TLSingal Analog and Digital Communications Chapter 09

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T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012
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Digital Modulation
Techniques
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Chapter 9 - Contents
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…… Chapter 9 - Contents
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Chapter Learning Objectives
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9.1 Types of Digital Modulation
Basic Types
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Digital-to-analog modulation
Types of digital-to-analog modulation
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Aspects to digital-to Analog conversion

• Bit Rate / Baud Rate
– Bit rate is the number of bits per second. Baud rate is the number of
signal units per second. Baud rate is less than or equal to the bit rate.
– Bit rate is important in computer efficiency
– Baud rate is important in data transmission.
• Baud rate determines the bandwidth required to send signal
– Baud rate = bit rate / # bits per signal unit
– An analog signal carries 4 bits in each signal unit. If 1000 signal units are
sent per second, find the baud rate and the bit rate
• Baud rate = 1000 bauds per second (baud/s) Bit rate = 1000 x 4 = 4000 bps
– The bit rate of a signal is 3000. If each signal unit carries 6 bits, what is
the baud rate?
• Baud rate = 3000/6 =500 bauds/sec
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Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
 A cos(2f c t ) binary1
s (t )  
 0 binary 0
On/Off keying
• The strength of the carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 and 0.

• Frequency and phase remains the same.
• Highly susceptible to noise interference.
• Used up to 1200 bps on voice grade lines, and on optical fiber.
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9.2 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
Binary data
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
sequence
Data Waveform
UP-NRZ(L)
Tb
Carrier signal,
sin (2πft)
ASK signal waveform
Figure 9.1 ASK Signal Waveform

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ASK Bandwidth and PSD Waveform

Amplitude
Figure 9.2 ASK Signal

Frequency Spectrum
f
fc - fb fc fc + fb
BWmax = 2fb
PSD of ASK
Figure 9.3 Power

Spectral Density
(PSD) Waveform for
an ASK Signal
- fc fc
- fc – 1/Tb - fc + 1/Tb fc – 1/Tb fc + 1/Tb
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ASK Modulator
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
Binary ASK
signal
Balance BPF
Modulator
Binary digital data (UP-

NRZ) Band-limited ASK signal
Carrier signal
Figure 9.4 Block Diagram of ASK Modulator
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Coherent ASK Demodulator
Balance
Modulator & Decision Device
Integrator
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
Received binary ASK
signal Preset
threshold level ASK Demodulated
Output
Carrier signal
Figure 9.5 Block Diagram of Coherent ASK Demodulator
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Non-Coherent ASK Demodulator
Received binary ASK

signal
Envelope Detector
(Rectifier + LPF)
Decision Device
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
Preset
threshold level
Detected Output
Figure 9.6 Block Diagram of Non-coherent ASK

Demodulator
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9.3 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Binary data
1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
sequence
Data Waveform
UP-NRZ (L)
Tb
Carrier signal,
sin (2πfct)
BFSK signal
waveform
f2 f1 f2 f2 f1 f2 f1 f2 f2 f2
Figure 9.7 BFSK Signal Waveform

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BFSK Bandwidth and PSD Waveform
BBFSK   f1  f 2   2 f b
PSD of BFSK
f1 fc f2
f
BWmax (BFSK) = 4fb
Figure 9.8 PSD of a BFSK Signal

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BFSK Modulator
Balance
modulator M1
cos ω1t
Carrier Oscillator
1
cos ω1t
Binary data
sequence Bipolar NRZ
Encoder Adder
Carrier Oscillator
10110101 BFSK signal
2
cos ω2t
cos ω2t
Balance
modulator M2
Figure 9.9 BFSK Modulator
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Coherent BFSK Demodulator

