Journal of Sedimentary Environments

https://doi.org/10.1007/s43217-021-00072-5

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Provenance, palaeoweathering and tectonic setting of the Kuldhar

Member Shale (Callovian–Oxfordian), Jaisalmer Formation, western
Rajasthan
Shaikh Asjad1   · A. H. M. Ahmad1 · M. A. Quasim1 · Himanshu K. Sachan2

Received: 3 April 2021 / Revised: 25 July 2021 / Accepted: 26 July 2021

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

Abstract
The geochemistry of the Kuldhar Member Shale (Callovian-Oxfordian), Jaisalmer Formation, western Rajasthan has been
investigated to identify the source rock characteristics, palaeoweathering and tectonic setting of the source area. The Kuldhar
Member Shale has higher concentration of ­SiO2, CaO, ­Fe2O3, ­Al2O3, ­K2O and classified as Fe-shale. The positive correlation
of ­Al2O3 with other oxides apart from CaO suggests that these elements are primarily associated with micaceous/clay miner-
als. The Kuldhar Member Shale shows slightly light rare-earth element (LREE)-enriched and flat heavy rare-earth element
(HREE) patterns with negative Eu anomaly, and are similar to granitic rocks from Precambrian Aravalli Craton situated in
the southeast and some minor contribution from the Malani Igneous Suits (MIS) in the south of the basin. Provenance mod-
elling indicates that the Kuldhar Member Shale is best modelled with a mixture having 59.5% Aravalli Supergroup rocks,
25% Delhi Supergroup rocks (North Delhi Fold Belt), 14% Banded Gneissic Complex (BGC) and 1.5% Malani Igneous
Suits (MIS). The chemical index of alteration (CIA), index of compositional variability (ICV) and the A-CN-K diagram of
the Kuldhar Member Shale suggests that the source area experienced moderate to high degree of chemical weathering under
warm and humid climatic conditions. The shift of sediment source from distal in the beginning to local during later period
suggests sedimentation in a tectonically active basin.

Keywords  Geochemistry · Provenance · Palaeoweathering · Kuldhar Member · Jaisalmer Formation

1 Introduction been used by various researchers to interpret the composi-

The composition of silicic rocks is dependent mainly on
their source, degree of weathering, mode of transportation,
diagenetic processes involved during and after the deposi-
tion and depositional environment. The geochemical stud-
ies of the siliciclastic sedimentary rocks specially shales
have been used since long to interpret the composition and
characteristics of provenance, weathering pattern, tectonic
setting and the processes which were involved during the
formation of the siliciclastics. The geochemical studies have
Communicated by M. V. Alves Martins.
* Shaikh Asjad
shaikhasjad94@gmail.com
1
Department of Geology, Aligarh Muslim University,
Aligarh, U.P 202002, India
2
Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology, Dehradun,
Uttarakhand 248001, India
tion and characteristics of source rocks (Armstrong-Altrin
et al., 2012; Ghaznavi et al., 2018; Khan et al., 2020; Singh
et al., 2000), weathering intensity (Fedo et al., 1995; Quasim
et al., 2017; Zhong et al., 2013), tectonic setup (Absar &
Sreenivas, 2015; Bhatia, 1983; Kanhaiya et al., 2018; Khan
et al., 2016) and the processes involved during and after the
sedimentation, i.e. the processes which were active during
the deposition and diagenesis of the siliciclastic sedimentary
rocks.
The processes of sedimentation, diagenesis and compo-
sition of sediments which were deposited in the basin are
extremely influenced by the regional as well as the local
tectonic setting of the area. For this reason, it is often via-
ble to find a different geochemical signature for different
tectonic setting within a geological environment (Bhatia,
1983; Paikaray et  al., 2008a, 2008b; Rollinson, 1993).
There are several factors that influence the chemical record
of a siliciclastic rock including chemical weathering, dis-
tance of transportation and the post depositional reactions

