TLSingal Analog and Digital Communications Chapter 06 2

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Analog
Transmission
and Reception
6
2
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Chapter 6 - Contents
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Chapter Learning Objectives
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6.1 AM Radio Transmitters
Tx Antenna
Information Low-level Linear RF Antenna

Modulating Power
signal AM Coupling
signal Amplifier
source Modulator network
RF carrier
oscillator
Figure 6.1 Functional Block Diagram for a Low

Level AM Transmitter 5
6
High-Level AM Transmitter
Tx Antenna
Modulating
signal
Linear Linear
Information High-level Antenna
voltage AF voltage AF
signal AM Coupling
Pre- amplifier
source Modulator network
amplifier
Narrow-
band RF
Amplifier
RF carrier
oscillator
Figure 6.2 Functional Block Diagram for a High

Level AM Transmitter
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Square Law Diode Modulation

t
i
n
g
s
i
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l Diode
Carrier
vo L
signal vi C vAM
+ -
VCC
Modulating Bandpass filter
signal
Figure 6.3 Square Law Diode Modulator

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AM Generation using Amplifiers
r
s
i
s
g
in
g
a
ln
a Output
l Modulation Class C Tank
s Modulating Class B Transformer
o AF amplifier RF amplifier Circuit
u signal
r Vm(t) AM
c signal
e
Applied at base
of transistor
RF Carrier Signal
Source
Figure 6.4 Functional Block Diagram for AM Generation

using Amplifiers
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6.2 AM Radio Receivers
AM radio receiver is a device which receives the desired AM

signal, amplifies it followed by demodulation to get back the
original modulating signal.
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o
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ir
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e
Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver
r
s
i
s
g
in
g
a
ln RF signal
a RX antenna
l
s
o
AM detector
u
r RF Stage stage Audio stage
c
e
Antenna AM Audio
Coupling RF amplifier RF amplifier RF amplifier
1 2 3 detector Amplifier
Network
MW
(535-1605 kHz)
Audio
Ganged tuning frequency
Figure 6.5 Block Diagram of TRF Receiver

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AM Superheterodyne Receiver
r
s
i
s
g
in
g
a Receiver
ln
a antenna
l
s
o
fs fIF IF fIF AF fm
u RF fs RF Mixer AM
r
c Amplifier Amplifier Detector Amplifier
e RF input
AM signal
Speaker
fLO>fs
AGC AGC AGC
in Local in out
Oscillator
Figure 6.6 Functional Block Diagram of AM

Superheterodyne Receiver
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Receiver Characteristics - Sensitivity
Sensitivity - The Received input level,

μV
minimum RF
signal level that 16 Lowest Figure 6.7
can be detected at
the input of the Sensitivity
receiver and Curve of AM
produce a usable Receiver
demodulated
information signal 10 Highest
Input signal
with a minimum frequency,
fs kHz
acceptable signal- 535 1605
to-noise ratio
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Receiver Characteristics - Selectivity

Attenuation, dB
Selectivity - Used
to measure the
ability of the 100
receiver to accept 80
Attenuation increases
away from tuned
a given band of 60
frequency
frequencies and
reject all other 40
unwanted signal 20
RX tuned at 950 kHz
frequencies 0
Figure 6.8
kHz
-40 -20 0 20 40
Selectivity
Deviation from resonant frequency
Curve of AM
Receiver
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Receiver Characteristics - Fidelity

RX Output, dB
Figure 6.9
Minimum attenuation
Fidelity - The Fideliity Curve

receiver’s ability 0
of AM
to reproduce all Receiver
the modulating
frequencies of the
original
information
fm
50 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz
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Receiver Characteristics – Dynamic Range
Dynamic Range - The range of input received signal levels

over which the receiver is useable. It is usually measured in dB
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Image Frequency

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Image Frequency Rejection Ratio