Correlator 1
Tb
Balance
modulator M1  dt
0
+
Carrier Oscillator Decision Device Detected
1 Subtractor output
BFSK signal cos ω1t
-
Preset
Correlator 2 threshold level
Tb
Balance
modulator M2  dt
0
cos ω2t
Carrier Oscillator
2
cos ω2t
Figure 9.10 Coherent BFSK Demodulator
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Non-coherent BFSK Demodulator

Envelope Sampling switch
BPF (f1) Detector 1
ED1 (at t = tb)
Detected
Comparator
output
BFSK signal
Envelope Sampling switch

BPF (f2) Detector 2
ED2 (at t = tb)
Figure 9.11 Non-coherent BFSK Demodulator
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FSK Demodulator using PLL
Phase Amplifier Detected

FSK signal input Comparator dc output
dc error
voltage
Voltage
Controlled
Oscillator
PLL
Figure 9.12 FSK Demodulator using PLL
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9.4 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Binary data 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
Data Waveform
UP-NRZ (L)
Tb
Carrier signal,
sin (2πfct)
BFSK signal waveform
Phase shift 0° 180° 0° 0° 180° 0° 180° 0° 0° 0°
Figure 9.13 BPSK Signal Waveform

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PSD of a BPSK Signal

PSD of BPSK
f
-fc 0
fc
-fc - 2fb -fc - fb -fc + fb -fc + 2fb fc - 2fb fc - fb fc + fb fc + 2fb
Figure 9.14 PSD of a BPSK Signal

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BPSK Modulator
Bipolar NRZ Balance

10110101 Encoder modulator
BPSK signal
Binary data
sequence
Carrier Oscillator
Carrier signal
Figure 9.15 BPSK Modulator

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BPSK Demodulator
Correlator
Decision Device
Balance
modulator
BPSK signal Detected output
Preset
threshold level
Carrier Oscillator
Figure 9.16 Coherent BPSK Demodulator

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Table 9.1 Comparison of ASK, FSK and BPSK

S. No. Parameter ASK FSK BPSK
1. Variable characteristics of Amplitude Frequency Phase
analog carrier signal
2. Maximum transmission 2 fb 4 fb 2 fb
bandwidth in terms of bit rate
3. Probability of error High Low Low
3. Noise immunity Poor Good Better than
ASK and FSK
4. Bit rate capability Upto 100 Upto 1200 Higher bit
bps bps rate
5. System complexity Simple Moderate High
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Differential Binary Phase-Shift Keying (DBPSK)
DBPSK is an alternate form of BPSK where the binary data

information is contained in the difference between the
phases of two successive signaling elements rather than the
absolute phase.
Binary data
DBPSK Signal
sequence
An Encoder or Bipolar NRZ Balance
Logic circuit line encoder Modulator
Delay Carrier
Tb Oscillator
Figure 9.17 DBPSK Modulator

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DBPSK Demodulator
Correlator
An Encoder or Balance Decision

BPF (f1) Logic circuit modulator Device
DBPSK Detected
signal output
Preset
threshold level
Delay
Tb
Figure 9.18 DBPSK Demodulator

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Table 9.3 Comparison of BPSK and DBPSK

S. No. Parameter BPSK DBPSK
1. Variable Phase Phase
characteristics of
analog carrier signal
2. Maximum bandwidth 2 fb fb
3. Probability of error Low Higher than BPSK

4. Noise immunity Good Better than BPSK
5. Bit detection at Based on single-bit Based on two
receiver interval successive bit intervals
6. Synchronous carrier Required Not required
at demodulator
7. System complexity Moderate High
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9.5 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
Vc cos (2 f c t ) for 0 0 

V cos (2 f c t +  / 2) for 0 1 
vQPSK (t) =  c 
 
Vc cos (2 f c t -  / 2) for 1 0 

Vc cos (2 f c t +  ) for 1 1 
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QPSK Signal
Table 9.4 Symbols, Bits and S2 (0 1)
Phase Shift
Symbol Bits in Phase shift in

