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Barro, Robert J., and Xavier Sala-i-Martin. 1992. Convergence. Journal of Political Economy
100(2): 223-251.
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doi:10.1086/261816
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Convergence
RobertJ. Barro
Harvard Universityand National Bureau of EconomicResearch
XavierSala-i-Martin
Yale Universityand National Bureau of EconomicResearch
223
224 JOURNAL OF POLITICAL ECONOMY
9 f(k),11~~~~~~~~~1 (1)
where y and k are output and capital per unit of effective labor, Lext,
L is labor (and population), and x is the rate of exogenous, labor-
augmenting technological progress. (We assume the usual curvature
properties for the production function.) In a closed economy, k
evolves as
k =f(k) - c^-(8 + x + n)k, (2)
where c^= C/Lext, 8 is the rate of depreciation, and n is the growth
rate of L. The representative, infinite-horizon household maximizes
utility,
U = 1 u(c) ente-Ptdt, (3)
with 0 > 0, so that marginal utility, u'(c), has the constant elasticity
-0 with respect to c. (We assume p > n + [1 - 0]x below to satisfy
the transversality condition.)
The first-order condition for maximizing U in equation (3) entails
In the steady state, the effective quantities, 9, k, and c',do not change
and the per capita quantities, y, k, and c, grow at the rate x. The level
of k in the steady state satisfies
f(k) = Aka,
= (7)
where 0 < a < 1. Thus if two economies have the same parameters
of preferences and technology, then the key result is that the initially
poorer economy-with a lower starting value of k-tends to grow
faster in per capita terms.
The transitional dynamics can be quantified by using a log linear-
ization of equations (2) and (5) around the steady state. The solution
for log[9(t)] in the log-linearized approximation to the model with a
Cobb-Douglas technology is
P + 8 Ox
+
~ 1/2 (9)
X [+ +OX(n + + x)] a
One possibility is a value of axaround .8, that is, in the range in which
the broad nature of capital implies that diminishing returns set in
slowly. We can reduce the required value of catto around .5 if we
assume very high values of 0 (in excess of 10) and a value of 8 close
to zero.
log -te-N)
aYz(I log(y t )- (t- 1)] + i (11)
which implies
2 = U
art 1 _ +
Oro2 1e-e2 -
____
1 (13)
(We assume here that the cross section is large enough so that the
sample variance of log[yit] corresponds to the population variance,
(rt2.) Equation (13) implies that (y2 monotonically approaches the
steady-state value, or2 = a2/( - e -2*), which rises with o2 but declines
with P3.The variance orQ2 falls (or rises) over time if the initial value
a 2 is greater than (or less than) or2. Thus a positive coefficient P3does
not ensure a falling or2.
Shocks that have common influences on subgroups of countries or
regions, such as-harvest failures and oil shocks, imply that ud in equa-
tion (11) would'not be independent of ujt for j 1i. An important
example of this kind of shock from U.S. history is the Civil War,
which had a strong adverse effect on the southern states relative to
the northern states. We can handle this type of situation by writing
the error term, uit, in equation (11) as the sum of an aggregate influ-
ence and an independent disturbance:
(
log )= a- (1 - e ) *[log(yit-,)
) Y~~~~~,t
-x* (t - 1)] + 4dist+ Vit,
2 The specification in eq. (14) means that realizations of st effectively shift crain eqq.
(12) and (13). Thus the approach of 4r2to a steady-state value need no longer be
monotonic. We plan in future research to analyze the time series of cr2 for the U.S.
states.
CONVERGENCE 229
3 We assume here that yi represents either real per capita income for residents of
economy i (corresponding to the data on state personal income) or the real per capita
income derived from production of goods and services in economy i (corresponding
to the figures on gross state product). Hence, changes in relative prices show up directly
as changes in yi,; e.g., if no quantities change, then an increase in the relative price of
oil generates a high growth rate of yt, for economies that produce a lot of oil.
230 JOURNAL OF POLITICAL ECONOMY
Sectoral
Composition
Sample (Sit) R v
equation (15) for the U.S. states or territories and for various time
periods.6 Aside from log(yitO), each regression includes a constant
and three regional dummy variables: south, midwest, and west. (To
save space, the estimated coefficients for the constant and the regional
dummies are not shown in the table.) Because the regional dummies
are held constant, the effect of initial per capita income does not
reflect purely regional differences, such as the southern states' catch-
ing up with the northern states.7
For the longest interval, 1880-1988 (for 47 observations), the esti-
mated convergence coefficient shown in line 1 of table 1 is B= .0 175
(standard error = .0046). Figure 1 shows the dramatic inverse rela-
tion between the average growth rate from 1880 to 1988 and
log(y1880): the simple correlation is -.93.
The full time series for yi, (1880, 1900, 1920, and annually from
1929) potentially provides more information about the coefficient J3.
For a smaller value of T, however, the error term in equation (15),
Uitoto+T, represents an average of shocks over a shorter interval.
Therefore, the estimates become more sensitive to the specification
of the error process. In particular, if there is serial persistence in the
error term-, uit then the correlation between ui0toIto+T and log(yi to) is
likely to be negligible for large T but substantial for small T. For this
reason, we have not attempted to use the full annual time series that
starts in 1929.
Lines 2-10 of table 1 show estimates of P3for nine subperiods of
the overall sample: 1880-1900, 1900-1920, 10-year intervals from
1920 to 1980, and 1980-88. (There are 47 observations for the first
subperiod and 48 for the others.) Each regression includes a constant
and the three regional dummies. The results show values of 1 that
range from -.0122 (.0074) for 1920-30 to .0373 (.0053) for
1940-50.
If all nine subperiods are restricted to have a single value for ,
then the estimate is 13= .0 189 (.0019) in line 11. This estimation
allows each subperiod to have individual coefficients for the constant
and the regional dummies.8 The joint estimate of P3is close to the
value .0175 estimated for the single interval 1880-1988. But, as
would be expected, the standard error from the joint estimation,
_
|~~~~~~~~A~
0.02
Ui
WV
~~~~~~~~~~~MD
8 0.015
C!,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~C
O 0.01
CL _AZ\
0.005--
.0.6 40.2 0.2 0.6 1 1.4 1.8
LOG(1880PERCAPITAPERSONALINCOME)
FIG. 1.-Growth rate from 1880 to 1988 vs. 1880 per capita income
.00 19, is a good deal smaller than that, .0046, found for the single
interval. The problem with the joint estimate is that the data reject
the hypothesis that the coefficient I3is the same for the nine subperi-
ods. The likelihood ratio statistic for this hypothesis, 32.1, is well
above the 5 percent critical value from the x2 distribution with eight
degrees of freedom of 15.5 (p-value = .000).
The unstable pattern of X coefficients across subperiods can reflect
aggregate disturbances that have differential effects on state incomes,
as represented by the term 4ist in equation (14). For example, during
the 1920s, the ratio of the wholesale price index for farm products
to the overall consumer price index fell at an average annual rate of
3.5 percent. The agricultural states also had below-average per capita
personal income in 1920: the correlation of log(y1920) with the share
of national income originating in agriculture in 1920 was - .67. Thus
the estimated coefficient, IB= -.0122, for the 1920-30 period in
table 1 likely reflects the tendency of the poorer states to be agricul-
tural and therefore to experience relatively low growth in this decade.
This effect reverses for the 1940-50 decade, when the ratio of the
wholesale price index for farm products to the overall consumer price
index grew at an average annual rate of 9,5 percent.
To hold constant this type of effect, we construct a variable that
measures the sectoral composition of income in each state. For the
subperiods that begin since 1930, we use a breakdown of the sources
of labor income (including income from self-employment) into nine
234 JOURNAL OF POLITICAL ECONOMY
where wit is the weight of sectorj in state i's personal income at time
t and Yjtis the national average of personal income that originates in
sector j at time t, expressed as a ratio to national population at time
t. Aside from the effect of changing sectoral weights within a state,
the variable sit would equal the growth rate of per capita personal
income in state i between years t and t + T if each of the state's
sectors grew at the national average rate for that sector. In particular,
the variable reflects shocks to agriculture, oil, and so forth in a way
that interacts with state i's concentration in the sectors that do rela-
tively well or badly in terms of income because of the shocks.
We think of the variable sit as a proxy for common effects related
to sectoral composition in the error term in equation (15). Note that
sit depends on contemporaneous realizations of national variables, but
only on lagged values of state variables. Because the impact of an
individual state on national aggregates is small, sit can be nearly exog-
enous with respect to the current individual error term for state i. In
any event, we assume that, with sit held constant, the error terms are
independent across states and over time.
For the subperiods that begin before 1930, we lack detailed data
on the sectoral composition of personal income, but we have data on
the fraction of national income originating in agriculture. For these
subperiods, we use this fraction as a measure of sit. Note that the
different methods of construction and the differing behavior of ag-
ricultural relative prices mean that the coefficients of the variable sit
will vary from one subperiod to another. Therefore, we estimate a
separate coefficient on sit for each subperiod.
Lines 12-20 in table 1 add the variable sit to the growth rate regres-
sions for each subperiod. (The first subperiod has 46 observations
and the others have 48.) As before, these regressions include
log(yito), a constant, and three regional dummies. Not surprisingly,
the estimated coefficients on the variable sit for the post-1930 sub-
periods are typically positive. That is, states in which income origi-
nates predominantly in sectors that do well at the national level tend
to have higher per capita growth rates. (The estimated coefficient for
the 1940-50 subperiod is negative, but not significantly so.) For the
CONVERGENCE 235
0.025
0.0215R
0.01 -
- C
0.01 R
CD~~~~~~~~~~DM MO ME
moos
0R
-0.005SOT
LOG(1840PERCAPITAPERSONALINCOME)
FIG. 2.-Growth rate from 1840 to 1880 vs. 1840 per capita income
and two regional dummies (no western states are in the sample). We
exclude the variable s - because the data are unavailable. The estimate
in line 22 is 3 = .0254 (.0067), which accords with the estimate of
.0249 (.0021) for the subperiods that begin after 1880 (line 21).
Figure 2 plots the per capita growth rate from 1840 to 1880 against
log(yI840). A remarkable aspect of the plot is the separation of the
southern and nonsouthern states because of the Civil War. In 1840,
the southern and nonsouthern states differed little in terms of aver-
age per capita income: the unweighted average of 11 southern states
was 94 percent of that for 18 eastern and Midwestern states. But in
1880 a wide gap had appeared and the southern average was only
50 percent of the nonsouthern. The figure shows, however, that con-
vergence applies to the southern and nonsouthern states as separate
groups. That is, with the regional dummies held constant (which ef-
fectively hold constant the impact of the Civil War), there is a strong
negative correlation between the per capita growth rate and the initial
level of per capita income.
The Civil War affected states differentially, but, in contrast to the
shock to agriculture in the 1920s, the effect of the Civil War on state
per capita income had little correlation with the initial level of per
for 1880 comprises about half the income included in the measure that we used previ-
ously. In any event, the limited figures for 1840 are not comparable to the data for
years after 1880.
CONVERGENCE 237
capita income. For this reason, we do not get a very different point
estimate of I for the 1840-80 subperiod if we eliminate the regional
dummies: the estimate without these dummies is I = .0203 (.0126).
The fall in the R2 of the regression from .91 in line 22 of table 1
to .19 indicates, however, that the regional dummies have a lot of
explanatory power in this period!
TABLE 2
CROSS-STATE REGRESSIONS FOR GROSS STATE PRODUCT
Sectoral
Sample Composition 2
Sample ,B(sit) R2 a
1. 1963-86 .0180 ... .48 .0038
(.0059)
2. 1963-69 .0154 ... .63 .0056
(.0060)
3. 1969-75 .0406 ... .41 .0120
(.0162)
4. 1975-81 - .0285 ... .17 .0139
(.0130)
5. 1981-86 .1130 ... .62 .0168
(.0244)
6. Four periods, .0211 ... ... ...
f restricted* (.0053)
7. 1963-69 .0157 .18 .63 .0056
(.0060) (.25)
8. 1969-75 .0297 1.56 .74 .0081
(.0101) (.20)
9. 1975-81 .0258 1.74 .78 .0072
(.0108) (.15)
10. 1981-86 .0238 1.73 .92 .0079
(.0091) (.13)
11. Four periods, .0216 individual ... ...
,3 restricted* (.0042)
12. 1963-86 .0222 .63 .54 .0036
(.0065) (.27)
NOTE.-All regressions have 48 observations. The dependent variable is the growth rate of real per capita GSP
(nominal GSP per capita divided by the national deflator for GSP). The regressions denoted four periods, P
restricted use nonlinear, iterative weighted least squares, with the coefficient J constrained to be equal for the four
subperiods. See also the notes to table 1.
* For line 6, the log likelihood ratio is 31.2 (p-value = .000); for line II, it is 1.7 (p-value = .637). Under the
null hypothesis of equal coefficients, the likelihood ratio statistic is distributed as x2 with three degrees of freedom.
238 JOURNAL OF POLITICAL ECONOMY
0.032
\ ~~~~~~GA
NH
(O 0.027
a) 0.024- ME TX I-A
0.018 F\ CA
I< 0.015 - ID WA
I.
cc
WV UT
0012-
IL _
0.009-
0. 09 l
I I I I I I
FIG. 3.-Growth rate from 1963 to 1986 vs. 1963 per capita GSP
10This argument does not apply to the subperiod 1969-75 (line 3 of table 2).
Although the oil price rose substantially over this period, the oil states did not
have especially high values of per capita GSP in 1969.
"' The results for personal income over the period 1980-88 (table 1, line 10) do not
show the same pattern. The main difference is that the correlation in 1980 of the
logarithm of per capita personal income with the share of income originating in oil
and natural gas is close to zero.
240 JOURNAL OF POLITICAL ECONOMY
table 5.2) and Barro and Sala-i-Martin (199la) relate net migration
for the U.S. states to initial values of per capita personal income over
subperiods of the interval from 1900 to 1987. These studies confirm
that net in-migration is positively related to initial per capita income.
But the results also show that the estimated convergence coefficients,
A, are little affected by the inclusion of net migration as an explana-
tory variable in the growth rate equations. Moreover, we have shown
that the minor interplay between migration and convergence is quan-
titatively consistent with the neoclassical growth model (extended to
allow for migration), given the estimated sensitivity of migration to
income differentials.
We leave as an unresolved puzzle the similar estimates for the rates
of convergence of per capita income and product. We think that a
resolution of this puzzle will involve the construction of an open-
economy growth model that satisfactorily incorporates credit mar-
kets, factor mobility, and technological diffusion.
Additional
Sample Variables R2 6
1. 98 countries, -.0037 no .04 .0183
1960-85 (.0018)
2. 98 countries, .0184 yes .52 .0133
1960-85 (.0045)
3. 20 OECD countries, .0095 no .45 .0051
1960-85 (.0028)
4. 20 OECD countries, .0203 yes .69 .0046
1960-85 (.0068)
5. 48 U.S. states, .0218 no .38 .0040
1963-86 (.0053)
6. 48 U.S. states, .0236 yes .61 .0033
1963-86 (.0013)
NOTE.-The dependent variable in regressions 1-4 is the growth rate of real per capita GDP from 1960 to 1985;
in regressions 5 and 6 it is the growth rate of real per capita GSP (the variable used in table 2) from 1963 to 1986.
The coefficient P applies in regressions 1-4 to the logarithm of real per capita GDP in 1960, and in regressions 5
and 6 to the logarithm of real per capita GSP in 1963. Each regression also includes a constant. The additional
variables included in regressions 2 and 4 are the primary and secondary school enrollment rates in 1960, the
average ratio of government consumption expenditure (standard figures less spending on defense and education)
to GDP from 1970 to 1985, the average number of revolutions and coups per year from 1960 to 1985, the average
number of political assassinations per capita per year from 1960 to 1985, and the average deviation from unity of
the Summers-Heston (1988) purchasing power parity ratio for investment in 1960. See Barro (1991) for details on
these variables. The additional explanatory variables included in regression 6 are regional dummies, the sectoral
composition variable, si, and the fraction of workers in 1960 that had accumulated some amount of college educa-
tion. The 20 OECD countries (the original membership in 1960) are Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France,
Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzer-
land, Turkey, United Kingdom, and United States.
0.08 -
44
0.07 -
LO 33
OD
0.06 - 36 37
6CD
0) 0.05 -2
40 55 50
- 0.04 - 23 63 64
6 26 W85 8 42
36
I 0.03 - 3 4163542
5 1
90 67 ~5170
O 0.0~~~~~~~2 - 5172195 ,,,
87
0
(9
0.02 - 24
274
3
34
7 97 7#459 9~~~~~~~~~~~~~
8H32
< 0.01 -
13 79
(!) 8196 a
<
0~~~~~~~~~~~58 25
73 93
C,
-0.0 - l1l9
W -0.021
-
2.0 - 131
-2 02
FIG. 4.-Growth rate from 1960 to 1985 vs. 1960 per capita GDP, sample of 98
countries (listed in App. B).
CONVERGENCE 243
the countries. The variables are based on GSP over the time pe-
riod 1963-86, and the regression includes only log(y1963) and a con-
stant as regressors. The estimate in this case is ,3 = .0218 (.0053).
Barro (1991, table 1, fig. 2) shows that a significantly negative par-
tial relation between the per capita growth rate from 1960 to 1985
and log(y1960) emerges for the 98 countries if some other variables are
held constant. The set of other variables in the main results consists of
primary and secondary school enrollment rates in 1960, the average
ratio of government consumption expenditure (exclusive of defense
and education) to GDP from 1970 to 1985, proxies for political stabil-
ity, and a measure of market distortions based on purchasing power
parity ratios for investment goods. If we include these variables for
the 98 countries in the form of equation (15), then line 2 of table 3
shows that the estimated convergence coefficient becomes ,B = .0184
(.0045). This estimate of 13is no longer very much below the cross-
state value shown in line 5 of the table.
The theoretical relation in equation (15) predicts conditional con-
vergence, that is, a negative relation between log(yito) and the subse-
quent growth rate if we hold constant the steady-state position,
log(j%>, and the steady-state growth rate, xi. (The constant B in
eq. [15] depends on log[y1 and xi.) The theory implies that the rela-
tion between log(yito) and the growth rate will be negative unless the
correlation between log(yiO) and the two omitted factors, log(9,)
and xi, is substantially positive.
The U.S. states are likely to be reasonably homogeneous with re-
spect to the steady-state values log(9i) and xi. That is, the differences
in initial positions, log(yiO), may be relatively much greater. (This
condition is especially compelling if the initial differences reflect ex-
ogenous events, such as wars, world agricultural harvests, and oil
shocks.) In this case, the negative relation between the growth rate
and log(y 00)would show up even if the differences in the steady-state
values are not held constant: conditional and absolute convergence
would coincide. The result for 13shown in line 5 of table 3 is consistent
with this perspective.
In contrast, the sample of 98 countries likely features large differ-
ences in the steady-state values, log(j1) and xi, that is, in the underly-
ing parameters of technology and preferences (and natural resources
and government policies) that determine these long-run values. The
absence of substantial labor mobility across countries reinforces the
possibility of substantial divergences in these steady-state values. The
correlation of log(y ,,O)with log(9 is likely to be substantially positive;
that is, economies with higher steady-state values of output per effec-
tive worker would have followed a path that led them today to higher
levels of output per person. Similarly, the correlation of log(yito) with
244 JOURNAL OF POLITICAL ECONOMY
We have not had much success in finding growth rate effects related to cross-state
differences in government expenditures. Also, educational differences aside from col-
lege attainment were not important.
CONVERGENCE 245
0.0 -6
z 0.02 -
57QO QE 0. 1 1. 48
eo
Q1- 02
0..3 mom1 - , I, , , ,
FIG. 5.-Growth rate from 1960 to 1985 vs. 1960 per capital GDP, OECD countries
(listed in App. B).
Conclusions
Our empirical results document the existence of convergence in the
sense that economies tend to grow faster in per capital terms when
they are further below the steady-state position. This phenomenon
shows up clearly for the U.S. states over various periods from 1840
to 1988. Over long samples, poor states tend to grow faster in per
capita terms than rich states even if we do not hold constant any
variables other than initial per capita income or product. If we hold
constant the region and measures of sectoral composition, then the
speed of convergence appears to be roughly the same-around 2
percent per year-regardless of the time period or whether we con-
sider personal income or GSP.
246 JOURNAL OF POLITICAL ECONOMY
same steady-statepath as that for the United States. (The actual average
growth rate of 0.8 percent per year for the sub-Saharan African coun-
tries is "explained" in the regression in line 2 of table 3 by the addi-
tional variables that proxy for steady-state positions.) The main point
is that a value for (x of .8 is very far from 1.0 in an economic sense.
In open-economy versions of the neoclassical growth model, it is
possible to find convergence effects associated with technological dif-
fusion even if the returns to capital are constant (ot = 1). Also, in
closed-economy models with constant returns to a broad concept of
capital, convergence effects can reflect the working out of initial im-
balances among the various kinds of capital. For example, Mulligan
and Sala-i-Martin (1991) show that the per capita growth rate is in-
versely related to initial physical capital per worker for a given initial
quantity of human capital per worker. Thus we would like to break
down the observed convergence into various components: first, ef-
fects related to diminishing returns to capital and to imbalances
among types of capital in the context of a closed economy; second,
effects involving the mobility of capital and labor across economies;
and third, effects that involve the gradual spread of technology. The
present empirical results, which exploit only cross-sectional differ-
ences in growth rates, do not allow us to separate the observed con-
vergence patterns into these components. We hope to make these
distinctions in future research, which will also exploit the time-series
variations of growth rates.
Appendix A
Some Effects of MeasurementError
The regressionsshown in tables 1 and 2 can exaggeratethe estimatedconver-
gence coefficient, I, if real income or product is measured with error. Aside
from the usual measurement problems, one reason to expect errors is that
we divide all nominal values in each year by a common price index.
Equation (15) can be rewritten as
where T > T > 0 and u- t +T to+T depends on the error terms, uit, between
dates to + T and to + T. Equation (A3) relates the growth rate from to + T
to to + T to the level of per capita income or product at an earlier time, to.
Note that equation (15) is the special case in which T = 0.
We assume that the measurement error, biqteis independent of lit,+t
for t 2? T. This condition holds for all T > 0 if is white noise but also applies
s
for large enough T to measurement error with some persistence over time.
We assume that hi tp is independent of uito+Tto+T. In this case, least-squares
estimation of equation (A3) leads to an underestimateof the magnitude of
the coefficient, (ed-t - e-T)/(T - T). We can show that this term is increasing
in I if I < [log(T/T)]/(T- T). In practice, we use the values T = 10 years
and T = 20 years or T = 5 years and T = 10 years. For the first pair of
values, the term (edit - e-T)/(T - T) is increasingin I if I < .07 per year;
for the second pair, the term is increasingin f if I < .14 per year. Therefore,
for these ranges of I and in large samples, the underestimateof the coeffi-
cient on log(yito) in equation (A3) corresponds to a large-sampleunderesti-
mate of P3.Because this bias is opposite in directionto that found for equation
(15), we can use regressions in the form of equation (A3) to bound the size
of the bias.
Consider the regressions for personal income in which each subperiod has
individual coefficients for the constant, three regional dummies, and the
sectoralcomposition variable,sit If we use only the five equal-lengthsubperi-
ods from 1930-40 to 1970-80, then the joint estimate P in the form of
equation (15) is .0244 (.0025), which is close to the value for nine subperiods
from 1880 to 1988 shown in line 20 of table 1. The comparableresult in the
form of equation (A3) with T = 10 years and T = 20 years is I = .0278
(.0049). Although we expected the asymptotic bias induced by temporary
measurement error to be positive in the first case and negative in the second,
the result for f turns out to be higher in the second case. (The theoretical
result can be affected by the inclusion of additional explanatoryvariablesin
the regressions.) In any event, we infer from the similarityof the two esti-
mates of P that temporary measurement error is unlikely to have a major
influence on the results.
For GSP, we use the three equal-length subperiods 1970-75, 1975-80,
and 1980-85. The joint estimate I in the form of equation (15) is .0280
(.0058), somewhathigher than that, .0216 (.0042), shown for four subperiods
from 1963 to 1986 in line 11 of table 2. With T = 5 years and T = 10 years,
joint estimation of equation (A3) over the three subperiods from 1970 to
1985 leads to the estimate I = .0366 (.0091). Again, in contrast to expecta-
tions, the estimated value in the second case exceeds that in the first case. But
the main inference is that the results are similarand, hence, that temporary
measurement error is unlikely to be important.
CONVERGENCE 249
Appendix B
Key for Countries in Figures 4 and 5
1. Algeria 51. Denmark
2. Botswana 52. Finland
3. Burundi 53. France
4. Cameroon 54. Germany
5. Central African Republic 55. Greece
6. Egypt 56. Iceland
7. Ethiopia 57. Ireland
8. Gabon 58. Italy
9. Ghana 59. Luxembourg
10. Ivory Coast 60. Malta
11. Kenya 61. Netherlands
12. Liberia 62. Norway
13. Madagascar 63. Portugal
14. Malawi 64. Spain
15. Mauritius 65. Sweden
16. Morocco 66. Switzerland
17. Nigeria 67. Turkey
18. Rwanda 68. United Kingdom
19. Senegal 69. Barbados
20. Sierra Leone 70. Canada
21. South Africa 71. Costa Rica
22. Sudan 72. Dominican Republic
23. Swaziland 73. El Salvador
24. Tanzania 74. Guatemala
25. Togo 75. Haiti
26. Tunisia 76. Honduras
27. Uganda 77. Jamaica
28. Zaire 78. Mexico
29. Zambia 79. Nicaragua
30. Zimbabwe 80. Panama
31. Bangladesh 81. Trinidad and Tobago
32. Burma 82. United States
33. Hong Kong 83. Argentina
34. India 84. Bolivia
35. Iran 85. Brazil
36. Israel 86. Chile
37. Japan 87. Colombia
38. Jordan 88. Ecuador
39. Korea 89. Guyana
40. Malaysia 90. Paraguay
41. Nepal 91. Peru
42. Pakistan 92. Uruguay
43. Philippines 93. Venezuela
44. Singapore 94. Australia
45. Sri Lanka 95. Fiji
46. Taiwan 96. New Zealand
47. Thailand 97. Papua New Guinea
48. Austria 98. Indonesia
49. Belgium
50. Cyprus
250 JOURNAL OF POLITICAL ECONOMY
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CONVERGENCE 251