice moderation.

Man’s Perfection and Happiness

Aristotle taught that man’s perfection and happiness are found in wisdom and virtue. True
knowledge means wisdom i.e. knowing and doing what is best in the attainment of perfection and
happiness.
The Theory of Contemplation
Aristotle believed that contemplation is the noblest of all human activities because its
objectives is to seek and see the eternal truth which is the ultimate basis and rationale of all
existence. The happiest life on earth is one dedicated to contemplation, particularly of the Divine
Truths. Aristotelian theory on contemplation is contrary to the vulgar notion that contemplation is
a pastime indulged by idlers. Aristotle’s view on activity does not only mean physical activity,
activity is without physical notion. Seemingly Idling. Idling is giving ample leisure time for most
conducive to refection, meditation, problem-solving, etc. Idling according to Aristotle never means
to be idle as commonly understood; it means indulging in useful productive activity without visible
action or motion. Contemplation therefore is a human activity that springs eternally from mind’s
unquenchable search for truth and from the wills unquenchable thirst for the good or happiness. It
is through contemplation or meditation where human mind and will commune with the universal
and eternal.

Man and Reason

Aristotle upholds the theory of Rationalism (ratio, Latin for reason). It is reason that
makes man superior over creations. It is reasons that makes man resemble the Supreme Reason
that rules and guides the destinies of individual and nations, and leads all things to their proper
ends.
The Whole Man
Aristotle believes that man is a composite of being. These aspects of his composite being
i.e. rational, emotional, social, political, aesthetic, and economic resembles the Whole man. The
development of the whole man is the full realization and actualization of all man’s powers and
potentialities. Thus, full development of all aspects of man’s composite being is the realization of
the whole man.

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LESSON 4. SELECTED ORIENTAL AND WESTERN PHILOSOPHIES
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Adal a dekalidad, dur-as ti panagbiag.

LEARNING ASSESSMENT FOR LESSON 4

1. Discuss the ethical principle of Christianity concerning honesty and authenticity.

2. Reflect on this saying - “There is nothing more real than that which the eyes cannot see;
there is nothing more audible than that which the ears cannot hear” – in the light of Confucius’
view about the moral law.

3. Discuss the Common Sense Ethics of Aristotle?

4. Describe the greatest victor in the light of Confucius’ ethical philosophy?

5. Discuss Aristotelian theory of the golden mean?

6. Explain in the light of Plato’s virtue ethics how a person decide on what is moral and right?

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Adal a dekalidad, dur-as ti panagbiag.

7. Is virtue inborn or acquired? Explain the light of Socratic ethical philosophy.

8. Discuss the principle of justice in the light of Confucius’ ethical philosophy?

9. Discuss the theory of the golden mean in accordance with Aristotle’s ethical philosophy?

10. Explain in your own word the virtue ethics of Plato?

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LESSON 4. SELECTED ORIENTAL AND WESTERN PHILOSOPHIES
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Adal a dekalidad, dur-as ti panagbiag.

REFERENCES:

A. BOOKS

Babor,E. R., ETHICS: The Philosophical Discipline of Action

Montemayor, F., Ethics: The Philosophy of Life

Padilla, R., Ethics, Principles and Analysis of Contemporary Moral Problems

B. WEBSITES

https://philosophy.lander.edu/ethics/socrates.html

https://classroom.synonym.com/platos-beliefs-on-ethics-12085987.html

https://medium.com/@rnavya2012/philosophies-ethics-of-plato-2bf4b6668ac5

https://philosophy.lander.edu/ethics/aristotle1.html

The Holy Bible (KJV)

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