Michael Naui, MD, FPCS

LECTURE OUTLINE
I. Complications in Minor Procedures
A. Central Venous Access Catheters
B. Arterial Lines
C. Endoscopy & Bronchoscopy
D. Tracheostomy
E. Percutaneous Endogastrostomy
F. Tube Thoracostomy
G. Complications of Angiography
H. Complications of Biopsies
II. Organ System Complications
A. Nervous System
B. Eyes, Ears and Nose
C. Vascular Problems of the Neck
D. Thyroid & Parathyroid Glands
E. Respiratory System
F. Cardiac System  Steps to decrease complications include:
G. Gastrointestinal System o Ensure that central venous access is indicated
H. Hepatobilary-Pancreatic System o Experienced personnel should insert the catheter or should
I. Renal System supervise the insertion
J. Musculoskeletal System o Use proper positioning and sterile technique
K. Hematologic System o Ultrasound is recommended for internal jugular vein insertion
L. Abdominal Compartment Syndrome o All central venous catheters should be assessed on a daily basis
III. Wounds, Drains and Infection and should be exchanged only for specific indications (not as a
A. Wound (Surgical Site) Infection matter of routine)
B. Drain Management o All central catheters should be removed as soon as possible
C. Urinary Catheters
D. Empyema Complications Management
o Prevention requires proper positioning of the patient
E. Abdominal Abscesses
and correct insertion technique
F. Necrotizing Fasciitis o Post-procedure chest X-ray is recommended to
G. SIRS, Seosis and Multiorgan Dysfunction Syndrome confirm the presence or absence of a pneumothorax,
IV. Nutritional & Metabolic Support regardless of whether a pneumothorax is suspected.
A. Nutrition-Related Complications o Rates are higher among inexperienced providers and
B. Glycemic Control underweight patients
Pneumothorax o Recommendations
C. Metabolism-Related Complications
- If the patient is stable, and the pneumothorax is
V. Problems with Thermoregulation small (<15%), close expectant observation may
A. Hypothermia be adequate
B. Hyperthermia - If the patient is symptomatic, thoracostomy tube
VI. References should be placed
o Can occur as late as 48-72 hours after central venous
LEGEND access attempts, this usually creates sufficient
PPT LECTURE BOOK OTHER TRANS REMEMBER compromise that a tube thoracostomy is required.
📈 🔊 📖 📃 📌 o Can result from myocardial irritability secondary to
guidewire placement
Arrhythmias o Usually resolve when the catheter or guidewire is
COMPLICATIONS IN MINOR PROCEDURES withdrawn from the right heart
o Prevention requires ECG monitoring whenever
 Individual errors in judgment or technique can cause minor or possible during catheter insertion and rapid
major complications during or after a surgical procedure recognition when a new arrhythmia occurs
 Recognition and management of complications is a critical o Majority will resolve with direct pressure on or near the
component of surgical care arterial injury site
 Factors to consider when performing procedures: o Rarely will angiography, stent placement, or surgery
Arterial Puncture be required to repair the puncture site, but close
o Necessity of the access
observation and a chest X-ray are indicated.
o Use of less invasive or lower risk alternatives such as o Ultrasound-guided insertion may decrease the
PICC line insertion instead of central line insertion incidence of arterial puncture
and non-invasive cardiac monitoring instead of o Can be readily retrieved with interventional
arterial line insertion Lost Guidewire angiography techniques
 Considering less invasive procedures can reduce the problem of o Prompt chest X-ray and close monitoring of the
avoidable harm patient until retrieval are indicated
o Patient should immediately be placed into a left lateral
A. CENTRAL VENOUS ACCESS CATHETERS 📖 📈 📌 decubitus Trendelenburg position so the entrapped
air can be stabilized within the right ventricle
 Complications of central venous access catheters are common. o Auscultation over the precordium may reveal a
 Numerous institutions have mandated the use of ultrasound for “crunching” sound, but CXR will confirm the diagnosis
Air Embolus o Aspiration via central venous line accessing the heart
placement of all central venous lines may decrease the volume of gas in the right side of the
 Many subclavian catheters have been alternatively placed at the heart and minimize the amount traversing into the
internal jugular position due to a perceived benefit of pulmonary circulation
decreasing the complication of pneumothorax (may be offset o Subsequent recovery of intracardiac and
by an increase in line infections as the neck is a difficult site to intrapulmonary air may require open surgical or
keep clean and the dressing intact) angiographic techniques
o Treatment may prove futile if the air bolus is >50mL

JG 1
GABRIEL MD | 2023
 o Due to excessive advancement of the catheter
into the pulmonary circulation
o Sentinel bleed with coughing noted when a
pulmonary artery catheter balloon is inflated,
followed by uncontrolled hemoptysis
o Management:
- Reinflation of the catheter balloon
- Immediate airway intubation with
mechanical ventilation
Pulmonary Artery - Urgent portable chest X-ra
Rupture - Notification of the OR that an emergent
thoracotomy may be required
o Indications for conservative non-operative
approach:
- No further bleeding after the balloon is
reinflates
- X-ray shows no significant consolidation of
lung fields from ongoing bleeding
- Patient is easily ventilated
o Pulmonary angiogram with angioembolization
or vascular stenting may be required
o Hemodynamically unstable patients rarely survive
o CDC does not recommend routine central line
changes, but when the clinical suspicion of
infection is high, the site of venous access must
Central Venous
be changed
Line Infection o Once an infection is recognized as central line
sepsis, removing the line is adequate.
