CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND
An antenna is a transducer that transmits and receives electromagnetic waves. An
Microstrip Patch Antenna consists of a conducting patch which is a very thin metallic
placed on a ground plane between dielectric materials. The radiating components were
etched on the dielectric substrate. The most commonly used patch shapes are square,
circular or rectangular since it is easy to fabricate and analyses the performance. It supports
flexible feed lines, and also it has dual characteristics. Microstrip Patch Antenna are used
in satellite communication, mobile communication, telemedicine, textile antenna, etc. In
satellite communication and GPS, circularly polarized square or circular Microstrip Patch
Antenna are used. It is also used in RFID, which operates in the frequency range of 30 Hz
- 5.8 GHz. There are different kinds of substrate used in designing Microstrip Patch
Antenna. These substrates appear to result in better performance.

Antennas operate efficiently even at narrow frequencies. Microstrip antennas

generally consist of four parts which are patch, substrate, ground plane and feed line.
Substrate is a dielectric material used in between the metal ground plane and patch.
Microstrip antennas are small in size and light in weight. Because of its smaller size it is
used in many mobile devices. The advantages of Microstrip Patch Antenna are cost-
effective, easy to implement as an array, simple fabrication process, dual polarization etc.
It can be directly printed to board using PCB technology. Impedance matching is simple in
microstrip antennas. The most preferred patch in slot antennas is circular and rectangular.
It has plenty of applications. There are various antennas designed for mobile
communication using microstrip patch antennas. Microstrip patch antenna is used since it
is low cost, smaller in size and can be easily printed on the board.

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1.2 MOTIVATION AND OBJECTIVE

Rectangular patch antennas are mainly used in wireless applications due to their size
and bandwidth. But still, it has many research issues like low gain, and directivity. It can
be varied based on substrate material used and its thickness. As well as, the bandwidth and
the size of an antenna are generally mutually conflicting properties, that is, improvement
of one of the characteristics normally results in degradation of the other. Multiple slots are
used in our proposed design to enhance the gain and directivity.

Antennas are used for various applications like Ultrahigh frequency (UHF) patch
antenna for space, Long distance communication, radio, missile, Radio-Frequency
identification (RFID) (“Polarization Reconfigurable Patch Antenna for Compact and Low
Cost UHF RFID Reader” n.d.), medical applications etc. There are various well-known
methods available to increase the bandwidth of microstrip antenna which includes the use
of thick substrate, cutting a resonant slot inside the patch, the use of a low dielectric
substrate, multiresonator stack configurations, the use of various impedance matching and
feeding techniques, and the use of slot antenna geometry. Slots which are used in patch
antennas are U slot has a gain of 5.05dB at 6GHz frequency, E-slot, T-slot, S-lot, H-slot
has a gain of 6.62dB.

The major drawback of conventional MPA is low gain which is calculated by

multiplying directivity and efficiency. Gain will be always less than directivity since the
efficiency cannot be 100%. In order to get better gain and directivity, efficiency has to be
increased significantly. Teflon material is used as substrate since its loss tangent value is
low. The proposed antenna is designed using Teflon material which has good heat
resistance and sustainability.

1.3 MICROSTRIP ANTENNA

The antennas consist of a very thin metallic radiating element, or a “patch,” placed
small fraction of a wavelength above a ground plane. There are various substrates used in
designing microstrip antennas, thicker substrates with lower dielectric constants deliver

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larger bandwidth and better efficiency, while thinner substrates with higher dielectric
constants are better or microwave circuitry. The most notable benefit of microstrip
antennas is their versatility. Firstly, they are small and lightweight, as well as easily
conformable to planar and nonplanar surfaces. Additionally, they can be are mechanically
robust when mounted onto rigid surfaces. Thus, they can be used in an various
applications, including aircraft, spacecraft, satellite, missile, mobile radio, and wireless
communications. Another benefit of microstrip antennas is that they are simple and
inexpensive to manufacture. These low-profile antennas can be printed directly onto a
circuit board.

Patch elements of microstrip antennas come in various shapes and modes (field
configurations), which affect the antennas’ resonant frequency, polarization, radiation
pattern, and impedance. These factors are further influenced by adding loads, such as pins
and varactor diodes, between the patch and the ground plane. Square, rectangular, dipole,
and circular are very common because they are the easiest to manufacture and analyze.
They also have favorable radiation characteristics, especially cross-polarization radiation.
Dipoles, in particular, inherently have large bandwidth and occupy less space, making
them attractive for arrays. Linear and circular polarizations are achievable with either
single elements or arrays of microstrip antennas. Arrays with either single or multiple
feeds may also improve scanning capabilities and directivities.

In Base on the requirements for 5G, antennas with light weight, low profile (compact
size), low-cost mass production, ease of installation, conformable to planar surface and
also non-planar surface, mechanically robust when mounted on rigid surface and
compatible with monolithic microwave integrated circuit are quite important [4]. Despite
its narrow bandwidth, Microstrip patch antenna can be a perfect candidate to meet all the
above requirements.

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1.4 Microstrip Antenna For 5G Applications

1.4.1 Characteristics of the 5G System

The 5G network makes use of new technological solutions to meet the growing
requirements of users. As a result, the new system will be able to handle an increasing
number of devices, and to satisfy higher quality thresholds required by modern
applications. It is an evolution of the 4G networks of today, which incorporates
technologies capable of handling the rapidly increasing amount of transmitted data and
facilitating data exchange between an ever-growing number of IoT devices. As is typical
for the introduction of any next-generation network, it is expected that until its coverage
and functionality can match or surpass existing 4G networks, the 5G network will need to
coexist with such.

In addition to the existing usage scenarios of mobile networks, three additional

scenarios are planned for the emerging 5G network, all of which will be of particular
importance to users and will distinguish the 5G network from previous generations. The
first new usage scenario is an enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB), which enables high-
speed internet access (up to 1 Gbps) and will be the defining feature of this network as
compared with existing networks, especially in the initial phase of its implementation. This
advantage of the 5G system over legacy solutions will increase the efficiency and quality
of communications in society. As an example, this will enable services based on the
provision of high-resolution multimedia, attractive methods of communication (e.g., video,
augmented and virtual reality), as well as smart city services (e.g., transmission of content
from high-resolution cameras).

The second use of 5G networks is based on massive machine type communications

(mMTC), where 5G will be able to support a very large number of connections from low-
power devices, referred to as the Internet of Things (IoT), to the mobile network. These
devices asynchronously exchange data, using the mobile network to communicate. This
scenario assumes support for a large number of device types, with the reservation that these

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devices will use the mobile network in an occasional manner, exchanging small volumes
of data.

The third use is referred to as ultra-reliable low latency communications (URLLC),

the technology providing a minimum (1 ms) latency for data exchange over a mobile
network for critical applications (e.g., drone control). In previous generations of mobile
networks, latency values were longer and amounted to about 100 milliseconds for 3G
networks, with about 30 milliseconds in case of 4G (LTE—Long Term Evolution)
network.

According to the current state of standardization of the 5G network, it is intended to

operate in three frequency bands, i.e., low, medium, and high. The use case of a particular
band depends on its characteristics, which include two factors in particular, i.e., radio signal
propagation and capacity of spectrum resources. The first factor is related to the physical
properties of electromagnetic waves and determines the obtainable radio transmission
range in changing weather conditions and radio signal coverage in hard-to-reach areas (e.g.,
interiors of buildings). The second factor is associated with the available amount of RF
bands in a given frequency range, which can be used by 5G networks. It should be noted
that high bandwidths also require a wide radio band, which, being a limited resource, is
subject to rationing, and its use must also take into account RF communication applications
other than 5G networks, such as TV broadcasts, radio communication for home automation
equipment, etc.