13
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(McLennan, 1989; Nesbitt et  al., 1996; Paikaray et  al.,
2008a, 2008b). Rare-Earth Elements (REEs) and some tran-
sition trace elements are transported to the site of deposition
without much fractionation, hence conserving the signature
of their provenance (Floyd et al., 1990). These REEs, also
known as immobile elements are widely applied in prov-
enance studies and also in deducing the relative contribu-
tions of felsic and mafic sources in providing the material for
the formation of siliciclastic rocks (Absar et al., 2009; Bhat
& Ghosh, 2001; Bhatia, 1983; Dickinson & Suczek, 1979;
Singh et al., 2000).
Shale is the most abundant type of sediment in sedimen-
tary basins throughout geological history, and it is the most
suited rock for acquiring source area characteristics and for
interpreting palaeoweathering and palaeoredox environment
conditions, owing to its abundance and good homogeneity
behaviour (Pettijohn, 1975). Shales considered to represent
the average crustal composition of the provenance much bet-
ter than any other detrital sedimentary rocks (McCulloch &
Wasserburg, 1978).
Jurassic history of the marine environmental changes has
been preserved significantly by the sedimentary succession
of the Jaisalmer basin. Due to greatly diverse features of
Jurassic successions in the form of excellently preserved
marine fossils, dinosaur footprints, hardgrounds, condensed
sequences, soft sediment deformation structures, shell beds
and well-developed sedimentary sequences, this basin
attracts geoscientists of various disciplines (Pandey et al., ;
Pandey & Pooniya, 2015). There has been a lot of research
work done in the Jaisalmer basin as a whole (Ahmad et al.,
2017a, 2017b, 2020b, 2021; Pandey & Pooniya, 2015; Pan-
dey et al., 2010), but the proper geochemical analysis has
not been done on the Callovian–Oxfordian Kuldhar Member
rocks particularly. These rocks can be found around 16 km
southwest of Jaisalmer, near the ruins of Kuldhar village.
Thus, the present work is mainly focused on examining the
geochemistry of shales of the Callovian–Oxfordian Kuldhar
Member and to constrain their source rocks, palaeoweather-
ing and tectonic settings of the source area using major and
rare-earth element geochemistry.
2 Geological setting
The Jaisalmer basin was formed due to breakup of Gond-
wana (Pareek, 1981). It is a pericratonic shelf in nature and
is positioned on the north-western slope of the Indian Cra-
ton. Jaisalmer basin represented the southern margin of the
Tethyan Sea during the Jurassic time and located 23° south
of the equator. The basin is of important consideration owing
to its hydrocarbon potential and availability of quality build-
ing stones to go with highly fossiliferous sedimentary rocks.
The Jaisalmer basin is divided into four geo-structural units,
13
S. Asjad et al.
according to an ONGC study: the elevated Jaisalmer- Mari
arch, the synclinal Shahgarh sub-basin, the Kishangarh sub-
basin, and the Miajlar sub-basin. The basin’s Mesozoic rocks
are primarily covered by desert, with scattered outcrops. The
basin is classified into Lathi, Jaisalmer, Baisakhi, and Bha-
dasar formations, which are subsequently subdivided into
several members based on litho-stratigraphy (Fig. 1). The
Mesozoic sedimentation starts with Lathi Formation which
consists of fluvial, lacustrine, deltaic and marginal-marine
sediments (Srivastava, 1966; Lukose, 1972; Pandey et al.,
2006). The Jaisalmer, Baisakhi and Bhadasar Formations
are dominated by marine shallow-water deposits.
Jaisalmer Formation has been further classified litho-
stratigraphically into Hamira, Joyan, Fort, Badabag, Kuldhar
and Jajiya members in ascending order (Table 1) (Kachhara
& Jodhawat, 1981; Narayanan et al., 1961). Except for the
Phanerozoic outcrops covering the Precambrian basement
in east and southern parts, the whole basin is covered by the
sands of the Thar Desert. According to Pareek (1984), the
thickness of Jaisalmer Formation is around 300 m, while
the sub-surface thickness is observed as more than 600 m
by drilling (Das Gupta, 1975).
The poorly cemented nature of the studied rocks of Kuld-
har Member lacks prominent outcrops. Kuldhar river section
situated south-west of the ruined Kuldhar village formed the
type locality of Kuldhar Member and the member is best
studied in the dry beds of the Kuldhar River (Narayanan
et al., 1961). Rocks of Kuldhar Member consist of gypsifer-
ous silty marl, ferruginous silty and oolitic limestones and
oolitic shales. Gypsum is secondary in nature and it cannot
be used in the interpretation of depositional environment.
Kuldhar Member is one of the most fossiliferous members
of the formation and consists of Callovian ammonites, nau-
tiloids, belemnite guards, terebratulid and rhynchonellid bra-
chiopods, echinoids, bivalves, corals and crinoids (Pandey
et al., 2010). Trace fossils and microfossils which are inclu-
sive of foraminifers and ostracods have also been reported
(Jain, 2008; Pandey et al., 2010; Subbotina et al., 1960).
The Kuldhar Member of the Jaisalmer Formation has been
correlated with the Chari Formation of the neighbouring
Jurassic rocks of the Kachchh basin and assigned a Callovian
age based on ammonites (Pandey et al. 2009).
3 Sampling and analytical methods
The studied Kuldhar Member is best exposed at around
16 km to the south-west of Jaisalmer city. Two litho-sec-
tions were measured at Kuldhar River and Kuldhar Nala
section. Fifteen representative shale samples were col-
lected from the Kuldhar River outcrop (N 26° 51′ 55′′ and
E 70° 49′ 07′′) which is exposed near the erstwhile Kuld-
har village (Fig. 2a, b). Representative rock samples were
Provenance, palaeoweathering and tectonic setting of the Kuldhar Member Shale (Callovian–…
Fig. 1  Geological map of the Jaisalmer basin (after Das Gupta, 1975)
powdered and processed for their analysis which includes
geochemistry of major oxides as well as that of Rare-Earth
Elements (REEs). Major oxides were analysed by X-ray fluo-
rescence (XRF) using a spectrometer. On the other hand,
the REEs were measured using Inductively Coupled Plasma
Mass-Spectrometer (ICP-MS) by Perkin Elmer SCIEX
ELAN RDC-e at Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology,
Dehradun. About 0.1 g of sample powder was digested in a
3:1 solution of H
­ NO3 + HF which was followed by addition
of 2 ml of H
­ ClO4 in Teflon crucibles. Samples were digested
using open system digestion technique in which they were
heated on a hot plate until we get a precipitate of favourable
consistency. After that, 20 ml of 10% H ­ NO3 was added to
the precipitate to get a clear solution and further heated to
boiling point. The obtained solution was then cooled and
made up to 100 ml by addition of milli-Q water. Loss on
ignition (LOI) was calculated by heating a separate frac-
tion (0.5 g rock powder) of each representative sample at
1000 °C for two hours to remove carbonates (Heiri et al.,
2001). A variety of International standards (SDO1, SGR1,
13
 S. Asjad et al.

Table 1  Litho-stratigraphic scheme of the Jurassic strata of the Jaisalmer Basin (after Alberti et al., 2017; Pandey & Pooniya, 2015)
Formation Member Age Lithology

Bhadasar Mokal ? Lower Cretaceous Brown, well-cemented, argillaceous sandstone with wood fossils
Kolar Dungar Tithonian Bands of ferruginous coarse-grained sandstones alternating with loosely
cemented red sandstones
Baisakhi Lanela Ludharwa Tithonian–Oxfordian Intercalations of fine-grained, light brown argillaceous sandstone and grey
shales with ammonites. Gypseous clay bands with poorly developed
current-beddings at the top of this member
Rupsi Brown, hard, argillaceous sandstone with intra-formational conglomerate
Basal Grey to black shale, very often ferruginous with thin, purple, violet, yellow
sandy siltstone with streaks of gypseous clay, carbonaceous bands and
rare plant remains
Jaisalmer Jajiya Oxfordian Yellow oolitic, bioturbated, cross-stratified limestone and sandstone
Kuldhar Callovian Fossiliferous oolitic silty marl, shell beds, shales and limestones
Bada Bag Mid-Upper Bathonian Marly mudstone, siltstone, sandstone, well-cemented shelly and arenaceous
limestones with hardgrounds
Fort Lower Bathonian-Bajocian Poorly to moderately cemented sandstones, fossiliferous bioturbated to
cross-stratified limestones
Joyan Trough cross-stratified limestones with erosional surfaces and reworked
large coral heads, bioturbated limestones and fine-grain sandstone
Hamira Cross-stratified calcareous sandstone
Lathi Thaiat Bajocian-Lower Jurassic White to grey, poorly cemented, fine-grained, often calcareous sandstone,
multi-coloured sandy siltstone and a red siltstone bed
Odania Pebbly unit followed by a white to maroon, sandy siltstone, coarse dark fer-
ruginous sandstone, arkosic, coarse, poorly sorted sandstone