o S. aureus infections can be a potential for
metastatic seeding of bacterial emboli
o Required treatment is 4 to 6 weeks of tailored
antibiotic therapy
B. ARTERIAL LINES 📖 📈 📌
 Arterial lines are placed to facilitate arterial blood gas sampling and
hemodynamic monitoring
 Use of ultrasound to assist in placement of these catheters has
become commonplace and markedly reduces the number of
attempts and time for insertion completion
 Arterial access requires sterile Seldinger technique,
 Variety of arteries are used, including the radial, femoral, brachial,
axillary, dorsalis pedis, or superficial temporal arteries
 Complications:
o Thrombosis o Arterial spasm (non-thrombotic
o Bleeding pulselessness)
o Hematoma o Infection
o Pseudoaneurysms o AV fistulae
 Thrombosis or embolization of an extremity arterial catheter can
result in the loss of a digit, hand, or foot, and the risk is nearly the
same for both femoral and radial cannulation
 Thrombosis with distal tissue ischemia is treated with
anticoagulation, but occasionally surgical intervention is required
C. ENDOSCOPY & BRONCHOSCOPY 📖 📈 📌
 Principal risk of GI endoscopy is perforation due to complications
of intubating a GI diverticulum (either esophageal or colonic) or
from the presence of weakened or inflamed tissue in the intestinal
wall (diverticulitis, glucocorticoid use, or IBD)
JG
GABRIEL MD | 2023
 Clinical manifestations:
o Patients will usually complain of diffuse abdominal pain shortly
after the procedure and then progress with worsening abdominal
discomfort and peritonitis on examination
o Obtunded or elderly patients: change in clinical status may be
delayed for 24 to 48 hours
 Radiologic studies to look for free intraperitoneal air, retroperitoneal air,
or a pneumothorax are diagnostic
 Open or laparoscopic exploration locates the perforation and allows
repair and local decontamination of the surrounding tissues
 Indications for non-operative management:
o Perforation tha arises during an elective
o Bowel-prepped endoscopy
o No significant pain or clinical signs of infection
o Patients must be closely observed in a monitored setting and
must be on strict dietary restriction and broad-spectrum antibiotics
 Complications of bronchoscopy:
o Bronchial plugging o Lobar collapse
o Hypoxemia o Bleeding
o Pneumothorax
 Management:
o Bleeding- resolves spontaneously and rarely requires surgery
but may require repeat endoscopy for thermocoagulation or
fibrin glue application
o Pneumothorax- necessitates placement of a thoracostomy tube
o Lobar collapse or mucous plugging- usually responds to
aggressive pulmonary toilet but occasionally requires repeat
bronchoscopy
 Biopsies increase the risk of complications
D. TRACHEOSTOMY 📖 📈 📌 bet 4th 25th lbs
 Facilitates weaning from a ventilator, may decrease length of ICU or
hospital stay, and improves pulmonary toilet.
 Performed open, percutaneously, with or without bronchoscopy, and
with or without Doppler guidance
 Advantages of percutaneous tracheostomy include efficiency and
cost containment over open tracheostomy
 Recent studies do not support obtaining a routine chest X-ray after
percutaneous or open tracheostomy but significant lobar collapse can
occur from copious tracheal secretions or mechanical obstruction
 Most dramatic complication is tracheoinnominate artery fistula (TIAF)
that carries a 50% to 80% mortality rate
o TIAFs can occur as early as 2 days or as late as 2 months after
tracheostomy
o Sentinel bleed occurs in 50% of TIAF cases, followed by a large-
volume bleed
o Should a TIAF be suspected, the patient should be transported
immediately to the OR for fiberoptic evaluation
o If needed, remove the tracheostomy and place a finger through
the tracheostomy site to apply direct pressure anteriorly for
compression of the innominate artery while preparation for a more
definitive approach is organized
E. PERCUTANEOUS ENDOGASTROSTOMY 📖 📈 📌
 Misplaced PEG tube may lead to intra-abdominal sepsis with
peritonitis and/or abdominal wall abscess with necrotizing fasciitis
 Initial placement technique must be fastidious to avoid complications.
 Management:
o Jejunostomy- corrects the complications
o Replacement of PEG tube w/ alternate feeding tube should be
done ASAP because the gastrostomy site closes rapidly
o Contrast X-ray (sinogram) should be performed to confirm the
tube’s intragastric position before feeding
o If there is uncertainty of the tube location, conversion to an open
tube placement procedure is required
F. TUBE THORACOSTOMY 📖 📈 📌
 Indications for chest tube insertion:
o Pneumothorax o Pleural effusions
o Hemothorax o Empyema
 Chest tube can be easily placed with a combination of local analgesia
and light conscious sedation
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 Complications:
o Inadequate analgesia or sedation
o Incomplete penetration of the pleura with formation of a
subcutaneous tube track
o Lacerations to the lung or diaphragm
o Intraperitoneal placement of the tube through the
diaphragm
o Bleeding
o Slippage of the tube out of position
o Mechanical problems related to the drainage system
 In patients with bullous disease, there can be significant
intrapleural scarring, and it can be easy to mistakenly place
the chest tube into bullae
 Complications can be avoided with:
o Proper initial insertion techniques
o Daily review of the drainage system
o Follow-up radiographs
 Tube removal can create residual pneumothorax if the patient
does not maintain positive intrapleural pressure by Valsalva
maneuver during tube removal and dressing application
G. COMPLICATIONS OF ANGIOGRAPHY 📖 📈 📌
 Complications of intramural dissection of cannulated artery:
o ischemic stroke from carotid artery dissection or occlusion
o Mesenteric ischemia from dissection of the superior
mesenteric artery
o Blue toe syndrome from dissected artery in peripheral limb
 Severity of ischemia and extent of dissection determine if
anticoagulation therapy or urgent surgical exploration is indicated.
 Bleeding from a vascular access site usually is obvious, but
may not be visible when the blood loss is tracking into the
retroperitoneal tissue planes after femoral artery cannulation.
