CEE208

Advance Fluid Mechanics Lab

ISO 9001:2015 CEE208- Rev. # 03 Date: Feb 2022

Faculty of Civil Engineering

Lab Manual

For

Advance Fluid Mechanics Lab

Name Signature

Prepared by: Engr. H. M. Sohaib Yasin

Reviewed by: Engr. Tafheem Abbas Gillani

Approved by:
Engr. Yousaf Mushtaq
 COURSE NAME: Advance Fluid Mechanics Lab CR: 0-1
COURSE CODE: CEE 208

REFERENCE MATERIAL:
1. Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics, 5th Edition, revised by Bruce Roy Munson, Donald F. Young,
Theodore H. Okiishi Contributor Bruce Roy Munson, Donald F. Young, Theodore H. Okiishi, Published
by Wiley, 2005, ISBN 0471675822, 9780471675822
2. Lab Manuals

PROGRAM LEARNING OUTCOMES:

The course is designed so that students will achieve the following PLOs:
 PLO-9: Individual And Team ork

COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES:

 CLO-1: Operate under Supervision and investigate by conducting experiments to measure the
fluid mechanics properties to derive valid conclusions as per instructions. (P3-Guided
Response) (PLO-09)
 CLO2: Manipulate the appropriate techniques to analyze response of equipment to applied data
by utilizing modern engineering tools. (P3-Mechanism) (PLO-09)

 CLO-3: Organize and Arrange lab reports and present them in an effective/organized way. (A4-
Communication) (PLO-09)

LAB COMMITMENT CHART:

Pre-Lab
Group 30 Minutes 130 Mins 10 Mins
(10 Mins)
Experiment Performance (Demonstration by Lab
Instructor) [10Mins]
Query
+
Attendance, Literature Session
Experiment Performance (by G1) [20Mins]
G1-G6 Assigned + (If any) +
+
Tasks Instruction next lab
In-Lab Evaluation (by Instructor) [20Mins]
discussion
+
Lab Report Preparation (by G2-G6 [80Mins]
 LECTURE PLAN:

Lab # Experiment Name Week

To measure the viscosity of a sample liquid.
I 1
Determination of coefficient of drag for a sphere falling through a column of
II water. 2
To confirm the head loss predicted by pipe friction equation associated with
III flow of water through smooth bore pipe. 3

To confirm the head loss predicted by pipe friction equation associated with
IV flow of water through rough bore pipe. 4

To determine the mechanical power and efficiency produced by the Pelton

V turbine. 5

To determine the mechanical power produced by the Francis turbine.

VI 6
To calculate the efficiency of centrifugal pump and draw its characteristics
curves;
VII a) Between flow rate and head of pump. 7-8
b) Between flow rate and efficiency

To study the relationship of RPM with different parameters (Suction pressure, discharge
VIII pressure, power consumption, flow rate and efficiency) of centrifugal pump. 9-10

IX To visualize the cavitation phenomenon in pipe system and to compute 11-12

cavitation number and its applications for calculation of critical pressure.
COURSE TARGETS:

PLO’s
Teaching Methodology Assessment
Experiments CLO No. To
Methodology
Target
Instruction +Discussion Lab Assignment +
I-VI, XII 1 +Demonstration + Lab Sessional 1 + PLO-9
Experimental performance Lab Sessional 2
Instruction +Discussion Lab Assignment +
VII-XI 2 +Demonstration + Lab Sessional 2 + PLO-9
Experimental performance Final

I-XII 3 Experimental performance Lab Report PLO-9

TEACHING METHODOLOGY:
In order to achieve the course learning objectives, demonstrations, discussions, lab reports, queries and
presentations will be utilized.

STUDENT PARTICIPATION AND ATTENDANCE POLICY:

 Attendance must be at least 80%.

 Students should make every effort to be in class on time

ASSESSMENT
Evaluation will be competency based and student grades will be based on the following factors.
 LAB MANUAL AFM

Sr. Marks Distribution Total CU-Online Entity to

No. Marks Enter Marks
1 0.5*B + 0.5*A (Average Score of Labs before S1) 10 Lab Sessional 01
2 0.5*B + 0.5*A (Average Score of Labs after S1 and before S2) 15 Lab Sessional 02
3 Score of any Lab 25 Lab Assignments
4 0.5*B + 0.5*A (Average score of labs 2-
16) 50 Lab Terminal

Grand Total Lab Marks 100

MARKING SCHEME FOR LAB (1/3)

A: Marks break down for regular labs

B: Marks Breakdown for Lab Sessional 1, 2, and Lab-Terminal
B1: Item B at S. No. 4 of last table corresponds to rubric-based evaluation conducted in Lab Terminal slot.