In a 5G system, the following three frequency bands are assumed to be used first:

• From 694 to 790 MHz (700 MHz band);

• From 3400 to 3800 MHz (3.6 GHz band);

• From 27.50 to 28.35 GHz (28 GHz band).

The 700 MHz band is characterized by good signal propagation and relatively low
attenuation (absorption of signal by various obstacles), which helps to cover large areas.

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This band can be used for mMTC services. However, the 700 MHz band alone would not
be able to provide broadband internet access to mobile users (eMBB), as it does not allow
the use of MIMO, which would increase the capacity of each cell site. However, it can be
used together with the bands listed below, which have large spectral resources. This manner
of operation improves signal transmission quality from the user to the base station (i.e.,
“upstream”).

The 3.6 GHz band does allow the use of massive MIMO, while, at the same time, it
constitutes a compromise between propagation and capacity in terms of spectral resources,
especially when combined with the 700 MHz band, which would improve upward
connectivity. This band would be used to build a coverage layer for eMBB services in
several of the largest cities, including communication routes between these locations. This
band can also be used to introduce services that requires reliable transmission and
particularly low latency Ultra Reliability and Low Latency Communications(URLLC) in
applications requiring the transmission of particularly large amounts of data, such as high-
resolution images for medical or navigation purposes.

The 28 GHz band is limited in its use, in particular, because of the requirements
applied to transmission between the user and the base station (the “upstream” link). It can
be used, for example, for broadband access points and picocell applications
(cMTC/URLLC). This band, due to its large capacity and the possibility of allocating large
spectrum resources, may also be considered for the provision of internet access via a fixed
wireless access service.

1.4.2 Frequency Range

The technological solutions used in the 5G system eliminate the disadvantages of

LTE. These solutions make use of very high frequencies (in a 28 GHz millimeter band)
and beamforming techniques. In that, several clients within the range of the same base
station can use a 1 Gbps internet connection.

The usefulness of the 28 GHz band is limited, in particular, because of requirements

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applying to transmission between the user and the base station (the “upstream” link). The
28 GHz frequency band has been made available by the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC) by reallocating the local multipoint block distribution service (LMDS)
A1, which is 850 MHz wide and lies between 27.50 and 28.35 GHz bands.

In response to the growing demand for an additional frequency spectrum, mostly

for fixed/mobile 5G applications that require significant bandwidth to support higher
speeds >1.0 Gbps at a lower latency, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has
ordered the A1 channel and reallocated it as part of the new Upper Microwave Flexible
Use License (UMFUS). The ordered part of the frequency spectrum has been transformed
into a new licensing system based on two 425 MHz wide blocks (blocks L1 and L2). LEOs
can provide a much higher elevation in Polar Regions and so better global coverage. These
satellites are mainly used in remote sensing a providing mobile communication services
(due to lower latency).

The 3.5 GHz band and other millimeter frequency bands (mmWave), such as 24
GHz and 37/39 GHz bands, will play a key role in 5G implementations under the new
Upper Microwave Flexible Use License (UMFUS). The UMFUS bands are standardized
for 3GPP in accordance with 5G New Radio (NR) guidelines, in particular within
Frequency Band 2 (FR2), which includes millimeter frequencies.

The UMFUS bands are currently maintained and used by national mobile phone
operators, innovative mobile phone companies, regional phone operators, and other
organizations wishing to implement mobile networks or provide fixed wireless access
(FWA) services.

The UMFUS bands are subject to rules and regulations, which impose power limits
at fixed and base stations operating in conjunction with mobile systems (EIRP density
limit + 75 dBm/100 MHz). The average power of the sum of all antenna components in a
mobile base station must not exceed a maximum EIRP value of +43 dBm.

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 The 3.5 GHz band is ideal for a wide range of applications making use of speeds >1
Gb/s (depending on channel size), which are achievable using the spectrum designated by
UMFUS. High-speed backhaul, “at home” 5G/FWA, and other applications make use of
the ability to implement fixed PTP (point-to-point) and PTMP (point-to-multi-point)
configurations. The 3.5 GHz band can also be used for mobile applications, which are
currently a key pillar of 5G deployment championed by national carriers and other
organizations.

1.4.3 Analysis of Current Antenna Solutions

The design process of a microstrip antenna consists of multiple stages. The main
steps of the project process are presented below. The procedure for designing a single-
piece rectangular microstrip antenna are the following:

• Determine operational frequency;

• Determine operational bandwidth;

• Choose a substrate;

• Choose substrate height;

• Determine the dimensions of the patch;

• Determine the power supply;

• Determine the electrical parameters and characteristics of the antenna;

• Optimize the antenna to obtain the best possible parameters in the given frequency
range.

Before the development of a proper numerical model of the designed antenna could
begin, it was necessary to perform preliminary calculations of its geometric parameters.
These calculations were done to work out an approximate shape of the antenna, which

8
would ensure that the structure complied with the assumptions adopted for its design. The
dimensions of the individual edges of the antenna depend primarily on the resonance
frequency, fr, and the relative permittivity, εr, of the dielectric layer of the copper laminate,
which are the foundation of the new antenna.

1.5 Broadband Microstrip Antenna Designed for 5G

The Radio communication Regulations refer to the following space radio

communications services, defined as transmission or reception of radio waves for specific
telecommunications applications:
▪ Fixed Satellite Service (FSS)
▪ Mobile Satellite Service (MSS)
▪ Broadcasting Satellite Service (BSS)
▪ Earth Exploration Satellite Service (EES)
▪ Space Research Service (SRS)
▪ Space Operation Service (SOS)
▪ Radio determination Satellite Service (RSS)
▪ Inter-Satellite Service (ISS)
▪ Amateur Satellite Service (ASS)
▪ Radionavigation Satellite Service
▪ Meteorological Satellite Service
1.6 Frequency Allocation

Frequency bands are allocated to the above radio communications services to allow
compatible use. The allocated bands can be either exclusive for a given service, or shared
among several services. Allocations refer to the following division of the world into three
regions:
▪ Region1: Europe, Africa and Mongolia
▪ Region 2: North and South America and Greenland

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 ▪ Region 3: Asia (excluding region 1 areas), Australia and south-west Pacific

Within these regions, the frequency bands are allocated to various satellite services. Some
of them are listed below
▪ Fixed satellite service: Provides Links for existing Telephone Networks Used
for transmitting television signals to cable companies
▪ Broadcasting satellite service: Provides Direct Broadcast to homes. E.g. Live
Cricket matches etc.
▪ Mobile satellite services: This includes services for: Land Mobile, Maritime
Mobile and Aeronautical mobile.
▪ Navigational satellite services: Include Global Positioning systems
▪ Meteorological satellite services: They are often used to perform Search and
Rescue service

1.7 Communication Satellites

Communications satellites are commonplace in modern society. Applications

include television broadcast, mobile telephone networks and data transmission. The
convention is to subdivide the satellites by their communications mission. Each mission is
characterized by the service that it provides, the number of users it can support and the
geographic area over which the service is provided. Additional features include the
connectivity that it offers to its users, the spectrum that it is allocated, the power levels that
are used, the scheme by which multiple users can share the satellite resource and the ability
of the satellite to be reconfigured. The characteristics of greatest importance to the antenna
definition are the spectrum allocation, the power levels and the coverage areas.
Additionally, the antenna design is impacted significantly by the frequency and
polarization reuse used to provide the desired capacity.