 These patients can present with hemorrhagic shock
(abdominopelvic CT scan delineates the extent of bleeding
along the retroperitoneum)
 Initial management:
o Direct compression at the access site and resuscitation
as indicated
o Urgent surgical exploration may be required to control the
bleeding site and evacuate larger hematomas
 Contrast nephropathy- temporary and preventable
complication of radiologic studies such as CT, angiography,
and/or venography
o Can be prevented IV hydration before and after the
procedure (most efficienct method)
o Non-ionic contrast also may benefit higher-risk patients
H. COMPLICATIONS OF BIOPSIES 📖 📈 📌
Complications Management
Bleeding o Can be controlled by direct pressure
Infection o Appears 5-10 days post-op
o May require opening of the wound and
drainage
Lymph Leakage & o May resolve with aspiration
Seromas o Application of pressure dressings
o May require repeated treatments or even
placement of a vacuum drain
 Measures to prevent direct complications:
o Proper surgical hemostasis
o Proper skin preparation
o Single preoperative dose of antibiotic to cover skin flora
30 to 60 minutes before incision
ORGAN SYSTEM COMPLICATIONS
A. NEUROLOGIC SYSTEM 📖 📈 📌
 Neurologic complications that occur after surgery include motor
or sensory deficits and mental status changes
 Peripheral motor and sensory deficits are often due to
neurapraxia secondary to improper positioning and/or padding
during operations
 Treatment is largely clinical observation, and the majority of
deficits resolve spontaneously within 1 to 3 months
 Nerve injury may be a stretch injury or unintentionally severed
nerve (can result to painful neuromas that may require surgery)
JG
GABRIEL MD | 2023
 Direct injury to nerves during a surgical intervention is a well-
known complication of several specific operations:
o Superficial parotidectomy (facial nerve)
o Carotid endarterectomy (hypoglossal nerve)
o Thyroidectomy (recurrent laryngeal nerve)
o Prostatectomy (nervi erigentes)
o Inguinal herniorrhaphy (ilioinguinal nerve)
o Mastectomy (long thoracic and thoracodorsal nerves)
 Mental status changes must be continually assessed
 Non-contrast CT scan should be used early to detect new or evolving
intracranial causes
 Atherosclerotic disease increases the risk for intraoperative and
postoperative stroke (cerebrovascular accident)
 Postoperatively, hypotension and hypoxemia are the most likely
causes of a cerebrovascular accident
 Management:
o Largely supportive and includes adequate intravascular volume
replacement plus optimal oxygen delivery
o Catheter-directed therapy with anticoagulants such as the
kinases and tPA
o Endoluminal stents with drug-eluting stents (DESs) or non-
DESs have been used with some degree of success
o DESs do require systemic antiplatelet therapy due to the
alternative coagulation pathway
o Duration of antiplatelet therapy of 1 year is routine
B. EYES, EARS AND NOSE 📖 📈 📌
Complications & Management
o Corneal abrasions due to inadequate protection of the
Eyes eyes during anesthesia
o Overlooked contact lenses in patients occasionally
cause conjunctivitis
o Persistent epistaxis can occur after NGT placement or
removal, and nasal packing is the best treatment
option if prolonged persistent direct pressure on the
Nose external nares fails
o Anterior and posterior nasal gauze packing with
balloon tamponade, angioembolization, and fibrin glue
placement may be required in refractory cases
o External otitis and otitis media
Ears o Treatment includes topical antibiotics and nasal
decongestion for symptomatic improvement.
o Ototoxicity due to aminoglycoside and vancomycin.
C. VASCULAR PROBLEMS OF THE NECK 📖 📈 📌
 Complications of carotid endarterectomy:
o Central or regional neurologic deficits- acute change in mental
status or the presence of localized neurologic deficit requires an
immediate return to the OR
o Bleeding with expanding hematoma- may warrant emergent
airway intubation and subsequent transfer to the OR for control
of hemorrhage
o Other complications include AV fistulae, pseudoaneurysms, and
infection, all of which are treated surgically.
 Intraoperative anticoagulation with heparin during carotid surgery
makes bleeding a postoperative risk
 Intraoperative hypotension during manipulation of the carotid
bifurcation can occur and is related to increased tone from
baroreceptors that reflexively cause bradycardia
o Injection of 1% lidocaine solution around this structure should
attenuate this reflexive response
 Most common delayed complication following carotid endarterectomy
remains myocardial infarction
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D. THYROID & PARATHYROID GLANDS 📖 📈 📌
 Surgery of the thyroid and parathyroid glands can result in
hypocalcemia in the immediate postoperative period.
 Manifestations:
o ECG changes (shortened P-R interval)
o Muscle spasm (tetany, Chvostek’s sign
o Trousseau’s sign)
o Paresthesias and laryngospasm
 Treatment:
o Calcium gluconate infusion
o Iif tetany ensues, chemical paralysis with intubation.
o Maintenance treatment is thyroid hormone replacement
(after thyroidectomy) + calcium carbonate and vitamin D
 Recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN) injury- occurs due to
dissection near the inferior thyroid artery
o If there is suspicion of an RLN injury, direct laryngoscopy is
diagnostic
o With bilateral RLN injury, the chance of a successful
extubation is poor
o If paralysis of the cords is not permanent, function may
return 1 to 2 months after injury
o Permanent RLN injury can be treated by various techniques
to stent the cords in a position of function
 Superior laryngeal nerve injury- less debilitating, as the
common symptom is loss of projection of the voice
o Glottic aperture is asymmetrical on direct laryngoscopy
o Management is limited to clinical observation
E. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM 📖 📈 📌
 Malnutrition, inadequate pain control, inadequate mechanical
ventilation, inadequate pulmonary toilet, and aspiration can cause
serious pulmonary problems
Complications Management
o Can occur from central line insertion during
anesthesia or from a diaphragmatic injury
during an abdominal procedure
o Hypotension, hypoxemia, and tracheal
Pneumothorax deviation away from the affected side
o Tension pneumothorax can cause complete
cardiovascular collapse
o Treatment is by needle thoracostomy,
followed by tube thoracostomy
o Should be evacuated completely
o Delay in evacuation leaves the patient at risk
Hemothoraces
for empyema and entrapped lung
o If evacuation is incomplete with tube
thoracostomy, video-assisted thoracoscopy
or open evacuation and pleurodesis may be
required
o Results in a loss of FRC of the lung and can
predispose to pneumonia
o Poor pain control in the postoperative period
contributes to poor inspiratory effort and
collapse of the lower lobes in particular
o Prevention of atelectasis:
- Facilitated by sitting the patient up as
Pulmonary much as possible
Atelectasis - Early ambulation
- Adequate pain control
o Increase in FRC by >700 mL can be
accomplished by sitting patients up to >45°
o For mechanically ventilated patients, place
the head of the bed at 30-45° elevation
o Increased risk for bronchial plugging and
lobar collapse
Inadequate o Diagnosis of bronchial plugging is based on
Pulmonary Toilet chest X-ray and clinical suspicion with acute
pulmonary decompensation with increased
work of breathing and hypoxemia
o Fiberoptic bronchoscopy can be useful to
clear mucous plugs and secretions.