MARKING SCHEME FOR LAB (2/3)

Marks Breakdown for Regular Labs (1-16)

A
Pre-Lab In-Lab Post-Lab Total
(1) (5) (4) Marks
OBE Written Report
Rubric Evaluation
Check In-Lab Tasks
e.g.,
Written report providing analysis of the
Possible range of  Setting up the apparatus data supported by appropriate figures
Check Pre-Lab Tasks  Note down required readings and tables (where applicable) and
activities for 10
+  Plot graphs
grading clearly stated observations and
Attendance  Compare experimental and calculations
theoretical values

MARKING SCHEME FOR LAB (3/3)

Marks Break Down for Lab Sessional 1, 2 and Lab Terminal

B
In-Lab evaluation Only (OBE In-Lab Rubrics Based Total marks
Evaluation)

Performance of In-Lab Tasks given by instructor, which are

based on content so far covered in future, for example,
Possible range of  Calculate thermal conductivity of a given material 10
activities for grading  Viva

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LAB MANUAL
HARDWARE LAB RUBRIC FOR ASSESSING IN-LAB PERFORMANCE
P3-PLO9 (Investigation)
Exceeds expectation
Performance
(5-4)
Analysis is organized and
well supported by equations,
models etc.
Depth of analysis
Proper interpretation of
the results along with the
conclusion is made.
Affectively utilizing the
Investigation engineering knowledge to
validate the experiment.
HARDWARE LAB RUBRIC FOR ASSESSING IN-LAB PERFORMANCE
P4-PLO9 (Manipulate)
Exceeds expectation
Performance
(4-5)
Student can identify new
ways to set up and
implement the
Set up of experiment
experiment without
and implementation
assistance and with
detailed understanding of
each step.
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AFM
Does not meet
Meets expectation
expectations Score
(3-2)
(1)
Analysis is
adequate and the Analysis is inadequate and
reader is able to the reader is unable to
interpret the interpret the results.
results.
Validate the experiment Unable to validate the
by identifying the reason experiment by identifying
of difference between the reason of difference
experimental and between experimental and
theoretical values theoretical values
Meets expectation Does not meet
expectations Score
(2-3.99)
(1-1.99)
Student can fully
set up the
experiment with Cannot set up the experiment
successful without assistance.
implementation
without assistance.
LAB MANUAL AFM

Ability to follow Student follows the Student followed

Student had difficulty
procedure and/or procedure completely or instructions in the
reading the procedure and
Design procedure develops alternate procedure with little
following directions.
for experiment procedure. assistance.

Able to explain fundamental Able to explain most of the Unable to explain or

Q and A concepts correctly and relevant fundamental answer relevant
provide alternative solutions. concepts. fundamental concepts.

RUBRIC FOR ASSESSING WRITTEN LABORATORY REPORT

A4-PLO9 (Organization)
Does not meet
Exceeds Expectations Meets Expectations
Criteria expectations Score
(4-5) (2-3.99)
(1-1.99)
Experimental data is poorly
Student demonstrates presented.
diligence in creating a Experimental data is Graphs and tables are poorly
set of visually appealing presented in appropriate constructed with several of the
Data Presentation
tables and graphs that format with only a few following errors: data is missing
effectively present the minor errors or omissions or incorrect, units are not
experimental data included, axis not labeled or
titles missing
Student has analyzed the
Student has simply restated
data, observed trends and
Student provides a very what type of data was taken
compared experimental
accurate and focused with no attempt to interpret
results with theoretical
analysis of data. All trends, explain discrepancies
Data Analysis results.
observations are stated or evaluate the validity of data
Any discrepancies are
well and clearly in terms of relevant theory.
adequately addressed
supported by the data. Student lacks understanding of
All expected observations
the importance of the results.
are made.
Lab report has very few Lab report has several spelling
Lab report has no spelling or grammatical or grammatical errors.
spelling or grammatical errors. Student rarely uses technical
errors. The sentence flow is terms or uses them incorrectly
Writing Style
All sections of the report smooth. and too often resorts to jargon
are well-written and Student uses technical or clichés.
technically accurate. terms effectively.

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 LAB MANUAL AFM

Health & Safety Regulations

Users of AFM Laboratory must comply with the following safety instructions. At the beginning of the course
the instructor should brief the students about health and safety. The students should know where the fire
exits, fire extinguisher, fire alarm and the assembly point are in case of emergency such as fire or
earthquake etc.

• No experiments should be conducted in the absence of Lab engineer and technician.

• Smoking is strictly prohibited inside the Lab.

• There should be no over-crowding. Only one person should operate one machine. In case, the
experiment needs more than one person for the operation, other group mates would join.

• Before operating any machine, you must be aware of the following:

a. Location of fire extinguishers, fire blanket and the outside exits.

b. How the machine operates. Read instructions or manual of the machine before operating it.

c. How to turn off the machine in case of damages.

• Do not run inside the lab and concentrate on the present task.

• When moving heavy equipment or gas cylinders, use carts.

• Always use the right tools for the given task.

• Handle the tools and equipment with extreme care and return the tools to their proper places.

• Do not leave fuels in open containers.

• Please leave the Lab clean and tidy at end of experiment.

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 LAB MANUAL AFM

Introduction of Fluid Mechanics Lab

The fundamental knowledge of fluid mechanics demonstrated in the fluid mechanics laboratory with state-
of-the-art imported equipment. Here students can see measure the hydrostatics pressure, dynamic
pressure and calibration of pressure gauges via dead weight tester calibrator. Here students are able to
measure coefficient of discharge, coefficient of velocity and coefficient of contraction with set up notch,
venture meter and orifice meters. Students grasp comprehensive knowledge of flow measurement through
different differential and drag effect flow meters. They are cable to differentiate between laminar and
turbulent flow by computing Reynolds number and also familiarize with head losses and pressure losses in
pipe pump assembly.