GXR2, GXR6, SO1, GSS11, GSS4 and GSG9) were used to
calibrate the analytical runs. Analytical precision for major
elements is well within ± 2 to 3%, while the accuracy of rare-
earth elements varies from 2 to 12% with precision being
between 1 and 8%.
4 Results
4.1 Major element geochemistry
SiO2 is the most abundant major oxide of the Kuldhar Mem-
ber Shale of Jaisalmer Formation as revealed by XRF anal-
ysis (avg. 22.70%), while A ­ l2O3 has an average of 9.92%
(Table 2). ­K2O content (avg. 1.38%) is higher than that of
­Na2O (avg. 0.72%) which is an indication of relative abun-
dance of potassium-bearing minerals to sodium-bearing
minerals. The concentrations of CaO and MgO have an aver-
age of 21.14 and 1.57%, respectively (Table 2).
The content of ­Al2O3 in siliciclastic sedimentary rocks
is good reflector of detrital flux and its distribution is cor-
responding to that of ­SiO2. Terrigenous-derived oxides
(e.g. ­SiO2 and T­ iO2) show a strong positive correlation
with ­Al2O3, having correlation coefficient r = 0.86 and 0.73,
respectively (Fig. 3), which means that S ­ iO2 is mainly pre-
sent in the Kuldhar Member Shale as a part of clay minerals
and other silicates, hence reducing the impact of biogenic
silica. Lack of biogenic silica can also be justified with the
fact that there is complete absence of siliceous fossils tests
in Kuldhar Member rocks. ­K2O and ­TiO2 show positive cor-
relation with A­ l2O3 (r = 0.83 and 0.73, respectively) which
indicates that these elements are associated with detrital
phases (Armstrong-Altrin et al., 2018). ­Al2O3 and ­K2O con-
tents can also be related to the presence of mica and clay
minerals and aluminium distribution which is controlled by
the proportion of clay minerals (McLennan et al., 1983).
Presence of higher content of CaO has a great dilution effect
on other oxides present in the sample. The strong negative
correlation between ­Al2O3 and CaO (Fig. 3) is an indica-
tion that almost all ‘Ca’ is of marine origin and is not influ-
enced by any detrital source. The strong positive correlation
between CaO and LOI (r = 0.99) is indicative of CaO being
largely derived from carbonate sources and LOI in calcite
not in plagioclase. The N ­ a2O content is mainly related to
clay minerals and it has a very strong correlation with K ­ 2O
(r = 0.85). Presence of higher amount of ­Fe2O3 could well
be related to the presence of iron oxide, heavy minerals and
iron cements. Some of them may also been leached out from
the iron-encrusted hardgrounds of Badabag Member which
lie just below the Kuldhar Member. The positive correla-
tion between ­Al2O3 and ­Fe2O3 is an indication that iron is
somewhat controlled by clay minerals. MgO has a significant
negative correlation with CaO (r =  − 0.70) in Kuldhar Mem-
ber Shale which indicates that the concentration of CaO is

13
Provenance, palaeoweathering and tectonic setting of the Kuldhar Member Shale (Callovian–…

Fig. 2  Litho-stratigraphic columns showing various lithologies of the Kuldhar Member succession of the Jaisalmer Formation along with field
photographs. a Kuldhar river section, b Kuldhar Nala section

13
 S. Asjad et al.

Table 2  Major (in wt%) element Sample Id KSH1 KSH1A KSH2A KSH4 KSH4A KSH5A KSH9A Average
concentrations with major
element ratios, CIA and ICV SiO2 25.93 21.09 23.42 23.56 20.5 23.73 20.7 22.7
parameters for the Kuldhar
Al2O3 11.7 10.1 10.91 10.45 8.36 10.74 7.17 9.92
Member Shale of Jaisalmer
Formation CaO 15.85 19.74 16.13 15.32 28.39 17.58 35 21.14
MgO 1.85 1.6 2.14 1.44 1.37 1.45 1.13 1.57
Fe2O3 19.52 22.9 22.62 24.9 12.86 21.94 6.34 18.73
TiO2 0.69 0.53 0.59 0.6 0.54 0.6 0.55 0.59
P2O5 0.16 0.15 0.77 0.14 0.06 0.14 0.04 0.21
Na2O 0.88 0.6 0.69 0.87 0.77 0.92 0.33 0.72
K2O 1.53 1.32 1.34 1.44 1.32 1.43 1.24 1.38
MnO 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
L.O.I 21.89 21.96 21.39 21.28 25.83 21.47 27.5 23.05
Sum 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
CIA 71.94 74.75 74.47 70.3 67.86 70.14 74.65 72.02
PIA 77.55 81.41 80.54 75.7 73.26 75.24 84.25 78.28
CIW 80.09 83.62 82.68 78.56 76.77 78.03 86.82 80.94
ICV 0.32 0.32 0.33 0.34 0.26 0.32 0.2 0.3
K2O/Na2O 1.73 2.2 1.94 1.67 1.72 1.56 3.76 2.08
SiO2/Al2O3 2.22 2.09 2.15 2.25 2.45 2.21 2.89 2.32
Al2O3/TiO2 16.97 18.97 18.58 17.3 15.44 17.96 13.15 16.91