The major mission categories are Fixed Satellite Services (FSS), Broadcast
Satellite Services (BSS), Digital Audio Radio Services (DARS), Direct to Home Internet

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Services (DTH) and Mobile Communications Services (Mobile). Sometimes BSS
systems are referred to as Direct Broadcast Service (DBS) systems.

1.7.1 Fixed Satellite Service (FSS)

FSS systems provide a communications connection between users separated by

great distances. As such these systems are referred to as point-to-point systems. The
connection is usually in the form of a two-way communication For example, FSS systems
provide telephone services to shipping fleets, video services for new agencies, or credit
card verification services for individual gasoline service stations. FSS systems operate at
C-band and at Ku-band with a considerable range of power levels and coverage areas that
vary from small geographic spots to continental or hemispherical areas.

1.7.2 Broadcast Satellite Service (Direct Broadcast Services)

BSS (or DBS) systems are used to provide television and radio services to many
users over large geographic areas throughout the world by connecting them to broadcast
centers. BSS systems operate at C-band, Ku-band and K-band. One example of these
services is C-band broadcast television, which has been available for decades but requires
individual subscribers to have a 3m satellite dish in the backyard. Ku-band BSS systems
also include television subscription services but these require much smaller user systems,
typically with dishes of about 0.75m diameter.

1.7.3 Digital Audio Radio Services (DARS)

DARS systems are relatively new. Like BSS systems, they are point to many- point
architectures. These systems are used to provide subscriber-based radio services to
properly equipped automobiles and portable radios. The systems operate at lower
frequencies and with significant satellite power to accommodate the portability or mobility
of the user systems.

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1.7.4 Direct to Home Broadband Service (DTH)
Like DARS systems, the DTH systems are relatively new. They are growing
significantly as a business segment and in particular over the past decade significant
investments have been made in broadband DTH satellite Internet services. Additionally,
the modern DTH system achieves the capacity required by the business plan through an
aggressive reuse of frequency and polarization. This does not increase the complexity of
the communications system significantly but does increase the size of the system directly.

1.8 SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

The scopes defined for this project are as follows:

▪ Understanding the antenna concept.
▪ Perform numerical solutions using CST Microwave Studio software.
▪ Study of the antenna properties and microstrip patch antenna concepts.
▪ Comparison of measurement and simulation results.

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 CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

[1] Nabil, M. and Faisal, M.M.A., 2021. Design, simulation and analysis of a high
gain small size array antenna for 5G wireless communication. Wireless Personal
Communications, 116(4), pp.2761-2776.
Microstrip antennas have become a part and parcel of today’s wireless
communication world because of their low profile, low cost and ease of fabrication in the
circuit boards. 5th generation (5G) wireless communication will suffer from path loss
severely, as high frequency bands will be used. To manage this problem, high gain antenna
is required. So, this research is mainly devoted to design a high gain 2 × 2 microstrip patch
array antenna. The structure of the antenna is designed and simulated using CST
Microwave Studio and operates at 28 GHz 5G band. Rogers RT-Duroid 5880LZ is used as
the substrate which has a relative permittivity of 1.96. The return loss, gain, bandwidth,
VSWR and efficiency of the designed 2 × 2 array antenna is 87 dB, 14 dBi, 1.14 GHz, 1
and almost 93% respectively.

[2] Desai, A., Upadhyaya, T., Patel, J., Patel, R. and Palandoken, M., 2020. Flexible
CPW fed transparent antenna for WLAN and sub‐6 GHz 5G applications.
Microwave and Optical Technology Letters, 62(5), pp.2090-2103.
A transparent flexible co-planar waveguide fed patch antenna using polyethylene
terephthalate substrate is presented. The wideband high gain antenna having an overall
dimension of 0.48λ × 0.64λ at the center frequency of 4.28 GHz is fabricated using a
transparent sheet made up of Silver Tin Oxide (AgHT-8). For the engineered design, patch
geometry and feeding mechanism are kept constant whereas the substrate and patch
materials are varied. Simulations are carried out using finite element method-based full
wave high-frequency structure simulator after which the antennas are fabricated and tested.

13
The proposed flexible transparent antenna has bandwidth in order of 40%, ranging from
3.89 to 5.9 GHz, with a notable gain over 3 dBi and efficiency greater than 80% for the
entire frequency band. The bending conditions are also tested for the flexible transparent
antenna which showed decent performance for sub-6 GHz 5G and WLAN applications.

[3] An, W., Li, Y., Fu, H., Ma, J., Chen, W. and Feng, B., 2018. Low-profile and
wideband microstrip antenna with stable gain for 5G wireless applications. IEEE
Antennas and Wireless Propagation Letters, 17(4), pp.621-624.
A low-profile microstrip antenna with stable radiation pattern in a relatively wide
band is presented for 5G operation. Four resonant modes with different frequencies are
integrated in a single structure to enhance the bandwidth with stable gain, and well matched
by introducing the folded walls. An impedance bandwidth of 58.3% has been achieved
from 2.84 to 5.17 GHz with a compact structure of 0.84λ 0 × 0.68λ 0 × 0.06λ 0, where λ 0
is the free-space wavelength at the center frequency of 4 GHz. The measurement results
show that the proposed antenna is with the merits of average gain of 5 dB, stable radiation
patterns, low cross polarization, and low back lobes, exhibiting potentially use for the
applications of 5G wireless communication systems.

[4] Wang, J., Li, Y. and Wang, J., 2022. A Low-Profile Dual-Mode Slot-Patch
Antenna for 5G Millimeter-Wave Applications. IEEE Antennas and Wireless
Propagation Letters.
A novel dual-mode slot-patch antenna is proposed in the Ka-band. Resonant modes
of a slot and four patches are merged for widening the bandwidth of the low-profile antenna
that is fed by an open-ended substrate integrated coaxial line. The design with a profile of
0.05 λ 0 achieves a wide bandwidth of 27.5% and stable unidirectional radiation patterns.
Based on the proposed antenna, a 1 × 8 array with an unequal power feeding network is
designed and measured, which demonstrates an impedance bandwidth of 23%, a gain of
up to 15.4 dBi, and the sidelobe level of lower than −18 dB. Benefitted from the desirable
geometric and operating characteristics, the presented slot-patch antenna is suitable for 5G

14
millimeter-wave applications.

[5] Paul, L.C., Jim, M.T.R., Rani, T., Samsuzzaman, M., Sarker, N. and Azim, R.,
2021, December. A Compact Wideband Slotted Hexagonal Patch Antenna with a
Modified Ground Structure for WiFi-5/6 Communication. In 2021 Emerging
Technology in Computing, Communication and Electronics (ETCCE) (pp. 1-5).
IEEE.
A compact wideband slotted hexagonal patch antenna (CWSHPA) with a modified
ground plane structure for WiFi-5/6 communication has been designed and proposed in
this paper. In the hexagonal patch antenna, a substrate material named Rogers RT5880 with
a thickness of 0.79 mm is used. The optimized volume of the antenna is 34×20×0.79 mm
3 (537.2mm 3 ) which covers the frequency range of 5.1697 – 7.5388 GHz under the −10
dB scale. It also shows that the radiation efficiency ranges from 79.19% to 89.37% and the
efficiency is 83.03% at 6. 33 GHz. The average radiation efficiency within the operating
band is about 85%. The gain and the directivity are varying from 3.1 dB to 4.1 dB and 3.6
to 4.9 dBi. The proposed microstrip patch antenna exhibits a gain of 3.995 dB at centre
frequency of 6.33 GHz which gives the Omni-directional radiation pattern as well as a
competitor of WiFi-5/6 communication. The designed slotted hexagonal microstrip patch
antenna (MPA) is simulated by using the CST microwave studio suite 2018.