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 LAB MANUAL AFM

LAB MANUAL

Advanced Fluid Mechanics

List of Experiments
Lab # Experiment Name

To measure the viscosity of a sample liquid.

I
Determination of coefficient of drag for a sphere falling through a column of water.
II
To confirm the head loss predicted by pipe friction equation associated with flow of water
III through smooth bore pipe.

To confirm the head loss predicted by pipe friction equation associated with flow of water
IV through rough bore pipe.

To determine the mechanical power and efficiency produced by the Pelton turbine.
V

To determine the mechanical power produced by the Francis turbine.

VI
To calculate the efficiency of centrifugal pump and draw its characteristics curves;
a) Between flow rate and head of pump.
VII
b) Between flow rate and efficiency

To study the relationship of RPM with different parameters (Suction pressure, discharge pressure,
VIII power consumption, flow rate and efficiency) of centrifugal pump.

IX To visualize the cavitation phenomenon in pipe system and to compute cavitation number
and its applications for calculation of critical pressure.

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LAB MANUAL AFM

Laboratory of

Advance Fluid
Mechanics

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 LAB MANUAL AFM

Experiment 01

Measurement of viscosity of liquid.

Figure 1: Viscosity Measurement Apparatus

Objectives:
To measure the viscosity of a sample liquid

Apparatus:

(i) Glass tube (ii)Steel balls, (iii) Retort stand and clamps, (iv) Weighing balance, (v)Screw gauge, (vi)
Stopwatch, (vii) Sample liquid (castor oil/glycerin), (viii) Tweezer sand (ix) Rubber bands for marking
calibration points (x) Cleaning accessories

Theory:
Introduction:
Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a fluid which is being deformed by either shear stress or
tensile stress. In everyday terms (and for fluids only), viscosity is “thickness”. Thus, water is “thin”, having
a lower viscosity, while honey is “thick”, having a higher viscosity. In general, in any flow, layers move at
different velocities and the fluid’s viscosity arises from the shear stress between the layers that ultimately
opposes any applied force.
In a Newtonian fluid, the relation between the shear stress and the strain rate is linear with the constant of
proportionality defined as the viscosity. In the case of a non-Newtonian fluid, the flow properties cannot be
described by a single constant viscosity. Some non-Newtonian fluids thicken when a shear stress is
applied (e.g. corn flour suspensions), whereas some can become runnier under shear stress (e.g. non-drip
paint). Industrially, understanding the viscous properties of liquids is extremely important and relevant to
the transport of fluids as well as to the development and performance of paints, lubricants and food-stuffs.

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 LAB MANUAL AFM

Theoretical Background:
A body moving in a fluid feels a frictional force in a direction opposite to its direction of motion. The
magnitude of this force depends on the geometry of the body, its velocity, and the internal friction of the
fluid. A measure for the internal friction is given by the dynamic viscosity η. For a sphere of radius r moving
at velocity v in an infinitely extended fluid of dynamic viscosity η, G.G.
Stokes derived an expression for the frictional force:
F1=6.π դ.r.v (1)

If the sphere falls vertically in the fluid, after a time, it will move at a
constant velocity v, and all the forces acting on the sphere will be
in equilibrium (Fig given below) the frictional force F1 which acts
upwards, the buoyancy force F2 which also acts upwards and the
downward acting gravitational force F3. The two forces F2 and F3
are given by:

F2=(4π/3).r3. ϼ2 .g (2)
F3=(4π/3).r3. ϼ2 .g (3)
The equilibrium between these three forces can be described by:

F 1 + F 2 + F3 (4)
The viscosity can, therefore, be determined by measuring the rate of fall ‘ v ’ :
դ=(2/9).r2.[( ϼ2 - ϼ1).g]/v (5)
where v can be determined by measuring the fall time t over a given distance s.
For more accurate values of viscosity wall effect need to taken into account. The modified expression for
high viscous liquids with the correction is as follows:
2.25
r
2. g . r 2 . ( ρ2− ρ1 ) .(1− )
R
viscosity=
9. v
(6)
While Stokes’ Law is straight forward, it is subject to some limitations. Specifically, this relationship is valid
only for ‘laminar’ flow. The alternate flow condition is termed ‘turbulent’ flow.
Units: The SI physical unit of viscosity is Pascal-second (Pa. s, equivalent to N.s/m^ 2 or
Kg / ms). The CGS unit is poise (P).
Experimental Setup:The experimental set up, (shown in Fig.2), is based on Stokes’ Law. It is filled with the
sample liquid under investigation. A steel ball is allowed to fall down this tube over a calibrated distance.
The falling time is recorded and then utilized to determine the viscosity at room temperature.

Fig.2

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 LAB MANUAL AFM

Procedure:
1.Measurement of diameter of falling ball:
i. Determine the least count (Vernier constant) of the screw gauge.
ii. Measure the radii of at least three balls using the screw gauge.
2. Measuring the falling times:
i. Carefully clamp the glass tube to the retort stand and make sure it is vertically aligned.
ii. Choose marked calibrated positions and ensure that the ball indeed falls with terminal velocity.
iii. Pick one of the given balls and roll it in the sample liquid to wet its surface thoroughly before
dropping into the glass tube.
iv. Keep two stopwatches ready to measure the fall time between two different calibrated positions.
v. Bring the ball with a tweezers over the tube and drop it carefully into the liquid at the centre of the
tube.
vi. Watch the ball falling centrally through the liquid. When it reaches the first calibration mark, start
both the stopwatches. Note down the time taken by the ball separately to reach the second and
third calibration marks.
vii. Measure the falling times similarly for all the balls supplied to you.
viii. Measure the distance from first to second and third calibration marks to determine the terminal
velocity.
ix. Finally calculate viscosity using the correction as given in Eq. 6.