generally related to the presence of calcite cements or due
to the skeletal fragments. A plot of log ­SiO2/Al2O3 vs log
­Fe2O3/K2O (Herron, 1988) is used to characterise the nature
of the analysed rock samples (Fig. 4) and the Kuldhar Mem-
ber Shale samples are classified as Fe-shale.
The average ­K2O/Al2O3 ratio for Kuldhar Member Shale
ranges between 0.12 and 0.17% with an average of 0.14%
(Table 2). This ratio can be used for interpreting the origi-
nal characteristics of the older sediments. According to Cox
et al. (1995), the clay minerals and feldspars have different
ratios (0.0–0.3 for clays and 0.3–0.9 for feldspars). Studied
shale samples are closer to the lower limit of clay minerals
(avg. 0.14), meaning, thereby that they are dominated by ver-
miculites, kaolinites and montmorillonites (Cox et al., 1995).
The ratio of ­SiO2/Al2O3 with an average of 2.32 (Table 2)
is lower than that of Upper Continental Crust (UCC) ratio
which is 4.34 while the ratio of K ­ 2O/Na2O which has an
average of 2.08 is higher when compared with UCC (0.87;
Taylor & McLennan, 1985). ­Al2O3/TiO2 ratio of these
shales ranges from 13.15 to 18.97 with an average of 16.91
is quite similar to that of PAAS (19.0; Taylor & McLennan,
1985). Phyllosilicates are the primary host of the titanium
along with kaolinite because Ti can substitute Al. Due to
its relative immobility as compared to other elements dur-
ing various sedimentary processes, it may strongly reflect
the characteristics of source rocks (McLennan et al., 1993).
The positive correlation between A ­ l2O3 and T
­ iO2 indicated
the effect of chemical weathering in the source area which
caused the concentration of these residual elements. These
Callovian–Oxfordian shales show lower ­TiO2 values (avg.
0.59) than the PAAS (Taylor & McLennan, 1985). These
shales do have higher P
­ 2O5 content than PAAS with average
being 0.21 as compared to 0.16 of PAAS.
4.2 Rare‑earth element geochemistry
Fifteen shale samples from the Kuldhar Member were ana-
lysed for rare-earth elements. The results of REE analyses are
provided (Table 3) and are displayed as chondrite-normalized
patterns (Fig. 5). The ∑REE content of the Kuldhar Member
Shale shows a moderate to strong positive correlation with ter-
rigenous elements, such as ­Al2O3, ­K2O, ­Na2O and T­ iO2, which
are clay-forming elements, and on the other hand, it shows both
positive and negative correlation with carbonate forming min-
erals (moderately negative with CaO and MnO and strongly
positive with MgO) (Table 4). It is an indication that the source
for the REEs could well have been a mixture of terrigenous and
carbonates. Mafic rocks have low ∑LREE/∑HREE values
and a negligible Eu anomaly, whereas felsic rocks have higher
LREE/HREE ratios and a negative Eu anomaly (Cullers &
Graf, 1983). This is why, according to Taylor and McLennan
(1985), REE patterns in source rocks may be preserved in clas-
tic rocks. The Kuldhar Member Shale’s (∑LREE/∑HREE)N
ratio ranges from 2.76 to 9.37, with an average of 4.46. The
fact that ∑LREE/∑HREE is higher indicates that the source’s
composition was acidic. The chondrite-normalized REE pat-
terns of the shale samples indicate fractionated LREE patterns
with (La/Sm)N values from 1.46 to 4.26 with average being
3.25, while the HREE show relatively flat pattern with ratio

13
Provenance, palaeoweathering and tectonic setting of the Kuldhar Member Shale (Callovian–…

Fig. 3  Bivariate plots of A
­ l2O3 versus other major oxides for Kuldhar Member Shale

of (Gd/Yb)N range from 1.46 to 4.14 with an average of 2.08 5 Discussion

(Table 3, Fig. 5).
The Eu values of the studied samples show negative anom-
aly with value in range of 0.56–0.77 and an average of 0.67.
The Ce content of Kuldhar Member Shale indicates a positive
anomaly, with a range of 1.05–1.42 and an average of 1.18.
Although there is significant difference in REE concentration
of different samples, the distribution pattern is almost similar
in all the samples. The REEs of the Kuldhar Member Shale
were derived from both terrigenous and carbonate sources,
according to the chondrite-normalized distribution pattern of
the REEs.
5.1 Palaeoweathering conditions
The weathering conditions of the source area can be
assessed in terms of the molecular percentage of the
major oxide using the Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA),
Chemical Index of Weathering (CIW), and Plagioclase
Index of Alteration (PIA), according to Armstrong-Altrin
et al. (2014). Index of Compositional Variability (ICV)
given by Cox et al. (1995) is also deployed to interpret the

13

Fig. 4  Chemical classification of the Kuldhar Member Shale (after
Herron, 1988)
degree of chemical weathering. Source rock weathering
is considered as an important process that is influential in
determining the composition of clastic sedimentary rocks.
Magnitude of chemical weathering is dependent on many
factors including source rock composition, climate, and
time of weathering along with extent of tectonic uplift of
source area (Wronkiewicz & Condie, 1987). In weather-
ing profile larger cations, Ba, Al and K remain fixed as
compared to smaller cations like Na, Ca, and Sr. These
chemical signatures are then transmitted to the sedimen-
tary record and are very useful in determining the source
area weathering condition (Fedo et al., 1995).
The weathering intensity can be interpreted from the CIA
(Nesbitt & Young, 1984), which is calculated by A ­ l 2O 3/
[Al2O3 + CaO* + ­Na2O + ­K2O]*100 (molar contents, with
CaO* being CaO content in the silicate fraction). Correc-
tion in CaO value is made using the method of McLennan
et al. (1993). The investigated shale samples have CIA val-
ues ranging from 67.86 to 74.75, with an average of 72.02
(Table 2), which is greater than UCC (56.90) but lower than
PAAS (75.30). It is assumed that the investigated shale sam-
ples have undergone moderate weathering based on these
CIA values.
CIW (Harnois, 1988) eliminates the effect of K-meta-
somatism and is determined using formula A ­ l 2O 3/
[Al2O3 + CaO* + ­Na2O]*100 where the elements are rep-
resented in mole proportion and CaO* reflect Ca in sili-
cate fraction. The calculated value of CIW for the Kuldhar
Member Shale ranges from 76.77 to 86.82 with an average
of 80.94 (Table 2). These CIW values indicate moderate
weathering in the source area’s warm and humid climate.
13
S. Asjad et al.
Because CIW is equally dependant on the composition of
source rock as well as the intensity of weathering, Fedo
et al. (1995) claim that when many sources are available,
the efficiency of CIW decreases. The lack of effectiveness
when many sources are present is related to the fact that
each rock reacts differently to weathering. The ternary dia-
gram of A-CN-K (A = ­Al2O3; CN = CaO + ­Na2O; K = ­K2O)
suggested by Nesbitt and Young (1984) can also be used
to infer palaeo-weathering conditions, K-metasomatism,
and possible source rocks. Weathering of the source rock
follows the ideal weathering trend line under ideal condi-
tions, implying that in the absence of metasomatism, the
weathering trend will follow the A-CN line (Fedo et al.,
1995). All of the shale samples are distributed above the
plagioclase–K-feldspar join and plot along the A-CN side
of the diagram on an A-CN-K ternary plot (Fig. 6), indicat-
ing low K-metasomatism during burial and a moderately
high chemical weathering degree. When trend lines extend
backwards, they will most likely intersect near their parent
composition, which is granodiorite and granite in this study.
Plagioclase Index of Alteration (PIA) is used to quanti-
tatively estimate the plagioclase weathering. The PIA value
of Kuldhar Member Shale ranges from 73.26 to 84.25 with
average being 78.28 (Table 2), which is a clear indication of
moderate degree of weathering of plagioclase in the source
area.
Cox et al. (1995) proposed the Index of Compositional
Variability (ICV), which has been effectively used to esti-
mate the compositional maturity of sediments supplied
to the basin from the source. The rock-forming minerals,
such as pyroxenes, amphiboles, and feldspars, have high
ICV values of > 1, whereas minerals that are altered, such
as illite, kaolinite, and muscovite, have values < 1. Because
the weathering susceptibility of minerals is related to their
ICV, the ICV can be used to determine the compositional
maturity of mud rocks (Cox et al., 1995). Compositionally,
immature rocks are frequently found in tectonically active
settings and are first-cycle deposits (van de Kamp & Leake,
1985), whereas compositionally mature rocks are found in
tectonically quiescent or cratonic environments (Weaver,
1989), where sediment recycling is active. The ICV values
of the samples under study range from 0.20 to 0.34, with an
average of 0.30. (Table 2). The dominance of clay minerals
over non-clay silicates and deposition of the shales in a calm
and quiet tectonic setting with active sediment recycling in
progress can be linked to the low value of ICV. The shale
samples reflect moderate to intense weathering of mature
sediments in the source area on the CIA v ICV plot (Wang
et al., 2006) (Fig. 7).
 Table 3  REE (in ppm) concentrations in the Kuldhar Member Shale of Jaisalmer Formation
Sample Id KSH-1 KSH-2 KSH-3 KSH-4 KSH-1A KSH-2A KSH-3A KSH-4A KSH-5A KSH-6A KSH-7A KSH-8A KSH-9A KSH-10A KSH-11A Average