o Include pneumonitis and pneumonia
o Treatment of pneumonitis is similar to that for
ARDS and includes oxygenation with general
supportive care
Asipiration o Antibiotics are not indicated
Complications o Early and repeated bronchoscopy for
suctioning of aspirated material from the
tracheobronchial tree will help minimize the
inflammatory reaction of pneumonitis and
facilitate improved pulmonary toilet
JG
GABRIEL MD | 2023
o Second most common nosocomial infection and is the
most common infection in ventilated patients.
o Ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) occurs in 15%
to 40% of ventilated ICU patients
o Diagnosis:
- Abnormal chest X-ray
- Fever, productive cough with purulent sputum,
- No other obvious fever sources
Pneumonia o Initially begin treatment with broad-spectrum
antibiotics until proper identification
o Spectrum of antibiotic coverage should be narrowed
as soon as the culture sensitivities are determined.
o One of the most helpful tools in treating pneumonia
and other infections is the tracking of a medical
center’s antibiogram every 6 to 12 months
o Routine use of epidural analgesia results in a lower
incidence of pneumonia than patient-controlled
analgesia
o Diagnosis applied to patients with similar findings to
those with ARDS
o ARDS is now classified by: Pao2/fraction of inspired
oxygen (Fio2) ratios
- Mild (300–201 mmHg)
- Moderate (200–101 mmHg)
- Severe (<100 mmHg).
o Elements of modification of the definition:
- <7 days of onset
- Removal of pulmonary artery occlusion pressure
- Clinical judgment for characterizing hydrostatic
pulmonary edema is acceptable
o Inclusion criteria for ARDS:
Acute Lung Injury - Acute onset
& ARDS - Predisposing condition
- Pao2 :Fio2 <200 (regardless of PEEP)
- Bilateral infiltrates
- Pulmonary artery occlusion pressure <18 mmHg
- No clinical evidence of right heart failure
o Maintenance of PEEP during ventilatory support is
determined based on:
- Blood gas analysis
- Pulmonary mechanics
- Requirements for supplemental oxygen
o As gas exchange improves with resolving ARDS, the
initial step in decreasing ventilatory support should be
to decrease the levels of supplemental oxygen first,
and then to slowly bring the PEEP levels back down to
minimal levels
o This is done to minimize the potential for recurrent
alveolar collapse and a worsening gas exchange.
o Not all patients can be weaned easily from ventilation
o When the respiratory muscle energy demands are not
balanced or there is an ongoing active disease state
external to the lungs, patients may require prolonged
ventilatory support.
Pulmonary o Secondary to DVT
Embolism o Diagnosis:
- Clinical findings include elevated CVP,
hypoxemia, SOB, hypocarbia secondary to
tachypnea, and right heart strain on ECG.
- Ventilation–perfusion nuclear scans or CT-
angiography
- Pulmonary angiogram remains the gold standard
o Patients should be empirically started on heparin
infusion until the imaging studies are completed if the
suspicion of a PE is high
o Prevention of DVT:
- Compression devices on the lower extremities
- Low-dose subcutaneous heparin or low
molecular weight heparinoid administration
o Neurosurgical and orthopedic patients have higher
rates of PE, as do obese patients and those at
prolonged bed rest
 Malnutrition and poor nutritional support may adversely affect the
respiratory system
o RQ or respiratory exchange ratio: ratio of the rate of CO2
produced to the rate of oxygen uptake (RQ = Vco2 /V . O2 ).
- Carbohydrates = RQ of 1 or greater
- Lipids = 0.7
- Protein = 0.8
o RQ of 0.75 to 0.85 suggests adequate balance and composition
of nutrient intake
o Excess of carbohydrate may negatively affect ventilator
weaning because of the abnormal RQ due to higher CO2
production and altered pulmonary gas exchange
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  Tracheostomy decreases the pulmonary dead space and
provides for improved pulmonary toilet
o When performed before the 10th day of ventilatory
support, tracheostomy may decrease the incidence of
VAP, overall length of ventilator time, and the number of
ICU patient days
F. CARDIAC SYSTEM 📖 📈 📌
 Arrhythmias are often seen preoperatively in elderly patients but
may occur postoperatively in any age group
 Atrial fibrillation- most common arrhythmia and occurs
between postoperative days 3-5 in high-risk patients
o This is typically when patients begin to mobilize their
interstitial fluid into the vascular fluid space.
o Contemporary evidence suggests that rate control is more
important than rhythm control for atrial fibrillation
o First-line treatment includes β-blockade and/or calcium
channel blockade
o Cardioversion- if patients become hemodynamically
unstable and the rhythm cannot be controlled.
 Cardiac ischemia- cause of postoperative mortality
o Acute MI can present insidiously, or it can be more
dramatic with the classic presentation of SOB, severe
angina, and sudden cardiogenic shock
o ECG and cardiac enzyme measurements
o Patient should be transferred to a monitored floor
o Morphine, supplemental oxygen, nitroglycerine, and
aspirin (MONA) are the initial therapeutic maneuvers
G. GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM 📖 📈 📌
 Surgery of the esophagus is potentially complicated because
of its anatomic location and blood supply
o Nutritional support strategies should be considered for
esophageal resection patients
o 2 primary types of esophageal resection:
- Transhiatal resection
- Transthoracic (Ivor-Lewis) resection
o Dissection of the esophagus is blind, and anastomotic
leaks occur more than with other resections.