Observations & Calculations:

;
Specification of glass tube:
Inner diameter of the measuring tube
Length of the cylinder

Radius of the balls:

Vernier constant of screw gauge

Observation # Main scale Circular scale Diameter(mm) Average radius(mm)

Reading (mm) Reading (mm)

Density of the sample liquid:

Calculated density of sample liquid, ρ1
Density of the steel ball:
Least count of weighing balance
Density=m/v
Volume=(4/3) π r 3
Observation # Mass(g) Average Mass (g) Average
density, ρ (g/mm3 )

Determination of viscosity:

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 LAB MANUAL AFM

Distance between 1st and 2nd calibration mark

Distance between 1st and 3rd calibration mark
Least count of the measuring scale
Velocity=distance/time

Ball # Falling Falling Velocity Velocity Average Average

time from time from between between terminal viscosity
1st to 2nd 1st to 3rd 1st and 2nd 1st and 3rd velocity, v with
calibration calibration calibration calibration (mm/sec) correction,
mark, t1 mark, t2 mark, v1 mark, v2 η
(sec) (sec) (mm/sec) (mm/sec)

Error estimation: Estimate the propagation of error and report it with the final result.

Precautions:
1. Avoid contaminating the balls, use tweezers or tissue paper to hold the balls.
2. Drop the balls centrally into the sample liquid.

Results:

comments:

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 LAB MANUAL AFM

Experiment 02

Determination of coefficient of drag for a sphere falling through a column of water.

Figure 2: Drag Measuring Apparatus

Objective:
To find the drag force and the drag coefficient for a sphere.

Apparatus:

i. Stop watch
ii. Drag tube
iii. Hydrometer
iv. Scales attached with apparatus
v. Tweezers
vi. Objects(sphere)
Theory:
Drag:
“It is a force acting opposite to the relative motion of any object moving with respect to the surrounding
fluid.”
Drag coefficient:
The drag coefficient (commonly denoted as C d, Cx or Cw) is a dimensionless quantity that is used to
determine the drag force or resistance of an object in a fluid the fluid may be Gas or liquid such as
air or water.
Classification of drag:
Drag is classified into following four types:
a) Induced drag.
b) Parasite drags.
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 LAB MANUAL AFM

c) Skin Friction drag.

d) Pressure drags.

e) Induced Drag: The drag that result from the generation of trailing vertex system downstream of a lifting
surface with a finite aspects ratio. In another words this type of drag is induced by the lift force.

f) Parasite Drags: The total drags of a body minus the induced drag. Thus, it is the drag not directly
associated with the production of lift. The parasite drag is composed of drag of various aerodynamic
components.

g) Skin Friction drags: The drag on a body resulting from viscus shearing stress (friction) over its contact
surface (Skin). The drag of a very streamlined shape such as thin, flat plate is frequently expressed in
terms of skin friction drag.

h) Pressure drags: The drag on a body resulting from the integrated effect of the static pressure acting
normal to its surface resolved in the drag direction. Unlike the skin friction drag that result from viscous
shearing forces tangential to the body’s surface from drag results from the distribution of pressure
normal to the body’s surface.
Formulation:
m
Density should be ρ k =
vk
2
π Dk
Than volume should be equal to v k =
6
2
π Dk
Surface area is Ak = (m2)
4
Dk is the diameter that should be measured with a micrometer.
Drag coefficient:
1
F d w= ρF C w v 2 A a
2 k

FDw is the drag force

Cw is the coefficient of drag
ρ F is the density of fluid (kg/m3)
V is the flow velocity of body (m/s)
Aak is the area of the body (m2)
According to stokes law
F d w =6 πµRv

R is the radius of the body (m)

V is the flow velocity of the body (m/s)
µ dynamic viscosity of fluid (kg/ms)
Experimental Setup:
i. Place the experimental setup on level surface.
ii. Fill the two tube with the liquid, ensure that the drain valves are closed.
iii. Place the sphere ready at hand with stop watch .
Procedure:
i. Density of the liquid can be measured by with the help of hydrometer in case fixed density
fluid density chart can be used density can also be measured by mass to volume ratio.
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 LAB MANUAL AFM

ii. Density of glycerin is 1.25 g/cm3

iii. Density of cooking oil is 0.92g/cm 3
iv. Density of material can be measured by ratio mass over volume ratio diameter of the related
sphere can be measured with the help of Vernier calipers
v. Density of mild steel is 7.861 g/cm 3
vi. The sink time “t” of the sphere can be noted by the stop watch the two-ring used as measuring
marks
vii. The distance moved by the sphere should be h=1m=1000mm

Observations & Calculations:

Material Dk Area Density(k) vk M F Coefficient

(m) m2 (g/m3) m
3 (g) (Newton) of viscosity

Results:

comments:

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 LAB MANUAL AFM

Experiment 03

To confirm the head loss predicted by pipe friction equation associated with flow of water
through smooth bore pipe.