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RF Amplifiers
fs Input RF fs Output fs
fs
Tuned Amplifier Tuned To Mixer
RF input AM Circuit Circuit
signal from
antenna
Figure 6.10 A Simplified Block Diagram of RF Front-end
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Frequency Conversion and Mixers
RF signal from
RF amplifier Mixer sin(ωst)sin(ωLOt) cos(ωIFt
Band Pass
Filter )
sin(ωst) To IF amplifier
sin(ωLOt)
Buffer
Amplifier
sin(ωLOt)
Local
Oscillator
Figure 6.11 Principle of Operation of A Mixer
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…… Frequency Conversion and Mixers

Tuned to IF
fIF = fLO – fs
fs
Incoming
RF signal Frequency
Mixer C L IF signal
output
Local fLO
Oscillator +
_ Vcc
signal
Figure 6.12 Output Tuned Circuit of Frequency Mixer
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…… Frequency Conversion Process

Mixer output
components
Mixer 454 kHz
455 kHz
1000-kHz 456 kHz IF 454 kHz
AM signal
tuned amplifier 455 kHz
circuit 99 kHz 456 kHz
999 kHz
1000 kHz
1000 kHz
1001 kHz
1001 kHz
1455 kHz 455-kHz
tuned
Local 2454 kHz circuit
Oscillator 2455 kHz
1455 kHz 2456 kHz
Figure 6.13 An Example of Frequency Conversion Process

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Radio Frequency Tracking and Alignment
Rx
Antenna Diode
Detector
455 kHz
RF Mixer ± 3 kHz IF AF
amplifier amplifier amplifier
+
Speaker
_
Ganged LO Tracking is a process in which the local oscillator

tuning
frequency follows or tracks the desired signal
frequency to have the correct fixed difference as pre-
defined intermediate frequency
Figure 6.14 Arrangement for RF tracking and alignment

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Intermediate frequency Amplifier
IF Transformer IFT 2 2nd IF IFT 3 Amplified IF

1st IF
IF Input (IFT) 1 Amplifier Amplifier output
Signal
(From Mixer)
Figure 6.15 Block Diagram of 2-stage IF Amplifier
IF amplifier stage is
usually a fixed frequency
double-tuned or stagger-
tuned amplifier using
bipolar transistor, FET or
IC amplifier
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AM Detectors
vAM(t) vout(t)
Diode
+
Figure 6.16
vAM(t) C vout(t) The Peak Detector
_ _ 0 t
vAM(t) vout(t)
Diode
+ + Figure 6.17
vAM(t) C vout(t)
The Envelope
R
0 t
Detector
_ _
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Practical AM Detector with AGC

The simplest and the most effective way adopted to
AGC filter
balance the effect of RF signal variations is AGC
automatic gain control (AGC), or also called Ra out
automatic voltage control (AVC). Ca
D CC
IF Vs R
C Vo
in
Figure 6.18 Square-law Diode AM Detector with AGC
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….. More about AGC
Receiver No AGC Delayed AGC

output
voltage
Ideal AGC
Simple AGC
Incoming RF signal strength
Figure 6.19 AGC

Characteristics
Simple AGC is used in all the low-cost
commercial AM radio receivers.
Delayed AGC is mostly used in high quality
receivers like communication receivers.
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AM Detection using PLL

AM IF
input Phase Low
signal Phase
Shift 90° Pass Demodulated
Detector
Filter AM signal
output
Phase
locked
loop
(PLL) VCO
output
Figure 6.20 Simplified Functional Block Diagram
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Double Superheterodyne Receiver

Rx
antenna
2.2 MHz 200 kHz
Audio
RF 1 st
1 IF
st
2 nd
2 IF
nd Detector Squelch Audio Output
amplifier Mixer amplifier Mixer amplifier circuit amplifier
AGC AGC AGC

2nd Local
1st Local AGC AGC
Oscillator
Oscillator amplifier Detector
(2 MHz
crystal)
Dealyed AGC
output
Figure 6.21 Double Superheterodyne Receiver

