Transportation Research Part D: Rusul L. Abduljabbar, Sohani Liyanage, Hussein Dia

Transportation Research Part D 92 (2021) 102734
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Transportation Research Part D

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/trd
The role of micro-mobility in shaping sustainable cities: A

systematic literature review
Rusul L. Abduljabbar *, Sohani Liyanage, Hussein Dia
Swinburne University of Technology, Melbourne, Australia
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Micro-mobility is increasingly recognised as a promising mode of urban transport, particularly for
Micro-mobility its potential to reduce private vehicle use for short-distance travel. Despite valuable research
Smart cities contributions that represent fundamental knowledge on this topic, today’s body of research ap
Systematic literature review
pears quite fragmented in relation to the role of micro-mobility as a transformative solution for
Sustainable transport
Bibliometric networks
meeting sustainability outcomes in urban environments. This paper consolidates knowledge on
Co-citation analysis the topic, analyses past and on-going research developments, and provides future research di
rections by using a rigorous and auditable systematic literature review methodology. To achieve
these objectives, the paper analysed 328 journal publications from the Scopus database covering
the period between 2000 and 2020. A bibliographic analysis was used to identify relevant pub
lications and explore the changing landscape of micro-mobility research. The study constructed
and visualised the literature’s bibliometric networks through citations and co-citations analyses
for authors, articles, journals and countries. The findings showed a consistent spike in recent
research outputs covering the sustainability aspects of micro-mobility reflecting its importance as
a low-carbon and transformative mode of urban transport. The co-citation analysis, in particular,
helped to categorise the literature into four main research themes that address benefits, tech
nology, policy and behavioural mode-choice categories where the majority of research has been
focused during the analysis period. For each cluster, inductive reasoning is used to discuss the
emerging trends, barriers as well as pathways to overcome challenges to wide-scale deployment.
This article provides a balanced and objective summary of research evidence on the topic and
serves as a reference point for further research on micro-mobility for sustainable cities.
1. Introduction
Micro-mobility is an innovative urban transport solution aimed at providing short-distance travel options including first and last
kilometre trips. The appeal of micro-mobility is that it provides flexible, sustainable, cost-effective and on-demand transport alter
native (Shaheen et al., 2020) and reduces reliance on using private vehicles for short-distance travel (Clewlow, 2018; Tiwari, 2019).
Micro-mobility solutions include a range of light-weight devices or mini-vehicles that operate at speeds typically not exceeding 45 kph.
These devices, which include bicycles, scooters, skateboards, segways and hover-boards, can be human-powered or electric and are
either privately owned or shared (Dia, 2019). The value of micro-mobility solutions for cities is that they represent a shift towards low
carbon and sustainable modes of transport and that they can be a positive force in disrupting private vehicle use especially for short-
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rabduljabbar@swin.edu.au (R.L. Abduljabbar).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2021.102734
Available online 9 February 2021

1361-9209/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
R.L. Abduljabbar et al. Transportation Research Part D 92 (2021) 102734
distance travel. Their popularity is also a reflection of increasing recognition that cars private vehicles have adverse impacts on health
and quality of life particularly when congestion, emissions and air quality are taken into consideration (Sperling, 2018).
In recent years, and with the advances in mobile computing, micro-mobility gained further popularity as a shared mode of transport
that can be booked using popular apps on connected mobile devices and smartphones (Kaufman and Buttenwieser, 2018; Shaheen and
Chan, 2016). The sharing economy model, where users pay for the use of a shared asset such a vehicle or bicycle, has also encouraged
users to rethink private vehicle ownership and reduce the need to own cars (Liyanage et al., 2019; Machado et al., 2018; S. Shaheen
et al., 2016; S. A. Shaheen et al., 2016). The rapid adoption of micro-mobility, especially for first and last kilometre travel, has also
helped with promoting active modes of travel which has health benefits to cities’ populations. Increasingly, they are recognised as an
important mix in the smart urban mobility ecosystem where they can be adapted to users’ needs including individual and family short
distance travel but also for parcel delivery in urban areas (DeMaio, 2009). Major cities around the world have implemented a variety of
shared micro-mobility as alternatives to private vehicles for short trips. Over the past years, shared biking schemes have become very
common in many cities around the world (Fong, 2019). Currently, they are widely used to serve passenger trips that are less than 5 km,
which represents 50–60% of total passenger kilometres travelled in China, the EU and the US (Heineke et al., 2019; Scurtu, 2019). With
more appropriate infrastructure, they can even help with longer trips up to 20 km especially in inner urban areas (Dia, 2019; Shaheen
et al., 2010; Møller and Simlett, 2020).
This paper provides an environmental scan of the literature on micro-mobility using an established systematic literature review
(SLR) approach. The SLR is aimed at analysing and evaluating the impacts of literature in scientific databases such as Scopus for the
period between 2000 and 2020. The paper analyses 328 publications using a software tool that helps with identifying the changing
scientific landscape of the literature through analysis and visualisation of its bibliometric networks. The analysis covers topic areas
from abstracts, keywords and article titles’ criteria which have been used to select micro-mobility publications and includes evalu
ations of keywords’ co-occurrence, citations and co-citation for publications, authors, journals and countries.
This paper is organised in a number of sections. Section 2 present the SLR framework and discusses the methodology adopted in this
research, including planning and specification of keywords, and inclusion and exclusion criteria. Section 3 presents the findings from
the collected corpus of papers, distinguishing the main topics and examining their evolution over time through a year-of-publication,
author, country, and keyword analyses. The results of a bibliometric co-citation network analysis is also presented resulting in
identification main themes of research and their relevance to the objectives of this study and future research in this domain. Section 4
presents a synthesis of the findings and identifies the main gaps in knowledge and potential future research directions. Finally, the
paper concludes by highlighting the advantages and limitations of the SLR approach and future research directions.
2. The systematic literature review (SLR) approach
The SLR process includes identifying, describing, analysing, interpreting and critically evaluating the existing body of knowledge
about a certain research area such as micro-mobility. This technique includes a specific predefined search strategy to find a
comprehensive and complete knowledge about the topic. The SLR is different from the conventional literature reviews and has a
number of advantages including a well-developed research methodology that makes the results less biased, and provides an exhaustive
summary of literature relevant to the research questions.
The SLR methodology starts with a pre-determined and documented review protocol that allows researchers to identify their
research objectives, questions and methods to perform the review. The SLR methodology relies on a clearly defined search strategy to
structure and classify the literature and identify gaps in knowledge. The methodology also uses sophisticated search engines which
comprise inclusion and exclusion criteria to filter and categorise relevant studies.
The SLR methodology includes the following tasks (Fig. 1):
• Define the research aims and objectives of the study

• Identify the key research questions to be addressed
• Search scientific databases and extract relevant content and information, iterating the process in several stages as needed
• Define and apply inclusion and exclusion criteria
Systematic Define the Identify key

Search scientific
Literature Review research aims research
databases
Process and objectives questions
Results and Define and apply

Conclusions and Analyse
critical inclusion and
recommendations bibliometric data
evaluations exclusion criteria
Fig. 1. Systematic literature review process.
2
Fig. 2. Inclusion and exclusion criteria and corpus refinement.
• Analyse the bibliometric data using publicly available tools

• Assess the quality of results and undertake critical evaluations
• Draw conclusions and make recommendations for future research directions
In the context of this study, these tasks are discussed in more detail next.
2.1. Research aims and objectives
In this study, the main objectives of undertaking the SLR on micro-mobility include:
• Develop deeper knowledge of micro-mobility including a historical perspective of its development, the challenges and barriers to its
deployment as well as success factors from global case studies.
• Identify key players in the field (e.g. authors, countries, journals).
• Conduct a citation analysis of articles, authors, countries and journals by identifying key research and most cited work. This will
help to identify key players with impact in shaping the field of micro-mobility.
• Identify key co-cited references and theme clusters. This will help to identify key research fields under investigation and gaps in
knowledge.
• Develop insights about current trends and future research directions to address challenges and limitations.
60
55
50
44
Number of publications
40 38
35
30 27 28
24
20
20
14
11
9
10 6
3 3 4 3
1 2 1
0 0
0
Year
Fig. 3. Publications per year.
3
2.2. Key research questions
The set of questions identified in this research have been formulated such that:
• They are meaningful and important to researchers as well as practitioners.