90°
symbol carrier signal S3 (1 1) S1 (0 0)
0
S1 00 0 degree or 0
radians
S2 01 + 90 degrees or
+π/2 radians
S4 (1 0)
S3 10 - 90 degrees or –
π/2 radians
S4 11 + 180 degrees or Figure 9.19
π radians Constellation Diagram
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QPSK Modulator
Balance Modulator 1
I(t)
cos 2πfct
v1 (t)
Carrier Signal
Binary input data fb /2 bps +
stream Bipolar NRZ encoder and 2- vQPSK (t)
bit Σ
serial-to-parallel converter
fb bps +
cos 2πfct
fb /2 bps
π/2
v2 (t)
sin 2πfct
Q(t)
Balance Modulator 2
Figure 9.21 QPSK Modulator

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Coherent QPSK Demodulator

Correlator 1
Balance
modulator, M1
QPSK
signal
Power Splitter Coherent MUX
Quadrature
Detected
Carrier 1
Output
Correlator 2
Balance
modulator,
M2
Coherent
Quadrature
Carrier 2
Carrier recovery circuit

Raised to 4
th Divide by 4 Coherent
power BPF (4fc) Quadrature
carriers
Figure 9.22 Coherent QPSK Demodulator

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Table 9.6 QPSK, OQPSK, π/4-QPSK

S. No. Parameter QPSK OQPSK π/4-QPSK
1. Maximum phase change ±180° ±90° ±135°
2. Amplitude variations at the large small Medium
instants of abrupt phase changes
3. Simultaneous change of inphase Yes No No
and Quadrature phase
4. Offset between inphase and No Yes, by Tb Yes, by Tb/2
Quadrature phase seconds seconds
5. Preferred method of Coherent Coherent Coherent or
demodulation non-
coherent
6. Minimum bandwidth fb fb fb
7. Symbol duration 2 Tb 2 Tb 2 Tb
8. Receiver design complexity Yes Yes No in case of
non-
coherent
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9.6 Carrier Synchronization for Coherent Detection
Phase-locked loop (PLL)

M-ary PSK signal
M power device
th
Multiplier LPF
BPF
VCO
Frequency Divider by
M
Phase-shift Network
* * * * *
M-reference output signals
Figure 9.27 Mth Power Loop Carrier Synchronization

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Costas-Loop Carrier Synchronization

In-phase path
Balance LPF
modulator, M1
Demodulated
Binary data
BPSK signal
Phase discriminator
VCO
90° phase shifter negative
feedback
Quadrature path
Balance LPF
modulator,
M2
Figure 9.28 Costas-Loop Carrier Synchronization

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Practice Questions on ASK, FSK and PSK

Q9.1 A digital communication uses 256-QAM. Ignoring noise,
determine its maximum data rate for a channel bandwidth of
40 MHz. [Ans.: 640 Mbps]
Q9.2 Determine the bandwidth and baud rate for an FSK signal
with two frequency offsets placed at 32 kHz and 24 kHz, and a
bit rate of 4 kbps. [Ans.: 16 kHz; 4000 baud]
Q9.3 Determine the minimum bandwidth and baud rate for a

BPSK modulator with a carrier frequency of 40 MHz and an
input bit rate of 500 kbps. [Ans.: 500 kHz; 5 x 105 baud]
Q9.4 For an 8-PSK modulator with an analog carrier signal of
70 MHz and an input bit rate of 10 Mbps, determine the
minimum double-sided Nyquist bandwidth, and the baud.
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Mary- Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
• allows amplitude & phase to vary

• general form of M-ary QAM signal given by
si(t) = 2 Emin 2 Emin

ai cos2f ct   bi sin 2f ct 
Ts Ts
0  t  Ts i = 1,2,…M
Emin = energy of signal with lowest amplitude

ai, bi = independent integers related to location of signal point
Ts = symbol period
• energy per symbol / distance between adj. symbols isn’t constant 
probability of correct symbol detection is not same for all symbols
• Pilot tones used to estimate channel effects 37
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Assuming rectangular pulses - basis functions given by