[6] Aghoutane, B., Das, S., El Faylali, H., Madhav, B.T.P., El Ghzaoui, M. and El
Alami, A., 2021. Analysis, design and fabrication of a square slot loaded (SSL)
millimeter-wave patch antenna array for 5G applications. Journal of Circuits,
Systems and Computers, 30(05), p.2150086.
A new compact 1×4 microstrip patch antenna array design for future 5G applications
is presented in this paper. The proposed antenna array consists of square slot loaded with
four radiating patch elements. The corporate feed network has been implemented for the
excitation of the array. The feed line is connected to the square slot patch through a quarter-
wave transformer matching network. The proposed array is designed on an FR-4 substrate

15
with a dielectric constant of 4.4, thickness of 1.6mm and loss tangent (tanδ) of 0.02. It has
a compact dimension of 9.590× 17.802×1.6mm3. The proposed structure has been
designed and simulated by using commercially available HFSS software. The simulated
results (reflection coefficient, gain, efficiency, radiation pattern) are verified through the
measurement process to confirm the validity of the design concept. The measurement
results are in good agreement with the simulated results. The proposed structure resonates
at 38.1GHz with a −10dB impedance bandwidth of about 3700MHz (36.5GHz to
40.2GHz). The reflection coefficient at 38.1GHz is −34dB, with a maximum gain of
7.81dB. The proposed square slot loaded patch antenna array is very promising for 5G
communications at 38GHz band (37–40GHz).

[7] Khabba, A., Wakrim, L., Ibnyaich, S. and Hassani, M.M.R., 2022. Beam-
Steerable Ultra-Wide-Band Miniaturized Elliptical Phased Array Antenna Using
Inverted-L-Shaped Modified Inset Feed and Defected Ground Structure for 5G
Smartphones Millimeter-Wave Applications. Wireless Personal Communications,
pp.1-33.
Multi Input Multi Output (MIMO) and phased array systems are considered a key
technology to realize the 5G communication systems. Therefore, the purpose of this
research is the suggestion of a novel mm-wave Ultrawide Band (UWB) antenna design
with compact and straightforward layout suitable for both MIMO and phased array
systems. The Design process are performed using CST MWS software, where the Rogers
RT/Duroid 5880 substrate is chosen to construct the antenna. A broadband characteristic
of 8.7 GHz from 26 to 34.7 GHz with two resonant frequencies at 28 GHz and 33 GHz is
obtained. Good radiation properties are achieved, where the gain is greater than 4.5 dB
while the radiation efficiency exceeds 97% over the operating band. The MIMO and
phased array antennas are made up of 12-elements of the single UWB-antenna arranged
linearly along the width-edge of the smartphone mainboard. The MIMO antenna proves a
high diversity performance in terms of Diversity Gain (DG), Envelope Correlation
Coefficient (ECC), Total Active Reflection Coefficient (TARC), Channel Capacity Loss

16
(CCL) and Mean Effective Gain (MEG), owing to the low mutual coupling less than − 20
dB, which is obtained using a separating slit between the elements. In addition, the
suggested phased array provides a highly stable gain up to 15 dB over the entire bandwidth
at broadside direction, besides the wide scanning range of ± 60° at 28 GHz and ± 40° at 33
GHz. Hence, the attained results assure that the suggested antenna could be appropriate for
incorporation in 5G smartphones and other wireless devices and can be effectively used
for both phased array and MIMO applications.

[8] Guo, Y.Q., Pan, Y.M., Zheng, S.Y. and Lu, K., 2021. A singly-fed dual-band
microstrip antenna for microwave and millimeter-wave applications in 5G wireless
communication. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 70(6), pp.5419-5430.

The coexistence of microwave (MW) and millimeter wave (MMW) technologies is

considered as the development tendency of the future 5G wireless communication system.
In this paper, a single-port, single-layer, dual-band antenna with large frequency ratio is
proposed to support the MW and MMW applications. This antenna mainly consists of a
stub-loaded microstrip line in the center, two slot-loaded rectangular patches on the lateral
sides, and two thin microstrip lines in-between which connect the former two. The stub-
loaded microstrip line works as a series-fed MMW linear array at 26 GHz, and
simultaneously it serves as the feed line for the MW patches operating at 4.85 GHz. The
connection lines are elaborately designed to isolate the MW patches from the MMW signal,
guaranteeing the radiation performance of the antenna at the two bands without requiring
complicated filter. For verification, a prototype is fabricated and measured. The measured
results show that the antenna has an impedance bandwidth of 3.1% and a peak gain of 8.93
dBi at the 4.85-GHz MW band, while an impedance bandwidth of 19% and a peak gain of
13.57 dBi at the 26-GHz MMW band.

17
 CHAPTER 3
INTRODUCTION TO MICROSTRIP ANTENNA

3.1 Overview of Microstrip Antenna

With the rapid growth of wireless systems and demands for the low power
integrated electronic circuits, microstrip antennas have taken for the gain enhancement.
Generally, a microstrip patch antenna has a low weight and low profile. In a microstrip
antenna two metallic layers and a dielectric layer form the essential part of the basic
antenna. A transmitter is essential in modern wireless communication devices, the antenna
is expected to effectively send and receive the signals. There are many advantages for
microstrip antennas like ease of fabrication, low cost and easy integration with microwave
antennas. Microstrip antennas are used in various fields like military, navy, wearable and
mobile applications. In high performance aircraft, spacecraft, satellite, and missile
applications, where size, weight, cost, performance, ease of installation, and aerodynamic
profile are constraints, and low-profile antennas may be required.

Presently there are many other government and commercial applications, such as
mobile radio and wireless communications that have similar specifications. To meet these
requirements, microstrip antennas can be used. These antennas are low profile,
conformable to planar and non-planar surfaces, simple and inexpensive to manufacture
using modern printed circuit technology, mechanically robust when mounted on rigid
surfaces, compatible with MMIC designs, and when the particular patch shape and mode
are selected, they are very versatile in terms of resonant frequency, polarization, pattern,
and impedance.
Rectangular and circular microstrip resonant patches have been used extensively
in a variety of array configurations. A major contributing factor for recent advances of
microstrip antennas is the current revolution in electronic circuit miniaturization brought
about by developments in large scale integration. As conventional antennas are often bulky
and costly part of an electronic system, micro strip antennas based on photolithographic

18
technology are seen as an engineering breakthrough. In its most fundamental form, a
Microstrip Patch antenna consists of a radiating patch on one side of a dielectric substrate
which has a ground plane on the other side as shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1 Basic Structure of Patch Antenna

Fig 3.1 shows the basic structure of patch antenna. The patch is generally made of
conducting material such as copper or gold and can take any possible shape. The radiating
patch and the feed lines are usually photo etched on the dielectric substrate.