o When a leak does occur, simple opening of the cervical
incision and draining the leak is all that is usually required
 Postoperative ileus- related to dysfunction of the neural reflex
axis of the intestine
o Excessive narcotic use may delay return of bowel function
o Epidural anesthesia results in better pain control, and
there is an earlier return of bowel function and a shorter
length of hospital stay
o Limited use of NGTs and the initiation of early
postoperative feeding are associated with an earlier
return of bowel function
o Pharmacologic agents:
- Metoclopramide- may help primarily with gastroparesis
- Erythromycin- motilin agonist
- Alvimopam- earlier return of gut function
- Neostigmine- Oglivie’s syndrome
 Small bowel obstruction- adhesions are usually the cause
o Internal and external hernias, technical errors, and
infections or abscesses are also causative
o Hyaluronidase has been shown to result in a 50%
decrease in adhesion formation in some patients
 Fistulae- abnormal communication of one structure to an
adjacent structure or compartment
o Common causes for fistula formation are summarized in
the mnemonic FRIENDS (Foreign body, Radiation,
Ischemia/Inflammation/Infection, Epithelialization of a
tract, Neoplasia, Distal obstruction, and Steroid use)
o Postoperatively, they are most often caused by infection
or obstruction leading to an anastomotic leak
o The cause of the fistula must be recognized early
o Treatment may include:
- Non-operative management with observation and
nutritional support
- Delayed operative management strategy that also
includes nutritional support and wound care
JG
GABRIEL MD | 2023
 GI bleeding- can occur perioperatively
o Technical errors such as a poorly tied suture, non-hemostatic
staple line, or a missed injury can all lead to post-operative
intestinal bleeding
o Source of bleeding is in the upper GI tract about 85% of the
time and is usually detected and treated endoscopically.
o Surgical control of bleeding is required in up to 40% of patients
o When patients in the ICU have a major bleed from stress
gastritis, the mortality risk is as high as 50
o Management:
- Keep the gastric pH >4 to decrease the overall risk for
stress gastritis in patients mechanically ventilated for 48
hours or greater and patients who are coagulopathic
- Proton pump inhibitors, H2 -receptor antagonists, and
intragastric antacid installation are all effective measures.
- Patients who are not mechanically ventilated or who do not
have a history of gastritis or peptic ulcer disease should not
be placed on gastritis prophylaxis postoperatively because
it carries a higher risk of causing pneumonia
H. HEPATOBILIARY-PANCREATIC SYSTEM 📖 📈 📌
 Complications are usually due to technical errors
 Laparoscopic cholecystectomy has become the standard of care
for cholecystectomy, but common bile duct injury remains a nemesis
of this approach
 Early recognition and immediate repair of an injury are important
because delayed bile duct leaks often require a more complex repair
 Ischemic injury due to devascularization of the CBD has a
delayed presentation days to weeks after an operation
o ERCP: stenotic, smooth common bile duct
o Liver function studies are elevated
o recommended treatment is a Roux-en-Y hepaticojejunostomy
 Bile leak due to an unrecognized injury to the ducts may present after
cholecystectomy as a biloma
o These patients may present with abdominal pain and
hyperbilirubinemia
o Diagnosis of a biliary leak can be confirmed by CT scan, ERCP,
or radionuclide scan
o Retrograde biliary stent and external drainage are the treatment
of choice
 Hyperbilirubinemia- cholestasis makes up the majority of causes for
hyperbilirubinemia
o Other mechanisms include:
- Reabsorption of blood (hematoma from trauma)
- Decreased bile excretion (sepsis)
- Increased unconjugated bilirubin due to hemolysis
- Hyperthyroidism
- Impaired excretion due to congenital abnormalities or
acquired disease
o Errors in surgery that cause hyperbilirubinemia largely involve
missed or iatrogenic injuries.
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 Cirrhosis predisposes to postoperative complications
o Abdominal or hepatobiliary surgery is problematic in the
cirrhotic patient
o Ascites leak in the postoperative period can be an issue
when any abdominal operation has been performed.
o Resuscitation should be maintained with crystalloids
o Spironolactone with other diuretic agents may be helpful
in the postoperative care
o Operative mortality in cirrhotic patients:
- 10% for Child class A
- 30% for Child class B
- 82% for Child class C patients
 Pyogenic liver abscess- occurs due to retained necrotic liver
tissue, occult intestinal perforations, benign or malignant
hepatobiliary obstruction, sepsis, and hepatic arterial occlusion.
o Treatment is long-term antibiotics with percutaneous
drainage of large abscesses.
 Pancreatitis- can occur following injection of contrast during
cholangiography and after ERCP
o Mild elevation in amylase and lipase with abdominal pain,
o Fulminant course of pancreatitis with necrosis requiring
surgical debridement
o Incidence of post-ERCP pancreatitis has been shown to
be reduced by the administration of rectal indomethacin
 Traumatic injuries to the pancreas- can occur during surgical
procedures on the kidneys, GI tract, and spleen most commonly
o Treatment involves serial CT scans and percutaneous
drainage to manage infected fluid and abscess collections
o Sterile collections should not be drained because drain
placement can introduce infection
o Pancreatic fistula may respond to antisecretory therapy
with a somatostatin analogue
o Management of these fistulae includes:
- ERCP with or without pancreatic stenting
- Percutaneous drainage of any fistula fluid
collections
- Total parenteral nutrition (TPN) with bowel rest
- Repeated CT scans
o Majority of pancreatic fistulae will eventually heal
spontaneously
I. RENAL SYSTEM 📖 📈 📌
 Postrenal failure or obstructive renal failure- should always
be considered when low urine output (oliguria) or anuria occurs.
o Most common cause: misplaced or clogged urinary catheter
o Less common causes are unintentional ligation or
transection of ureters during a difficult surgical dissection
(colon resection for diverticular disease) or a large
retroperitoneal hematoma (ruptured aortic aneurysm)
 Oliguria is initially evaluated by flushing the urinary catheter
using sterile technique
 Patients in compensated shock from acute blood loss may
manifest anemia and end-organ malperfusion as oliguria
 Acute tubular necrosis (ATN)- carries a mortality risk of 25%
to 50% due to the many complications that can cause
o When ATN is due to prerenal failure: IV administration of
crystalloid or colloid fluids as needed
o If cardiac insufficiency is the problem: optimization of
vascular volume is achieved first, followed by inotropic
agents, as needed
o Aminoglycosides, vancomycin, and furosemide contribute
directly to nephrotoxicity
o Contrast-induced nephropathy usually leads to a subtle or
transient rise in creatinine
JG
GABRIEL MD | 2023
 Treatment of renal failure due to myoglobinuria involve brisk urine
output of 100 mL per hour with crystalloid fluid infusion
o Mannitol and furosemide are not recommended
o Patients who do not respond to resuscitation are at risk for
needing renal replacement therapy
J. MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM 📖 📈 📌
 Compartment syndrome of the extremities generally occurs after
a closed fracture
o Aggressive fluid resuscitation can exacerbate the problem.
o Pain with passive motion is the hallmark
o Anterior compartment of the leg is usually the first
compartment to be involved
o Confirmation of the diagnosis is obtained by direct pressure
measurement of the individual compartments
- Pressure >20 to 25 mmHg in any of the compartments,
then a four-compartment fasciotomy is considered.