La 29.05 33.15 29.75 29.56 30.95 56.18 29.46 33.26 20.15 4.13 39.33 37.32 5.18 38.01 36.39 30.12
Ce 78.06 77.72 70.93 78.06 76.53 186.18 76.77 69.26 61.98 12.66 89.08 78.29 12.04 83.92 80.05 75.44
Pr 8.13 7.95 7.12 7.82 7.99 22.82 7.79 7.56 5.54 1.12 9.97 9.07 1.41 9.45 9.22 8.2
Nd 31.59 29.36 26.28 28.69 29.85 97.44 29.42 27.35 22.06 4.45 37.16 32.89 5.1 34.73 33.54 31.33
Sm 7.18 6.02 5.43 6.42 6.4 23.89 6.28 5.39 4.55 0.71 6.99 6.08 0.76 6.45 6.38 6.59
Eu 1.62 1.28 1.18 1.61 1.42 5.27 1.38 1.17 1.02 0.15 1.48 1.24 0.14 1.31 1.27 1.44
Gd 6.82 5.67 5.17 6.21 6.32 21.44 5.99 5.22 4.61 0.85 6.38 5.41 0.64 5.8 5.58 6.14
Tb 1.1 0.91 0.84 1.2 1.02 3.29 0.92 0.82 0.69 0.09 0.9 0.78 0.08 0.83 0.8 0.95
Dy 5.94 5.13 4.67 5.56 5.77 16.64 5.13 4.57 3.84 0.38 4.72 4.11 0.38 4.32 4.23 5.03
Ho 1.2 1.06 0.95 1.33 1.18 3.08 1.01 0.93 0.76 0.08 0.93 0.81 0.07 0.85 0.82 1
Er 3.16 2.92 2.59 3.2 3.26 7.52 2.78 2.57 2.04 0.21 2.52 2.23 0.19 2.33 2.24 2.65
Tm 0.5 0.48 0.42 0.76 0.52 1.11 0.43 0.43 0.31 0.04 0.39 0.36 0.02 0.35 0.34 0.43
Yb 3.2 3.26 2.85 3.37 3.46 6.73 2.8 2.88 1.94 0.18 2.46 2.35 0.13 2.35 2.26 2.68
Provenance, palaeoweathering and tectonic setting of the Kuldhar Member Shale (Callovian–…

Lu 0.47 0.48 0.43 0.74 0.51 0.96 0.4 0.43 0.27 0.04 0.38 0.36 0.02 0.35 0.34 0.41
∑REE 178.01 175.39 158.62 174.52 175.18 452.55 170.57 161.81 129.75 25.02 202.67 181.3 26.13 191.04 183.47 172.4
(LREE/HREE) N 3.34 3.56 3.59 2.76 3.23 3.51 3.71 3.77 3.78 6.49 4.92 4.9 9.37 5.02 5 4.46
Eu/Eu* 0.7 0.67 0.68 0.78 0.68 0.71 0.68 0.67 0.68 0.57 0.67 0.66 0.61 0.65 0.65 0.67
(Gd/Yb)N 1.73 1.41 1.47 1.49 1.48 2.58 1.73 1.47 1.92 3.91 2.1 1.86 4.12 2 2 2.08
(La/Yb)N 6.17 6.91 7.1 5.96 6.08 5.67 7.15 7.85 7.04 15.92 10.88 10.77 28.16 10.99 10.93 9.84
(La/Sm)N 2.53 3.44 3.42 2.88 3.02 1.47 2.93 3.85 2.76 3.63 3.51 3.83 4.26 3.68 3.56 3.25