Figure 01: Centrifugal Test Bench.

Objective:

To illustrate relationship between head loss due to fluid friction and velocity for flow of water through
smooth bore pipes.

Apparatus:
i. Fluid Friction Apparatus

Theory:

1. Fluid Friction in a Smooth Bore Pipe

Professor Osborne Reynolds demonstrated that two types of flow may exist in a pipe.
Laminar flow at low velocities where head loss, h α velocity, u
Turbulent flow at higher velocities where h α un
These two types of flow are separated by a transition phase where no definite relationship between h
and u exists.
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LAB MANUAL AFM

Figure 02: Relationship between Head Loss and Flow Velocity.

Head Loss due to Friction through Pipes:

For a circular pipe flowing full, the head loss due to friction (mH 2O) may be calculated from the
formula:
4 fL u2 λLu2
h=
2 gd 2 gd
Where,

L = length of pipe between tapings (m) = 1 m for all pips

d = internal diameter of the pipe (m)
u = mean velocity of water through pipe (m/s)
g = 9.81 (acceleration due to gravity, m/ s2)
f = pipe friction coefficient (British)
2f = λ (American)
2. Head Loss through Fittings

A piping installation consists of various fittings such as bends, elbows tees and valves that form
obstructions to flow. Head loss in a pipe fitting is proportional to the velocity head of the fluid flowing
through the fittings.

K u2
H=
2g

Where,

H = head loss across fittings (mH2O)

K = Fittings Factor
u = Mean velocity of water through the pipe (m/s)
g = 9.81 (acceleration due to gravity m/ s2)

3. Flow Measurement Using Differential Head

i. Pitot Static Tube

The pilot tube (named after Henri Pitot in 1732) measures fluid velocity y converting the kinetic energy
of the flow into potential energy.
Where,

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LAB MANUAL AFM

p v2
+ + z=h=Constant
ρg 2g

Where,
p = Fluid static pressure at the cross section
ρ = Density of the flowing fluid
g = Acceleration due to gravity
v = Mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section
z = Elevation head of the center at the cross section with respect to a datum
¿
h = Total (stagnation) head

ii. Venturi Meter

The venturi meter consists of a venturi tube and differential pressure gauge. The venturi tube has a
converging portion, a throat and a diverging portion.
With Z1 =Z 2 in this apparatus, the discharge coefficient is determined as follow:
Qa
C d=
Qi

Discharge coefficient, C d usually lies in the range between0.9 and 0.99.

iii. Orifice Plate

The orifice for use as a metering device in a pipeline consist of a concentric square-edged circular
hole in a thin plate, which is clamped between the flanges of the pipe.

The coefficient of discharge, C d in the case of orifice meter will be different from that for the case of a
venturi meter.

Procedure:

1. Start-up apparatus according to general procedures.

2. Turn or switch the valves (Outlet or Inlet) to obtain flow of water to test section only.
3. Measure flow rates using the volumetric tank in conjunction with flow control valve.
4. For small flow rates use the measuring cylinder in conjunction with flow control.
5. Measure head loss the head loss between tapping using mercury manometer or pressurized
water manometer as appropriate.
6. Repeat the testing with different flow rate and obtain readings on test section.
7. Measure the internal diameter of each test pipe sample using Vernier Calipers (not supplied).

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 LAB MANUAL AFM

Observations & Calculations:

Test Section: Smooth Bore Pipe

Sr.No Volume(V) Time(T) Flow Pipe Velocity(u) Head Head Log Log
Litters Seconds Rate(Q) Dia. (m/s) Loss(H) Loss(h) u h
(m¿¿ 3/ s)¿ (m) 4Q (mmHg) (m
V × 10−3 πd
2 H2O ¿
T
0.0126H

Results:

comments:

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LAB MANUAL AFM

Experiment 04

To confirm the head loss predicted by pipe friction equation associated with flow of water
through rough bore pipe.

Figure4.1: Apparatus to measure frictional losses in pipes.

Objectives:
To evaluate the pressure distribution on an aerofoil and calculate Cd and drag force Fd

Apparatus:
i. Fluid Friction Apparatus
ii. Test Section 17mm bore rough
iii. Hydraulic Bench

Theory

1. Fluid Friction in a Rough Bore Pipe:

Professor Osborne Reynolds demonstrated that two types of flow may exist in a pipe.
Laminar flow at low velocities where head loss, h α velocity, u
Turbulent flow at higher velocities where h α un
These two types of flow are separated by a transition phase where no definite relationship between h
and u exists.

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 LAB MANUAL AFM

Figure 02: Relationship between Head Loss and Flow Velocity.

Head Loss due to Friction through Pipes:

For a circular pipe flowing full, the head loss due to friction (mH 2O) may be calculated from the
formula:
2 2
4 fL u λLu
h=
2 gd 2 gd
Where,

L = length of pipe between tapings (m) = 1 m for all pips

d = internal diameter of the pipe (m)
u = mean velocity of water through pipe (m/s)
g = 9.81 (acceleration due to gravity, m/ s2)
f = pipe friction coefficient (British)
2f = λ (American)
2. Head Loss through Fittings

A piping installation consists of various fittings such as bends, elbows tees and valves that form
obstructions to flow. Head loss in a pipe fitting is proportional to the velocity head of the fluid flowing
through the fittings.