- Can be due to ischemia-reperfusion injury, after an
ischemic time of 4 to 6 hours
o Renal failure (due to myoglobinuria), tissue loss, and a
permanent loss of function are possible results of untreated
compartment syndrome.
 Decubitus ulcers- preventable complications of prolonged bed rest
due to traumatic paralysis, dementia, chemical paralysis, or coma
o Ischemic changes in the microcirculation of the skin can be
significant after 2 hours of sustained pressure
o Routine skin care and turning of the patient help ensure a
reduction in skin ulceration
o Treatment of a decubitus ulcer in the non-coagulopathic
patient is surgical debridement
o Once the wound bed has a viable granulation base without an
excess of fibrinous debris, vacuum-assisted closure dressing
can be applied
o If the wounds fail to respond to these measures, soft tissue
coverage by flap is considered.
 Contractures are the result of muscle disuse- due to trauma,
amputation, or vascular insufficiency, contractures
o Can be prevented by physical therapy and splinting
o If not attended to early, contractures will prolong rehabilitation
and may lead to further wounds and wound healing issues
K. HEMATOLOGIC SYSTEM 📖 📈 📌
 Traditional transfusion guideline of maintaining the hematocrit level in
all patients at greater than 30% is no longer valid
 Indications that require higher levels of hemoglobin:
o Symptomatic anemia
o Significant cardiac disease
o Critically ill
 Otherwise, the decision to transfuse should generally not occur until
the hemoglobin level falls to 7 mg/dL or the hematocrit reaches 21%.
 Tranfusion protocol:
o Transfusion reactions can be attenuated with a leukocyte
filter, but not completely prevented
o Discontinuing the transfusion and returning the blood
products to the blood bank is an important first step
o Administration of antihistamine and possibly steroids may be
required to control the reaction symptoms
 Infectious complications: CMV, HIV, and hepatitis
 Patients on warfarin (Coumadin) who require surgery can have
anticoagulation reversal by administration of fresh frozen plasma
 Thrombocytopenia
o Platelet transfusion:
- Platelet count <20,000/mL when invasive procedures are
performed
- Platelet counts are low and ongoing bleeding from raw
surface areas persists
o One unit of platelets will increase the platelet count by 5000 to
7500 per mL in adult
o Simple precautions to limit hypercoagulable state of HIT II
include saline solution flushes instead of heparin solutions
and limiting the use of heparin-coated catheters
o Treatment is anticoagulation with synthetic agents such as
argatroban
6
 Disseminated intravascular coagulopathy (DIC)
o Factor VIIa use may also be limited due to its potential
thrombotic complications
o For some situations, the combination of ongoing,
nonsurgical bleeding and renal failure can occasionally be
successfully treated with desmopressin
 Classic hemophilia and other inherited coagulation factor
deficiencies can be difficult to manage in surgery
 Other blood dyscrasias seen by surgeons include
hypercoagulopathic patients
o Most common factor V Leiden deficiency, as well as
protein C and S deficiencies
o Likely to form thromboses if inadequately anticoagulated
o Should be managed in consultation with a hematologist.
L. ABDOMINAL COMPARTMENT SYNDROME 📖 📈 📌
 Major initial causative factors that may lead to ACS:
o Multisystem trauma
o Thermal burns
o Retroperitoneal injuries
o Surgery related to the retroperitoneum
 Clinical situations in which large volume of IV fluids put
patients at risk for intra-abdominal hypertension:
o Ruptured AAA
o Major pancreatic injury and resection
o Multiple intestinal injuries
 Manifestations of ACS:
o Progressive abdominal distention followed by increased
peak airway ventilator pressures
o Oliguria followed by anuria
o Insidious development of intracranial hypertension
 These findings are related to elevation of the diaphragm and
inadequate venous return from the vena cava or renal veins
secondary to the transmitted pressure on the venous system
 Measurement of abdominal pressures: easily accomplished
by transducing bladder pressures from the urinary catheter after
instilling 100 mL of sterile saline into the urinary bladder
o >20 mmHg constitutes intraabdominal hypertension
o But the diagnosis of ACS requires intra-abdominal pressure
> 25-30 mmHg, with at least one of the following:
- Compromised respiratory mechanics and ventilation
- Oliguria or anuria
- Increasing intracranial pressures
 Treatment of ACS:
o Open any recent abdominal incision to release the
abdominal fascia or to open the fascia directly if no
abdominal incision is present
o Patients with intra-abdominal hypertension should be
monitored closely with repeated examinations and
measurements of bladder pressure
o Left untreated, ACS may lead to multiple system end-
organ dysfunction or failure and has a high mortality
o Abdominal wall closure should be attempted every 48 to
72 hours until the fascia can be reapproximated
o If the abdomen cannot be closed within 5-7 days following
release of the abdominal fascia, a large incisional hernia
is the net result
WOUNDS, DRAINS, & INFECTIONS
A. WOUND (SURGICAL SITE) INFECTION 📖 📈 📌
 No prospective, randomized, double-blind, controlled studies exist
that demonstrate antibiotics used beyond 24 hours in the
perioperative period prevent infections
 Prophylactic use of antibiotics should simply not be continued
beyond this time
 Irrigation of the operative field and the surgical wound with saline
solution has shown benefit in controlling wound inoculum
 Irrigation with an antibiotic-based solution has not demonstrated
significant benefit in controlling postoperative infection
 Chlorhexidine gluconate with isopropyl alcohol remain more
advantageous
JG
GABRIEL MD | 2023
 Wound (soft tissue) infection- >105 CFU per gram of tissue
o This warrants proper antibiotic/antifungal treatment
o Clinical signs of wound infection include rubor, tumor, calor, and
dolor (redness, swelling, heat, and pain)
o Most definitive treatment remains open drainage of the wound.
o Use of antibiotics for wound infection treatment should be limited
 Vacuum-assisted closure dressing- decreases local wound edema
and promotes healing through the application of a sterile dressing that
is then covered and placed under controlled suction for a period of 2
to 4 days at a time.