3.1.1 Metallic Patch

It consists of a very thin metallic sheet mounted on dielectric substrate. The antenna
patch can be square, rectangular, strip, and circular, triangular, elliptical. They are shown
in Fig 3.2. Every shape has its own characteristics and is chosen to meet certain
requirements. In order to simplify analysis and performance prediction, the patch is
generally square, rectangular, circular, triangular and elliptical. For a rectangular patch, the
length L of the patch is usually 0.3333λ0< L< 0.5 λ0, where λ0 is the free-space wavelength.
The patch is selected to be very thin such that t<<λ0(where it is the patch thickness), the
length of the antenna is nearly half wavelength in the dielectric; it is a very critical
parameter, which governs the resonant frequency of the antenna. There are no hard and
fast rules to find the width of the patch. The shape of the patch is not constrained and it is
generally made of conducting material such as copper or gold.

19
 Figure 3.2 Microstrip Patch Shapes

3.1.2 Dielectric Substrate

It is the dielectric layer between the patch and the ground. The dielectric constant
is the ratio between the stored amount of electrical energy in a material and to that stored
by a vacuum. The height h of the dielectric substrate is usually 0.003λo≤h≤0.05λo. The
dielectric constant of the substrate (εr) is typically in the range 2.2 ≤ εr≤ 12. It is also a
measure of the degree to which an electromagnetic wave is slowed down as it travels
through the insulating material. The lower the dielectric constant is, the better the material
works as an insulator. The better an insulator, the better it resists electrons from being
absorbed in the dielectric material, creating less loss. A high loss tangent increases
dielectric loss and therefore reduces antenna efficiency. The substrate dielectric constant
(εr) plays a role similar to that of substrate thickness. A low value of εr, for the substrate
will increase the fringing field at the patch periphery and thus the radiated power.

3.1.3 Ground Plane

It is the metallic part found on the other side of the substrate. There are some
perturbations that can be done to the ground to enhance the antenna performance towards
certain specifications, like inserting shapes or slots in the ground plane. Microstrip patch
antennas radiate primarily because of the fringing fields between the patch edge and the
ground plane. For good antenna performance, a thick dielectric substrate having a low

20
dielectric constant is desirable since this provides better efficiency, larger bandwidth and
better radiation. However, such configuration leads to larger antenna size.

3.1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages

Microstrip patch antennas are increasing in popularity for use in various applications
due to their low-profile structure. Therefore, they are extremely compatible for embedded
antennas in handheld wireless devices such as cellular phones, pagers etc. The telemetry
and communication antennas on missiles need to be thin and conformal and are often in
the form of Microstrip patch antennas. Another area where they have been used
successfully is in Satellite communications.

▪ Light weight and low volume.

▪ Low fabrication cost, hence can be manufactured in large quantities.
▪ Supports both, linear as well as circular polarization.
▪ Can be easily integrated with microwave integrated circuits(MICs).
▪ Capable of dual and triple frequency operations.
Microstrip patch antennas suffer from more drawbacks as compared to
conventional antennas. Some of their major disadvantages are given below:
▪ Narrow bandwidth
▪ Low efficiency
▪ Low Gain
▪ High Quality factor
▪ Large ohmic loss in the feed structure of arrays
▪ Polarization purity is difficult to achieve
▪ Low power handling capacity.
▪ Surface wave excitation.
Microstrip patch antennas have a very high antenna quality factor (Q). It
represents the losses associated with the antenna where a large Q leads to narrow
bandwidth and low efficiency. Q can be decreased by increasing the thickness of the
dielectric substrate. But as the thickness increases, an increasing fraction of the total power
21
delivered by the source goes into a surface wave.
3.1.5 Applications of Microstrip Antennas

For many applications, the advantages of microstrip antennas far outweigh their
limitations. Initially, microstrip antennas found widespread applications in military
systems such as missiles, rockets, aircraft, and satellites. Currently, these antennas are
being increasingly used in the commercial sector due to the reduced cost of substrate
material and mature fabrication technology. Some notable system applications for which
microstrip antennas have been developed include:
▪ Satellite communications, Direct Broadcast Services (DBS)
▪ Remote sensing and Environmental instrumentation
▪ Doppler and other radars
▪ Radio altimeters
▪ Command and control systems
▪ Feed elements in complex antennas
▪ Satellite Navigation Receivers
▪ Biomedical radiators and intruder alarms

3.2 Feeding Methods

Microstrip patch antennas can be fed by a variety of methods. These methods can
be classified into two categories- contacting and non-contacting. In the contacting method,
the RF power is fed directly to the radiating patch using a connecting element such as a
microstrip line. In the non-contacting scheme, electromagnetic field coupling is done to
transfer power between the microstrip line and the radiating patch. The four most popular
feed techniques used are the microstrip line, coaxial probe (both contacting schemes),
aperture coupling and proximity coupling (both non- contacting schemes), and also
coplanar waveguide feed.

3.2.1 Microstrip Line Feed

In this type of feed technique, a conducting strip is connected directly to the edge
22
of the Microstrip patch as shown in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3 Microstrip Line Feed

The purpose of the inset cut in the patch is to match the impedance of the feed line
to the patch without the need for any additional matching element. This is achieved by
properly controlling the inset position. Hence this is an easy feeding scheme, since it
provides ease of fabrication and simplicity in modeling as well as impedance matching.
However, as the thickness of the dielectric substrate being used, increases, surface waves
and spurious feed radiation also increases, which hampers the bandwidth of the antenna.
The feed radiation also leads to undesired cross polarized radiation.

3.2.2 Coaxial Feed

The Coaxial feed or probe feed is a very common technique used for feeding
Microstrip patch antennas. As seen from Figure 3.4, the inner conductor of the coaxial
connector extends through the dielectric and is soldered to the radiating patch, while the
outer conductor is connected to the ground plane. The main advantage of this type of
feeding scheme is that the feed can be placed at any desired location inside the patch in
order to match with its input impedance. This feed method is easy to fabricate and has low
spurious radiation. However, a major disadvantage is that it provides narrow bandwidth
and is difficult to model since a hole has to be drilled in the substrate and the connector
protrudes outside the ground plane, thus not making it completely planar for thick
substrates (h >0.02λ0). For thicker substrates, the increased probe length makes the input
impedance more inductive, leading to matching problems.

23
 Figure 3.4 Coaxial Feed
It is seen above that for a thick dielectric substrate, which provides broad bandwidth,
the microstrip line feed and the coaxial feed suffer from numerous disadvantages. The non-
contacting feed techniques which have been discussed below, solve these issues.

3.2.2 Aperture Coupled Feed

In this type of feed technique, the radiating patch and the microstrip feed line are
separated by the ground plane as shown in Figure 3.5, Coupling between the patch and the
feed line is made through a slot or an aperture in the ground plane. An aperture coupled
antenna eliminates direct electrical connections between the feed conductor and the
radiating patch and the ground plane. The coupling aperture is usually cantered under the
patch, leading to lower cross polarization due to symmetry of the configuration. The
amount of coupling from the feed line to the patch is determined by the shape, size and
location of the aperture. Since the ground plane separates the patch and the feed line,
spurious radiation is minimized. Generally, a high dielectric material is used for bottom
substrate and a thick, low dielectric constant material is used for the top substrate to
optimize radiation from the patch. The major disadvantage of this feed technique is that it
is difficult to fabricate due to multiple layers, which also increases the antenna thickness.

24
 Figure 3.5 Aperture Coupled Feed

3.2.3 Proximity Coupled Feed

This type of feed technique is also called as the electromagnetic coupling scheme.
As shown in Figure 3.6, two dielectric substrates are used such that the feed line is between
the two substrates and the radiating patch is on top of the upper substrate. The main
advantage of this feed technique is that it eliminates spurious feed radiation and provides
very high bandwidth (as high as 13%), due to overall increase in the thickness of the
microstrip patch antenna. This scheme also provides choices between two different
dielectric media, one for the patch and one for the feed line to optimize the individual
performances. Matching can be achieved by controlling the length of the feed line and the
width to line ratio of the patch.