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Net Receiver Gain

Rx
antenna
Loss Gain Loss Gain Loss Gain
Pre- RF IF Amplifier Demodulator AF

Mixer Amplifier
selector Amplifier
RF signal
level
Audio signal
Local output level
Oscillator
Figure 6.22 Net Receiver Gain Calculations in a Typical

Receiver
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Practice Questions on AM Transmission and Reception

Q6.1 For an AM commercial broadcast-band receiver with an input filter Q-
factor of 60, determine the bandwidth at the low and high ends of the
RF spectrum.
Q6.2 For an AM superheterodyne receiver with RF, local-oscillator and

IF frequencies of 900 kHz, 1355 kHz, and 455 kHz, respectively.
Determine
(a) Image frequency.
(b) Image-frequency rejection ratio.
Q6.3 A receiver has a sensitivity of 0.3 µV. The same receiver can
receive a signal level of 75 mV without overloading. What is its AGC range in
dB?
Q6.4 In a broadcast superheterodyne AM receiver having no RF amplifier,

the loaded Q of the tuning circuit at the input to the mixer is 100. If
the intermediate frequency is 455 kHz, determine the image
frequency and its rejection ratio at 1000 kHz.
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6.4 DSBSC Modulator and Demodulator

s
s
f
i
l
t
e
r
i1 +
D1
+ v01 v03 L
+ a
R C
vm(t)
Modulating - -
signal, vm(t) vc(t) v0
+ +
vm(t)
b
- v02 v04 L
-
R C
i2 -
D2
Figure 6.25 Balanced Modulator using Diodes
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p
a
DSBSC Balanced Modulator

s
s
f
i
l
t
e
r T1
+
+ C
vm(t) C
Modulating -
signal, vm(t) v0(t)
+ + - - +
vm(t)
- vc(t)
-
T2
Figure 6.26 Balanced Modulator using Transistors
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a
n
p
a
DSBSC Ring Modulator

s
s
f
i
l
t
e
r
D1
D3
+
+
vm(t)
- - DSBSC
Modulating
signal
signal, vm(t) +
vm(t)
- -
- D4
D2
Square wave carrier signal, vc(t)
Figure 6.27 Ring or Switching Modulator
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a
n
p
a
Costas Loop Coherent DSBSC Demodulator

s
s
f
i
l
t I-channel
e
r Product LPF
modulator,
Demodulate
M1
d
signal
DSBSC signal
VCO Phase
90° phase negative discriminator
shifter feedback
Q-channel
Product LPF
modulator,
M2
Figure 6.29 Costas-Loop Carrier Synchronization
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6.5 SSB GENERATION

When the carrier signal and one of the sidebands are
suppressed in conventional AM signal before transmission,
the resultant signal is known as SSB transmissions.
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a
n
p
a
SSB Transmitter with SSB Modulator (1)

s
s
f
i
l
t
Up
e
r converted
SSB signal SSB
Modulating
signal Baseband x(t) Balanced DSB-SC Sideband Balanced LA SSB
x(t) Amplifier modulator suppression
signal mixer output
filter
Buffer Crystal
amplifier oscillator 2
Carrier LA  Class B Linear

signal Amplifier to avoid any
waveform distortion
Crystal
oscillator 1
Figure 6.33 Filter Method
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a
n
p
a

s
s
f
i
l
t
e x(t) Balanced DSB-SC
r sin ωmt modulator v1 = sin (ωmt) sin (ωct + π/2)
M1
sin (ωct + π/2)
Carrier
Modulating 90o phase
signal Baseband shifter SSB
x(t) Amplifier Adder LA
v0 signal
sin ωmt Carrier
Oscillator
Class B Linear
sin ωct sin ωct Amplifier
AC π/2 Balanced DSB-SC