• They will lead to changes in policies or practices and will increase confidence in the value of the research and its practical
implications.
• They will help to identify discrepancies between commonly held beliefs and reality.
To achieve the research aims and objectives described before, this work sets out to answer a number of research questions (RQ):
1. RQ1. What are the key topics reported in the scientific literature on micro-mobility, and how did the research on these topics evolve
over time?
2. RQ2. Which papers and authors have been most influential in shaping the development of the literature to date?
Table 1
Bike-sharing evolution over four generations (Dediu, 2019; Shaheen et al., 2010).
Generation Component Characteristics Example Programs
First-generation Bicycles • Distinct colour bicycles • White bikes in the Netherlands

• Located haphazardly (965) (DeMaio, 2001; Home, 1991)
• Unlocked • La Rochelle, France (1974)
• No user charge (free service) (Midgley, 2009)
• Community bicycle program
(1975) in the Netherlands
Second generation Bicycles with docking stations • Distinct colour or special design • ByCyken in 1995 in Copenhagen
• Located at designated stations modified in 2014.
• Include locks • Programs with coin-deposit systems
in Norway (1996), Finland (2000)
and Denmark (2005) (Shaheen
et al., 2010)
Third generation Bicycles with docking stations • Distinct colour, special designs or • Velo’v in Lyon, France in 2005 with
and also kiosks for ticketing adverts 1,500 bicycles.
• Located at designated docking • LE vélo STAR in France (2009).
stations • Vélib’ in Paris (2009) (Shaheen
• Include locks et al., 2010).
• Smart technologies such as smart
card systems, mobile phone
platforms, mag-stripe cards are
used to check-in and check-out
bicycles
• Theft deterrents are used.
• Specifically, users with
membership have to provide ID or
bankcard to verify identity.
• If they fail to return the bicycles,
charges are incurred.
• Non-members pay a deposit to
ensure bike returns.
• Specific programs are operated for
members such as first specified time
free service.
Fourth generation Bicycles with docking stations • Distinct bicycles including e-bikes BIXI (Shaheen and Guzman, 2011).
and kiosks for ticketing. Also, • Customised and more efficient
user interface technology and docking stations
bicycle distribution systems
• Enhanced locking mechanisms to
prevent theft
• Digitised kiosks including touch
screens
• Asset rebalancing
• Integration with public transport
cards
4
3. RQ3. What is the current state of progress in the scientific literature in examining the impacts of micro-mobility as a sustainable
mode of urban transport?
4. RQ4. What are the main gaps in knowledge, barriers and pathways to enable wide-spread deployment of micro-mobility solutions?
5. RQ5. What are the future research directions and key questions to be answered in micro-mobility knowledge areas in future
research?
6. RQ6. Which research streams can be envisaged for micro-mobility as part of a sustainable low carbon mobility framework for
future cities?
2.3. Search of scientific databases
The literature search was conducted in the Scopus database under “titles, keywords or abstracts”. The following search was
used:
At the search stage, the following inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied:
• Only journal articles were included. Grey literature (e.g. conference papers, books and book chapters, and technical reports were
excluded)
• Only journal articles published between the years 2000–2020 were included.
• Only English language journal articles were included.
This search criterion resulted in a total of 358 relevant articles. It should be pointed out here that the focus of this work was on
exploring micro-mobility as a sustainable mode of urban transport, which meant that the search results needed to meet the conditions
of the search criteria. Any journal articles that would have dealt with other aspects of micro-mobility not related to low-carbon and
sustainability would have been excluded by the search engine. Nevertheless, the results can still be verified and reproduced using the
same search criteria above which is one of the key reasons for using the SLR approach to provide transparency and traceability.
2.4. Inclusion and exclusion criteria
The next step included refinement of the search results through more detailed inclusion and exclusion criteria (Fig. 2). First, the
authors reviewed the titles of papers and identified 7 publications that were outside the scope of this research. Similarly, a total of 37
papers were excluded based on abstracts, and 14 papers were excluded based on article content. Hence, a total of 58 documents were
excluded resulting in 300 articles. The authors then “snowballed” 28 journal articles known to them as relevant to micro-mobility and
sustainability which were not retrieved in the search. Hence, a total of 328 articles were used in the final analysis. A list of all articles
used in the analysis is available from the authors upon request.
3. Analysis
Recent advances in data collection, analytics and graphical mapping of bibliometric networks have improved the possibility of
analysing large numbers of scientific publications. A number of tools can be used to analyse scientific networks. These include Pajek
(Mrvar and Batagelj, 2016), Gephi (Aggrawal and Arora, 2016), CiteSpace (Chen, 2006), CitNetExplorer (Aggrawal and Arora, 2016),
Science of Science (Sci2) (Pournader et al., 2020), SciMAT (Cobo et al., 2012), and VOSviewer (Tomaszewska and Florea, 2018). The
authors reviewed these tools and selected VOSviewer because it offers functionality for representation of bibliometric networks and
other features necessary to address the research questions posed in this study. To build a network, bibliographic database files from
Scopus are provided as input to VOSviewer.
3.1. Chronological publication trends
The first bibliometric analysis focused on the number of publications per year for the period 2000–2020. Fig. 3 illustrates the
Table 2
Key lessons learnt to address barriers to implementation (Abrams, 2019).
Bicycle theft and vandalism Bike-sharing programs in first-generation were prone to theft due to user anonymity. Therefore, from third-generation onwards
electronic smartcards, membership-based programs were introduced. Due to vandalism and theft, less expensive bikes were
used. Locking systems were also introduced to prevent theft.
Bicycle redistribution For effective and equitable operations, bicycles need to be rebalanced between locations with high consumer demands. As
programs expand, technology solutions should be explored to improve bicycle redistribution such that it is completed more
efficiently.
Information systems The third generation introduced real-time information systems to bike-sharing programs to update the user about the
availability of bicycles, parking information. This was aimed at improving efficiency and user-friendliness.
Insurance and liability Programs such as Velib and nextbike reported crashes and fatalities which prompted regulators and operators to rethink
considerations insurance and liability.
Prelaunch considerations Prelaunch marketing is important to inform the public about charges particularly if incremental fees are used to encourage
travellers to plan their trips and avoid higher fees.
5
increasing trend in outputs where the volume of publications increased substantially in recent years (thus answering RQ1). Starting
from 2015, the number of publication increased to 38 publications reaching to 44 journal articles in 2019. In 2020, 55 publications
were found to date, and it is expected that these would increase rapidly given global market growth and interest in micro-mobility as a
result of the pandemic.
3.1.1. Evolution of micro-mobility: Historical perspective