Figure 3.6 Proximity Feed

25
The major disadvantage of this feed scheme is that it is difficult to fabricate because of the
two dielectric layers which need proper alignment.

3.2.4 Coplanar Waveguide Feed

Figure 3.7 Coplanar Feed

Coplanar waveguide is a transmission line system consisting of a central current-

carrying trace on the top of a substrate, coplanar with side grounds extending beyond a
symmetric gap to either side of trace. A coplanar waveguide is the preferred transmission
line for microwave monolithic integrated circuits. The coplanar waveguide fed antenna
have been widely used for wireless communications owing to their many attractive features
such as wide bandwidth, simplest structure of a single metallic layer, no soldering points
etc. Coupling is accomplished via a slot. In figure 3.7 the center conductor of the CPW
divides the coupling slot into two.

26
 CHAPTER 4

MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA

4.1 Introduction to Microstrip Patch Antenna

Microstrip patch antennas (MPA) are a class of planar antennas which have been
researched and developed extensively in the last four decades. They have become
favorites among antenna designers and have been used in many applications in wireless
communication systems, both in the military sector and in the commercial sector.

The idea of microstrip patch antennas arose from utilizing printed circuit
technology not only for the circuit components and transmission lines but also for the
radiating elements of an electronic system. However, little attention was paid to his idea
until the 1970’s. Since then, this class of antennas has been the subject of intensive
research and development. There are several thousand papers published on the subject, as
well as a number of books.

It consists of area of metallization supported above a ground plane by a thin

dielectric substrate and fed against the ground at an appropriate location. The patch shape
can in principle be arbitrary; in practice. the rectangle, the circle, the equitriangle and the
annular-ring are common shapes. Electromagnetic energy is first guided or coupled to the
region under the patch, which acts like a resonant cavity with open circuits on the sides.
Some of the energy leaks out of the cavity and radiates into space, resulting in an antenna.

The metallic patch is normally made of thin copper foil. The substrate material
provides mechanical support for the radiating patch elements. It also maintains the
required spacing between the patch and its ground plane. The substrate thickness for the
basic geometry is in the range of 0.01 to 0.05 free-space wavelength.

27
4.2 History of Microstrip Patch Antenna

Microstrip antenna was first introduced in the 1950s. However, this concept had to
wait for about 20 years to be realized after the development of the printed circuit board
(PCB) technology in the 1970s. Since then, microstrip antennas are the most common types
of antennas with wide range of applications due to their apparent advantages of light
weight, low profile, low cost, planar configuration, easy of conformal, superior portability,
suitable for array with the ease of fabrication and integration with microwave monolithic
integrate circuits (MMICs).They have been widely engaged for the civilian and military
applications such as radio-frequency identification (RFID), broadcast radio, mobile
systems, global positioning system (GPS), television, multiple-input multiple-output
(MIMO) systems, vehicle collision avoidance system, satellite communications,
surveillance systems, direction founding, radar systems, remote sensing, missile guidance,
and so on.

The microstrip patch antennas are famous for their performance and robust design.
Microstrip patch antennas have applications in various fields such as in the medical field,
satellites and even in the military systems just like in the rockets, aircrafts missiles and
many more. Now they are booming in the commercial aspects due to their low cost of the
substrate material and the fabrication.

4.3 Principle of Operation

Micro strip antenna consists of a very thin metallic strip placed on a ground plane
with a di-electric material in-between. The radiating element and feed lines are placed by
the process of photo-etching on the di-electric material. Usually, the patch or micro-strip
is chosen to be square, circular or rectangular in shape for the ease of analysis and
fabrication. The radiation pattern of microstrip or patch antenna is broad. It has low
radiation power and narrow frequency bandwidth. The radiation pattern of a microstrip or
patch antenna is shown above. It has lesser directivity. To have a greater directivity, an
array can be formed by using these patch antennas.
28
4.4 Design of Microstrip Patch Antenna

The antenna was designed using the inset-fed technique. The antenna is designed
using a FR-4 substrate, whose dielectric constant is 2.1, and the substrate thickness is about
2.5mm. These steps have to be followed for designing the antenna.

i) Width of the patch is calculated using

𝑉0 2 (4.1)
𝑊𝑃 = √
2𝐹 𝜀𝑟+1

Where V0 is the velocity of light and F is the resonant frequency

ii) Effective dielectric constant is calculated using

(𝜀𝑟 +1) (𝜀𝑟 −1) 1 (4.2)

𝜀eff = 2 + 2 𝐻
√1+12 𝐴
𝑊𝑝

Where HA is the height of the substrate and WP is the width of the patch.

iii) To determine the extension of the length Le, the following formula is used

0.412𝐻𝐴 (𝜀𝑒𝑓𝑓 +0.3)((𝑊𝑃 / 𝐻𝐴 )+0.264)) (4.3)

Le =
(𝜀𝑒𝑓𝑓 −0.258)((𝑊𝑃 / 𝐻𝐴 )+0.8))

iv) The actual length of the patch is calculated using

𝑉0
L= – 2Le (4.4)
2𝐹√𝜀𝑒𝑓𝑓

4.5 Design Applications

The microstrip patch antennas are famous for their performance and robust design.
Microstrip patch antennas have applications in various fields such as in the medical field,
satellites and even in the military systems just like in the rockets, aircrafts missiles and
many more. Now they are booming in the commercial aspects due to their low cost of the
substrate material and the fabrication.

29
4.5.1 Mobile and Satellite Communication Application

Mobile communication requires small, low-profile, low-cost antennas.

Microstrip patch antenna meets all the necessities and a number of microstrip antennas
have been designed for use in mobile communication systems. In case of satellite
communication, circularly polarized radiation patterns are required and can be realized
using either square or circular patch with one or two feed point. In Figure 4.1, we have
microstrip antenna flaring away from the center.

Figure 4.1 Microstrip Antenna in Mobile Communication

4.5.2 Global Positioning System Applications

Microstrip patch antennas having high permittivity sintered substrate material for
global positioning system (GPS). These antennas are circularly polarized, very compact.

30
 Figure 4.2 Microstrip Antenna used in GPS system

4.5.3 Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)

RFID is used in different areas like mobile communication, logistics, manufacturing,

transportation and health care. RFID system generally uses frequencies between 30 Hz and
5.8 GHz depending on its applications. Basically, RFID system is a tag or transponder and
a transceiver or reader.

4.5.4 Interoperability for Microwave Access (WIMAX)

The IEEE 802.16 standard is known as WiMax. It can reach upto 30 mile radius
theoretically and data rate 70 Mbps. Microstrip patch antenna generates three resonant
modes at 2.7, 3.3 and 5.3 GHz and can, therefore, be used in WiMax compliant
communication equipment.

4.5.5 Radar Application

Radar can be used for detecting moving targets such as people and vehicles. The
microstrip antennas are an ideal choice. The fabrication technology based on
photolithography enables the bulk production of microstrip antenna with repeatable
performance at a lower cost in a lesser time frame as compared to the conventional
antennas.

31
4.5.6 Reduced Size Microstrip Patch Antenna for Bluetooth Applications

In this, the microstrip antenna operates in the 2400 to 2484 MHz ISM Band.
Although an air substrate is introduced, microstrip antenna occupies a small volume of
33.3×6.6×0.8mm3.

