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Module 5
Opened: Monday, 7 February 2022, 8:00 AM

To do: View To do: Spend at least 20 mins on this activity To do: Go through the activity to the
end

GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Module 5

INTRODUCTION:

A periodic table is also known as the periodic table of elements, is a tabular display of
the chemical elements, which are arranged by atomic number, electron configuration,
and recurring chemical properties.
Dmitri Mendeleev was the first periodic table in 1869. He showed that when the
elements were ordered according to atomic weight, a pattern resulted where similar
properties for elements recurred periodically. Based on the work of Henry Moseley, the
periodic table was reorganized on the basis of increasing atomic number rather than on
atomic weight. The revised table could be used to predict the properties of elements
that had yet to be discovered. Many of these predictions were later substantiated
through experimentation. This led to the formulation of the periodic law, which states
that the chemical properties of the elements are dependent on their atomic numbers.

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

a. Explain the parts of the periodic table.

b. Identify the different uses of the different elements.

c. Write correctly the chemical symbol/s and chemical formula of different substances.

COURSE CONTENT:

 Subject Matter: Periodic Table, Chemical Formula

 Materials to be used: Modules

LEARNING ACTIVITIES

Class, what can you say about the illustration above?

Those are elements and their symbols.

That’s correct class! Those are different elements with their own symbols.

These different elements were being discovered by former scientists because they were
able to study the different things present in our surroundings. 

Let us discuss in detail how these different elements were being discovered and how it is
related to the development of the periodic table.

History of periodic table:

In 1789, Antoine Lavoisier published a list of 33 chemical elements. Although Lavoisier

grouped the elements into gases, metals, non-metals, and earths, chemists spent the
following century searching for a more precise classification scheme.

In 1829, Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner observed that many of the elements could be

grouped into triads (groups of three) based on their chemical
properties. Lithium, sodium, and potassium, for example, were grouped together as
being soft, reactive metals. Döbereiner also observed that, when arranged by atomic
weight, the second member of each triad was roughly the average of the first and the
third. This became known as the Law of triads.

Leopold Gmelin he had identified ten triads three groups of four, and one group of
five(1843),.

Jean Baptiste Dumas published work in 1857 describing relationships between various

groups of metals. Although various chemists were able to identify relationships between
small groups of elements, they had yet to build one scheme that encompassed them all.

August Kekulé had observed in 1858 that carbon has a tendency to bond with other

elements in a ratio of one to four. Methane, for example, has one carbon atom and four
hydrogen atoms. This concept eventually became known as valency.

John Newlands published a series of papers in 1864 and 1865 that described his
attempt at classifying the elements: When listed in order of increasing atomic weight,
similar physical and chemical properties recurred at intervals of eight, which he likened
to the octaves of music. This law of octaves, however, was ridiculed by his
contemporaries.
Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev and Julius Lothar Meyer independently published their
periodic tables in 1869 and 1870, respectively. They both constructed their tables in a
similar manner: by listing the elements in a row or column in order of atomic weight and
starting a new row or column when the characteristics of the elements began to repeat.

In 1864, Julius Lothar Meyer published a table of the 49 known elements arranged by

valency. The table revealed that elements with similar properties often shared the same
valency.

The success of Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev's table came from two decisions he made:

The first was to leave gaps in the table when it seemed that the corresponding element
had not yet been discovered. Mendeleev was not the first chemist to do so, but he went
a step further by using the trends in his periodic table to predict the properties of those
missing elements, such as gallium and germanium.

The second decision was to occasionally ignore the order suggested by the atomic
weights and switch adjacent elements, such as cobalt and nickel, to better classify them
into chemical families. With the development of theories of atomic structure, it became
apparent that Mendeleev had inadvertently listed the elements in order of
increasing atomic number.

With the development of modern quantum mechanical theories

of electron configurations within atoms, it became apparent that each row (or period) in
the table corresponded to the filling of a quantum shell of electrons. In Mendeleev's
original table, each period was the same length.

**However, because larger atoms have more electron sub-shells, modern tables have
progressively longer periods further down the table. In the years that followed after
Mendeleev published his periodic table, the gaps he left were filled as chemists
discovered more chemical elements.

In 1887-1915 Henry G. Moseley determine the change in nucleus of the elements using

x-ray diffraction to correct the discrepancies of the early periodic table. He arranged the
lements according to increasing atomic number.