K u2
H=
2g

Where,

H = head loss across fittings (mH2O)

K = Fittings Factor
u = Mean velocity of water through the pipe (m/s)
g = 9.81 (acceleration due to gravity m/ s2)

3. Flow Measurement Using Differential Head:

i. Pitot Static Tube

The pilot tube (named after Henri Pitot in 1732) measures fluid velocity y converting the kinetic energy
of the flow into potential energy.
Where,

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 LAB MANUAL AFM

p v2
+ + z=h=Constant
ρg 2g

Where,
p = Fluid static pressure at the cross section
ρ = Density of the flowing fluid
g = Acceleration due to gravity
v = Mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section
z = Elevation head of the center at the cross section with respect to a datum
¿
h = Total (stagnation) head

ii. Venturi Meter

The venturi meter consists of a venturi tube and differential pressure gauge. The venturi tube has a
converging portion, a throat and a diverging portion.
With Z1 =Z 2 in this apparatus, the discharge coefficient is determined as follow:
Qa
C d=
Qi

Discharge coefficient, C d usually lies in the range between0.9 and 0.99.

iii. Orifice Plate

The orifice for use as a metering device in a pipeline consist of a concentric square-edged circular
hole in a thin plate, which is clamped between the flanges of the pipe.

The coefficient of discharge, C d in the case of orifice meter will be different from that for the case of a
venturi meter.

17 of 39
Procedure:
1. Start-up apparatus according to general procedures.
2. Turn or switch the valves (Outlet or Inlet) to obtain flow of water to test section only.
3. Measure flow rates using the volumetric tank in conjunction with flow control valve.
4. For small flow rates use the measuring cylinder in conjunction with flow control.
5. Measure head loss the head loss between tapping using mercury manometer or pressurized
water manometer as appropriate.
6. Repeat the testing with different flow rate and obtain readings on test section.
7. Measure the internal diameter of each test pipe sample using Vernier Calipers (not supplied)

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Observations and Calculations:

Volume(V) Time(T) Flowrate Pipe Velocity Reynolds ƛ Head Head Calculated

Litters Sec (Q) Dia.(d) (u) No.( Re ¿ ¿ Loss(H) Loss(h) Head
(m¿¿ 3/ s)¿ (m) (m/s) ρud moody (mm) (m Loss(H)
V × 10 −3 4Q μ chart) H2O ¿ (m H 2 O ¿
2
T πd 0.0126H ƛLu
2

2 gd

results:

comments:

Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Sahiwal - Page 26 of 41

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Experiment 05

To determine the mechanical power and efficiency produced by the Pelton turbine.
.

Figure 2: Pelton wheel turbine

Objective:
To determine the mechanical power and efficiency produced by the Pelton turbine.

Apparatus:
i. Pelton wheel turbine assembly
ii. Hydraulic Bench
iii. Tacho Meter
Theory:

Turbines are defined as hydraulic machines which convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy.

Pelton wheel Turbine:

The Pelton wheel turbine is tangential flow impulse turbine. The water strikes the bucket along the
tangent of the runner. The energy available at the inlet of the turbine is only kinetic energy. The
pressure at the inlet and outlet is atmospheric. The turbine is used for high heads.

Constructional Details:

The main parts of Pelton Turbine are:

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1. Nozzle and flow regulating arrangement:

The amount of water striking the buckets is controlled by providing a spear in the nozzle. The spear is a
conical needle operated in the axial direction depending up on the size of the unit. When the spear is
pushed forward, the amount of water striking the runner is reduced and when the spear is pushed back,
the amount of water striking the runner increases.

2. Runner and buckets:

Runner consists of a circular disc on the periphery of which a number of buckets evenly spaced are
fixed. The space of the buckets is of a double hemispherical cup or bowl. Each bucket is divided into
two symmetrical parts by dividing wall which is known as Splitter.

3. Casing:

The function of water is to prevent the splashing of water and to discharge water to tail race. The casing
of Pelton Wheel does not perform any Hydraulic function.

4. Breaking jet:

When the nozzle is completely closed by moving the spear in the forward direction, the amount of water
striking the runner reduces to zero. But the runner due to inertia goes on revolving for a long time. To
stop the runner in a short time, a small nozzle is provided which directs the jet of water on the back of
vanes. This jet of water is called Breaking Jet.

Working Principle of Pelton Turbine:

The high speed water jets emerging form the nozzles strike the buckets at splitters, placed at the
middle of a bucket, from where jets are divided into two equal streams. These stream flow along the
inner curve of the bucket and leave it in the direction opposite to that of incoming jet. The high speed
water jets running the Pelton Wheel Turbine are obtained by expanding the high pressure water
through nozzles to the atmospheric pressure. The high pressure water can be obtained from any water
body situated at some height or streams of water flowing down the hills.

The change in momentum (direction as well as speed) of water stream produces an impulse on the
blades of the wheel of Pelton Turbine. This impulse generates the torque and rotation in the shaft of
Pelton Turbine. To obtain the optimum output from the Pelton Turbine the impulse received by the
blades should be maximum. For that, change in momentum of the water stream should be maximum
possible. That is obtained when the water stream is deflected in the direction opposite to which it strikes
the buckets and with the same speed relative to the buckets.