4.5.7 Broadband Microstrip S-Shaped Patch Antenna For Wireless

Communication

This is a single-patch broadband microstrip S-shaped patch antenna. Microstrip

Sshaped patch antenna is fed by a coaxial feeding. The antenna is designed by inserting
two slots into rotated square patch then it looks like English letter ‘S’. Because of the
slots and thick substrate, bandwidth of antenna is increased.

4.6 Simulation Software

• IE3D, from Zeland software Inc., is an electromagnetic simulation and optimization

software useful for circuit and antenna design. IE3D has a menu driven graphic
interface for model generation with automatic meshing, and uses a field solver based
on a full-wave, method-of-moments to solve current distribution on 3D and
multilayer structures of general shape. Spiral arrays systems are typically used in
high gain applications such as high data rate satellite and terrestrial communication
networks also in ultra-wideband (UWB) communication.
• HFSS is the industry-standard simulation tool for 3D full-wave electromagnetic
field simulation. HFSS provides E- and H-fields, currents, S-parameters and near
and far radiated field results. Intrinsic to the success of HFSS as an engineering
design tool is its automated solution process where users are only required to specify
geometry, material properties and the desired output. From here HFSS will
automatically generate an appropriate, efficient and accurate mesh for solving the
problem.

32
• Advanced Design System is the world’s leading electronic design automation
software for RF, microwave, and high-speed digital applications. In a powerful and
easy to use interface, ADS pioneers the most innovative and commercially
successful technologies, such as X-parameters and 3D EM simulators, used by
leading companies in the wireless communication, networking, aerospace &
defense industries. For WiMAX, LTE, multi-gigabit per second data links, radar, &
satellite applications, ADS provides full, standards-based design and verification
with Wireless Libraries and circuit-system-EM co-simulation in an integrated
platform.
• CST microwave studio (CST MWS) is a specialist tool for the 3D EM simulation
of high frequency components. CST MWS' has made unparalleled performance
making it first choice in technology leading R&D departments. CST MWS enables
the fast and accurate analysis of high frequency (HF) devices such as antennas,
filters, couplers, planar and multi-layer structures and SI and EMC effects.

33
 CHAPTER 5

DESIGN OF MICROSTRIP PATCH ANTENNA

5.1 INTRODUCTION

A microstrip patch antenna (MPA) consists of a conducting patch of any non-planar

or planar geometry on one side of a dielectric substrate and a ground plane on other side.
It is a printed resonant antenna for narrow-band microwave wireless links requiring semi-
hemispherical coverage. Due to its planar configuration and ease of integration with
microstrip technology, the microstrip patch antenna has been deeply. The rectangular and
circular patches are the basic and most commonly used microstrip antennas.

5.2 DESIGN OF PROPOSED ANTENNA

Proposed design was made up of a low profile and rectangular patch. It was
designed and fabricated by using FR4 epoxy substrate (ε = 4.3) with a thickness of 2mm.
On the other side, the feed mechanism plays a vital role in the design of proposed antenna.

The resonating frequency has been chosen as 3.5 GHz for 5G application. FR4
epoxy material with permittivity of 4.3 has been chosen for the substrate material which
has fire redundant property. The size of the substrate is 95×70 mm. The main radiating
patch is in a shape of inverted U and the insert line feed technique is used. To improvise
gain an array (1x4) of antenna is implemented. There are various feeding methods like
corporate, coaxial feed, aperture feed and proximity feed. In which we use corporate
feeding method which is mainly useful for arrays and it has proper impedance match and
good radiation. The simulation is done by CST microwave studio software. Different
parameters like S-Parameter, Gain, Directivity, Efficiency has been observed. The antenna
has a gain of more than 5 dB which is very useful for communication applications. The
antenna is designed for 5G communication applications.

34
 Figure 5.1 Design of Proposed Antenna

The proposed low-profile microstrip patch antenna is shown in Fig.5.1. The

simulation is done by CST microwave studio software. Different parameters like S-
Parameter, Gain, Directivity, Efficiency has been observed. The antenna has a gain of more
than 5 dB which is very useful for communication applications. The antenna is designed
for 5G communication applications.

5.3 SIMULATION RESULTS

The proposed antenna was designed by using a FR4 substrate with dielectric constant
of 4.3. The inset-feed was given by removing the edge of the non-radiating patch to allow
for the planar feeding mechanism. Device performance can be optimized, potential
compliance issues identified and mitigated early in the design process, the number of
physical prototypes required can be reduced, and the risk of test failures. The proposed
design is simulated using CST Microwave Studio Suite. CST stands for Computer
Simulation Technology. CST Microwave Studio Suite is a high-performance 3D EM
analysis software package for designing, analyzing and optimizing electromagnetic (EM)
components and systems. It is widely used in high-frequency problems due to fast, accurate
simulations.

35
RETURN LOSS

Return loss is the loss of power in the signal returned or reflected by a discontinuity
in a transmission line or optical fiber. This discontinuity can be a mismatch with the
terminating load or with a device inserted in the line. Return loss is related to both standing
wave ratio (SWR) and reflection coefficient. Reflection coefficient shows what fraction of
an incident signal is reflected when a source drives a load. A high return loss is desirable
and results in a lower insertion loss. The negative sign is dropped from the return loss value,
so a large value for return loss indicates a small reflected signal. The return loss of a load is
merely the magnitude of the reflection coefficient expressed in decibels.

The equation for return loss is:

Return loss = -20 x log [mag(Γ)] (5.1)

Figure 5.2 Simulated Response of S-Parameter

The return loss of the proposed design is -28.296 dB at a centre frequency of 3.44
GHz. Lowest value of return loss which represents the maximum coupling of the antenna.
The proposed antenna performs well in return loss results (S11>-10dB).

36
VOLTAGE STANDING WAVE RATIO (VSWR)

VSWR or sometimes just Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) is a measure of how well
matched an antenna is (in terms of impedance) to the transmission line it connects to. If the
reflection coefficient is given by , then the VSWR is defined as in equation
1+ | |
VSWR = (5.2)
1− |  |

The voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) is the ratio of the maximum and minimum
voltages on the transmission line connected to the antenna, and it follows directly from the
reflection coefficient, When the proposed antenna performs well and satisfies the required
the conditions as VSWR < 2.

Figure 5.3 Simulated Response of VSWR Plot

The VSWR value in the existing microstrip antenna is 1.080 at a resonant frequency
of 3.44 GHz. In this case the feed line has no loss, and matches both the transmitter output
impedance and the antenna input impedance, so the maximum power is delivered to the
antenna.

37
FARFIELD RADIATION PATTERNS

The fields radiated by antennas of finite dimensions are spherical waves. Far-field
region is defined as that region of the field of an antenna where the angular field distribution
is essentially independent of the distance from the antenna. If the antenna has a maximum†
overall dimension D, the far-field region is commonly taken to exist at distances greater
than 2D2/λ from the antenna, λ being the free space wavelength. An antenna radiation
pattern or antenna pattern is defined as “a mathematical function or a graphical
representation of the radiation properties of the antenna as a function of space coordinates.
The radiation pattern is three-dimensional, but usually the measured radiation patterns
are a two-dimensional slice of the three-dimensional pattern, in the horizontal or vertical
planes. These pattern measurements are presented in either a rectangular or a polar format.
In the most common case, antenna radiation patterns are determined in the far-field region.
In the far-field region of any antenna the radiated field takes a particularly simple form.
The radio signals radiated by an antenna form an electromagnetic field with a definite
pattern, depending on the type of antenna used. This radiation pattern shows the antenna’s
directional characteristics. A vertical antenna radiates energy equally in all directions a
horizontal antenna is mainly bidirectional, and a unidirectional antenna radiates energy in
one direction.