**The last naturally occurring element to be discovered was francium (referred to by

Mendeleev as eka-caesium) in 1939. The periodic table has also grown with the addition
of synthetic and transuranic elements.
**The first transuranic element to be discovered was neptunium, which was formed by
bombarding uranium with neutrons in a cyclotron in 1939.

The organization of the Periodic Table of Elements:

The elements in the periodic table are arranged in periods (horizontal rows) and groups
(vertical rows/ columns). Each of the seven periods is filled sequentially by atomic
number. Groups include elements having the same electron configurationin their outer
shell, which results in group elements sharing similar chemical properties.

Key to the Periodic Table:

Elements are organized on the table according to their atomic number, usually found
near the top of the square.

The atomic number refers to how many protons an atom of that element has.

For instance, hydrogen has 1 proton, so it’s atomic number is 1.

The atomic number is unique to that element. No two elements have the same atomic
number.

Different periodic tables can include various bits of information, but usually:

atomic number, symbol, atomic mass

number of valence electrons, state of matter at room temperature.

Symbol of the elements

Chemical Symbols are abbreviations used in chemistry for chemical elements, functional
groups and chemical compounds.

All elements have their own unique symbol.

It can consist of a single capital letter, or a capital letter and one or two lower case
letters.

Element symbols for chemical elements stem from classical Latin and Greek vocabulary.
For some elements, this is because the material was known in ancient times, while for
others; the name is a more recent invention. For example, Pb is a symbol for lead
(plumbum in Latin); Hg is the symbol for mercury (hydrargyrum); He is the symbol for
helium ( a new Latin name) because helium was not known in ancient Roman times.

Some elements are named for people such as Curium is named for Marie Curie.

Some elements are named for places such as Sweden has 4 elements named for it:
terbium, yttrium, erbium and ytterbium;

Some elements are named for the place where it was observed such as Californium, it
was first produced in 1950 in Radiation Laboratory at the University of California.

The majority of elements have symbols that are based on their English names.

The 3-letter temporary may be assigned to a newly synthesized (or not yet synthesized)
element. For example, **Uno** was the temporary symbol for hassium (element 108)
which had the temporary name of unniloctium, based on its atomic number being 8
greater than 100.

Properties of Metals:

Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity. Metals are shiny.

Metals are ductile (can be stretched into thin wires).

Metals are malleable (can be pounded into thin sheets).

A chemical property of metal is its reaction with water which results in corrosion.
Properties of Non-Metals:

Non-metals are poor conductors of heat and electricity, are not ductile or malleable.

Solid non-metals are brittle and break easily. They are dull, many non-metals are gases.

Properties of Metalloids:

Metalloids (metal-like) have properties of both metals and non-metals.

They are solids that can be shiny or dull. They are ductile and malleable.

They conduct heat and electricity better than non-metals but not as well as metals.

Periods:

Each horizontal row of elements is called a period.

The elements in a period are not alike in properties.

In fact, the properties change greatly across even given row.

The first element in a period is always an extremely active solid. The last element in a
period, is always an inactive gas.

Families:

Columns of elements are called groups or families.

Elements in each family have similar but not identical properties.

For example, lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), and other members of family IA
are all soft, white, shiny metals.All elements in a family have the same number of valence
electrons.

Hydrogen:
The hydrogen square sits atop Family AI, but it is not a member of that family. Hydrogen
is in a class of its own.

It’s a gas at room temperature. It has one proton and one electron in its one and
only energy level.

Alkali Metals:

The alkali family is found in the first column of the periodic table.

They are shiny, have the consistency of clay, and are easily cut with a knife.

They are the most reactive metals. They react violently with water.

Alkali metals are never found as free elements in nature. They are always bonded with
another element.

Alkaline Earth Metals:

They are never found uncombined in nature.

Alkaline earth metals include magnesium and calcium, among others.

Transition Metals:

Transition Elements include those elements in the B families. They are good conductors
of heat and electricity.

The compounds of transition metals are usually brightly colored and are often used to
color paints.

Transition elements have properties similar to one another and to other metals, but their
properties do not fit in with those of any other family.

Many transition metals combine chemically with oxygen to form compounds called
oxides.

Boron Family:

The Boron Family is named after the first element in the family.

This family includes a metalloid (boron), and the rest are metals.
This family includes the most abundant metal in the earth’s crust (aluminum).

Carbon Family:

This family includes a non-metal (carbon), metalloids, and metals.

The element carbon is called the “basis of life.” There is an entire branch of
chemistry devoted to carbon compounds called organic chemistry.