2
1(t) = cos2f c t  0  t  Ts
Ts
2
2(t) = sin 2f c t  0  t  Ts
Ts
QAM signal given by:
si(t) = Emin ai1(t) + Eminbi2(t) 0  t  Ts i = 1,2,…M
coordinates of ith message point = ai Emin and bi Emin
(ai, bi) = element in L2 matrix, where L = M

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e.g. let M = 16, then {ai,bi} given based on
Emin ai1(t) + Eminbi2(t)
 ( 3,3) ( 1,3) (1,3) (3,3) 

{ai,bi} =  ( 3,1) ( 1,1) (1,1) (3,1) 
 
( 3,1) ( 1,1) (1,1) (3,1) 
 
(  3,  3) (  1,  3) (1 ,  3) (  3,  3) 
s11(t) = -3 Emin 1(t)

3+ Emin2(t) 0  t  Ts
s21(t) = -3 Emin 1(t) + Emin 2(t) 0  t  Ts
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16 ary- Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
2(t)
QAM: modulated signal is 1011 1001 1110 1111
hybrid of phase & amplitude 1.5
modulation
1010 1000 1100 1101
• each message point 0.5
corresponds to a quadbit -1.5 -0.5 0 0.5 1.5 1(t)
0001 0000 0100 0110
-0.5
•Es is
not constant – requires
linear channel 0011 0010 0101 0111
-1.5
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In general, for any M = L2
ai1(t) + b  (t)
Emin Emini 2
{ai,bi} =  (  L  1, L  1) (  L  3, L  1) ... ( L  1, L  1) 
 (  L  1, L  3) (  L  3, L  3) ... ( L  1, L  3) 
 
 ... ... ... ... 
 
(  L  1, L  1) (  L  3, L  1) ... ( L  1, L  1)
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The average error probability, Pe for M-ary QAM is approximated by
 1   2 Emin  • assuming coherent detection

Pe  41  Q  • AWGN channel
 M   N0 
 • no fading, timing jitter
In terms of average energy, Eav
Pe   1   3Eav 

41  Q 
 M   ( M  1) N 0 
Power Spectrum & Bandwidth Efficiency of QAM = MPSK

Power Efficiency of QAM is better than MPSK
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M-ary QAM - Bandwidth Efficiency & Power Efficiency

• Assume Optimum RC filters in AWGN
• Does not consider fading, jitter, - overly optimistic
M 4 16 64 256 1024 4096

B = Rb/Bnull 1 2 3 4 5 6
Eb/N0 (BER = 10-6) 10.5 15 18.5 24 28 33.5
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9.8 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
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QAM/QASK Modulator
Modulator
d1(t) D/A converter
cos 2πfct
Carrier Signal
Binary input data fb /2 bps +
stream 2-bit vQAM (t)
fb bps serial-to-parallel converter Σ
cos 2πfct
+
fb /2 bps -π/2
sin 2πfct
Clock @ Ts
D/A converter
d2(t)
Modulator
Figure 9.32 QAM/QASK Modulator

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QAM/QASK Coherent Demodulator

Correlator 1
Parallel
Balance
To
modulator, M1
Serial
converter
A
QAM signal
90° phase shifter

Detected
Output
Correlator 2
Balance
modulator,
M2
Carrier recovery circuit

Raised to 4th Divide by 4
power BPF (4fc) A
Figure 9.33 QAM Coherent Demodulator

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9.9 Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)
 2E b 
 cos [2 f1 t +  (0)] for binary 1 
vMSK (t) =  Tb 
 
 2E b cos [2 f t +  (0)] for binary 0 
 T 2 
 b 
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9.10 Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK)
10110101 Bipolar Gaussian Frequency

