Accidents: Chapter Aims

Level 3 Certificate in Occupational Safety and Health
ACCIDENTS Element A1
Accidents
Chapter Aims
This chapter examines the causes and costs of accidents and explains solutions aimed
at preventing accidents in the workplace. On completion of this chapter you will have an
understanding of the causes of accidents, the ensuing costs and, knowledge of solutions to
prevent accidents in the workplace.
Specified Learning Outcomes

On completion of this chapter you will be able to:
 Distinguish between accidents, incidents and near misses.
 Explain why accidents occur.
 Explain the cost of accidents.
 Explain the moral, legal and economic needs for accident prevention.
 Apply a variety of solutions to accident prevention in simple workplace scenarios.
Introduction
In the European Union, work-related accidents remain at high levels. There are approximately
5,500 deaths and more than 4.5 million accidents resulting in more than three days absence
every year (Commission of the European Communities, 2002).
Why Do We Need to Tackle the Problem of Work-related Accidents?
National statistics published by the HSE:
 There were 235 fatal injuries to workers in 2003/04, an increase of 4% on the 2002/03
figure of 227. Around half occurred in two industries: construction; and agriculture,
forestry and fishing.
 Falling from heights or being struck by a vehicle causes the most fatalities.
 Slips, trips and falls on the same level (i.e. not caused by falling from a height) cause
the most non-fatal major injuries to employees.
 The number of reported major injuries to employees was 30,666 in 2003/04, up 9% on

the previous year. Over a third of all reported major injuries were caused by slipping
and tripping.
 Injuries sustained while handling, lifting or carrying are the most common kind of injury
to employees resulting in three or more days absence.
© British Safety Council Awards 2005 A1 - 1 V1/05

 The number of reported over-3-day

injuries to employees increased by
0.7% in 2003/04 to 129,143 of which
two-fifths were caused by handling,
lifting and carrying.
 Accidents involving electricity are

very serious, about 1 in 30 of all
electrical accidents is fatal compared
with about 1 in 600 of other types of
accident.
 The rate of injury to workers in their

first six months is over twice that in
workers who have been with their Figure 1. Emergency response
employers for at least a year.
 In 2003/04 an estimated 2.2 million people suffered from ill health which they thought
was work-related, similar to the level in 2001/02 (2.3 million). Around three-quarters
of the cases of work-related ill health were musculoskeletal disorders (such as back
pain), or stress. New cases of musculoskeletal disorders were lower in 2003/04 than in
2001/02.
 Around 25 million working days are lost every year as a result of work-related accidents
and ill-health.
 More than 25,000 people are forced to give up work every year as a result of work-
related accidents and ill-health.
 Workers in small manufacturing firms are more than twice as likely to be killed at work
than workers in larger firms in the same sector.
 It is estimated that health and safety failures cost society in the UK up to £31.8 billion
each year.
“Managers in industry know that accidents cost money. Whether people are injured, plant and
machinery damaged or product wasted, organisations lose money.”
The Cost of Accidents at Work HS(G)96 1997 HSE
Definitions
An accident is commonly defined as:
“Any undesired circumstances which give rise to ill health or injury; damage to property, plant,
products or the environment; production losses or increased liabilities.”
Successful health and safety management - (HSG65), HSE
An incident is commonly defined as:
“All undesired circumstances and ‘near misses’ which could cause accidents.”
Successful health and safety management - (HSG65), HSE

A near miss is commonly defined as:
“An unplanned incident which does not cause injury or damage but has the potential to do so.”
NHS Primary Care Trust
A near miss is, by definition, an incident. Moreover, it should be regarded as a warning that a
problem exists and that some positive action is required. The investigation of near misses is
therefore also strongly advised.
Accident Causes
The majority of accidents can be prevented. Reducing work-related accidents is not just a moral
and legal imperative, there is a strong business case for doing so as well. The most successful
businesses usually have the best accident prevention records. Good health and safety is good
business.
HW Heinrich was an early pioneer of accident prevention and workplace safety. In the late
1920s, after studying the reports of 75,000 workplace accidents, Heinrich concluded that:
 88% of workplace accidents are caused by unsafe acts.
 10% of workplace accidents are caused by unsafe conditions.
 2% are unavoidable.
Immediate Causes
There is little doubt that the majority of accidents are caused by the activities that people do or
fail to do. Their acts, omissions and unsafe acts combine to cause unsafe conditions that can
lead to accidents.
Unsafe acts include:
 Lack of understanding, training and supervision.
 Complacency and poor attitude.
 Not wearing personal protective equipment (PPE).
 Not knowing, not enforcing or choosing to ignore procedures.
 Removal of guards and other safety devices.
 Poor communication.
Unsafe conditions include:
 Slip/trip hazards.
 Poor maintenance.
 Environmental (temperature, noise, dust and fumes).