Phase modulator v2 = sin (ωct) sin (ωmt + π/2)
x(t) shifter M2
sin (ωmt + π/2)
Figure 6.34 Phase Shift Method

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38
a
n
p
a

s
s
f
i
l
t (ωot + 90o (ωot + 90o (ωct + ωot + ωmt),
e
ωmt Balanced Balanced
r ± ωmt) LPF1 - ωmt) (ωct + ωot - ωmt + 180o
modulator modulator
M1 M3
(ωot + 90o) (ωct + 90o)
90o phase 90o phase

Modulating shifter shifter
signal Class B SSB
Adder LA
x(t) outpu
ωmt ωot ωct t
AF carrier RF carrier
generator generator
Balanced Balanced
modulator LPF2 modulator (ω t + ω t - ω t),
ωmt (ωot ± ωmt) (ωot - ωmt) c o m
M2 M4
(ωct - ωot + ωmt)
Figure 6.35 Third Method

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Table 6.1 Comparison of AM, DSBSC and SSB

S. No. Parameter AM DSBSC SSBSC ISB VSB
1. Carrier suppression Not applicable Fully Fully Partially Not applicable
2. Sideband suppression Not applicable Not applicable One complete One sideband One sideband
sideband per channel partially
3. Number of modulating 1 1 1 2 1
inputs
4. Bandwidth 2fm 2fm fm fm1 + fm2 fm + fv

5. Tx Power efficiency Low Medium Maximum Medium Medium
6. Tx power requirement High Medium Very small Medium Medium
7. Complexity Simple Simple Complex Complex Simpler than

SSB
8. Application Radio Not used Point-to-point Telephony and TV video
broadcasting commercially mobile Telegraphy
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6.6 SSB RECEIVERS
f c , f c + fm,
Input IF Product 2fc + fm, fm
Low Pass AF output, fm
Transformer Demodulator
Filter
300 Hz – 3 kHz
SSB signal input

fc = 455 kHz
USB = (fc + fm) Crystal

455 kHz + Carrier
Oscillator
(300 Hz – 3 kHz)
Figure 6.40 SSB Product Demodulator
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6.8 FM MODULATORS AND TRANSMITTERS

Methods of FM Generation
Direct Methods Indirect Methods
Direct-FM Varactor Diode Modulator Armstrong

Indirect FM
FM Reactance Modulator Transmitter
Frequency-stabilized Reactance FM
Transmitter
Crossby Direct FM Transmitter
PLL Direct FM Modulator
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6.9 FM RECEIVERS AND DEMODULATORS
Rx
antenna
fs RF fs fIF IF fIF Amplitude FM

RF Mixer Amplifier Detector
Amplifier Limiter
RF input FM
signal
fLO>fs
AGC AGC AGC
in Local in out De-emphasis
Oscillator
fm
Audio Power
Amplifier To Speaker
Figure 6.53 FM Superheterodyne Receiver
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FM Demodulators – Types
Types of FM Demodulators
Tuned Circuit Slope Phase FM Zero Quadrature

Frequency Detector Difference Detection Crossing FM FM
Discriminator Detector using PLL Detector Demodulator
Single-tuned or Foster Seeley

simple slope Discriminator or
detector Center-tuned
Stagger-tuned or
Ratio Detector
balanced slope
detector
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Table 6.2 FM Demodulators – Features

S. Parameter Balanced Slope FM Ratio FM Detector Phase FM
No. Detector Discriminator
1. Linearity of output Poor Good Very Good
characteristics
2. Output characteristics Primary and secondary Primary and secondary Primary and
depends on frequency relation phase relation secondary phase
relation
3. Amplitude Limiting Not provided inherently Provided inherently Not provided
inherently
4. Tuning Procedure Critical as three tuned Not Critical Not Critical
circuits at different
frequencies
5. Applications Not used in practice Narrowband FM Commercial FM
receiver, TV receiver radio receiver,
sound section Satellite receiver
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Practice Questions on FM Transmission and Reception
Q6.5 Determine the value of the capacitive reactance