The chronological trends analysis also helped to provide a perspective on the development of research over time (thus answering
RQ1 and RQ2). The micro-mobility concept originated in Europe and North America in the late 1900s. Their historical evolution can be
categorised into four generations as shown in Table 1.
The first generation included bike-sharing systems that were introduced in Europe. The program was a non-profit, small scale
system operation focusing mainly on addressing the social and environmental aspects of urban mobility. Provos, an organisation
involved mainly in environmental issues in the Netherlands, released a white bike program for Amsterdam in July 1965 (Home, 1991).
Fifty free white-painted bicycles were permanently unlocked and made readily available for public use throughout the inner city. This
was followed by the cities of La Rochelle (1974) and Cambridge (1993) where similar first generation free bike-sharing was imple
mented. The main challenges identified throughout the first generation schemes included bike thefts (Shaheen et al., 2010). The
learnings from these deployments paved the way to the second generation programs where the need to deter theft and incentivise
bicycle return were emphasised.
Second-generation bike-sharing schemed integrated the use of coin-deposit bicycle locks. The main components highlighted in this
generation of bike-sharing systems included provision of designated docking stations for bikes where coins needed to be used.
Implementation of such coin-deposit systems led to expanding the program throughout Europe and North America, including Norway,
Finland, Texas, and Wisconsin (Dediu, 2019; Shaheen et al., 2010). The bike-sharing experience in Asia, Australia and South America
did not pick up to a faster pace until the third generation of IT-Based Systems (Shaheen et al., 2010). One of the key challenges during
this phase was the reliability of the bike-sharing system, which was not robust enough to provide adequate support to influence
travellers to make sustained mode choice changes.
This paved the way to the third generation of bike-sharing system operations, which made use of advanced technologies to improve
their efficiency, safety and reliability. The third generation of micro-mobility programs incorporated advanced technologies to enable
tracking of assets in real-time, in addition to smart technology reservation apps that can be used on smartphones. This resulted in over
100 bike-sharing programs that operated in approximately 125 cities worldwide along four continents (Europe, Asia including
Australia, North and South America) with above 139,000 shared bicycles. France and Spain listed in the top of this list with 22 bike-
sharing programs with 36,443 bicycles and 21 bike-sharing programs with 11,080 bicycles, respectively. Theft deterrents such as
membership-specific programs where the customer was required to provide their details were included (Shaheen et al., 2010).
Fourth generation schemes aimed to provide a demand responsive service with advanced capabilities to facilitate multimodal
connectivity (Shaheen et al., 2010). The knowledge and experience gained in cities around the world provided valuable lessons and a
better understanding of key success factors for wide deployment of micro-mobility as a low-carbon mode of urban transport (Shaheen
Fig. 4. Overlay visualisation analysis for keywords per year.
6
3500
2919
3000
2500
CITATIONS
2000
1474
1500 1295 1291
1000
620
500 296 285 275 223 219 217 209
178 166 151 85 85 83 78
76 71 66 65 64 61 53 40 37 37
0
Chile
Iran
Italy
Belgium
Iceland
United States
Ghana
Spain
Ireland
Taiwan
China
Austria
Portugal
Japan
Canada
Sweden
Brazil
France
Norway
Germany
Israel
New Zealand
Denmark
United Kingdom
South Korea
Australia
Switzerland
Colombia
Netherlands
Fig. 5. Number of citations per country.
Table 3
Citation analysis of journal papers and authors.
Top cited authors Citations Authors with highest number of papers No. of papers
Elliot Fishman 1,261 Elliot K Fishman 15

Susan A. Shaheen 1,199 Susan A. Shaheen 13
Hua Zhang 758 Lake Sagaris 8
Stacey Guzman 703 Brian Caulfield 6
Narelle Haworth 562 Ione Avila-Palencia 6
Simon Washington 562 Evi Dons 6
Christopher Cherry 308 Thomas Götschi 6
Robert Cervero 285 Narelle Haworth 5
Paul Schepers 281 Simon Washington 5
Elliot Martin 240 Paul Schepers 5
Meghan Winters 220 Frauke Behrendt 5
Michael Brauer 219 Mailin Gaupp-Berghausen 5
Birgitta Gatersleben 216 Regine Gerike 5
David Uzzell 216 Sonja Kahlmeier 5
Karel Martens 209 David Rojas-Rueda 5
Rune Elvik 188 Audrey De Nazelle 5
Carlos J. L. Balsas 175 Meghan Winters 4
Michael Batty 167 Ralph Buehler 4
James Cheshire 167 Christian Brand 4
Oliver O’Brien 167 Juan Pablo Orjuela 4
Table 4
Citation analysis for journals.
Highly cited journals Number Journals with highest no. of papers No. of
citations papers
Transportation Research Record 1,383 Sustainability (Switzerland) 27

Journal of Transport Geography 1,034 Journal of Transport Geography 23
Transport Policy 731 International Journal of Sustainable Transportation 23
Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice 702 Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice 19
International Journal of Sustainable Transportation 545 Transport Policy 14
Accident Analysis and Prevention 412 Transportation Research Record 12
Transport Reviews 402 Journal of Transport and Health 10
Transportation Research Part D: Transport and 226 Accident Analysis and Prevention 9
Environment
Environment and Behaviour 216 Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and 9
Behaviour
7
Fig. 6. Network visualisation of co-citation analysis.
et al., 2010). Some of these barriers are summarised in Table 2.
3.2. Co-occurrence (author keywords)
The software tool VOSviewer was used to form a network of keywords or co-occurrences based on the 328 publications. This
analysis is beneficial to visualise the content of the selected publications. Nodes in the network represent individual keywords used to
identify the essence of each article. The total number of author keywords in the selected publications was 932. A filtering was used such
that only keywords that occurred at least twice were selected resulting in only 177 keywords that met this threshold criteria. In the
overlay visualisation analysis for keywords per year, it can be seen that in the year 2014–2016 the interest was more devoted towards:
“optimisation”, ”health”, ”infrastructure”, “planning” and “mode choice”. From 2016 to 2018, interest increased more into “cycling”,
“sustainable transport”, “air quality”, “road safety”, “bike share”, “accessibility”, “travel behaviour”, “shared mobility”, “equity” and
“gender”. While in 2019, the terms “data”, “social media”, “parking”, “agent based modelling” and “dockless bike-sharing” were the
most occurred terms as shown in Fig. 4.
3.3. Citation analysis (countries)
The country citation analysis identified the top countries with research output related to micro-mobility. A total of 56 countries
were identified from the search. The top 30 highly cited countries are shown in Fig. 5. These include the U.S. (2,919 citations), followed
by the U.K. (1,474 citations), Australia (1,291 citations), Netherlands (1,291 citations) and Canada (620 citations). While this work has
included only literature written in English and excluded articles written in other languages, the authors emphasise here that this was
driven by the need to consider papers that are of similar high quality that are published in key internationally recognised journals.
These journals happen to accept papers written in English only. Restricting the analyses to journal papers is important to ensure that
the same quality principles are applied across all papers. It is for the same reason that this study has also excluded conference papers
and grey literature, which may have not received the same quality scrutiny and peer review as the papers published in key recognised
journals which are known for applying high standards of peer review.
3.4. Citation analysis of journal papers and authors
Table 3 presents key authors’ citations and number of journal publications retrieved according to the specified search criteria (thus
also answering RQ2). The authors with highest citations included Elliot Fishman (1,261 citations) and Susan A. Shaheen (1,199 ci
tations). These two authors are internationally recognised as pioneers in this domain with a consistent research output and significant
academic contributions over the past two decades.
3.5. Citation analysis for journals
This analysis (Table 4) retrieved a total of 138 journals that published one or more article on topics that met the search criteria.
Researchers have largely published in Transportation Research Record (TRR) which covers transport-related findings in policy,
8
planning, administration and economics (1,383 citations). The journal “Sustainability” had highest number of journal publications (27
articles) relevant to search criteria (an expected finding given the sustainability focus of this study and alignment with the scope of the
journal). The Journal of Transport Geography, where key papers on the geographical dimensions of transport are published, was also a
popular choice for authors with 1,034 citations and 23 publications.
3.6. Co-citation analysis
Co-citation analysis measures the frequency with which two papers are cited together by a primary publication. When papers are
co-cited frequently, they are likely to belong to the same cluster. Four clusters are identified (Fig. 6) where each cluster contains sets of
articles with strong connections to each other but weaker relationships to papers in other clusters (Pournader et al., 2020). To develop
meaningful clusters and assign each cluster to a theme, the size of the network is filtered to include clusters with a minimum of 40
papers. The minimum number of cited papers is set to 2, resulting in 510 papers meeting the threshold criteria. Publications within
each cluster include multiple themes but the most repeated theme in each cluster was selected as the main theme for that cluster.
For Cluster 1, the theme “Benefits” was selected with 127 items. Most publications under this cluster focused on the following
topics: health benefits, safety, emissions, pollution, and physical health. For Cluster 2 articles focused on a “Policy” theme and included
142 items. The most common topics found in this cluster included “policy”, “equity”, “barriers”, “planning”. Cluster 3 in the “Tech
nology” theme included 109 items with papers focused on “algorithms”, “big data”, “analysis” and “modelling”. Finally, Cluster 4
included articles that focused on the “mode-choice” theme comprising 83 items. The most common topics found in this cluster were
focused on factors affecting mode choice change towards micro-mobility, and promoting its usage. The co-citation analyses have
helped answer RQ3, RQ4, RQ5 and RQ6 as will be shown next.
3.6.1. Cluster 1: Benefits

Micro-mobility provides substantial environmental, economic and social benefits. These include a reduction in emissions, crashes
and congestion (De Hartog et al., 2010). Importantly, they have health benefits and can lead to reductions in CO2 emissions partic
ularly when they disrupt private vehicle short trips (Rabl and De Nazelle, 2012; Woodcock et al., 2009).
3.6.1.1. Efficiency, productivity and travel time savings. A study on the benefits of e-scooter sharing systems in Chicago (Smith and
Schwieterman, 2018) explored their benefits in terms of travel time and cost savings compared to shared-biking schemes. A multi-
model travel mode analysis was developed to evaluate 30,000 hypothetical random trips with approximately (1,000–1,250)
scooters distributed in the study area. The results showed that e-scooters were beneficial for trip distances of less than 2 miles and
would particularly appear as a competing alternative to private vehicles. The addition of e-scooters provided a clear niche compared to
other modes including walking and cycling (Smith and Schwieterman, 2018).
Shared e-scooters can increase usage and revenue for operators. Large data are available for customers starting from registration,
renting and riding, which helps to utilise the customers’ need (Degele et al., 2018). Hence, a clustering algorithm is developed and was
used to show that more than 50% share e-scooter are young customers around 28 years. They use e-scooters for leisure with an
irregular renting pattern that highly focuses on weekends, and they are more likely to provide revenue to the business (41%).
Zirn et al. (2018) evaluated the ultra-weight folded micro-mobility device in a field test conducted in Germany. Initial results
showed that they can shift about 5,000 car-km per year to public transport and save time on last-kilometre trips and private vehicle
parking costs. The authors also stated that e-scooters were cost-effective ($1.10 per trip in addition to $1.33 per mile) and improved
access to 16% additional economic opportunities which could be reached on e-scooters within 30 min. Micro-mobility vehicles are also
beneficial for “last mile” delivery services. In a study that evaluated the pro-e-bike project in Europe, the authors of the study con
ducted a 6 months analysis on the project focusing on micro-mobility electric vehicles for delivery services (Lia et al., 2014; Nocerino
et al., 2016). The reported benefits included lower cost compared to traditional fossil-fuelled services, easy parking locations, and fast
delivery not affected by congestion. The scheme was also found to enhance productivity for the service provider.
3.6.1.2. Accessibility. Micro-mobility services provide access to suburbs and location that are either not well-served by public
transport or cannot be easily accessed by private vehicles such as narrow roads and streets in inner city areas (Shaheen et al., 2013).
The benefits of providing first-and-last-mile connectivity using small to medium vehicles results in benefits for the users and helps them
to access services and economic opportunities in a shorter time compared to using public transport, private vehicles or walking
(Milakis et al., 2020). Also, these options provide services to connect to public transport hubs (Du and Cheng, 2018) which helps to
make public transport more attractive (Witzel, 2018; Gu et al., 2019). For example, 20% of Lime users have used e-bikes or e-scooters
to go to local stores and 40% said they have used micro-mobility services to get to work or school for their most recent trips (Lime,
2018).
3.6.1.3. Impact on congestion and emission. A study which quantified the environmental impacts of shared e-scooters in Paris, found
that the introduction of free-floating shared scooters increased greenhouse gas emissions by 12,000 of tonnes per year (ITF, 2020). The
reason being is that Paris has a fleet of public transport buses that operate using renewable energy. The introduction of the shared e-
scooters shifted travellers from environmentally-friendly buses to e-scooter systems that did not use renewable energy resulting in the
negative impacts (this is an example of how this work has helped to identify discrepancies between commonly held beliefs and reality
as was discussed in Section 2.2). Moreover, production of electric micro-mobility vehicles involves use of scarce resources for battery
9
production as well consumption of fossil-based energy also resulting in a negative net impact on the environment (Klöckner et al.,
2013; Semenov, 2017; UN, 2013). However, the use of micro-mobility options as first and last-kilometre services has the potential to
provide emission benefits (Shaheen et al., 2010; Tiwari, 2019). In major cities in Australia like Sydney and Melbourne, around 67%
and 76% of short commuting trips involve private vehicles, respectively. Even shifting a small percentage of private vehicles to micro-
mobility would reduce auto-dependency and ease congestion (Dia, 2019; Masoud et al., 2019). In the US, more than half of the private
car trips are used for trips that are less than five miles. Micro-mobility has potential to shift those short distance trips to alternative low-
carbon modes of travel including e-bikes and e-scooters (Woods, 2019) and can replace about 30% of car trips (Fitt et al., 2019).
However, for long distance trips micro-mobility options are not likely to take trips away from public transport which will continue to
be at the heart of urban mobility in cities (Smith and Schwieterman, 2018). Moreover, smaller vehicles weigh less, therefore use less
energy (Tillemann and Feasley, 2018).
A study that focused on the effect of cycling in terms of emission and vehicle-kilometres-travelled (VKT) per passenger showed a
30% increase in cycling which led to a decrease of 1.6% in VKT per passenger and 1% reduction in CO2 emissions which is equivalent
to annual emissions reductions from 1,300 vehicles (Keall et al., 2018). Other studies showed that e-bikes had a lower emissions
footprint and more health benefits per passenger kilometre of travel compared to private vehicles (Ji et al., 2012). Another study
provided in depth analysis of micro-mobility within the context of sustainable transport and showed substantial mobility, safety and
environmental benefits (Rose, 2012). Finally, a study that compared different transport modes showed that using micro-mobility
services such as bicycles and small electric-driven vehicles result in the lowest fuel consumption values compared to passenger cars
in the city of Graz, Austria (Brunner et al., 2018).
Two case studies that have been conducted on electric small vehicles in Dublin explored how they can complement public transport
(Cuffe, 2018). The studies found micro-mobility makes public transport more accessible because it can be an attractive substitute for
long walks to access public transport. They are also small enough to be carried on busses, trams and trains.
A study from VOI e-scooter also showed the benefits of micro-mobility in terms of efficient use of space when compared to private
vehicles. The study found that private vehicles require 15–30% parking spaces in typical urban areas whereas as many as 20 scooters
can be parked in the same space allocated for only 1 private vehicle (VOI, 2019). A similar study in Spain estimated the environmental
benefits of cycling (Rojas-Rueda et al., 2011). Analysis of trip information from 181,982 bike-share subscribers showed an annual
reduction in carbon dioxide emissions exceeding 9 million kilograms per year.
3.6.1.4. Physical activity and wellbeing. Non-electric micro-mobility modes such as bicycling and scooting help to stimulate physical
movement and enhance mental health (Jones et al., 2016; Oja et al., 2011; Pettersson et al., 2016; Stark et al., 2018). Going forward,
active mobility will become a differentiating feature of smart and sustainable cities. Shifting trips from motorised private vehicles to
active travel modes such as cycling and scooting has positive impacts on human health and helps to prevent illnesses especially in the
developed world. A study by (Woodcock et al., 2014) showed that after introducing a bike-sharing scheme in London, the mean
physical activity per week per person increased by an average of 0.06 Metabolic Equivalent of Tasks. There were also noticeable gains
in health at the population level, though gender differences were observed. Men benefited most from reductions in ischaemic heart
diseases while the largest benefits for women were reductions in depression and anxiety.
Another study (Lindsay et al., 2011) showed that shifting 5% of trips from private vehicles to cycling would help to avoid 116
deaths annually by virtue of increased physical activity. This would result in net savings around $200 million per year in New Zealand
alone (Lindsay et al., 2011). Furthermore, a study by Jones et al. (2016) documented how personal activity can be increased using e-
bikes while also maintaining previous levels of cycling. This is because e-bikes are easier to use for more challenging journeys that used
to be avoided with conventional bikes. The key risk here, however, is that e-bike users would have walked or used a conventional
bicycle instead in which case electric micro-mobility would have reduced their physical activity (Gojanovic et al., 2011).
3.6.2. Cluster 2: Policy

A number of un-intended consequences have resulted from early deployments and field trials of micro-mobility services. These
included safety, liability, operational and infrastructure-related problems (Herrman, 2019). The operation of shared services to
enhance accessibility in urban areas requires proper planning and agile regulations. Surveys conducted in Sweden and Greece showed
that regulations and legislations for bike-friendly infrastructures, fleet management policies, pro-active cultural engagement are
important to the survival of effective operations of public bikes-haring schemes (Horton, 2006; Nikitas, 2019). Analysis by (Pucher and
Buehler, 2006) examined possible causes for higher cycling rates in Canada compared to the US and found that early adoption of agile
policies that focused on effective promotion and safety enhancement led to increasing cycling rates. Policy contexts for cycling,
affordable fees and GPS tracking also provided improved opportunities for substantial bike-sharing growth (Fishman, 2016).
3.6.2.1. Sidewalk space management related policies. Sidewalk and curb space management policies are important to reduce cluttering
and accommodate micro-mobility, delivery services, and pick-up and drop-off locations (Shaheen and Cohen, 2019). Policies for
effective management of sidewalks include formal processes such as written and codified regulations or through processes that pro
mote pilot programs and negotiated approvals (Shaheen and Cohen, 2019). Key elements of sidewalk management strategies for
shared micro-mobility include:
• Device caps: limits number of vehicles (bicycles, scooters, and other devices)
• Service area limitations: permissible/prohibited service operation areas
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• Designated parking areas: devices can only be parked in these areas

• Fees: annual fees or taxes per trip distance or duration collected from the operator in return for use of public right-of-way spaces
• Equipment requirements and operational needs: policies for governing operational speeds and permissible areas of operations
(Borchers, 2019).
Finally, proper urban forms and regulations, allowing high-quality accessibility to limit trip lengths are also required (Banister,
2008). In 2018, Singapore introduced the Active Mobility Act which included guidelines for safe sharing of public paths among
different users (LTA, 2020). This act included setting up of speed limits (Poh, 2019) and aimed to reduce crashes on public roads and
paths (Advice, 2020). Similarly, the UK introduced its first legal framework for e-scooters including governance of rental scheme
operations, allowing these vehicles to be used only on roads and cycle lanes subject to speed restriction of 15mph (Stone, 2020).
3.6.2.2. Equitable service standards and equity programs. Common areas of equity concerns include (Shaheen and Cohen, 2019):
• Most shared micro-mobility services require the use of a bank card payment. This becomes a barrier for users who don’t have access
to these facilities. Alternative payment options such as payments with pre-paid cards or public transport cards need to be
considered.
• Low-income users may find these services expensive. Discounts or subsidies should be considered for eligible low-income
households.
• Non-tech options such coin-deposit operations should be considered to benefit users who don’t have smartphone access or mobile
internet.
• Certain neighbourhoods may miss out on the shared micro-mobility facilities, e.g. suburbs further out from the city or in disad
vantaged communities.
• Adapted devices such as tricycles, hand pedalled cycles can also help to enhance access for users with disabilities.
3.6.2.3. Enforcement. Enforcement can be particularly relevant in safety considerations as related to decluttering of sidewalks and
ensuring safe pedestrian movement. Commonly used enforcement policies include (Shaheen and Cohen, 2019):
• Requiring commercial operators to relocate devices that are cluttering sidewalks and giving them a set time frame to remove the
devices. This helps to preserve right-of-way access and improve public acceptance.
• Service providers should protect private property (and privacy) by removing devices that are parked on private property without
the property owner consent.
• Fleet rebalancing should be completed as needed by service providers to maintain proper service equity and equipment densities
across the city
• Rebalancing stagnant devices to avoid un-necessary cluttering. Also, service providers should remove unsafe devices or equipment
that is no longer in operation.
3.6.2.4. Data standards. Public agencies should have access to standardised and open data to help[ them understand the impact of
services, monitor equitable standards, and integrate data into their systems to offer travellers with multimodal real-time information.
Guidelines for public agencies on adoption of open data standards for their micro-mobility policies would be needed. These include
(Shaheen and Cohen, 2019):
• Requiring information on how data is collected and geocoded for mapping.

• Ensuring data is accessible in an open format which allows download, indexing, and which are searchable and machine-readable.
Table 5
Policies overview for promoting electric two wheels mobility (Bakker, 2018).
Item Actions
Regulations Reduced speeds for devices

Clarity on mandates for use of safety helmets
Reduced speed limits on shared paths
Device safety standards
Device registration requirements for personal, commercial and parcel delivery services
Planning Planning and preserving lanes for micro-mobility vehicles
Managing travel demand to relieve congestion
Provision of parking facilities that don’t interfere with micro-mobility
Improving operations of electric bike-sharing facilities
Economic Government incentives for individuals and commercial operators
Subsidies and tax breaks for purchase of electric micro-mobility
Renewed thinking on taxation of fuels (petrol and diesel) and consider road pricing for charging per kilometre or unit of
time
Information/communication Government and industry champions to support micro-mobility
instruments Behavioural change programs
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• Open license to ensure the data is available for public use.

• Ensure data quality is high, timely and available as frequently as needed.
Issues surrounding ownership of data and privacy necessitate that all data should be anonymised (Rodriguez, 2019). Guidelines are
also needed for how the data is recorded, stored and be documented in a transparent manner (Zack, 2019).
3.6.2.5. Role of micro-mobility policies. The role of policy is to encourage micro-mobility solutions and promote their safe use as a
sustainable form of transport. This can include provisions for separate facilities along roads and intersections with heavy traffic, and
using traffic calming for residential suburbs to promote safety and convenience (Pucher and Buehler, 2008). Examples of policies
aimed at promoting micro-mobility are listed in Table 5 (Bakker, 2018).
To encourage wider adoptions, a number of interventions such as the provision of infrastructure for rights of way with ample
parking, supportive land-use and integration with public transport are needed (Pucher et al., 2010). The Netherlands, Denmark and
Germany have all adopted policies restricting car use through increased vehicle registration taxes, restrictions on car ownership and
increased parking fees (Buehler and Pucher, 2009; Pucher and Buehler, 2008).
3.6.3. Cluster 3: Technology

Wide-spread adoption of information technologies, mobile computing, AI and data analytics have facilitated the development of
smart mobility solutions in major cities around the world (Hood et al., 2011; Lee and Circella, 2019; O’brien et al., 2014; Romanillos
et al., 2016). In particular, the data collected from shared schemes includes temporal and spatial patterns which can help to understand
people’s behaviour and the impacts and limitations of these solutions. According to (Creutzig, 2020), providing a multimodal
framework provides an opportunity to integrate multiple data sets which will enable usage for different trip purposes and modes such
as e-scooters and bike-sharing.
Other data collected for each ride includes origins and destinations, battery life, payment method as well as weather data. This data
can be used for future developments and enhancing services by using AI and machine learning (He and Shin, 2020; Li et al., 2019; Lin
and Ye, 2018; Rahim Taleqani et al., 2019; White and Clarke, 2020). AI can also help in fleet management and deployment optimi
sation and accessibility based on users’ needs such that the devices are spread over the required city area (Chen et al., 2018).
According to de Chardon and Caruso (2015), new technologies can simplify bike-sharing usage and enforcement of bicycle returns
by using publicly available station level data. The authors estimated daily trip counts of bike-sharing systems and distinguished the
spatio-temporal rebalancing bike quantities. Similar studies investigated the spatio-temporal bike patterns in Chicago by analysing
massive data (Zhou, 2015). The information extracted from this data was beneficial to operators and policymakers such as mainte
nance requirements (a common problem for many bike-share schemes). Also, such data can provide information on where to provide
parking bays for most popular locations (O’brien et al., 2014) or to predict the demand at a station level (Tran et al., 2015). AI can also
improve safety by detecting road changes, identifying hazards and alerting drivers to prevent accidents (Yang et al., 2020). Data has
also been used to model the impacts of micro-mobility on environment (Zhang and Mi, 2018) as well as other transport modes such as
how bike-share usage affects public transport travel times (Jäppinen et al., 2013).
AI and data-driven technologies and sensors can also be useful for predictive maintenance (Melendez et al., 2019) through real-time
monitoring of the critical components of the shared device, and making predictions as to when repairs are required based on device
maintenance record as well as customer experience and feedback collected through their smartphones.
3.6.4. Cluster 4: Determinants of micro-mobility usage

One of the appealing aspects of micro-mobility solutions is their role in enhancing access and connectivity to public transport.
Understanding the public’s opinion, perceptions and concerns about micro-mobility and the socio-economic aspects of travel mode
choice is useful for successful operation of micro-mobility services. In North America, a survey conducted to analyse mode shift to bike-
sharing showed that these schemes created a considerable reduction in personal car and taxi use and were capable of drawing users
from every other travel mode (Martin and Shaheen, 2014; Shaheen et al., 2013). Attitudinal variables such as flexibility, comfort,
convenience and car ownership were found to have substantial influence on mode choice (Paulssen et al., 2014).
The built environment characteristics, such as topography and availability of bicycle paths and sidewalks, also affect mode choice
and public acceptance. Cycling paths along sloping terrains decrease attractiveness of active modes, while presence of sidewalks on
shortest route to destinations correlates with higher tendency to choose this mode (Rodrı ́guez and Joo, 2004). A similar study found
hilly terrains to be a significant physical variable that has an impact on the proportion of individuals who choose to cycle to work. Road
and weather conditions also have influence on the proportion of commuters who use cycling (Parkin et al., 2008). Moreover, un
derstanding the impacts of weather in terms of seasonal and regional variability is essential as users react differently to temperature
variations in different seasons and regions (Liu et al., 2015).
Programs such as “Bike-to-Work-Day” were designed to influence individuals’ attitude towards cycling which would lead to higher
bicycle ownership and more regular use (Handy et al., 2010). The factors affecting micro-mobility as a commuting mode were
addressed in a number of papers e.g. Heinen et al. (2013). Based on 4,000 web-based survey responses in four Dutch municipal regions,
it was found that factors such as a positive attitude towards cycling, availability of bicycle storage facilities, requirement to use a
bicycle during work hours, and showering facilities are influential and increase the likelihood of using bicycles to work. Similarly, it
was found in other studies that the main factor influencing users’ preferences on bike-share is convenience and financial savings
(Fishman, 2016). Similarly, the majority of metropolitan residents in the U.S. perceived shared e-scooters positively with slightly
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higher support from women and low-income echelons of society (Clewlow, 2019). Other studies which explored the influence of
weather (Noland, 2019), higher average temperatures were found to lead to longer and faster trips while higher wind conditions
resulted in a reduction in trip distances. As would be expected, snow and rain were found to reduce usage.
A study in Indianapolis analysed the temporal patterns of e-scooter trips and found that 15% of scooters were used for more than an
hour (Liu et al., 2019). The period between 4 and 9 pm was identified as the peak period of e-scooter usage on weekdays with more
than 70 active trips per minute. On weekends, the period between 2 and 7 pm was the busiest with more than 150 active trips per
minute.
A study in Austria analysed the spatial variance in scooter geo-fences. The results showed that geo-fences and no-parking zones
were significant barriers for riders and municipalities alike (Moran et al., 2020). In 2018, the city of San Francisco introduced a
dockless electric bike-sharing system (JUMP) along with an existing station-based regional bike-sharing system (Ford GoBike). The
introduction of JUMP was found to have created new demand in areas where the docked services were not available (Lazarus et al.,
2020). Another comparative study in Switzerland showed the distance range for e-bike trips overlapped with the distance range for taxi
services (Guidon et al., 2019), providing further evidence of their potential to disrupt car trips for shorter distances.
4. Summary
4.1. Summary of evaluations
This study used a systematic literature review to evaluate and analyse relevant literature on micro-mobility with a focus on research
that looked into its potential as a form of sustainable urban transport. While the topic has attracted research interest for a long time, the
results from this work showed a strong trend of increased research output on micro-mobility since 2010 culminating in around 44
publications in 2019 and 55 journal publications to date in 2020. While the numbers may seem small, these are publications that are
directly related to sustainability as discussed before and do not represent the whole body of literature on all aspects of micro-mobility.
During the search phase of this research, the authors identified a much larger corpus exceeding 1,000 journal articles over the analysis
period that covered many aspects of micro-mobility indicating wider research interests in the topic beyond sustainability.
The results from keyword co-occurrence analysis showed that in the years 2014–2016, the interest was devoted towards: “opti
misation”, ”health”, ”infrastructure”, “planning” and “mode choice”. From 2016 to 2018, research focus moved towards “cycling”,
“sustainable transport”, “air quality”, “road safety”, “bike share”, “accessibility”, “travel behaviour”, “shared mobility”, “equity” and
“gender”. During 2019–2020, more focus was given to topics around “data”, “social media”, “parking”, “agent based modelling” and
“dockless bike-sharing”.
The country analysis showed that the highest cited countries in micro-mobility research were the U.S. (2,919 citations), followed by
the U.K. (1,474 citations), Australia (1,291 citations), Netherlands (1,291 citations) and Canada (620 citations). The country citations
follow the country indicator appearing on each journal article at the time of publication.
The author citations and publications analysis identified the key researchers in this field which included Elliot Fishman (15 papers),
Susan Shaheen (13 papers), Lake Sagaris (8 papers), and Brian Caulfield, Evi Dons, Ione Avila-Palencia and Thomas Götschi (each 6
papers). The top 30 authors with the highest number of citations also included Elliot Fishman (1,261 citations), Susan Shaheen (1,199),
Hua Zhang (758 citations) and Stacey Guzman (703 citation). As emphasised earlier, these are only the papers and citations that were
identified as relevant to the sustainability focus of this work. Each of these authors have much higher citations across the wider micro-
mobility research field.
The co-citation analysis results showed that the focus of publications was on four main themes: Benefits, technology, policy and
behavioural mode choice. For the benefits theme, the main research directions included impacts of micro-mobility on time savings,
accessibility, congestion and air quality. Physical activity and wellbeing were also addressed in a large number of publications. For the
technology cluster, most publications focused on methodologies for analysis of big data sets which helped in understanding behav
ioural patterns, impacts, and limitations of operational services. Some recent papers focused on analytics, AI and modelling approaches
which facilitate the development of smart mobility in cities around the world. The policy cluster theme showed that the research
output addressed policies and regulations surrounding road and sidewalk management, operations service standards that meet equity
concerns, enforcement as well as the important role of holistic policies to promote sustainable micro-mobility. Finally, the research in
the behavioural mode choice cluster focused on the factors affecting users’ preferences of micro-mobility, understanding the socio-
economic factors influencing public acceptance of new mobility solutions and the likelihood of adoption of micro-mobility for
daily commutes.
4.2. Summary of impacts on sustainability, environment and air quality
The findings reported in this review from a large number of studies show that micro-mobility solutions and deployments have
helped to address a number of transportation challenges within only few years of their launch. These include contributions to alleviate
congestion, addressing the inequality in accessibility to services and opportunities and reducing emissions. Micro-mobility solutions
achieve these improvements in a number of aspects.
The first aspect is the amount and type of energy required for micro-mobility when compared to other transport modes because
small vehicles use considerably less energy. In countries where clean energy is limited, such tiny vehicles would require less of that
clean energy adding to wider benefits. In addition, all new forms of micro-mobility use electric motors which are more efficient and less
polluting than combustion engines. From a practical perspective, however, this can only be achieved by taking into consideration a
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holistic view of integrating micro-mobility into the mix of transport solutions through targeted strategies for decreasing the lifecycle
environmental effects associated with their use. In a recent study that examined lifecycle burdens of e-scooters (Hollingsworth et al,
2019), it was found that the electric charging environmental impacts were small relative to material production, manufacturing and
other burdens associated with relocating the e-scooters to charging stations. Specifically, the study found that environmental burdens
associated with shared e-scooters were primarily related to lifecycle considerations of materials used in their production, the
manufacturing process, and operational issues around the use of motorised vehicles for e-scooter collection and re-distribution across
the city. The modelling results reported in that study showed that increasing e-scooter lifetime (e.g. through anti-vandalism policies to
reduce scooter damage and misuse thus prolonging their operational life expectancy); reducing collection and distribution distances
while undertaking battery charging; improved central management of re-distribution processes; less frequent charging; and allowing e-
scooters to remain in safe public areas would reduce their adverse environmental impacts. Without such targeted policies and stra
tegies, the modelling results found e-scooters could potentially result in a net increase in emissions when compared to the transport
modes that they displace. These results suggest that even though e-scooters can be effective in reducing congestion and addressing the
last-kilometre trip challenges, they may not necessarily reduce the transport environmental impacts without deliberate interventions
to optimise operational performance through longer product lifetimes and reduced collection and distribution impacts. Another
important consideration in the lifecycle analysis discussed in that study is examination of the relative environmental impacts of shared
e-scooters compared to other modes of transport that they are displacing. The surveys reported in that study showed that about one-
third of e-scooter rides replaced private vehicle use, while nearly half of scooter users would have walked or biked instead. With only
one-third of e-scooter rides displacing private vehicle travel, the use of e-scooters was likely to increase overall transport emissions by
drawing people away from walking, biking or taking public transport. The study concluded that if e-scooters displaced private vehicle
trips half the time, this would result (on average) in a net environmental benefit.
The second aspect is the durability of micro-mobility services as continuous innovations are developed to increase the life span of
these small vehicles. Examples include application for swappable batteries making it easier to cover longer trips as well as minimising
material waste and improving recycling of batteries.
The third aspect is modal shift from motorised private vehicles and energy-intensive modes of transport. As was reported in this
review, previous studies have shown micro-mobility to play a role in reducing emissions and congestion, and improving human health
mainly for first and last-kilometre trips. Some additional benefits that touch directly on sustainability include the role they play in
efficient use of parking spaces, eliminating noise when in use which improves place-making in cities and creates healthy and more
liveable street environments.
4.3. Contributions
This paper presents results from a bibliometric analysis that was undertaken to underpin the identification of the most investigated
research areas related to the role of micro-mobility as a sustainable mode of urban transport. Despite valuable past research contri
butions on this topic, today’s body of research is quite fragmented limiting its usefulness for future research. This paper addressed this
limitation by consolidating knowledge on the topic, analysing past and on-going research developments, and providing future research
directions by using a rigorous and auditable systematic literature review methodology. Through the identification, filtering, critical
analysis and evaluations of a large body of literature, this work identified a corpus of 328 journal articles that represent the most
important research contributions on micro-mobility as a low-carbon mobility solution for future cities. The co-citation analysis un
dertaken in this work, in particular, helped to categorise the literature into four main research themes that address benefits, tech
nology, policy and behavioural mode-choice categories where the majority of research has been focused during the analysis period.
This paper, therefore, represents a consolidated reference of the research development backbone over time, and serves as a balanced
and objective contribution on research evidence on the topic and a reference point for future research on micro-mobility for sus
tainable cities.
4.4. Limitations
This research relied on bibliographic data and keyword information provided in the Scopus database. Substantial effort was
dedicated to identifying keywords that are most representative of the aims and objectives of this work, mainly the role of micro-
mobility as a sustainable mode of urban transport. While most authors would have included keywords that reflect this aspect of
their work, it is inevitable that the search criteria would miss some articles. This was addressed in this article by “snowballing” or
manually including literature that is familiar to the authors but was not identified in the search. The authors have a list of the
snowballed literature which can be provided upon request to ensure that the results of this research can be adequately audited and
reproduced.
Another key limitation concerns the inductively-driven procedure for bibliometric cluster analysis. The research team identified
four clusters emerging from the analysis and assigned titles for each cluster based on our own interpretation of the literature within
each cluster. Although we have justified the choice of these titles based on the literature inside each cluster, these are subjective, and
other researchers may identify different titles according to their own interpretations.
Finally, another general limitation of SLR studies, including this one, is that they can suffer from “publication bias” if this is not
taken into account. Publication bias refers to the limitation that “positive” results are more likely to be published than “negative”
results, which to a large extent depends on the viewpoint and perspective of the authors of each primary article. Publication bias can,
therefore lead to systematic bias in SLR studies unless meaningful independent efforts are made to address this limitation. This was
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addressed in this study by including a scan of grey literature (such as industry and government reports and white papers), conference
proceedings and stakeholder consultations.
4.5. Future research directions
Considering the analysis of the corpus, this work allowed for observing the changing landscape of urban mobility and how interest
in sustainable transport has shifted the narrative of research from the conventional approaches (e.g. building more roads) to new
thinking around disrupting current trends and introducing transformative urban mobility solutions. While the review acknowledges
that substantial research has been undertaken on the role of micro-mobility to enhance accessibility and sustainability, gaps still exist
today that undermine achieving this vision. These gaps are largely the result of persistent past (and in some cases current) policies that
promote private vehicle travel without adequate attention to low-carbon mobility solutions. This review therefore identifies a research
framework on urban mobility policies and practices to address current limitations and gaps in knowledge. To support a renewed
approach to sustainable urban mobility, the following future research directions are proposed:
4.5.1. Improved frameworks for rethinking urban mobility

Future research provides an opportunity for transforming urban mobility by:
• Following a systems approach that frames micro-mobility as part of a holistic strategy for sustainable and smart cities. By rec
ognising micro-mobility as a serious solution for transport in urban environments, with the potential to disrupt private vehicle short
distance travel, cities can chart a course towards sustainable mobility.
• Reframing the objectives of urban mobility to focus on improving access to education and economic opportunities, rather than the
traditional focus on movement of vehicles. The concept of accessibility will therefore need to be given more emphasis as a backbone
for future research efforts.
4.5.2. Agile policies and regulations

This review has identified policy and regulations as key barriers to wide-spread deployment of micro-mobility. Future research
should remove barriers to innovations by adopting broad policies and strategies to:
• Strengthen the land-use, transport and environment linkages. Agile policies are needed to re-build strong connections between
these factors to achieve sustainable outcomes.
• Rethink urban planning and infrastructure design. Future research should integrate creative planning with innovative infra
structure and engineering designs. Strong links between the supply and demand for travel would therefore help to reduce the need
for private vehicle travel.
• Realign transport infrastructure investment priorities. The current funding for transport infrastructure remain skewed towards
investments in private vehicle infrastructure in many cities around the world, and this must be corrected. More research funding is
required to develop and innovative infrastructure solutions to support micro-mobility initiatives.
4.5.3. Research routes to transform urban mobility

Research routes for encouraging micro-mobility include:
• Establish both short and long-term impacts of tech-enabled mobility solutions

• Develop evaluation of impacts frameworks that are rigorous and comprehensive
• Develop governance frameworks that are outcome-focused to overcome barriers to urban innovations
• Prioritise research innovations that integrate micro-mobility, active transport and public transport.
5. Conclusions
This paper provided a systematic analysis of the literature on micro-mobility from a sustainability perspective. At the time of
submission of this article, the authors are not aware of any such effort being undertaken before using the systematic literature review
approach. This comes at a time when it is increasingly necessary to understand the state of research in this field given the fragmen
tation of the literature and the important role that micro-mobility will play in helping cities around the world to meet their emissions
reductions targets.
The topic of micro-mobility, particularly as a low-carbon mobility solution, is receiving increasing attention as evidenced by the
spikes in research outputs in recent years. This paper represents an original contribution on the topic of micro-mobility that is both
important and urgent. First, the paper provides a good understanding of the origins of the literature, its development over time, the key
research focus areas, and key players (authors, institutions and journals) who shaped the direction of research in this field. Second, the
paper also offers suggestions regarding the best potential directions for future research to promote micro-mobility as a sustainable
solution for cities and urban environments. The paper identified a broad variety of topics, some of which have remained popular over
time (e.g. policy, regulations and behavioural studies) while others have emerged only recently (e.g. technology, data analytics and
evaluations of impacts). Through the co-citation analysis, the paper provided consistent evidence which showed micro-mobility to be
an effective low carbon mobility and sustainable transport strategy.
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Importantly, the findings reported in this review which are based on a large body of literature on the topic, show that emerging
micro-mobility solutions have helped to address a number of transportation challenges even within the space of a few years. They have
contributed to reducing congestion, addressing inequality in accessibility to services and opportunities, and were shown to be a
positive force for reducing pollution and helping cities in meeting their emissions reduction targets. They achieve this through a
number of influencing factors including type of energy required for micro-mobility, which compared to other transport modes, use
considerably less energy. All emerging forms of micro-mobility also use electric motors which are more efficient and less polluting than
combustion engines. They are also quite durable and benefit from continuous innovations which helps increase their life span and
reduce waste. Their main appeal is that they also contribute to shifting road users away from private vehicles and high pollutants
modes of transport to more energy efficient mobility solutions. Also, there is today considerable literature that suggests micro-mobility
will play a key role in improving human health and reducing emissions.
As was demonstrated in this work, systematic reviews offer some important advantages over the conventional narrative literature
reviews, and the authors recommend that it be widely implemented in transport research. Systematic reviews not only follow a
predefined methodology that specifies key research questions to be answered, it also provides bibliometric analysis and protocols that
can be systematically used to answer the research questions in a fair and transparent approach that can be re-traced and reproduced.
Systematic reviews also follow a defined search strategy using readily accessible databases (e.g. Scopus and Web-of-Science) to identify
key relevant literature on the topic. They also follow unambiguous inclusion and exclusion criteria that are easy to document and
verify on the databases’ search engines. Importantly, systematic reviews specify the quality criteria by which to evaluate the primary
studies, e.g. through limiting the search to quality journal articles that have attracted a minimum number of citations, providing a fair
basis for comparative evaluations.
Finally, this paper identified areas for future research investigations. These include research that targets frameworks for rethinking
urban mobility; research that aims to develop agile policies and regulations; and research that prioritises practical routes for informing
urban mobility policies that consider both immediate and long-term impacts through field and modelling studies.
Acknowledgements of Research Funding
Rusul Abduljabbar and Sohani Liyanage acknowledge their PhD scholarships. Rusul acknowledges the financial support provided
to her by both the Iraqi Government and Swinburne University of Technology. Sohani acknowledges the financial support provided to
her by Swinburne University of Technology.
Author contributions
Hussein Dia, Rusul Abduljabbar, Sohani Liyanage: Planning and conceptualisation. Rusul Abduljabbar: Methodology and gener
ation of results. Rusul Abduljabbar, Sohani Liyanage: Drafting of paper content, editing and updating. Hussein Dia: Reviewing, editing,
and structuring. Hussein Dia: Supervision and mentoring of the two research students.
Declaration of interests
The authors declare that there are no known conflicts of interest that can influence the work presented in this research.
Data availability statement
To ensure transparency of findings and allow other researchers to audit and reproduce the results reported in this study, the full list
of articles considered in this research can be found on this link https://drive.google.com/file/d/
1ZAiCLrVcMMpbKSW2isO8BYmSKGWl8DM-/view?usp=sharing.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2021.102734.
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Transportation Research Part D 92 (2021) 102734

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Transportation Research Part D

The role of micro-mobility in shaping sustainable cities: A

Available online 9 February 2021

2. The systematic literature review (SLR) approach

• Define the research aims and objectives of the study

Systematic Define the Identify key

Results and Define and apply

Fig. 1. Systematic literature review process.

Fig. 2. Inclusion and exclusion criteria and corpus refinement.

• Analyse the bibliometric data using publicly available tools

2.1. Research aims and objectives

Fig. 3. Publications per year.

2.2. Key research questions

• They are meaningful and important to researchers as well as practitioners.

First-generation Bicycles • Distinct colour bicycles • White bikes in the Netherlands

2.3. Search of scientific databases

2.4. Inclusion and exclusion criteria

3.1. Chronological publication trends

3.1.1. Evolution of micro-mobility: Historical perspective

Fig. 4. Overlay visualisation analysis for keywords per year.

Fig. 5. Number of citations per country.

Elliot Fishman 1,261 Elliot K Fishman 15

Transportation Research Record 1,383 Sustainability (Switzerland) 27

Fig. 6. Network visualisation of co-citation analysis.

et al., 2010). Some of these barriers are summarised in Table 2.

3.2. Co-occurrence (author keywords)

3.3. Citation analysis (countries)

3.4. Citation analysis of journal papers and authors

3.5. Citation analysis for journals

3.6. Co-citation analysis

3.6.1. Cluster 1: Benefits

3.6.2. Cluster 2: Policy

• Designated parking areas: devices can only be parked in these areas

• Requiring information on how data is collected and geocoded for mapping.

Regulations Reduced speeds for devices

• Open license to ensure the data is available for public use.

3.6.3. Cluster 3: Technology

3.6.4. Cluster 4: Determinants of micro-mobility usage

4.1. Summary of evaluations

4.2. Summary of impacts on sustainability, environment and air quality

4.5. Future research directions

4.5.1. Improved frameworks for rethinking urban mobility

4.5.2. Agile policies and regulations

4.5.3. Research routes to transform urban mobility

• Establish both short and long-term impacts of tech-enabled mobility solutions

Acknowledgements of Research Funding

Data availability statement

Appendix A. Supplementary material

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2021.102734.

Abrams, M., 2019. Everywhere at once. Mech. Eng. 141, 36–6501.

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