13

Fig. 5  Chondrite normalized REE pattern of Kuldhar Member Shale
compared with PAAS
5.2 Provenance characteristics
The elemental concentration of various elements got affected
by surface processes, such as transportation of detritus from
provenance to the site of deposition, weathering, sorting,
diagenesis and metamorphism. If we take an example of
alkali and alkaline earth metals, they may be transported
in dissolved form and their concentration in sedimentary
rocks may not be the same as their source terrain. But some
elements like A ­ l2O3, Ti and REEs are transported almost
all the time in solid debris form and are a very dependable
indicator of source area characteristics (Raza et al., 2010;
Taylor & McLennan, 1985). Regardless of the fact that the
Callovian–Oxfordian Kuldhar Member shale is un-metamor-
phosed and mostly unaltered, therefore, source of informa-
tion regarding their provenance characteristics is heavily
dependent upon immobile trace elements mainly REEs.
Al2O3/TiO2 plot (Ekosse, 2001) is used to infer the prov-
enance of the studied samples. The bivariate plot demon-
strates that the samples were derived from a felsic source
since all the studied samples fall in the field of granite/rhyo-
lite (Fig. 8). The REE patterns and the value of Eu anomaly
can be used as a good indicator for the source rock char-
acteristics (Taylor & McLennan, 1985). Usually in felsic
igneous rocks, the LREE/HREE ratio is higher and Eu shows
negative anomaly while in mafic igneous rocks, the LREE/
HREE ratio is lower and Eu shows little or no anomaly
(Cullers, 1994). The chondrite-normalized REE patterns of
the Callovian–Oxfordian Kuldhar Member Shale show sig-
nificant resemblance with PAAS (Fig. 5). The REE pattern
suggests that the shales are product of old upper continental
13
S. Asjad et al.
crust, which was dominated by felsic components. Most
of the Kuldhar Member Shale plots in the post-Archaean
field near PAAS value on the Eu/Eu* vs (Gd/Yb)N diagram
(McLennan & Taylor, 1991), implying that post-Archaean
felsic rocks could be the source rocks for the Kuldhar Mem-
ber Shale. However, there are a few samples that fall into
the post-Archaean field, indicating that their provenance is
from the Archaean period (Fig. 9). Based on these plots, it is
assumed that sediments for the Kuldhar Member Shale were
provided by a mixture of sources which is further justified
by the provenance modelling.
The paleo-current data indicate that the source of the
Jaisalmer Formation was towards south and southeast
of the basin (Ahmad et al., 2000, 2020a). As a result, the
Precambrian Aravalli Craton which is the basement, and
the Malani Igneous Suits (MIS), which is primarily felsic,
are the most plausible candidates for the Kuldhar Member
Shale’s origins. Basement source terranes are predominantly
rich in granite, gneisses, metasedimentary rocks, metaba-
saltic rocks (amphibolites), un-deformed granitoids and
minor ultramafic rocks (Precambrian Aravalli Craton) and
mostly felsic for Malani Igneous Suits. However, the geo-
chemical characteristics of Kuldhar Member Shale of the
Jaisalmer Formation indicate the presence of granitic/felsic
and recycled rocks in their sources. Therefore, the Precam-
brian Aravalli Craton components, such as granitic gneisses,
metasedimentary rocks, un-deformed granitoids and felsic
Malani Igneous Suits, probably supplied the detritus for the
Kuldhar Member Shale.
In years gone by, the REEs-based provenance modelling
was used as a suitable method to determine the contribu-
tion of possible end members to the sedimentary basin
(Hofmann et al., 2005; Absar et al., 2009; Raza et al.,
2012). To infer the relative contribution of various sources
in the formation of Kuldhar Member Shale, simple mixing
calculations have been performed. The parameters used
and their results are provided in Table 5. The aim behind
this modelling is to look out for the best-fit compositions
which would most closely reproduce the REE patterns
and also the Eu/Eu* values to those of the studied sam-
ples. AS, BGC, MIS and NDFB rocks were taken as end
members because all these are exposed in the direction of
the previously determined paleo-current of the Jaisalmer
Formation. The data for provenance modelling were taken
from previously published work. For Aravalli Supergroup-
Singh (2018), North Delhi Fold Belt- Raza et al. (2012),
Banded Gneissic Complex- Raza et al. (2010) and Malani
Igneous Suite- Eby and Kochhar (1990), REE modelling
discloses that the Callovian–Oxfordian Kuldhar Member
Provenance, palaeoweathering and tectonic setting of the Kuldhar Member Shale (Callovian–…

Table 4  Correlation coefficient matrix for Kuldhar Member Shale of Jaisalmer Formation

SiO2 Al2O3 CaO MgO Fe2O3 TiO2 P2O5 Na2O K2O MnO L.O.I La

SiO2 1
Al2O3 0.86 1
CaO − 0.77 − 0.97 1
MgO 0.58 0.76 − 0.7 1
Fe2O3 0.56 0.86 − 0.95 0.59 1
TiO2 0.96 0.73 − 0.61 0.47 0.36 1
P2O5 0.29 0.45 − 0.46 0.84 0.42 0.13 1
Na2O 0.68 0.75 − 0.76 0.35 0.68 0.62 0.07 1
K2O 0.92 0.83 − 0.78 0.4 0.61 0.91 0.01 0.85 1
MnO − 0.13 0.18 − 0.3 − 0.27 0.51 − 0.28 − 0.32 0.32 0.1 1
L.O.I − 0.7 − 0.94 0.99 − 0.67 − 0.98 − 0.51 − 0.46 − 0.7 − 0.7 − 0.42 1
La 0.25 0.54 − 0.59 0.85 0.58 0.12 0.83 0.36 0.17 − 0.15 − 0.55 1
Ce 0.34 0.58 − 0.61 0.9 0.59 0.18 0.94 0.3 0.17 − 0.2 − 0.59 0.96
Pr 0.28 0.5 − 0.53 0.89 0.5 0.13 0.96 0.2 0.08 − 0.28 − 0.51 0.95
Nd 0.29 0.49 − 0.51 0.88 0.47 0.14 0.98 0.17 0.06 − 0.3 − 0.49 0.93
Sm 0.3 0.49 − 0.51 0.88 0.47 0.15 0.98 0.15 0.06 − 0.31 − 0.49 0.91
Eu 0.32 0.5 − 0.53 0.88 0.49 0.17 0.98 0.18 0.09 − 0.3 − 0.51 0.91
Gd 0.31 0.51 − 0.53 0.89 0.49 0.16 0.98 0.18 0.08 − 0.29 − 0.51 0.92
Tb 0.33 0.53 − 0.57 0.89 0.54 0.18 0.97 0.21 0.12 − 0.27 − 0.55 0.93
Dy 0.32 0.54 − 0.57 0.9 0.54 0.17 0.97 0.22 0.12 − 0.25 − 0.55 0.94
Ho 0.35 0.58 − 0.63 0.9 0.6 0.19 0.94 0.27 0.17 − 0.21 − 0.6 0.95
Er 0.34 0.59 − 0.63 0.91 0.61 0.19 0.93 0.29 0.18 − 0.19 − 0.61 0.97
Tm 0.37 0.61 − 0.7 0.82 0.71 0.22 0.83 0.38 0.27 − 0.09 − 0.67 0.94
Yb 0.33 0.61 − 0.66 0.9 0.65 0.18 0.87 0.34 0.21 − 0.14 − 0.63 0.99
Lu 0.36 0.61 − 0.72 0.78 0.73 0.22 0.76 0.41 0.3 − 0.05 − 0.68 0.92
∑REE 0.31 0.54 − 0.58 0.9 0.55 0.16 0.95 0.26 0.13 − 0.23 − 0.55 0.96
Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu ∑REE