 Workplace layout, falling objects.
The way in which unsafe acts and unsafe conditions may interact to produce an accident can be
seen as follows:
A P
C O
C T
Unsafe I
E Unsafe
N
acts D T conditions
E I
N A
T L
Accident potential is increased when unsafe acts and unsafe conditions occur simultaneously.
Examples of unsafe acts:
 Using tools and equipment for tasks for which they were not designed.
 Driving in excess of a speed limit.
Examples of unsafe conditions:
 A trailing telephone cable in an office.
 Driving a vehicle in exceedingly hot weather.
Underlying Causes
These are the root/true cause of the accident. Identifying this cause should explain why the
unsafe act occurred or indeed why the unsafe condition arose, but this is not always easy to
identify. Indirect causes can fall into three major categories:
 Organisational factors (procedural) such as:
○ Lapse in work standards.
○ Lack of procedures.
○ Inadequate training.
○ Communication, co-ordination, supervision failure.
 Job factors (technical) such as:
○ Poor design of equipment.
○ Bad layout of equipment and premises.

○ Lack of equipment maintenance.
 Human factors (behavioural) such as:
○ State of physical / mental capability.
○ State of physical / mental stress.
○ Lack of current knowledge and information.
○ Lack of skill and motivation.
The Cost of Accidents

The cost of an accident can be measured in human, financial and economic terms. An accident,
which is apparently minor, can have a major impact on both the company and the victim when
all related factors are considered.
Human aspects - costs to the victim include:
 Mental strain.
 Suffering.
 Loss of earnings.
 Extra expenditure.
 Possibility of a continuing disability.
 Possible loss of life.
 Incapacity for some kinds of work.
 Loss of leisure activities.
 Effect on family, friends and colleagues.
Financial aspects - costs to the company include:
 Loss of skilled and experienced workers.
 Loss of production.
 Loss of profit from injured workers.
 Expense of re-training injured worker or a replacement.
 Time lost by the effect on other workers.
 Loss of income from damage to corporate reputation.

 Increased insurance premiums.
Costs to the nation include:
 The expense/burden on medical or health services and facilities.
 The burden on welfare benefits and other social services provided by government.
Calculating the Cost
Few companies attempt to calculate the cost of an accident. When calculations are made,
all relevant cost factors must be taken into account. A continuous programme costing and
investigating known accidents will reveal only the tip of the iceberg (see Figure 2).
The true cost of injury and damage will only be assessed accurately if the company’s
information, in respect of injury and damage, becomes more detailed and precise.
Figure 2. Accident Iceberg – The Hidden Costs of Accidents HS(G)96 HSE 1997
Insured and Uninsured Costs
Employers Liability insurance is required when more than one person is employed. It covers
employees against personal injury, accidental damage, etc.
With very few exceptions, employers are legally obliged to have liability insurance cover for

injuries and ill health to their employees. They will also have insurance for accidents involving
vehicles and possibly third-party and buildings insurance.
However, insurance policies only cover a small proportion of the costs of accidents. Many
insurance policies will not pay out if damages and injuries are a direct result of faulty actions on
the part of the policy holder(s).
Some of the costs not covered by insurance can include:
 Sick pay.
 Damage or loss of product and raw materials.
 Repairs to plant and equipment.
 Overtime working and temporary labour.
 Production delays.
 Investigation time.
 Fines.
Insurance policies don’t cover everything, they may only pay for serious injuries and damage.
Insured costs will depend on the nature of the business. In most cases uninsured costs run
to many times insured costs and so are best avoided by using good accident prevention
techniques.
Reasons for Accident Prevention Programmes