B. DRAIN MANAGEMENT 📖 📈 📌
 4 indications for applying a surgical drain are:
o To collapse surgical dead space in areas of redundant tissue
(neck and axilla)
o To provide focused drainage of an abscess or grossly infected
surgical site
o To provide early warning notice of a surgical leak (either bowel
contents, secretions, urine, air, or blood)— sentinel drain
o To control an established fistula leak
 Open drains- often used for large contaminated wounds such as
perirectal or perianal fistulas and subcutaneous abscess cavities.
o They prevent premature closure of an abscess cavity in a
contaminated wound
 CT- or ultrasound-guided placement of percutaneous drains is
now the standard of care for abscesses, loculated infections, and
other isolated fluid collections such as pancreatic leaks
 Use of antibiotics when drains are in place is often unnecessary as
the drain provides direct source control
o 24-48 hours of antibiotic use after drain placement is prophylactic
o After this period, only specific treatment of positive cultures
should be performed to avoid increased drug resistance and
superinfection
C. URINARY CATHETERS 📖 📈 📌
 Use of urinary catheters should be minimized and every opportunity
to expeditiously remove them should be encouraged
 If needed, it is recommended that the catheter be inserted its full
length up to the hub and that urine flow is established before the
balloon is inflated because misplacement of the catheter in the
urethra with premature inflation of the balloon can lead to tears and
disruption of the urethra
 Most frequent nosocomial infection is urinary tract infection (UTI)
o Uncomplicated type is a UTI that can be treated with outpatient
antibiotic therapy
o Complicated UTI- involves a hospitalized patient with an indwelling
catheter whose UTI is diagnosed as part of a fever workup
o Cultures with more than 100,000 CFU/mL should be treated
with the appropriate antibiotics and the catheter changed or
removed as soon as possible
o Undertreatment or misdiagnosis of a UTI can lead to urosepsis
and septic shock
D. EMPYEMA 📖 📈 📌
 Overwhelming pneumonia is the source of an empyema
 Retained hemothorax, systemic sepsis, esophageal perforation from
any cause, and infections with a predilection for the lung (TB) are
potential etiologies as well
 Diagnosis:
o Confirmed by chest X-ray or CT scan, followed by aspiration of
pleural fluid for bacteriologic analysis
o Gram’s stain, lactate dehydrogenase, protein, pH, and cell
count are obtained, and broad-spectrum antibiotics are initiated
while the laboratory studies are performed
 Placement of a thoracostomy tube is needed to evacuate and drain
the infected pleural fluid
 Refractory empyemas require specialized surgical approaches
E. ABDOMINAL ABSCESSES 📖 📈 📌
 Post-surgical intra-abdominal abscesses can present with vague
complaints of intermittent abdominal pain, fever, leukocytosis, and a
change in bowel habits
7
 Management:
o When a fluid collection within the peritoneal cavity is
found on CT scan, antibiotics and percutaneous drainage
of the collection is the treatment of choice
o Initial antibiotic treatment is usually with broad-spectrum
antibiotics such as piperacillin-tazobactam or imipenem.
o Should the patient exhibit signs of peritonitis and/or have
free air on X-ray or CT scan, then re-exploration should
be considered
F. NECROTIZING FASCIITIS 📖 📈 📌
 Post-operative infections that progress to the fulminant soft
tissue infection
 Septic shock can be present, and patients can become
hypotensive less than 6 hours following inoculation.
 Manifestations of a group A Streptococcus pyogenes infection
in its most severe form include hypotension, renal insufficiency,
coagulopathy, hepatic insufficiency, ARDS, tissue necrosis, and
erythematous rash
 These findings constitute a surgical emergency, and the
mainstay of treatment remains wide debridement of the necrotic
tissue to the level of bleeding, viable tissue
 Antibiotics are an important adjunct to surgical debridement,
and broad-spectrum coverage should be used because these
infections may be polymicrobial
 Streptococcus pyogenes is eradicated with penicillin, and it
should still be used as the initial drug of choice
G. SYSTEMIC INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE SYNDROME, SEPSIS
& MULTI-ORGAN DYSFUNCTION SYNDROME 📖 📈 📌
JG
GABRIEL MD | 2023
 Inclusion criteria for SIRS:
o Temperature >38°C or <36°C (>100.4°F or <96.8°F)
o Heart rate >90 beats/min
o Respiratory rate >20 breaths/min or Paco2 <32 mmHg
o White blood cell count <4000 or >12,000 cells/mm 3 or >10%
immature forms
 SIRS is the result of proinflammatory cytokines related to tissue
malperfusion or injury
o Dominant cytokines implicated in this process include
interleukin (IL)-1, IL-6, and tissue necrosis factor (TNF)
o Other mediators include nitric oxide, inducible macrophage-type
NO synthase, and prostaglandin I2
 Sepsis- categorized as sepsis, severe sepsis, and septic shock
o Sepsis is SIRS plus infection
o Severe sepsis is sepsis plus signs of cellular hypoperfusion or
end-organ dysfunction
o Septic shock is sepsis plus hypotension after adequate fluid
resuscitation
 MODS- culmination of septic shock and multiple end-organ failure
o As the patient undergoes resuscitation, he or she develops cardiac
hypokinesis and oliguric or anuric renal failure, followed by the
development of ARDS and eventually septic shock with death
 Management of SIRS/MODS:
o Aggressive global resuscitation and support of end-organ perfusion
o Correction of the inciting etiology
o Control of infectious complications
o Management of iatrogenic complications
o Other adjuncts for supportive therapy include tight glucose
control, low tidal volumes in ARDS, vasopressin in septic shock,
and steroid replacement therapy
NUTRITIONAL & METABOLIC SUPPORT COMPLICATIONS
A. NUTRITION-RELATED COMPLICATIONS 📖 📈 📌
 Use enteral feeding whenever possible, but complications can
intervene such as aspiration, ileus, and to a lesser extent, sinusitis.
 Patients who are fed via nasogastric tubes are at risk for aspiration
pneumonia because these large-bore tubes stent open the
gastroesophageal junction, creating the possibility of gastric reflux.
 There is growing evidence to support the initiation of enteral feeding
in the early postoperative period, before the return of bowel function,
where it is usually well tolerated.
 Common TPN problems are mostly related to electrolyte
abnormalities that may develop
o Deficits or excesses in sodium, potassium, calcium,
magnesium, and phosphate
o Acid-base abnormalities can also occur with the improper
administration of acetate or bicarbonate solutions
 Most common cause for hypernatremia in hospitalized patients
is under-resuscitation, and hyponatremia is most often caused by
fluid overload
 Treatment for hyponatremia:
o Fluid restriction in mild or moderate cases and the
administration of hypertonic saline for severe cases
o Overly rapid correction may result in central pontine myelinolysis
o Fluid restriction to correct the free water deficit by 50% in the
first 24 hours
o Overcorrection of hyponatremia can result in severe cerebral
edema, neurologic deficit, or seizures
B. GLYCEMIC CONTROL 📖 📈 📌
 Tight glycemic control by insulin infusion is associated with a 50%
reduction in mortality in the critical care setting
 NICE-SUGAR and COIITSS trials found that the glycemic goals found
initially to improve outcomes in critically ill patients were now found to
be associated with a higher mortality when glucose was kept below
180 mg/dL, due to an increase in incidents of hypoglycemia
 When targeted goals of 180 mg/dL are achieved, fewer occurrences
of hypoglycemia have been documented, and improved survivorship
has been achieved
8
C. METABOLISM-RELATED COMPLICATIONS 📖 📈 📌
 Parenteral glucocorticoid treatment need only replicate
physiologic replacement steroids in the perioperative period
o Recent studies strongly discourage the use of
supraphysiologic doses of steroids when patients are on
low or maintenance doses (5–15 mg) of prednisone daily
o When patients are on steroid replacement doses equal to or
>20 mg per day of prednisone, it may be appropriate to
administer additional glucocorticoid doses for no more than
2 perioperative days
 Adrenal insufficiency- baseline serum cortisol <20 μg/dL
o Rapid provocative test with synthetic adrenocorticotropic
hormone may confirm the diagnosis
o Gluco/mineralocorticoid administration is then warranted
o Complication of performing major surgery on an adrenally
insufficient patient is sudden or profound hypotension that is
not responsive to fluid resuscitation
 Thyroid hormone abnormalities- hypothyroidism and sick-
euthyroid syndrome are more commonly recognized in the
critical care setting
o When patients are not progressing satisfactorily in the
perioperative period, screening for thyroid abnormalities
should be performed B. HYPERTHERMIA 📖 📈 📌
o If the results show mild to moderate hypothyroidism, then
 Defined as a core temperature greater than 38.6°C (101.5°F) and
thyroid replacement should begin immediately, and thyroid
function studies should be monitored closely  Hyperthermia can be:
o All patients should be reassessed after the acute illness has o Environmentally induced (summer heat with inability to dissipate
subsided regarding the need for chronic thyroid heat or control exposure)
replacement therapy o Iatrogenically induced (heat lamps and medications)
o Endocrine in origin (thyrotoxicosis)
PROBLEMS WITH THERMOREGULATION o Neurologically induced (hypothalamic dysfunction).
 Malignant hyperthermia- occurs intraoperatively after exposure to
A. HYPOTHERMIA 📖 📈 📌 agents such as succinylcholine and some halothane-based
 Defined as a core temperature <35°C (95°F) inhalational anesthetics
o Mild (35°C–32°C [95°F–89.6°F]) o Rapid onset of increased temperature, rigors, and
o Moderate (32°C–28°C [89.6°F –82.4°F]) myoglobinuria related to myonecrosis
o Severe (<28°C [<82.4°F]) o Medications must be discontinued immediately
o Dantrolene administered (2.5 mg/kg q5 minutes)
 Shivering occurs between 37°C and 31°C (98.6°F and 87.8°F),
o Aggressive cooling methods are also implemented, such as an
but ceases at temperatures below 31°C (87.8°F)
alcohol bath, or packing in ice
 Patients who are moderately hypothermic are at higher risk for
o Mortality rate is nearly 30% in severe cases
complications than are those who are more profoundly hypothermic
 Thyrotoxicosis- due to undiagnosed Graves’ disease
 Complications:
o Hallmarks of the syndrome:
o Coagulopathy related to platelet and clotting cascade
- Hyperthermia (>40°C [104°F])
enzyme dysfunction
- Anxiety, copious diaphoresis, congestive heart failure
o Most common cardiac abnormality is arrhythmias when
- Tachycardia (most commonly atrial fibrillation)
body temperature drops below 35°C
- Hypokalemia (in up to 50% of patients)
o Bradycardia occurs with temperatures below 30°C (86°F)
o Treatment includes glucocorticoids, propylthiouracil, β-
o CO2 retention resulting in respiratory acidosis
blockade, and iodide (Lugol’s solution)
o Renal dysfunction manifests as paradoxic polyuria and is
o Acetaminophen, cooling modalities and vasoactive agents often
related to an increased GFR
are indicated
 Induced peripheral hypothermia for hyperpyrexia due to
infection is likely deleterious and does not appear to be beneficial
o Placing cooling blankets on or under the patient or ice
packs in the axillae or groin may be effective in cooling the
skin, and when this occurs, a subsequent feedback loop
triggers the hypothalamus to raise the internally regulated
set point, thus raising core temperature even higher
o Cooling core temperatures can be achieved reliably with
catheter-directed therapy
 Complications with induced hypothermia:
o Hypokalemia o Shiveving
o Diuresis o Undiagnosed catheter-related
o DVT (catheter-related bloodstream infection
vein injury) o Bacteremia
o Arrhythmias
 Neurologic deterioration progresses as body temperature falls, and
profound coma (flat EEG) occurs as the temperature drops <30°C
 Methods used to warm patients:
o Warm air circulation over the patient and heated IV fluids
o More aggressive measures such as bilateral chest tubes REFERENCES
with warm solution lavage, intraperitoneal rewarming
lavage, and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation 1. Brunicardi, F. C., & Schwartz, S. I. (2019)). Schwartz's principles of
 Most common complication for non-bypass rewarming is surgery. New York: McGraw-Hill, Health Pub. Division.
arrhythmia with ventricular arrest

JG 9
GABRIEL MD | 2023