SiO2
Al2O3
CaO
MgO
Fe2O3
TiO2
P2O5
Na2O
K 2O
MnO
L.O.I
La
Ce 1
Pr 0.99 1
Nd 0.99 1 1
Sm 0.98 1 1 1
Eu 0.99 1 1 1 1
Gd 0.99 1 1 1 1 1
Tb 0.99 1 0.99 0.99 1 1 1
Dy 1 1 1 0.99 1 1 1 1
Ho 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.98 0.99 0.99 1 0.99 1
Er 1 0.99 0.98 0.97 0.98 0.98 0.99 0.99 1 1

13
 S. Asjad et al.

Table 4  (continued)
Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu ∑REE

Tm 0.94 0.91 0.89 0.89 0.91 0.9 0.93 0.92 0.96 0.95 1
Yb 0.98 0.96 0.95 0.94 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 0.97 1
Lu 0.9 0.87 0.85 0.84 0.86 0.85 0.89 0.88 0.93 0.92 0.99 0.95 1
∑REE 1 1 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 1 0.99 0.99 0.93 0.98 0.89 1

Fig. 6  A-CN-K
­(Al2O3 − CaO + ­Na2O − ­K2O)
plot for Kuldhar Member Shale

Shale is best modelled with a mixture having 59.5%

Aravalli Supergroup (AS), 25% North Delhi Fold Belt
(NDFB), 14% Banded Gneissic Complex (BGC) and 1.5%
Malani Igneous Suites (MIS). REE patterns and Eu/Eu*
values of studied shales are in accordance with modelled
values (Fig. 10, Table 5).

5.3 Tectonic setting

The formation and evolution of sedimentary basins are mainly

Fig. 7  CIA versus ICV bivariate plot of Kuldhar Member Shale (after
Wang et al., 2006)
controlled by plate tectonics and magmatism, and have close
relation with assembly of supercontinents and their break-up
(Eriksson et al., 2001). Siliciclastic rocks from different tec-
tonic settings have different geochemical signatures, multiple

13
Provenance, palaeoweathering and tectonic setting of the Kuldhar Member Shale (Callovian–…

Fig. 8  TiO2 versus A
­ l2O3 plot to
decipher provenance of Kuldhar
Member Shale (after Ekosse,
2001)

infer the tectonic setting of the provenance and depositional

basins (Bhatia, 1983; Bhatia & Crook, 1986; Roser & Korsch,
1986, 1988). Many researchers have recently identified the
contradiction of these diagrams in relation to the geology
of the examined area (Armstrong-Altrin & Verma, 2005;
Ryan & Williams, 2007; Verma & Armstrong-Altrin, 2016).
According to Verma and Armstrong-Altrin (2013), the tra-
ditional diagrams proposed by Bhatia (1983) and Roser and
Korsch (1986), do not incorporate a coherent statistical treat-
ment of compositional data. Due to incompetency of these
diagrams, Verma and Armstrong-Altrin (2013) put forward
two discriminant function diagrams based on major elements
for the tectonic discrimination of siliciclastic sediments from
island or continental arc setting, continental rift setting and
Fig. 9  Eu/Eu* versus (Gd/Yb)N plot of Kuldhar Member Shale
(McLennan & Taylor, 1991) collisional setting which was created for the tectonic dis-
crimination of high silica [(SiO2)adj = 63–95%] and low silica
[(SiO2)adj = 35–63%].
discrimination diagrams based on major element composition For present study, the discriminant function diagram
of clastic deposits have been developed by various studies to (Fig. 11) proposed for low silica concentration was applied,
using the formula:
[ ) ] [ ) ] [ ) ]
𝐃𝐅𝟏 = 0.608 ∗ ln TiO2 ∕SiO2 adj + −1.854 ∗ ln Al2 O3 ∕SiO2 adj + 0.299 ∗ ln Fe2 Ot3 ∕SiO2 adj
( ( (
[ ( ) ] [ ( ) ] [ ( ) ]
+ −0.550 ∗ ln MnO∕SiO2 adj + 0.120 ∗ ln MgO∕SiO2 adj + 0.194 ∗ ln CaO∕SiO2 adj
[ ( ) ] [ ( ) ] [ ( ) ]
+ −1.510 ∗ ln Na2 O∕SiO2 adj + 1.941 ∗ ln K2 O∕SiO2 adj + 0.003 ∗ ln P2 O5 ∕SiO2 adj − 0.294,

13


13
Table 5  Result from mixing calculations of possible end members compared with average Kuldhar Member Shale of Jaisalmer Formation, western Rajasthan
1 2 4
Elements Average Kuldhar Member Shale Average Aravalli Super- Average North Delhi Fold 3Average Banded Gneissic Average Malani Igneous Mixing Component
group Belt Complex Suite
ppm (n = 15) Normalized ppm Normalized ppm Normalized ppm Normalized ppm Normalized ppm Normalized
(n = 15) (n = 6) (n = 2) (n = 15)