Nitrogen Family:

The nitrogen family is named after the element that makes up 78% of our atmosphere.

This family includes non-metals, metalloids, and metals. They tend to share electrons
when they bond.

Other elements in this family are phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth.

Oxygen Family:

Most elements in this family share electrons when forming compounds.

Oxygen is the most abundant element in the earth’s crust. It is extremely active and
combines with almost all elements.

Halogen Family:

The elements in this family are fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine.

Halogens have 7 valence electrons, which explains why they are the most active non-
metals. They are never found free in nature. They react with alkali metals to form salts.

Halogen atoms only need to gain 1 electron to fill their outermost energy level.

Noble Gases:

Noble Gases are colorless gases that are extremely un-reactive.

One important property of the noble gases is their inactivity. They are inactive because
their outermost energy level is full. Because they do not readily combine with other
elements to form compounds, the noble gases are called inert.
The family of noble gases includes helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon, and radon.

All the noble gases are found in small amounts in the earth's atmosphere.

Rare Earth Elements:

The thirty rare earth elements are composed of the lanthanide and actinide series.

One element of the lanthanide series and most of the elements in the actinide series are
called trans-uranium, which means synthetic or man-made.

Chemical Formula:

A chemical formula shows how many atoms of each kind are present in a molecule.

It is a shorthand way to use chemical symbols and numbers to represent a substance.

Examples are:

NaCl ---Na is for sodium and it has 1 atom, Cl is for chlorine and it has 1 atom

H2O----H is for Hydrogen and has 2 atoms, O is for oxygen and has 1 atom

Al3O2 ----Al is for aluminum and has 3 atom and O is for oxygen and has 2 atoms

Subscript--A number written below and to the right of a chemical symbol in a formula.

 There are rules in writing formula.

Rules for formula Writing:

1. The symbol of the positive ion is written first followed by the symbol of the negative
ion or radical (a group of atoms which act as a single unit).
2. Criss-cross—the valence of the positive ion becomes the subscript of the negative
ion while the valence of the negative ion becomes the subscript of positive ion.

3. Disregard the sign.

4. If the subscript is 1 it is not written.

5. If the valences are numerically equal, there is no need to criss- cross and write since
the valence is zero.

6. If the subscript of the radical is greater than 1, the radical is enclosed with a
parenthesis.

7. Subscript should be reduced to the lowest ratio.

Examples:

A. Potassium Chloride

Steps:

1.     K -1                 Cl -1

2.     K -1                Cl  +1

3.     K 1                Cl  1

4.     Based from rule no. 4, if the subscript is 1 it is not written. 

        KCl   ----Final chemical formula

 B. Magnesium Oxide

Steps:

 1. Mg -2      O -2

2.  Based on rule no. 5: If the valences are numerically equal, there is no need to criss-
cross and write since the valence is zero.

3. MgO     ---Final chemical formula

C. Calcium Nitrate

 Steps:

1. Ca+2     NO3 -1

2. Ca-1     NO3    +2  

3.  Ca1      NO3       2  

4. Ca      NO3       2

5.  Based from rule no. 6 , If the subscript of the radical is greater than 1, the radical is
enclosed with a parenthesis.

     Ca (NO3) 2     ---Final chemical formula

D. Platinum (IV) Oxide

 Steps:

 1. Pt +4        O-2

 2. Pt -2       O+4

3.  Pt 2       O4

 4. Based from rule no. 7, Subscript should be reduced to the lowest ratio.   

    Pt 2 /2      O4/2
      Pt 1       O2

5. Based from rule no.4, if the subscript is 1 it is not written.

     PtO2-------Final chemical formula

E. Ammonium Acetate

Steps:

 1. NH 4   -1       PO4  -3

 2. NH 4  -3         PO4   -1

 3. NH 4   3         PO4  1

 4. Based from rule no.4, if the subscript is 1 it is not written. 

     NH 4   3         PO4 

5. Based from rule no. 6 , If the subscript of the radical is greater than 1, the radical is enclosed
with a parenthesis.

    

     (NH4) 3  PO4 ------Final chemical formula

Kindly watch the video below for a supplementary lesson on chemical formulas.

Play Video
References:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodic_table
https://iupac.org/what-we-do/periodic-table-of-elements/
https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/periodic-table/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_formula#:~:text=A%20chemical%20formula%20is
%20a,and%20minus%20(%E2%88%92)%20signs.
https://openstax.org/books/chemistry-2e/pages/2-4-chemical-formulas

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