The reasons for accident prevention may be based on moral, legal and economic
considerations.
Moral Considerations
The most valuable asset of a company is the employee. Management has a moral duty to
ensure the safety and well-being of those employed by the company and to encourage safe
working practices and conditions at all times. Management should also ensure the safety of
non-employees, such as contractors and visitors.
An employee who is injured is likely to suffer financial loss and either disfigurement, disability,
pain or in extreme cases death. The effects of an injury may not always be temporary and can
have devastating long-term consequences on an individual’s personal life, social and other
activities. There may also be a significant impact on the injured person’s family and friends.
Legal Considerations
The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 places a general duty on employers to ensure
the health, safety and welfare of employees. The possible consequences of failing to comply
with health and safety legislation, approved codes of practice, guidance notes and accepted
standards, plus other relevant legislation in areas such as fire prevention, environment, pollution

and product liability, will have a negative impact on organisations. Loss may result from the
preventative (enforcement notices), punitive (criminal sanctions) and compensatory effects of
law.
Economic Considerations
The financial impact on the organisation should be considered including the effects on insurance
premiums, the possible loss of service/production and corporate reputation and the overall effect
on the profitability of the organisation. Costs may be both direct and indirect.
The employer should be concerned with accident prevention because the direct and indirect
costs associated with accidents can endanger a company’s competitiveness. For instance,
financial losses due to increased insurance premiums, lost production or disruption to production
schedules, damage to equipment and plant, loss of time for other employees (e.g. supervisors)
during the accident investigation, training of replacement employees and the possibility of fines
and adverse publicity are all issues to consider.
While it is possible to insure against some of the expenses associated with injury, ill health and
damage to property, the hidden uninsurable costs could well exceed the insurable costs.
In the increasingly competitive market place, it is becoming common for clients to request
companies to provide safety records as part of tender analysis processes or pre-qualification.
Additionally in some cases, once the successful companies have been selected, ongoing
occupational safety and health performance evaluations are conducted on behalf of the principal
contractor.
Accident Ratio Studies

Many studies have been conducted to provide statistical information and accident severity ratios
for the safety profession, and there are several commonly quoted accident ratio theories in use.
The Heinrich Theory (USA - 1931)
WH Heinrich suggests that for each major accident there are likely to be 29 minor injuries and
300 non-injury accidents. Heinrich included property damage in his non-injury accident figure
and propounded the theory that accidents not injuries should be the basis for any prevention
programme.
1 Major accident
Minor injuries
29
Non-injury accidents
300

The Bird Theory (USA - 1969)
FE Bird suggests, after a study of more than 1.7 million accidents, that for each serious injury
there are likely to be ten minor injuries, 30 property damage accidents and 600 non-injury/
damage accidents.
1 Serious injury
Minor injuries
10
Property damage accidents
30
Non-injury/damage accidents
600
The Tye/Pearson Theory (UK - 1974/5)
Conducted on behalf of the British Safety Council this theory by Tye and Pearson is based on a
study of almost one million accidents in British industry. It suggests that for each fatal or serious
injury there would be three minor injuries, when the victim would be absent for up to three days,
50 injuries requiring first aid treatment, 80 property damage accidents and 400 non-injury/
damage accidents.
1 Fatal or serious injury
Minor injuries
3
First aid treatment
50
Property damage
80
Non-injury/damage
400
Industries and organisations have their own accident ratios. Although the figures and categories
differ, each contains the same basic fact, there are many more near miss accidents than
injury or damage producing ones, but little is generally known about these. Organisations
produce accident statistics at regular intervals, usually monthly, and with little extra effort more
meaningful information could be obtained to help management identify problems and aid their
solutions.

Accident Domino Theory
In 1931, Heinrich proposed a domino theory of accident causation. He stated that there were
five factors in the sequence of events leading to an accident. These factors can be summarised
as follows:
 Social environment.
 Fault of person.
 Unsafe acts or unsafe conditions.
 The accident.
 The injury.
Heinrich attempted to show that the accident sequence could be interrupted, therefore
preventing injury, by removing any one of the dominoes in the sequence.
Around 1970, Bird revised Heinrich’s domino theory which introduced the thought of managerial
error into the accident causation sequence.
Lack of management control
This is the initial stage centred around the management functions of:
 Policy.
 Planning.
 Organising.
 Controlling.
 Monitoring.
 Reviewing.
To prevent accidents, the management controls are put into place to stop the chain of events.
Accident Prevention Programmes

Methods for Reducing Accidents
There are many methods that can be used for reducing accidents. It is firstly important to
examine any possible organisational methods for reducing accidents which are summarised
below:
 Increase the awareness of health and safety within the organisation.
 Make senior management become more involved in and aware of health and safety.