La 30.12 127.1 25.46 107.41 25.73 108.54 63.1 266.24 239.96 1012.49 34.01 143.51
Ce 75.44 123.06 52.36 85.42 39.42 64.31 115.25 188.01 565.09 921.85 65.62 107.05
Pr 8.2 88.32 6.62 71.37 5.65 60.86 12.7 136.85 60.86 655.78 8.04 86.68
Nd 31.33 68.55 22.5 49.23 19.59 42.86 23.62 51.68 246.99 540.46 25.29 55.35
Sm 6.59 44.56 4.68 31.59 3.96 26.78 6.27 42.36 59.14 399.59 5.54 37.42
Eu 1.44 25.49 0.98 17.47 0.83 14.81 1.1 19.54 6.4 113.69 1.04 18.53
Gd 6.14 30.85 4.19 21.06 3.4 17.08 5.86 29.42 61.65 309.79 5.09 25.57
Tb 0.95 26.3 0.73 20.11 0.56 15.45 0.64 17.59 13.02 360.69 0.86 23.7
Dy 5.03 20.43 3.42 13.89 2.99 12.14 3.08 12.5 100.92 410.24 4.72 19.2
Ho 1 18.37 0.75 13.68 0.58 10.62 0.58 10.62 12.77 233.94 0.86 15.79
Er 2.65 16.57 2.05 12.83 1.62 10.1 1.67 10.44 44.43 277.66 2.53 15.79
Tm 0.43 17.42 0.31 12.63 0.26 10.47 0.24 9.72 6.24 252.81 0.38 15.29
Yb 2.68 16.65 2.02 12.56 1.49 9.28 1.6 9.94 59.98 372.58 2.7 16.77
Lu 0.41 16.75 0.33 13.39 0.33 13.36 0.25 9.96 9.39 381.57 0.45 18.42
(La/Sm) N 2.85 3.4 4.05 6.28 2.53 3.84
(Gd/Yb)N 1.85 1.68 1.84 2.96 0.83 1.52
(La/Yb)N 7.64 8.55 11.69 26.79 2.72 8.56
Eu/Eu* 0.69 0.68 0.69 0.55 0.32 0.6

1—Singh (2018), 2—Raza et al. (2012), 3—Raza et al. (2010) 4—Eby and Kochhar (1990)
S. Asjad et al.
Provenance, palaeoweathering and tectonic setting of the Kuldhar Member Shale (Callovian–…
Fig. 10  REE patterns of average Kuldhar Member Shale and esti-
mated provenance after mixing the end members in the proportion
59.5A:25D:14B:1.5  M (A Aravalli Supergroup, D North Delhi Fold
Belt, B Banded Gneissic Complex, M Malani Igneous Suite)
Fig. 11  Discriminant function multi-dimensional diagram for low-
silica clastic sediments (after Verma & Armstrong-Altrin, 2013)
[ ) ] [ ) ] [
𝐃𝐅𝟐 = −0.554 ∗ ln TiO2 ∕SiO2 adj + −0.995 ∗ ln Al2 O3 ∕SiO2 adj + 1.765 ∗ ln Fe2 Ot3 ∕SiO2 adj
( (
[ ( ) ] [ ( ) ] [
+ −1.391 ∗ ln MnO∕SiO2 adj + −1.034 ∗ ln MgO∕SiO2 adj + 0.225 ∗ ln CaO∕SiO2 adj
[ ( ) ] [ ( ) ] [
+ 0.713 ∗ ln Na2 O∕SiO2 adj + 0.330 ∗ ln K2 O∕SiO2 adj + 0.637 ∗ ln P2 O5 ∕SiO2 adj −3.631.
The studied samples were plotted on the discriminant dia-
gram and falls in the field of continental rift (passive margin)
tectonic setting which is in accordance with the tectonic his-
tory of the Jaisalmer basin. The results of discriminant dia-
gram are also proved by the values of ICV (Table 2) which
are less than 1 for the studied shale samples. ICV values < 1
are indicative of compositionally mature sediments which
were deposited in areas that have passive tectonic setting.
6 Conclusion
Kuldhar Member Shale of Jaisalmer Formation has been
analysed for major and rare-earth element compositions.
Available data are then utilized to decipher their source com-
position, weathering intensity and the tectonic framework of
these shale. Following are the conclusions drawn from the
present study:
1. On the basis of binary plot of log ­SiO2/Al2O3 versus
log ­Fe2O3/K2O, the samples of the studied shale have
been categorized as Fe-shale. Relatively higher content
of iron can be attributed to the presence of iron oxide,
heavy minerals, siderite and hematite cement and due
to leaching of iron-encrusted hardgrounds of Badabag
Member which lies just below Kuldhar Member.
2. The higher content of CaO is related to the presence of
carbonate cement and skeletal fragments. This high CaO
content has large dilution effect on other oxides. Except
CaO, all the major oxides have a positive correlation
with ­Al2O3 which reflect that their deposition is associ-
ated with detrital phases.
3. Positive correlation of ∑REE with both terrigenous
as well as carbonate minerals indicates that they were
derived from both terrigenous and biogenic sources.
Higher LREE/HREE ratio and negative Eu anomaly
clearly indicate a felsic source for the studied shales.
Same is confirmed by low T ­ iO2 values compared to
PAAS which is also an indication of felsic source.
4. CIA and CIW values represent moderate to high chemi-
cal weathering of the source while the A-CN-K plot
indicates that the samples are following the weathering
trend of granodiorite. PIA values also reflect moderate
plagioclase weathering and the ICV values point towards
a mature source with recycled sediments. Discriminant
diagrams indicate continental rift setting involving pas-
) ]
(
( ) ]
( ) ]
sive tectonic settings for the studied shales.
5. Provenance modelling using immobile REEs suggests
that Kuldhar Member Shale can be modelled by a mix-
ture of 59.5% Aravalli Supergroup rocks, 25% North
Delhi Fold Belt (NDFB) rocks, 14% Banded Gneissic
Complex (BGC) and 1.5% Malani Igneous Suites (MIS).
It is probable that the source of these sediments was
distal at first and then became more proximal at the end,
indicating a tectonically active basin.
13

Acknowledgements  Authors are thankful to Chairperson, Department
of Geology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh for providing neces-
sary facilities in the Department. SA is grateful to the University Grants
Commission (UGC), New Delhi, for the financial assistance in the form
of Junior Research Fellowship (JRF). We are thankful to the anony-
mous reviewers for their useful comments that improved the quality of
the manuscript. The editorial work of Professor Maria Virgínia Alves
Martins (Editor-In-Chief, Journal of Sedimentary Environments) is
highly appreciated.
Author contributions  SA and MAQ have carried out the field work.
SA has processed the data. AHMA and HKS drafted the first outline
of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Funding  The financial aid for the current work has been provided by
the University Grants Commission (UGC), New Delhi, in the form of
Junior Research Fellowship (JRF).
Declarations  Mexico: Implications for provenance and tectonic setting. Turkish
Conflict of interest  The authors declare that they have no competing
interests.
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