Modulator GMSK
Figure 9.37
NRZ LPF
Encoder signal
GMSK
Modulator
using Frequency
Carrier
Oscillator
cos wct
Modulator
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GMSK Modulator using Phase Modulator

In-phase path
Gaussian Filter Balance
modulator, M1
NRZ data +
Carrier Oscillator Adder

cos wct
GMSK
- signal
converter Quadrature path
Parallel Gaussian Filter Balance
modulator, M1
To
Serial
Carrier Oscillator
sin wct
Figure 9.38 GMSK Modulator using Phase Modulator

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GMSK Demodulator
Carrier Oscillator
cos wct
In-phase
Balance Gaussian LPF Bit decision signal, I(t)
modulator, M1
GMSK
signal
Threshold level
Carrier
for binary 1
Oscillator sin
wct
Quadrature-
phase signal,
Gaussian LPF Bit decision Q(t)
Balance
modulator, M2
Threshold level
for binary 0
Figure 9.39 GMSK Demodulator

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9.11 Performance Analysis of Digital Modulation
0.5
10-1
Non coherent binary FSK
Coherent binary FSK
BER 10 -2
DPSK
Coherent binary PSK

10-3 Coherent QPSK
Coherent MSK
10-4
10-5
-5 -2.5 0 2.5 5.0 7.5 10 12.5
Eb/N (dB)
Figure 9.41 BER curves for BFSK, M-ary PSK, and MSK
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9.12 Choice of Digital Modulation Techniques

S. Parameter Linear Digital Non-linear Digital Modulation
No. Modulation
1. Amplitude of the Varies linearly with Remains constant regardless of
carrier signal the modulating digital the variation in the modulating
information data digital information data
2. Envelope of Do not have a constant Has a constant envelope
modulated signal envelope
3. Bandwidth or Very good Poor. Can be improved at the cost
spectral of power efficiency
efficiency
4. Type of RF Uses linear RF Uses non-linear class `C’ RF
amplifiers used amplifiers amplifiers
5. Power efficiency Poor power efficiency Good due to use of power-
due to use of linear RF efficient class `C’ RF amplifiers
amplifiers without degradation in spectral
occupancy of transmitter signal
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… Choice of Digital Modulation Techniques …

No. Modulation
6. Effect of using If power-efficient non- Uses power-efficient non-linear
non-linear RF linear RF amplifiers RF amplifiers, resulting in low
amplifiers are used, filtered side out-of-band radiation on the order
lobes are regenerated of -60 dB to -70 dB
which causes severe
adjacent channel
interference
7. Receiver design Complex Simple. Uses limiter-
discriminator detection
8. Noise immunity Not very high Provides high immunity against
random FM noise and signal
fluctuations due to Rayleigh
fading
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…. Choice of Digital Modulation Techniques …

No. Modulation
9. Error Poor due to its Acceptable level of error
performance sensitivity to timing performance
jitters
10. Examples Pulse-shaped QPSK, BFSK, MSK, GMSK
OQPSK, DQPSK, π/4-
QPSK
11. Applications Uses in high-capacity Uses in wireless cellular
wireless communications system such as
communications GSM
system such as CDMA
cellular, and satellite
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Table 9.15 Performance Comparison of Digital

Modulation Techniques
Digital Modulation Spectral Efficiency Required SNR

Technique
BPSK 1 bps/Hz 11.1 dB
QPSK 2 bps/Hz 14.0 dB
16-PSK 4 bps/Hz 26.0 dB
2-MSK 1 bps/Hz 10.6 dB
4-MSK 2 bps/Hz 13.8 dB
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Table 9.16 Spectral Efficiency of Digital Modulation

Systems
Digital Channel Data Rate, Kbps Spectral Application
Modulation Bandwidth, KHz Efficiency,
Technique bps/Hz
π/4-QPSK 30 48.6 1.62 USDC
π/4-QPSK 25 42.0 1.68 JDC

GMSK
200 270.8 1.35 GSM
(BTb =0.3)
GMSK 100 72.0 0.72 CT-2

GMSK
1728 1572.0 0.67 DECT
(BTb =0.5)
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Table 9.17 Applications of Digital Modulation

Techniques
S. No. Digital Modulation Technique Typical Application Areas
1. Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Paging Services, Cordless Telephony
2. Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK) Telemetry
3. Quaternary Phase Shift Keying Cellular Telephony, Satellite, Digital

(QPSK) Video Broadcasting
4. Octal Phase Shift Keying (8-PSK) Satellite Communications
5. 16- or 32-level Quadrature Microwave Digital Radio Links, Digital

Amplitude Modulation (16-QAM or Video Broadcasting
32-QAM)
6. 64-level Quadrature Amplitude Digital Video Broadcasting, Set Top
Modulation (64-QAM) Boxes, MMDS
7. Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) Cellular Telephony
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Chapter Outcomes
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…. Chapter Outcomes
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Reference
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About the Author

T. L. Singal graduated from National Institute of Technology (NIT)
Kurukshetra and post-graduated from Punjab Technical University
Jalandhar in Electronics & Communication Engineering. He began
his career in 1981 with Avionics Design Bureau, HAL, Hyderabad
and worked on Radar Communications System. Then he led R&D
group in a Telecom company and successfully developed Multi-
Access VHF Wireless Communication Systems. He visited Germany
on business trips during 1990-92.
He executed international assignment as Senior Network Consultant with Flextronics

International Inc. Texas, USA during 2000-02. He was associated with Nokia, AT&T,
Cingular Wireless and Nortel Networks, for optimization of 2G/3G Cellular Networks in
USA. Since 2003, he is in teaching profession with reputed engineering institutes in
India. He has several technical research papers published in the IEEE Proceedings,
Journals, and International/National Conferences. He has authored two text-books
`Wireless Communications’ and `Analog & Digital Communications’ with
internationally renowned publisher Tata McGraw-Hill Education.
Contact: tarsemsingal@gmail.com; +91 98145-42041
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@ McGraw-Hill Education

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

Chapter Learning Objectives

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

9.1 Types of Digital Modulation

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

Types of digital-to-analog modulation

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

Aspects to digital-to Analog conversion

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

• The strength of the carrier signal is varied to represent binary 1 and 0.

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

9.2 Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

ASK signal waveform

Figure 9.1 ASK Signal Waveform

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

ASK Bandwidth and PSD Waveform

Figure 9.2 ASK Signal

Figure 9.3 Power

- fc – 1/Tb - fc + 1/Tb fc – 1/Tb fc + 1/Tb

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

Binary digital data (UP-

Figure 9.4 Block Diagram of ASK Modulator

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

Coherent ASK Demodulator

Figure 9.5 Block Diagram of Coherent ASK Demodulator

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

Non-Coherent ASK Demodulator

Received binary ASK

Figure 9.6 Block Diagram of Non-coherent ASK

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

9.3 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)

Figure 9.7 BFSK Signal Waveform

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

BFSK Bandwidth and PSD Waveform

BWmax (BFSK) = 4fb

Figure 9.8 PSD of a BFSK Signal

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

Figure 9.9 BFSK Modulator

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

Coherent BFSK Demodulator

Figure 9.10 Coherent BFSK Demodulator

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

Non-coherent BFSK Demodulator

Envelope Sampling switch

Figure 9.11 Non-coherent BFSK Demodulator

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

FSK Demodulator using PLL

Phase Amplifier Detected

Figure 9.12 FSK Demodulator using PLL

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

9.4 Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

BFSK signal waveform

Phase shift 0° 180° 0° 0° 180° 0° 180° 0° 0° 0°

Figure 9.13 BPSK Signal Waveform

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

PSD of a BPSK Signal

Figure 9.14 PSD of a BPSK Signal

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012