 Make sure all employees and others who use the organisation are competent to
conduct their work safely.
 Heighten the levels of risk control knowledge within the organisation.
 Continue to monitor accidents and near-misses.
Hard and Soft Control Measures
Methods of reducing accidents can be separated into two categories, hard control and soft
control methods.
‘Hard’ control methods remove much, if not all, of the vagaries of human behaviour and ensure
only certain actions or conditions are met.
Hard (Physical) Control Methods
 Guarding - methods of containing the hazard or protecting the worker from the hazard,
including:
○ Moveable or adjustable guards.
○ Interlocked guards.
○ Automatic guards.
○ Distance guards.
 Protection devices - engineering methods that separate the worker from the hazard
such as:
○ Jigs.
○ Clamps.
○ Locking devices.
○ Trip/proximity switches.
 Training - The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974, Section 2(2)(c) states
that the employer has a duty to provide “…such information, instruction, training and
supervision as is necessary to ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, the health
and safety at work of his employees”. This is also a specific requirement under many
other regulations.
 Personal Protective Equipment - Employers must provide personal protective

equipment (PPE) where employees can’t be protected by other more effective means,
and only as a last resort. The Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations
1992 applies to both employers and the self-employed.
 Housekeeping - Tidy work areas and good storage of material can help reduce the
potential for slips, trips and falls which cause the majority of accidents.

 Plant layout - Design of work areas to take into account new processes or activities
can reduce the exposure to hazards.
 Fire precautions - To ensure that necessary fire steps are taken to reduce the
chances of a fire starting, such as:
○ The clearing of rubbish in office waste paper bins.
○ Clearing rubbish bins regularly.
○ Minimising use of flammable materials.
○ Not overloading electrical sockets.
○ Locking external skips to prevent arson.
Soft Control Methods
 Method statements - This is based on the findings of a risk assessment and is “A

written document laying out the work procedures and sequence of operations to
ensure health and safety.” (HSE). It establishes a ‘working method’ to be adopted by
employees.
 Culture - This is about shared attributes such as values, beliefs, norms, etc., which
define the way a company goes about its business. For example, if safety is valued
in such a company, then its safety performance is likely to be a lot better. Ways of
improving the organisational safety culture might be to involve the workforce in
decisions about safety issues, or to offer incentives or award schemes for good safety
practice.
 Campaigns - These are used to inform and change attitudes and behaviour.
Propaganda material might be a response to the identification of unsafe conditions or
behaviours that may have developed. Research has shown that informative messages
are better in a situation where no information has previously been made available.
Information should be clear and simple. The European Agency for Safety and Health
at Work has produced comprehensive guidelines on health and safety campaigning.
 Posters - These can be an effective way of getting the safety message across.
However their impact diminishes quickly with time so changing and updating them
frequently is essential. They are most effective when informative and positive, with
reference as to why an instruction should be followed. Shock or fear tactics must be
dealt with carefully, as too much fear may cause people to naturally reject its message,
while too little may not arouse interest. Posters should also be conveyed in the right
context.
Other soft control methods that may also be beneficial in raising the safety awareness of
employees include:
 Safety stickers.
 Company newsletters.

 Miscellaneous publications.
 Technical publications.
Investigation of Workforce Complaints
This can be as a result of:
 Direct consultation.
 Feedback from training.
 Feedback from risk assessment / method statement briefing.
 Result of an accident, near miss or dangerous occurrence.
 Identifying previously unrecognised hazards.
 Identifying hazards that are not adequately controlled.
Management Responsibility for Safety

Safety is not just the responsibility of management, the safety practitioner or the worker. It is
the responsibility of every person who works for the company to take reasonable care for their
safety and the safety of others who may be affected by their acts or omissions. Management
must take every opportunity to communicate the safety message, use their authority to enforce
legislation and company rules and ensure that others accept their safety responsibilities.
The management of a company has both legal and moral responsibilities to ensure:
 A safe place of work – including a safe means of access and egress during the normal
daily work routine as well as in emergencies.
 Safe plant and equipment, including the maintenance of it.
 Safe systems of work, including safe working practices and work permits for hazardous
jobs.
 A safe working environment and adequate arrangements for employee welfare. This
responsibility encompasses a great many factors including lighting, heating, ventilation,
fume and dust extraction, housekeeping, seating, drinking water, sanitary facilities, etc.
 Safe methods for storing, handling and transporting goods and substances.
 Provision of such information, instruction, training and supervision as is necessary to

ensure efficient and safe working, compliance with statutory legislation and company
rules.
 Consultation with employees, or their representatives, with a view to making and

maintaining adequate and effective arrangements for health, safety and welfare.
 A written statement with respect to the health, safety and welfare of the employees

is produced, published and revised as often as necessary. This statement should

be brought to the notice of the employees, kept up to date and monitored for its
effectiveness. It should also contain details of the procedures which will put the policy
into effect and define individual responsibilities for safety.
There can be no doubt that with correct and responsible attitudes toward safety, adequate
procedures and the adoption of modern safety management techniques, the incidence of injury
and damage can be substantially reduced and efficiency improved. Management must be
constantly aware of their responsibilities and the need for, and the benefits of, a well-constructed
and properly conducted accident prevention programme.
References and Further Reading