Procedure:
1. Connect the apparatus with the hydraulic bench.
2. Switch on the hydraulic pump.
3. Open the valve slowly so that water begins to flow through the turbine.
4. Adjust the flow rate in turbine by nozzle adjuster screw.
5. Load the turbine by turning the adjustment breaking device.

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6. Note down the speed of turbine in rpm with the help of tachometer. Note down the braking power
F.
7. Now the torque can be calculated
T =F b . r
8. Radius of pulley = r = 25mm
9. The mechanical power produced by the turbine can be calculated by;

2 πnT
PM=
60

Observations & Calculations:

Radius ( r )

Sr. No. of Force F1 (N) Force F2 (N) Net force Fb Torque T Power PM
No. Revolutions (N) (Nm) (watt)
(rpm) Fb × r n
2π ×T
60

Results:

comments:

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Experiment 06

To determine the mechanical power produced by the Francis turbine.

Figure 1: Francis turbine

Objectives
To determine the mechanical power produced by the Francis turbine.

Apparatus:

i. Francis turbine experimental unit

ii. Hydraulic Bench
iii. Tacho Meter

Theory:
Francis Turbine:
The inward flow reaction turbine having radial discharge at outlet is known as Francis Turbine, after the
name of J.B. Francis an American engineer who in the beginning designed inward flow radial reaction
turbine. In the modern Francis turbine, the water enters the runner of the turbine in the radial direction
at inlet and leaves in the axial direction at the outlet of the runner.

Constructional details:

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The main parts of Francis Turbine are:

Casing:

The runner is completely enclosed in an air-tight spiral casing. The casing and runner are always full of
water.

Guide mechanism:
It consists of a circular wheel all-round the runner of the turbine. The stationary guide vanes are fixed
on the guide wheel. The guide vanes allow the water to strike the vanes fixed on the runner without
shock at inlet. Also width between the two adjacent vanes can be altered so that amount of water
striking the runner can be varied.

Runner:

It is a circular wheel on which a series of Radial Curved Vanes are fixed. The vanes are so shaped that
the water enters and leaves the runner without shock.

Draft tube:

The pressure at the exit of the runner of Reaction Turbine is generally less than atmospheric pressure.
The water at exit cannot be directly discharged to the tail race. A tube or pipe of gradually increasing
area is used for discharging water from the exit of turbine to the tail race. This tube of increasing area is
called Draft Tube. One end of the tube is connected to the outlet of runner while the other end is sub-
merged below the level of water in the tail-race. This tube of increasing area is called draft tube. The
draft tube I addition to serve a passage of water discharge has the following two purposes also

1. The tube may be placed above the tail race and hence turbine may be inspected properly.
2. The kinetic energy rejected at the outlet of the turbine is converted into useful pressure energy.

Procedure:
1. Position experiment setup on hydraulic bench such that the outlet from the draft tube can guide
the water into the duct of hydraulic bench.
2. Make hose connection between hydraulic bench and connection of Francis turbine using quick
release connection.
3. Use hand wheel to fully release brake unit of turbine, this relieves the load on the spring balances
and belt is no longer pulled against the pulley.
4. Close hydraulic bench’s main cock and switch on pump, slowly open main cock as far as it will go.
5. Release lever for vane adjustment by turning it and expel air from draft tube by slowly closing the
vanes.
6. The angle of impact of the water on the runner vanes is stipulated by the position of the vanes.
The above angle determines the speed and thus also the power of the turbine.
7. Vane adjustment is released by turning the lever.
8. Open the water supply from the hydraulic bench.
9. Load the turbine by turning the adjustment breaking device.

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10. Note down the speed of turbine in rpm with the help of tachometer. Note down the breaking power
F.
Fb = F1 –F2
11. Now the torque can be calculated by
T = Fb.r
12. The mechanical power produced by the turbine can be calculated by
PM = 2πN/60

Observations & Calculations:

Radius = r
Sr. No. of Force F1 (N) Force F2 (N) Net force Fb Torque T Power PM
No. Revolutions (N) (Nm) (watt)
(rpm)

Results:

comments:

Experiment 07

To calculate the efficiency of centrifugal pump and draw its characteristics curves;
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a) Between flow rate and head of pump.

b) Between flow rate and efficiency

Figure 01: Centrifugal Test Bench

Objective:

To calculate the efficiency of centrifugal pump and draw its characteristics curves;
a) Between flow rate and head of pump.
b) Between flow rate and efficiency

Apparatus:
i. Centrifugal Test Bench

Theory:

Pumps are devices that transfer mechanical energy from a prime mover into fluid energy to produce the
flow of liquids.

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Figure 02: Series and Parallel schematic diagram.

Dynamic Pumps:

Dynamic pumps add energy to fluid by the action of rotating blade, which increases the velocity of
fluid.

Centrifugal Pump Connected in Series

If a single pump does not provide enough head for a given application, two pumps connected in series,
can be a remedy. The effective two-pump performance curve is obtained by adding the head of each
pump at the same flowrate.

Figure 03: Two centrifugal pumps connected in series.

Procedure:

1. Fill the tank with water.

2. Switch on the main power supply.
3. Ensure that all setting follows the equipment set up.
4. Test the pump characteristics by changing the flowrate

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Formula for Calculation of Variables

Overall Efficiency Power fluid

ηOverall = X 100 %
Powerelectrical

Power (fluid) Pfluid = g .Q .H .ρwater

Gravitational Acceleration g = 9.81 m/s2

Volumetric flow rate Q (m3/s) = flow in LPM / 60000

Pump Head P 2−P1

H (m) =
ρg
Water Density ρwater = 1000 kg/m3

Observations & Calculations

Sr. Power Fluid Power Electric Percentage Efficiency

No.

Results:

comments:

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Experiment 08

To study the relationship of RPM with different parameters (Suction pressure, discharge pressure,
power consumption, flow rate and efficiency) of centrifugal pump.

Figure 6: Centrifugal pump

Figure 01: Cavitation Apparatus

Objective:
To study the relationship of RPM with different parameters (Suction pressure, discharge pressure, power
consumption, flow rate and efficiency) of centrifugal pump.

Apparatus:
Centrifugal Pump Apparatus.

Theory:
Introduction:
Centrifugal Pump:
It is a pump that uses a rotating impeller to increase the velocity of the fluid.

Types of Centrifugal Pump:

It depends on the number of impellers used.

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1.Single Stage:
It consists of the only one impeller.
2.Double Stage
This type of impeller has two side by side impeller. It is used where medium (average) Hight is required.
3. Multi-stage:
In multi-stage we move impeller to reach the required height. so, it is known as multi-stage pump. It is used
where height is approximate 25m to 30m. Impellers are attached in series a vertical direction.
Construction:
Foot Value:
It allows the water to enter the suction pipe but didn't allow to go outside
Flange:
Flange is used for the extension of pipe.
Sump:
It tells us about water Level.
Suction Pipe:
It is used to allow the water to enter apparatus.
Delivery Pipe:
It is used to allow the water to move into overhead tank.
Impeller:
II is the rotating point of the pump where water is being rotated. It is used to move a fluid by rotation.
Casing:
It is the outlet covering of the Centrifugal Pump.
Eye of Impeller:
The eye is the center or impeller where the fluid enters.
Overhead tank:
It is used to store water coming from delivery pipe.

Working:
Water enters though foot valves. It can let the water enter but don't let it comes out after entering. Then
water passes through suction pipe and enter the impeller from the eye of impeller. It is used to rotate the
impeller. After it, it enters the delivery pipe then from delivery pipe. It is used to store in overhead tank

Procedure:

1. First set up the apparatus.

2. Then we turn on the pump.
3. Now water start now.
4. Note the Flow Rate and numbers of rpms.
5. Now, note the pressure Ps and Pd.
6. Now calculate the head by using Formula.
 AH= hD-hs
Where Hd and Hs can be calculated as
• hs = Ps /pg
• hD = PD /pg
Now, calculate the fluid power (P,) and electric power (Pe) by formula.
• PF =v*I
• PF = Δp*Q

8. Efficiency can be calculated by using formula.

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Formula for Calculation of Variables

Overall Efficiency
Power (fluid) P1t,1= g.Q .H • Pwater
Gravitational Acceleration g =9.81 m/s2
Volumetric flow rate Q (m1/s} = flow in LPM / 60000
Pump Head H (m} =
Water Density Pwater = 1000 kg/m3

Observations and calculations:

Sr. N (No. of Ps PD V I Pin hs ho Δh Δp Q Pout

No Revolutions) (bar) (bar) (volt) (A) (Watt) (m) (m)
rpms

Results:

comments:

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Experiment 09

To visualize the cavitation phenomenon in pipe system and to compute cavitation number and its
applications for calculation of critical pressure.

Figure 01: Cavitation Apparatus

Objective:
To visualize the cavitation phenomenon in pipe system and to compute cavitation number and its
applications for calculation of critical pressure.

Apparatus:

i. Cavitation’s Apparatus

Theory:

In correlation equipment performance data, a useful parameter is dimensionless grouping called the
CAVITATION NUMBER.

Cavitation number can be considered as the ratio of net static pressure available to collapse the
bubble to the dynamic pressure available to initiate the formation of the bubble.

Formulas:

Area:
a1 = πD12 /4
a2 = πD22 /4

Theoretical Cavitation Number

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σ= (
c
p 1−
pv
760 )∗10
pv 12

Actual Cavitation Number

σ= ( p 1−
760 )
pv
∗10
2
pv 1

Velocity

Qa
V1 =
a1

Qa
V1 =
a2

Procedure:
i. Clean the apparatus and make it free from dust.
ii. To release the air from test section, start water supply to at maximum flow.
iii. Regulate flow of water through test section with the help of valve provided at the end of the test
section.
iv. Observe the condition and measure the flow rate of water.
v. Note the pressure at two points of the test section

Observations and calculations:

d1 = 40mm
d2 = 6mm
p = 1000kg / m3
pv = 17.5 mm of Hg. At 200C

Sr. p1 p2 p3 Q σ σc Condition
(bar) (bar) (bar) (m3/s) Observed

Results:

comments:
Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Sahiwal - Page 40 of 41
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Department of Civil Engineering, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Sahiwal - Page 41 of 41