obtainable from a reactance FET FM modulator whose
transconductance is 12 mill Siemens (mS). Assume that the
gate to source resistance is one-ninth of reactance of
the drain to gate capacitive reactance. The operating
frequency is 5 MHz.
Q6.6 Determine the value of equivalent capacitor

obtainable from a RC-phase shift reactance FET
modulator whose gm is 10 millSiemens (mS). Assume
that the gate to source resistance is one-tenth of reactance
of the drain to gate capacitive reactance. The operating
frequency is 1 MHz.
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Chapter Outcomes
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…. Chapter Outcomes
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…. Chapter Outcomes
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Reference
References
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About the Author

T. L. Singal graduated from National Institute of Technology (NIT)
Kurukshetra and post-graduated from Punjab Technical University
Jalandhar in Electronics & Communication Engineering. He began
his career in 1981 with Avionics Design Bureau, HAL, Hyderabad
and worked on Radar Communications System. Then he led R&D
group in a Telecom company and successfully developed Multi-
Access VHF Wireless Communication Systems. He visited Germany
on business trips during 1990-92.
He executed international assignment as Senior Network Consultant with Flextronics

International Inc. Texas, USA during 2000-02. He was associated with Nokia, AT&T,
Cingular Wireless and Nortel Networks, for optimization of 2G/3G Cellular Networks in
USA. Since 2003, he is in teaching profession with reputed engineering institutes in
India. He has several technical research papers published in the IEEE Proceedings,
Journals, and International/National Conferences. He has authored two text-books
`Wireless Communications’ and `Analog & Digital Communications’ with
internationally renowned publisher Tata McGraw-Hill Education.
Contact: tarsemsingal@gmail.com; +91 98145-42041
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@ McGraw-Hill Education

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

Chapter Learning Objectives

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

6.1 AM Radio Transmitters

Information Low-level Linear RF Antenna

Figure 6.1 Functional Block Diagram for a Low

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

Figure 6.2 Functional Block Diagram for a High

Square Law Diode Modulation

Figure 6.3 Square Law Diode Modulator

Figure 6.4 Functional Block Diagram for AM Generation

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

6.2 AM Radio Receivers

AM radio receiver is a device which receives the desired AM

Figure 6.5 Block Diagram of TRF Receiver

Figure 6.6 Functional Block Diagram of AM

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

Receiver Characteristics - Sensitivity

Sensitivity - The Received input level,

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

Receiver Characteristics - Selectivity

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

Receiver Characteristics - Fidelity

Fidelity - The Fideliity Curve

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

Receiver Characteristics – Dynamic Range

Dynamic Range - The range of input received signal levels

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

Dynamic Range - The range of input received signal levels

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

Image Frequency Rejection Ratio

Dynamic Range - The range of input received signal levels

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

Figure 6.10 A Simplified Block Diagram of RF Front-end

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

Frequency Conversion and Mixers

Figure 6.11 Principle of Operation of A Mixer

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

…… Frequency Conversion and Mixers

Figure 6.12 Output Tuned Circuit of Frequency Mixer

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

…… Frequency Conversion Process

Figure 6.13 An Example of Frequency Conversion Process

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

Radio Frequency Tracking and Alignment

Ganged LO Tracking is a process in which the local oscillator

Figure 6.14 Arrangement for RF tracking and alignment

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

Intermediate frequency Amplifier

IF Transformer IFT 2 2nd IF IFT 3 Amplified IF

Figure 6.15 Block Diagram of 2-stage IF Amplifier

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

Practical AM Detector with AGC

Figure 6.18 Square-law Diode AM Detector with AGC

T L SINGAL : Analog and Digital Communications McGraw-Hill Education © 2012

….. More about AGC

Receiver No AGC Delayed AGC

Incoming RF signal strength

Figure 6.19 AGC