GAIN

Gain of an antenna is defined as the ratio of the intensity, in a given direction, to the
radiation intensity that would be obtained if the power accepted by the antenna were radiated
isotropically, gain of the antenna is closely related to the directivity, it is a measure that
takes into account the efficiency of the antenna as well as its directional capabilities.
Antenna gain is defined as antenna directivity times a factor representing the radiation
efficiency. Antenna gain can also be specified using the total efficiency instead of the
radiation efficiency only. This total efficiency is a combination of the radiation efficiency
and efficiency linked to the impedance matching of the antenna.

38
 Figure 5.5 Farfield Gain Polar Plot

The farfield gain polar plot of the proposed antenna is shown in Fig 5.5. The angular width
of main lobe is 11 deg.

Figure 5.6 Farfield Gain Plot

The proposed antenna achieves gain of 5.325 dBi at resonance frequency of 3.5 GHz as
shown in fig 5.6. Gain is a key performance number which combines the antenna’s
directivity and electrical efficiency.

39
DIRECTIVITY

The ratio of maximum radiation intensity of the subject antenna to the radiation
intensity of an isotropic or reference antenna, radiating the same total power is called the
directivity. The antenna whose performance is being observed is termed as subject antenna.
Its radiation intensity is focused in a particular direction, while it is transmitting or
receiving. Directivity is the measure of the concentration of an antenna’s radiation pattern
in a particular direction. Directivity is expressed in dB. The higher the directivity, the more
concentrated or focused is the beam radiated by an antenna.

Figure 5.7 Farfield Directivity Polar Plot

The farfield directivity polar plot is shown in Fig 5.7. A higher directivity also means that
the beam will travel further.

40
 Figure 5.8 Farfield Directivity Plot

The directivity of the proposed antenna is shown in Fig.5.8. The directivity value achieved
by the proposed design is 11.43 dBi. The isotropic antenna is used as a common reference,
even though no isotropic antennas exist.

E-FIELD

The E-field at a point in space is a measure of strong the force would be on a unit
point charge (a small sphere with an electric charge of 1 Coulomb on it). Hence, the units
of the E-field are Newtons/Coulomb [N/C]. These units are equivalent to Volts/meter
[V/m], which is what the E-field is commonly quoted in (for instance, 10 V/m). The E-
field is a vector quantity - this means at every point in space it has a magnitude and a
direction. This is the E-field of a plane wave travelling in the +z-direction, and the E-field
is linearly polarized and 'points' in the y-direction (k is the wavenumber). The E plane will
dictate whether the linear polarization is horizontal or vertical.

41
 Figure 5.9 Farfield Electric Field Plot

The amplitude of the wave is A Volts/meter. Fig 5.9 shows the Farfield Electric Field plot
of the proposed antenna. The radiation pattern has shifted 5 deg.

H- FIELD

The H-field is a vector quantity (has a magnitude and direction) and is measured in
Amps/Meter [A/m]. An H-field curls (or wraps) around a wire of moving charge. an H-
field can't be defined as a force per unit magnetic charge in the way an E-field can be
defined. However, magnetic dipoles do exist (magnets) which have a positive and negative
end (or North and South). The magnetic field lines travel away from the North side and
terminate on the south side. Fig 5.10 shows the Farfield Magnetic Field plot of the proposed
antenna. The radiation pattern has shifted 5 deg. The H-field is orthogonal to the direction
of propagation in a plane wave, as well as perpendicular to the E-field. It is the interaction
of the E-field with the H-field in space that allows for wave propagation.

42
 Figure 5.10 Farfield Magnetic Field Plot

5.4 FABRICATION

The inverted U shaped microstrip antenna array designed for the given specifications
is simulated using CST microwave studio software. FR4 epoxy material with permittivity
of 4.3 has been chosen for the substrate material which has fire redundant property. The
size of the substrate is 95×70 mm. The main radiating patch is in a shape of inverted U and
the insert line feed technique is used. In which we use corporate feeding method which is
mainly useful for arrays and it has proper impedance match and good radiation. The figure
5.11 shows the fabricated U shaped microstrip antenna.

The proposed antenna can be fabricated in the CRC fabrication shop. The summary of
the etching process.
▪ At first a photo mask is created that covers the wanted copper tracing.

▪ The masked substrates are inserted into a chamber in which is heated and sprayed
with an ammonia-based chemical. At this step the unwanted copper is removed.

▪ After each layer is properly etched, these layers are bonded.

43
 Printed antennas are then soldered with SMA connectors for measurements. They are
connected to the produced antennas with using minimum solder. It is an important point
because of avoiding unexpected scatterings and measurement errors. Return loss, voltage
standing wave ratio and group delay parameters can be measured by vector network
analyzer (VNA)

Figure 5.11 Patch of the fabricated antenna

The SMA connector is the workhorse of the RF and microwave industries. The basic
design uses a 4.2-millimeter diameter outer coax, filled with PTFE dielectric. About a
zillion companies make SMA-style connectors. Their upper frequency limit is anywhere
from 18 to 26 GHz, depending on the tolerances held during manufacturing. SMAs, like
many other coax connector families, are sized to fit a 5/16 inch wrench. Figure 5.12 shows

44
an SMA connector and figure 5.13 shows the fabricated antenna along with the SMA
connector.

Figure 5.12 SMA connector

Figure 5.13 Fabricated antenna with connector

45
5.5 TESTING

The fabricated antenna is tested with a network analyzer.

5.5.1 NETWORK ANALYZER

A network analyzer is an instrument that measures the network parameters of electrical

networks. It commonly measures S-Parameters because reflection and transmission of
electrical networks are easy to measure at high frequencies.

Figure 5.14 Network Analyzer

Network analyzers are used mostly at high frequencies. It can range from 5 Hz to
1.05 THz. Special types of network analyzers can also cover lower frequency ranges down
to 1 Hz. The two basic types of network analyzers are :

• Scalar network analyzer (SNA) - measures amplitude properties.

• Vector network analyzer (VNA) - measures both amplitude and phase properties.

46
5.5.2 MEASURED PLOTS

Figure 5.15 shows the S-parameter (return loss) plot.

Figure 5.15 S-parameter plot

Figure 5.16 shows the Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR) plot for various
frequencies.

Figure 5.16 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio plot

47
5.6 RESULT SUMMARY

Antenna Parameters Results

Frequency 3.5 GHz
Return loss -28.296444 dB
VSWR 1.080029
Gain 5.325 dBi
Directivity 11.43 dBi
Bandwidth 116 MHz

Table 5.1

5.7 CONCLUSION

The microstrip patch antenna has been designed at 3.5 GHz for 5G communication
application. FR4 epoxy material with permittivity of 4.3 has been chosen for the substrate
material which has fire redundant property. The size of the substrate is 95×70 mm. The
main radiating patch is in a shape of inverted U and the insert line feed technique is used.
In which we use corporate feeding method which is mainly useful for arrays and it has
proper impedance match and good radiation. The simulation is done by CST microwave
studio software. Different parameters like S-Parameter, Gain, Directivity, Efficiency has
been observed. The antenna has a gain of 5.325 dB which is very useful for
communication applications.

48
 CHAPTER 6

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