Commission of the European Communities (2002) - Adapting to Change in Work and
Society: A New Community Strategy on Health and Safety at Work 2002-2006
Health and Safety Statistics National Statistics - HSC (2002/03)
Government sets targets to cut work-related deaths, accidents and illness in biggest
health and safety shake-up for 25 years News Release C024 - HSC (2000)
The Costs of Accidents at Work HS(G)96 - HSE (1997)
Key Points
Definitions:
 Accident - Any unplanned event that results in injury, ill health or damage
to or loss of plant, materials, etc.
 Near miss - An unplanned incident which does not cause injury or damage
but has the potential to do so.
 Incident - Any accident, near miss or dangerous occurrence.
Why accidents occur:
 Unsafe acts 88%
 Unsafe conditions 10%
 Unavoidable 2%
 Immediate causes.
 Underlying causes.

The main costs of poor accident prevention are:
 Human aspects - costs to the victim.
 Financial aspects - costs to the company.
 Costs to the nation including health services and welfare facilities.
Why prevent accidents?
 Moral considerations.
 Legal considerations.
 Economic needs.
The main benefits of accident prevention are:
 Improved employee health and wellbeing.
 Compliance with health and safety regulations.
 Control of financial loss.
 Lower insurance premiums.
The main methods of reducing accidents are:
 Increased awareness of health and safety within the organisation.
 Senior management involvement in health and safety planning and

implementation.
 Applying a range of hard and soft control measures.
 Ensure all employees and others within an organisation are competent to

conduct their work safely.
 Heighten knowledge levels of risk control within the organisation.
 Continuation of monitoring accidents and near-misses.

Accidents: Chapter Aims

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Level 3 Certiﬁcate in Occupational Safety and Health

Speciﬁed Learning Outcomes

 Distinguish between accidents, incidents and near misses.

 Explain why accidents occur.

 Explain the cost of accidents.

 Apply a variety of solutions to accident prevention in simple workplace scenarios.

Why Do We Need to Tackle the Problem of Work-related Accidents?

National statistics published by the HSE:

 The number of reported major injuries to employees was 30,666 in 2003/04, up 9% on

© British Safety Council Awards 2005 A1 - 1 V1/05

 The number of reported over-3-day

 Accidents involving electricity are

 The rate of injury to workers in their

An accident is commonly deﬁned as:

An incident is commonly deﬁned as:

© British Safety Council Awards 2005 A1 - 2 V1/05

A near miss is commonly deﬁned as:

 88% of workplace accidents are caused by unsafe acts.

 10% of workplace accidents are caused by unsafe conditions.

Unsafe acts include:

 Lack of understanding, training and supervision.

 Complacency and poor attitude.

 Not wearing personal protective equipment (PPE).

 Not knowing, not enforcing or choosing to ignore procedures.

 Removal of guards and other safety devices.

Unsafe conditions include:

 Environmental (temperature, noise, dust and fumes).

© British Safety Council Awards 2005 A1 - 3 V1/05

 Workplace layout, falling objects.

Examples of unsafe acts:

 Driving in excess of a speed limit.

Examples of unsafe conditions:

 A trailing telephone cable in an ofﬁce.

 Driving a vehicle in exceedingly hot weather.

 Organisational factors (procedural) such as:

○ Lapse in work standards.

○ Communication, co-ordination, supervision failure.

 Job factors (technical) such as:

○ Poor design of equipment.

○ Bad layout of equipment and premises.

© British Safety Council Awards 2005 A1 - 4 V1/05

○ Lack of equipment maintenance.

 Human factors (behavioural) such as:

○ State of physical / mental capability.

○ State of physical / mental stress.

○ Lack of current knowledge and information.

○ Lack of skill and motivation.

The Cost of Accidents

Human aspects - costs to the victim include:

 Possibility of a continuing disability.

 Possible loss of life.

 Incapacity for some kinds of work.

 Loss of leisure activities.

 Effect on family, friends and colleagues.

Financial aspects - costs to the company include:

 Loss of skilled and experienced workers.

 Loss of proﬁt from injured workers.

 Expense of re-training injured worker or a replacement.

 Time lost by the effect on other workers.

 Loss of income from damage to corporate reputation.

© British Safety Council Awards 2005 A1 - 5 V1/05

 Increased insurance premiums.

Costs to the nation include: