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 LOAD FACTOR DESIGN

composite welded plate girder

by
Yavuz l. Gonulsen, SE

Bridge Design Squad Leader

Illinois Department of Transportation
Springfield, Illinois

.
 Page 3

THANK YOU MR. CHAIRN~N

GOOD EVENING LADIES & GENTLEMEN

IN MY PRESENTATION1 SHALL DISCUSS THE

APPLICATION OF THE LOAD FACTOR DESIGN PRINCIPLES
TO A COMPOSITEWELDEDPLATE GIRDER.

THE DISCUSSION SHALL INCLUDE THE DESIGN OF

A 2 -SPAN CONTINUOUSWELDEDPLATE GIRDER WITH THE
FOLLOWING CONDITIONS AND CONSIDERATIONSI

l:LE:VATION V1E.W

1)* THE DESIGN SHALL INCLUDE DIFFERENT GRADES

OF STEEL DEPENDING UPON THE STRESSES UTILIZING
A36,A572 GRADE 42 AND A441 (WITH A YIELD FOINT
OF 42,000 PSI) FOR THICKNESS OYER 1-1/2".

CROSS-SECTIONS WILL BE UNSY~ETRICAL WITH

RESPECT TO THE TOP AND BOTTOMFLANGES.

NON-COMPACTSECTIONS ONLY ARE CONSIDERED

BECAUSE OF THE NORN~L PROPORTIONSOF PLATEGIRDERS.

(4) COMPOSITE ACTION WILL BE CONSIDERED IN THE

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE MOMENTREGIONS.
A HYBRID BEAM DESIGN WILL BE INCLUDED IN A
WEIGHT SUMMARY IN TERMS OF EQUIVALENT AJ6 STEEJ .

FATIGUE WILL BE CONSIDERED.

* 1.7.57-DESIGN STRESS FOR STRUCTURAL STEEL

The design stress íor structural steel shall be the speciíied mi~imum yield
point or yield strength. Fy. oí the steel used as set íorth in Article 1.7.1.
 AND FINALLY
--* A COMPARISONOF THE LOAD FACTORDESIGNS BY I
(7)
EQUIVALENT ~~IGHTS WILL BE MAnE WITH A STANDARD j
A36 DESIGN BASED ON CURRENT ALLOWABLE SERVICE
DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS. INCLUDED IN THE COMPARIS N
IS A LOAD FACTOR HYBRID DESIGN USING A36, A572
GRADE 50 AND A441 (WITH A YIELD POINT OF 46,000 PSI)

AS AN INTRODUCTION TO THE DETAIL DESIGN OF THE i

GIRDERS, I SHALL DISCUSS THE BEHAVIOR OF A GIRDER AS A
BACKGROUND TO THE UNDERSTANDINGOF THE LOAD FACTOR DESI N
METHOD, A~m THE MEANING OF MAXIMUM STRENGTH AND OVERLOAREQUIREM

THIS STUDY IS BASED ON A TvJO-SPAN CONTINUOUS

BRIDGE STRUCTURE OF )00 FEET TOTAL LENGTH, WITH EQUAL
SPANS OF 150 FT. EACH. THE BRIDGE CROSSES A TWO- LANE
HIGHWAY vvITH FULL SHOULDERS AND FRONTAGE ROADS.

THE SIDE PIERS ARE

FOR SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS,ELIMINATED.

*See AASHTO for the mandatory notch toughness and

.;' ..".~'- -=
,. ,,/ weldability requirements of steels.

-
TABLE 1.7.1A

.~ ALLOWABLE DESION STRESSES-ST~UCTURAL STEEL (AU vaJues in parenthesis are in MPa)

~ 1914
HiCh Yield Strenclh
StructuraJ Hllh Strenlth Low-Alloy Steel Quen!,hed and Tempered
Type Steel AUoy Sleel

AASHTO Delilnatlon (7) M-183 M.223 M.222 M244(A~14)(8)

A~72 Grad. ~O A 588 A~17(8)(lO)
Equlvalent ASTM Delilnation A 36
Thlekneu ot Platea (mm) Up to Up to Up &0 Up to Oyer 2",," &0
8"(203.2) 2" (&0,8) 4"( 1 01.6) 2~"(63.~) 4"(63.& &0
Incl (&) Incl lncl Incl. 101.6) Incl.
AIJ ShapPI thru 426 AU Not No&
Shapel(6) Group.&) Ib./ft.(634 k,/m) GrouPI Applicable Appücable
MiJúmwn tenliJe atrenctb Fu &8,000 65,000 70,000 IIO.UOU 100,000
(399.89&) (448.1 ~9) (482.632) (7~8."20) (689.470)
Minimum yield point o. 36,000 ~O,OOO 50,000 100,000 90,000
Mlnlmum yield Itrencth F (248.211) (344.737) /344.737) (689:470) (620.&27)

(7) Except lor the mandatory notch toucbnea and weldabiUty requirements, tbe ASTM
de8ianations are similar to the AASHTO desipations. Steels meetinc the AASHTO require-
ments are DreQualified for use in welded bridaes.
TYP/CAl HALF CROSS Sl:CT1OÁ':

THE TYPICAL HALF CROSS-SECTION

INDICATES A
42' -O" ROADWAY, TWO SAFETY CURBS AND RAILINGS AT l' -9"
ON EACHSIDE, RESULTINGIN A TOTAL WIDTH OF 46'-0"
FOR THE STRUCTURE.
A DECK OVERHANGIS USED ON EACH SIDE OF THE FIV
GIRDERS WHICH ARE SPACED AT 9-.3". j c
 ~

BEFOREDISCUSSINGTHE DETAILS OF THE DESIGN

OF THE PLATE GIRDERS, LET US CONSIDER THE INTERPRETATION
OF THE
N~XIMUM STRENGTHAND OVERLOADREQUIREMENTS.

IT HAS BEEN ALREADYSTATED THAT THESE T~\O

CONDITIONS MUST BE INVESTIGATED AT EACH CRITICAL
CROSS-SECTION; HO\~EVER, BY A REVIEW OF THE FORMULAS
AND BASIC DESIGNREQUIREMENTS,IT IS FREQUENTLY
POSSIB
TO DETERMINEWHICHCONDITIONCONTROLS. :I!

THE MAXI~~UM STRENGTH REQUIRE~ENT FOR EACH

G1RDER 1S THE lV'.AX1lI/jUl\~lI/jO~1ENT DUE TO THE TOTAL LOAD
DETERM1NED BY THE EXPRESS1ON I

\.~ l D + y; l L + 1) J
THE OVERLOAD REQUIREMENT FOR EACH GIRDER IS
THE MO~lliNT DUE TO THE TOTAL LOAD TO BE CARRIED BY
THE GIRDER WITHOUT SUSTAINING ANY AFPRECIABLE SET
OR RESIDUAL DEFLECTION AND IS DETERMINED FROM THE
EXPRESSIONa

-\- C?¡~
 1.7.72-0VERLOAD
(A) Noncomposite Beams

For noncomposite beams the moment causedby D+5(L+I)/3 shall not ex.
ceed 0.8 F yS. For such beamsdesigned for Group lA loading, the moment
caused by D+2.2(L+I) shall not exceed 0.8 F yS. In the case of moment
redistribution under the provisions of Article 1.7.59(A)(3), the above limita-
tion shall apply to the modified moments but not to the original moments.

(B) Composite Beams

For composite beamsthe moment caused by D+5(L+l)/3 shall not exceed

95 percent of the moment at first yielding in the section. For such beams
designed for Group lA loading, the moment caused by D+2.2(L+l) shall not
exceed 95 percent of'the moment at first yielding in the section. In comput-
ing dead load stressesthe presence or absence of temporary supports during
the construction shall be considered.

(C) Friction Joints

The shear caused by the loading D + 5(L+I)/3 in friction type high-strength
bolted joints shall not exceed 1.33 x Fy, where Fy is the aIlowable shear stress
as listed in Tables 1.7.41C1 or 1.7.41C2.
For combined shear and tension in friction-type joints where applied
torees reduce the total clamping force on the friction plane, the maximum
shear stress shall not exceed the values obtained from the foUowing
equations:
For AASHTO Ml64 (ASTM A325) bolts
(
.33 F y 1-
1.59 x 10-5 ft
))
fv -1.33 Fv (1-1.59 x 10'Sft) al
.00689

For AASHTO M253 (ASTM A490) bolts

1.27 X 10-5 ft
fy = 1.33 Fy (1-1.27 x 10-5 ft) or ~.33 Fy (1
.00689 ))
Where Ít is the applied tensile load in pounds per square inch (MPa).

BECAUSEMOST PLATE GIRDERS ARE NON-COMPACT,

THERE 1S NO RE-D1STR1BUT1ON OF FORCES AND THEREFORE
THE STRENGTH AND OVERLOAD REQ U1REMENTS ARE APPL1ED
TO EACH CR1T1CAL SECT1ON.
THE PROPORTIONSOF THE CROSS-SECTION MUST BE
SUCH THAT BOTH THE STRENGTH AND OVERLOAD REQUIRE~~NTS
ARE SATISFIED.
IN THIS CONTINUOUSNON-COMPACTCOMPOSITE
GIRDER THE CRITICAL SECTIONS TO BE INVESTIGATED OCCUR
AT THE POINT OF ~~XIMUM POSITIVE MOMENT AND AT THE
SUPPORT WHERE THE MAXI~~UM NEGATIVE MOMENT OCCURS.

IN THE POSITIVE MOMENTSECTION, THE CONCRETE

IS EFFECTIVE IN COMPRESSIONAS THE COMPOSITESLAB.

IN THE NEGATIVE REGION aYER THE SUPPORT, THE

TOP FLANGE IS IN TENSION AND THE CONCRETEIS lNEFFECTI E
IN TENSIor~ BUT IS CONSIDERED TO TRANSFER THE HORIZONTA
SHEAR FROM THE SHEAR CONNECTORS TO THE REINFORCING BAR
WHICH ARE CONSIDERED TO BE AN EFFECTIVE PART OF THECROSS-SECTION
i~
 IN ORDERTO VISUALIZE AND UNDERSTAND
THE
RELATION OF THE STRENGTH AND OVERLOAD REQUIREME¡~TS
AT THE SUPPORT, LET US REVIEW THE MOMENT-CURVATURE
BEHAVIOR OF A NON-COMPACTNON-COMPOSITESECTION.
ALTHOUGHOUR DESIGN CONSIDERS THE REINFORCING BARS
TO
--
BE EFFECTIVE AT THIS SECTION, THE MOMENT-
CURVATURE
PLOT WOULDBE SIMILAR. THE ORDINATEIS
THE RATIO OF THE APPLIED MOMENT TO THE YIELD NIOfilliNT,
AND THE ABSCISSA IS THE DEGREE OR A~10UNT OF CURVATURE

THE Y1ELD MOMEr~T 1S DEF1NED AS

My ~ Fy~S .

vJHERE Fv 1S THE Y1ELD STRENGTH OR STRESS AND 5 1S

THE ELAST1C SECT1ON
MODULUS.

.
 MI THE CURVE INDICATES THAT WHEN THE RATIO OF
I~VIS EQUAL TO OR LESS THAN 0.8, THERE IS A LINEAR
RELATIONSHIP AND WHEN THE LOAD 18 REMOVED, NO
APPRECIABLE RESIDUAL DEFLECTIONS WILL REW~IN.
BEYONDTHE 0.8 RATIO, RESIDUAL STRESSES, THICK SS
TOLERANCES AND OUT OF STRAIGHTNESS WILL INCREASE THE
CURVATUREMORERAPIDLY THAN THE MOMENT. AS A RESULT,
RESIDUAL DEFLECTIONS WILL REMAIN AND BE NOTICED UPON
REMOVAL OF THE LOAD.
THE OVERLOADREQUIREWffiNTFOR MONffiNT18
EXPRESSEDAS 8/10 OF THE YIELD MOMENTAND IS.
0.8 Fy~ 5 ~ D + % (L+I)
THE PLOT INDICATES THAT THE LOAD-CARRYI[~G
CAPACITY OF THE SECION WILL EXCEED THE YIELD
MONJENT, My, BY SOlVIEAMOUNT, WHICH NlAY VARY FROr:,
A SMALL INCRE~mNT UP TO THAT OF A FULL COMPACTSECTION.
THE AMOUNTWILL DEPEND UPON THE ABILITY
OF THAT PORTION OF THE vfEB IN COMPRE8SION TO TAr:E
GENERAL YIELD STRAINS WITHOUT BUCKLING.

HOWEVER, THE ADDITIONAL CAPACITY OF A r~O~1-

COMPACT SECTION ABOVE, ~y , IS NOT EASY TO DETER~~Irm
AND THEREFOREFOR THESE CRITERIA, A CONSERVATIVE
APPROACHIS TAKEN; AND THE FULL CAPACITY OF THE
SECTION IS ASSilllED EQUAL TO ~Y'

THEREFORE, THE ~~XIMUM STRENGTH REQUIREMENT

FOR MOMENT
IS EXPRESSED
AS.

IT APPEARSTHAT IF THE EQUATIONIS DIVIDED

BY 1. J, TO THE OVERLOADEXPRESSION
IT ~úOULD BE ALMOST IDENTICAL
HOWEVER,.THEYARE DIFFERENT BECAUSETHE
rv~XIMUM STRENGTH FORMULA CAN INCREASE BECAUSE OF THE
SHAPE FACTOR OF THE SECTION, vlliEREAS THE ELASTIC SECTIO
MODULUS
HAS A SPECIFIC VALUE IN THE OVERLOAD
FORMULA.
THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE TWOEXPRESSIONS ON
THE CURVE INDICATES THAT THE OVERLOAD CONDITION
MAY COt~ROL FOR THE NEGATIVE r~OMENT ON A
NON-COMPACT,NON-COMPOSITESECTION AT THE INTERIOR
SUPPORTS.

.
 10

A SIflIILAR MO~iliNT-CURVATURE PLOT CAN BE USED

TO ILLUSTRATE THE SERVICE AND STRENGTH REQUIREMENTS
OF A NON-OCMPACTCOMPOSITEGIRDER WITH THE CONCRETE
DECK FULLY EFFECTIVE IN COf~PRESSION IN THE POSITIVE
MON~NTREGION. FOR THIS SECTION THE CURVATUREIS
ASSUMED TO 1~ICREASE LINEARLY TO A POINT WHERE THE
APPLIED MOMENT1S EQUAL TO 95/100 OF THE YIELD MOMENT.
THIS HIGHER VALUE IS OBTAINED BECAUSE THE CQMPRESSION
FLANGE 1S RESTRA1NED BY THE CONCRETE DECK. FOR THE
NON-CO~IPACT, CO~1POSITE G1RDER THE OVERLOAD REQUIRE~~NT
CAN THEREFORE BE EXPRESSED AS I
 11

THE TOTAL CAPAC1TY OF THE COMPOS1TE SECT1Ot1 ~'¡1Ll P.LvwAY

EXCEED, ~y, BY SOME AOCOUNT. HO1VEVER, THE COr~SERVAT1 E
APPROACH 15 AGA1N TAKEN AND THE TOTAL CAPAC1TY FOR
PIIOMENT 1S ASSUMED EQUAL TOJ to..-1y. THE STRENGTH
REQU1REW~NT FOR r~OMENT CAN THEREFORE BE EXPRESSED AS:

r, S ~ \13[D+~(Lo4o1)J
THEREFORE, FOR THE NON-CO11PACT, COfvlPOS1TE
SECT1ONTHE STRENGTH
REQU1REN~NT
1S MORESEVERETHAN
THE OVERLOAD REQU1REMENT AND STRENGTH W1LL ALWAYS GOVE N
FOR MOlfiEtiT.

THE SAN~ STREr~GTH AND OVERLOAD REQUIRE~~NTS

FOR MO~mNTMUSTALSO BE MET IN SHEAR. HOWEVER,THE
STRENGTH FORMULAS FOR SHEAR II~ THE CRITERIA HAVE
BEEN PREPARED SUCH THAT RESIDUAL SET, LATERALLY OR
VERTICALLY, WILL NOT OCCURUNTIL SUCH TIME AS THE
APPLIED SHEAR IS EQUAL TO OR GREATER THAN THAT CAUSED
BY THE TOTAL LOAD OBTAINED FROM THE MAXIMillil STRENGTH
EXPRESSION. Ar~ EXCEPTIOr~ TO THIS IS AT LOCATIONS IN
\~HICH rf~XI~1UM MOMENT Arm SHEAR OCCUR SIMULTANEOUSLY.
FOR THIS CASE A REDUCTIONFORMULAIS NECESSARY AND
IS INCLUDEDIN THE REQUIREMENTSOF THE CRITERIA.
 1?

Sflf:A R

llnsl/tlerJed web

tI~
o

Sil/Tened web

fl}j

but not more than O.58F yDtw

(3)Theshearcapacityofbeams and girders with webs fulfilling the require-

ments ofArticle 1.7.59(E)(1) shall be computed as:

0.87 (l-C)Vl+(do/D);¡
Vu=Vp[c+

where

¿
 13

IN THIS EXAMPLE, FOR SH~~AR DESIGN, AN

INVESTIGATION OF STIFFENED AND UNSTIFFENED WEBS IS
NECESSARY .THE EXPRESSIOI\f FOR THE STREI'JGTH OF
UNSTIFFE~lliD SLENDER WEBS IS STATED Ir~ THE CRITERIA AS.
\ / ~ .3.5 E-lJ
v -D

vlHERE D IN THIS EQUATION IS THE CLEAR DISTANCE BETL~EEr~

FLAl'TGES
.
THIS IS THE ELASTIC BUCKLING FORMULA FOR A
PLATE SI~~FLY SUPPORTEDON TWOEDGES AND SUBJECTED
TO SHEARFORCES. IT PROVIDES FOR ELASTIC BUCKLING
~vITH NO COf'ISIDERATIOl'I FOR POST BUCKIING STRENGTH.
HEfiCE, A COf-iSERVATIVE SOLUTION IS OBTAIl'lliD IF "V"
IS OBTAINEDFROMTHE STRENGTH
EQUATIONa

v=
FOR THE STIFFENED \VEB, POST BUCKLING STRENGTH IS
CONSIDERED, AND THE APPLICABLE EXPRESSION ISa
.0.51 1-C) -
C +~Qd~.7~\r...
'f""" ".. /~,
WHERE do IS THE DISTANCE BETWEEN VE;TICAL STIFFENERS
AND D IS THE CLEAR DISTANCE BETWEEN FLANGES.
, ,"
\,1 '- D 1..;';
,v ~,~ J '2
+ ?'IS\~1, 04-
-
WHERE D I S DEAD LOAD.
 14

IN THE ULTIn~TE SHEAR FORMULA, THE FIRST TERM 1 THE

BRACKET, C, REPRESENTSTHE ELASTIC BUCKLING STRErlGTH,
THE SECOND FROM
RESULTING TERM THE
REPRESENTS
TENDENCYTHE POST WEB
OF THE BUCKLING STRENGTH
BETWEEN :;;1
TRANS- r!r 1
VERSE STIFFENERS TO ACT SIMILAR TO THE DIAGONAL OF A 1: +;1
PRATT TRUSSPANEL. ;1'
1.
Ij .
UNDERLOADS APPROACHING \/U , RIPPLES W~Y
FORM IN THE WEB SIMILAR TO THOSE WHICH FORM IN THE
SKIN OF A~I AIRPLANE WING DURING FLIGHT. THIS IS OF
NO IMPORTANCEEXCEPT IN THE CONSIDERATION OF FATIGUE
WHICH IS TAKEN INTO ACCOUNTBY THE LIMITING WEB DEPTH
TO THICKNESS RATIOS.
THE FORMULASDEVELOPEDABOVE ARE THE MOST
IMPORTANT O~S IN SELECTING THE DESIRED CROSS-SECTION.
OTHERS, SUCH AS THOSE"FOR STIFFENER SPACING, STIFFENER
SIZE, SHEAR CONNECTORSPACING, ETC., ARE NECESSARYAND
ARE PROVIDED IN THE CRITERIA. HOWEVER, THEY ARE
PROBABLY BEST EXPLAINED BY PROCEEDING WITH THE DESIGNPROBLEM.
 15
SECTION 7-STRUCTURAL STEEL DESIGN
GENERALREQUIREMENTS
-
~~
-
~
a
STRENGTH DESIGN METHOD
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN

.7.52-SCOPE
J91-1 Load Factor design is an alternate method for design of simple and con-
tinuous beam and girder structures of moderate length. It is a method of propor
tioning structural members for multiples of the design loads. To insure service.
ability and durability. consideration is given to the control of permanent de
formations under overloads, to the fatigue characteristics under service loadings
and to the control of live load deflections under service loadings.

DESIGNDATA,
SPECIFICATIONS: 1977 AASHTO STANDARD
SPECIFICATIONS FOR HIGHWAYBRIDGES, 1978, 1979, 1980
INTERIM SPECIFICATIONS AS APPLICA8LE...
THE EFFECT OF CREEP IS CONSIDERED IN THE CaMPOS TE
DESIGN BY INCREASING THE MODULARRATIO, N, BY A FACTOR
nF ~. ATm ~nMPTTrpTNn THE SECTION PROPERTI'
 16

1.7.54-LOADS
Service live loads are vehicles which may operate on a highway legally with-
out specialload permito
For design purposes. the service loads are taken as the dead. live and impact
loadings described in Section 1.2 (except Art. 1.2.4).
Overloads are the live loads that can be allowed on a structure on infrequent
occasions without causing permanent damage. For design purposes the maxi-
mum overload is taken as 5(L+I)/3.
The maximum loads are the loadings specified in Article 1.7.58.

1.7.55-DESIGN THEORV
The moments, shears and other forces shall be determined by assuming elastic
behavior of the structure except as modified in Article 1.7 .59(A)(3).
The members shall be proportioned by the methods specüied in Articles
1.7.59 through 1.7.71 so that their computed maximum strengths shall be at
leut equal to the total effects of design loads multiplied by their respectiye load
factors specified in Article 1.2.22.

L ood.s Per G'lrder

Live /oad
-~--
5.5 -
9.es
5.5

THE DEAD AND LIVE LOADS ACTING ON EACH GIRDER

ARE AS INDICATED.
S THEREIS NO CHANGEIN THE DISTRIBUTION FACTOR
~5.5 FROM WHAT IT IS IN THE CURRENTALLOWABLESTRESS
DESIGNSPECIFICATIONS.
 IV

~
=: , 1.7.58-MAXIMUM DESIGN LOADS
The maximum moments, shears or forces to be sustained by a stress-carrying
member shall be computed from the fonnulas shown in Article 1.2.22. Each part
of the structure &hall be proportioned lor the group loada that are applicable and
the maximum design required by the group loading combinations shall be used.

1.2.22-LOADING COMBJNATIONS
The following Groups represent various combinations of loads and forces to
which a structure may be subjected. Each component of the structure, or the
foundation on which it rests, shall be proportioned to withstand safely sIl group
combinations of these forces that are applicable to the particular site or type.
Group loading combinations for Service Load Design and Load Factor Design
are given by:

Group (N) = r[{Jo"D +{JL (L + 1) + {JcCF + {JEE + {JBB + {JsSF + fJwW +

{JWLWL + PL" LF + {JR (R + S + T) + {JEQEQ + {3lcEICE]
where
N = group number
1 = load factor. see Table 1.2.22
fJ = coefficient, see Table 1.2.22

For service load design the percentage of the baaic unit stress for the various
8TouPSis shown in Table 1.2.22.
See Articles 1.2.1 to 1.2.21 forloads and forces expressed in each group. The
maximurn section required shall be used.
For load factor design, the gamma and beta factors given in Table 1.2.22 art'
only intended for designing structural members by the lORdfactor concept..The
actual loads should not be increased by the factors shown in Ute table when
designing for foundations (soil pressure,piJe loads,etc.). The loRd facton are not
intended to be used when checking for foundation stability (safety factors
against over-turning, sliding, etc.) of a structure.
When long span structures are being designed by load factor designothe
gamma and beta factors specified for Load Factor Design repreaent general
conditions and should be increased if in the Engineer's judgment, anticipated
loada, asviee conditions or materia~ of conatruction are different U1aDantici-
pated by the specificationa.

TABLE 1.2.22
Table of Coefficient! "Y and p

Col. No. I 1 '4 '5 '6 718 19 ~10111 /12 113 114

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 21

THE WEB DEPTH FOR THE ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN

WAS SELECTED ON THE BASIS OF GENERAL DESIGN PRACTICE.
FOR SPANS OF THIS LENGTH THE SECTION REQUIREMENTS WILL
BE LESS FOR THE LOAD FACTOR DESIGN THAN FOR THE ALLOWAB
STRESS DESIGNa THEREFORE, A WEB DEPTH SLIGHTLY LESS THA
USUALLY USED SHOULDBE SELECTED FOR LOAD FACTORDESIGN. .

A WEB THICKNESS OF 9/16" WAS CALCULATED TO PROV DE

A SHEAR CAPACITY FOR THE ALLOWABLESTRESS DESIGN SUFFIC ENT
TO OFFSET THE NEED FOR TRANSVERSESTIFFENERS IN THE POS TIVE
MOMENTREGIONS. THE SAME THICKNESS IS RETAINED FOR THE
LOAD FACTOR DESIGN BECAUSE A36 STEEL WILL BE USED IN BO HDESIGNS
THE STEEL FOR THE NEGATIVE MOMENTREGIONS WIL BE
A572 FOR THICKNESSES EQUAL TO OR LESS THAN 1-1/2", BOTH
WITH A YIELD STRENGTHOF 42,000 PSI. IT IS NECESSARYT
CHECK THE DEPTH TO THICKNESS RATIO FOR THE A572 STEEL F R
STIFFENED WEBS, AND IT IS CALCULATED TO BE 128 WHICH IS
LESS THAN THE 178 ALLOWED. I
AT THE MAXIMUM POSITIVE l\~OMENT SECTION, THE I
FLANGES FOR THE LOAD FACTOR DESIGN MAY BE EXPECTED
TO BE SMALLER THAN THOSE REQUIRED FOR THE ALLOWABLE ST SS
DESIGN FOR SPANS OF THE LENGTH CONSIDERED IN THISCOMFARISON.
FOR THE ALLOWABLESTRESS DESIGN A TOP FLAN E
OF 16 X .3/4" AND A BOTTOM FLANGE OF 20" X 1-1/8" WEREREQUIRED.
FOR THE LOADFACTORDESIGN, IT IS ASSUN~D
THAT THESE WILL BE REDUCED TO 14" X 5/8" AND 18" X 1-1/ "RESPEC
FLANGESAND WEBARE OF A.36 STEEL. .
THE WIDTH TO THICKNESS RATIO OF THE OUTSTANDING
WIDTH OF THE TOP COMPRESSIONFLANGE IS COMPUTEDFOR
COMPLIANCE WITH THE REQUIREMENTSTO PREVENTLOCAL
BUCKLING; AND THESE AREl

=
bit ~/~

THE LOCAL BUCKLING FORMULA IS THE SAME AS THAT

IN THE CURRENT
ALLOWABLE
STRESSDESIGN SPECIFICATIONS ~
EXCEPT THAT IT IS WRITTEN IN TERMS OF THE YIELD STRENGT
OF THE STEEL.
THE EFFECTIVE FLANGE WIDTH OF THE CONCRETE SLAB
AS A PART OF THE COMPOSITE BEAM IS DETERMINED IN
ACCORDANCEWITH THE CURRENTALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN
SPECIFICATIONS REQUIREMENTSa SUCH TRATa
1/4 of the span = 1/4 X 150' X 12 = 450"
CENTER TO CENTERGIRDERS = 9.25' X 12 = 111"
AND
12 TIlV'iES THE SLAB THICKNESS = 12 X 7" = 84"
 THE SECTION PROPERTIES OF THE STEEL GIRDER,
THE STEEL GIRDER WITH THE SLAB FULLY EFFECTIVE AND
ALSO WITH THE SLAB 1/3 EFFECTIVE TO ACCOUNTFOR CREEP
AND THE MAXIM"" POSITIVE "OMENTS FOR STRENGTHREQUIRE-
MENTS ARE COMPUTED IN ORDER TO VERIFY THE STRENGTH OF
THE SECTION,

THE SECTION MODULI USED TO COMPUTETHE STRESSES

ARE THE CONVENTIONAL SECTION MODULI FOR COMPOSITE
CONSTRUCTION.
 23

LET US ~lOWCOMPARE THE MAXIMUM POSITIVE MOW~NT

SECTION REQUIRED FOR LOAD FACTOR DESIG~l WITH THAT
REQUIRED FOR A DESIGN BY THE CURRENTALLOWABLESTRESS
DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS.

SECTION
IT CAN,. BE SEEN THAT THE GIRDER IS REDUCED IN
AND HENCE WEIGHT FOR THE LOAD FACTOR DESIGN.
THIS HAS BEEN ACCOMPLISHEDBY REDUCING THE EXCESSIVE
I
CAPACITY ABOVE THAT WHICH IS NOT AVAILABLE IN SHORTER
SPANS DESIG~¡ED BY ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN SPECIFICATION
AND ON WHICH THE DEAD LOAD AND CONSTANT SAFETY FACTOR VE
A LESSEREFFECT. """..
 24

Jh.6 @ /e.~ rNo.7(q}/tN'

o o o o o t ~ o o °'
:
-
I{'\
~
-IYeult'd/ kl.5'
~

(j
",1
c()

THE MAXIMUM NEGATIVE MOMENT SECTION WILL BE

DESIGNED. AT THE INTERIOR SUPPORT, A 24" X 1-1/2" TOP I
FLANGE PLATE Al'ill A 24" X 1-5/8'" BOTTOM FLANGE PLATE
WITH A. 72" X 9/16" WEB ARE SELECTED FOR A TRIAL SECTION.
THE TOP FLANGE AND WEB PLATE ARE A572 GRADE 42, STEEL
AND THE BOTTOMFLANGE IS A441 STEEL BECAUSE ITS THICKNE S
EXCEEDS 1-1/2". ALSO If'~CLUDED. IN THIS SECTION IS THE
lONG}TUDINAL DECK REINFORCEMENT
CONSISTING'OF #6 BARS
ALTERNATING WITH #7 BARS, EACH AT 12" ON CENTER. a!, I

LOCAL BUCKLING OF THE BOTTOMCOMPRESSIONFLANGE

MUST BE INVESTIGATED.
 215

/10/t1ENTS

: 4}O33 K'
1V.c.,O.L.

C.lJ.L. .: / ¡"ZOK'

sr Rl'SSES

(~ IZO+3)7rq) x/e. .=-3Z.5KSI <O.8x4Z ~ 33.GKS!

fI='1 ~ Ir8

II-~-W-
~O33 + (~/ZO+ 3, 790) x IZ .: -3Z.rc
",.3Z~ /(.5/ < 33.,1;; KS/
~=-
-
r re -bOt'8 = x/e =/8.'J/(SI< O.8..f1/0 =32 /:SI

THE SECTION PROPERTIES, MOWENTSAND STRESSES AR

COMPUTEDAND COMPAREDWITH THE GOVERNINGSERVICE BEHAVIr R
REQUIREMENTSa I

THE MOMEf'lTS ARE I

NON-COMPOSITEDEAD LOAD = 4033 K-FT.

COMPOSITEDEAD LOAD = 1120 K-FT.

L¡VE LOAD PLUS IMPACT = 3790 K-FT.

AND THE RESULTING STRESSES ARE A TENSION OF

33.6 KSI, A COMPRESSIONOF 32.6 KSI, AND A STRESS
IN THE RE-BARS OF 18.9 KSI WHICH IS LESS THAN THE
32 KSI ALLOWED.
THE Mo~mNTS3012, 862, AND 2269 ARE'THE MAXIMUM
NEGATIVE MOMEI~TS THAT YOU WOULD COMPUTE UNDER THE CURRE T t
ALLOWABLESTRESSDESIGNSPECIFICATIONS.
THE .SECTION MODULI USED TO COMPUTETHE STRESSES
ARE THE CONVENTIONAL SECTION MODULI FOR COMPOSITECONSTRUCTION.
 2~
~
1.7.60-UNSYMMETRICAL BEAMS AND GIRDERS
~~ ,
~
=

1911

;?~- .GS.b <81

'1ftG

(B) Unsymmetrical Sections with Transverse Stiffeners

Girders with transverse stiffeners shall be designed and evaluated by I.he
provisions of Article 1.7 .59(E) except that when Dc. the clear disl.ancl' be.
tween the neutral axis and the compression flange. exceeds D/2 the web
thickness, tw, shall meet the requirement:
_-<'~or'
...Dc 18,250
-JF; ( ~-
1514,75 ) --

tw vF-;

THIS SECTION IS UNSYMMETRICAL WITH THE MAJOR

STEEL AREA IN THE TEr~SION FLANGE AND THE NEUTRAL
AXIS IS THEREFORE NEARER THE TENSION FLANGE. BECA USE
A GREATERDEPTH OF WEB IS IN COMPRESSIONTHAN ON A
SYMMETRICAL SECTION OF EQUAL DEPTH, IT IS NECESSARY
TO RECHECK THE DEPTH TO THICKNESS RATIO OF THE DEPTH
OF WEB IN COMPRESSION, AND THIS IS CALCULATEDTO BE
65.6 WHICH IS LESS THAN THE ALLOWABLE OF 89.

THE BOTTOM FLANGE IN THE NEGATlVE MOMENT REGION

IS IN COMPRESSION AND IS NOT FULLY BRACED AS THE
COMPRESSION FLANGE IN THE POSITIVE MOMENTAREAS. IT
IS, HOWEVER, BRACED AT THE LOCATION OF CROSS-FRANiliS
WHICH WILL BE ASSUMED 25' ON CENTERS. THEREFORE,
LATERAL STABILITY OF THIS COMPRESSION FLANGE BETWEEN
-
~
~
~Rn~~-FRAMR~ MTT~FJ1RR TI\TVR~FJ1T(,!AFJ1Rn- -'"-
 2~

HIGHWAY BRIDGES 1.7.59

\~ (c) Spacing or lateral bracing rOl compression flange

Lb "
20,OOO,OOOAf
or
(
1379 X 10ft Af
)
Fyd Fyd (Fy in Fa)

where d is the depth of beam or ~irder,

Ar is lhe nange area.

(D) Unbraced Sections

(1) For members not meeting the lateral bracing requirement ol Article
1.7 .59(B)(1)(c) the maximum strength shall be,computed as:

2-
Mu=FyS 1-~ (~)
41T2E b'

When the ratio of stresses at the two ends oí the braced length, Lb, is lesa
thlin 0.7, the maximum strength, Mu. as computed by the above fonnula
may be increased 20 percent but not to exceed F yS.
 28

IN ORDERTO PREVENTLATERAL-TORSIONALBUCKLING
OF THE GIRDER PRIOR TO THE FLANGE REACHING ITS THEORETICAL
YIELD STRESS aYER THE FULL LENGTH BETWEENBRACEDFOINTS
AND aYER ITS FULL WIDTH, BRACING SHOULD BE PLACED AT A
SFACING EQUAL TO OR LESS THAN THE LENGTH GIVEN BY THE
FORMULA :

=- 1.0.000,000 Af ~o,ooo,000 -~~

14.~,OOO.1'>, a,,>
F"~.d
THE ACTUAL BRACEDPOINTS ARE SPACED AT A GREATERDISTANCE
THAN ALLOWED AND THE CAPACITY OF THE GIRDER UNDER CONSTANT
STRESS aYER THE ur-rBRACED LENGTH IS THEREFORE REDUCED AND
THIS REDUCED MOMENT IN GENERAL TERMS IS
S r: -~S (~-)2.
~v = Fy. ~ 41r1.-e b' J
FOR THE UNSY]mlliTRICAL SECTION WITH A LARGER TENSION
FLANGE THAN COMPRESSIONFLANGE, b' IS REPLACEDWITH 0.9 b'
IN ORDER TO ESTIrtATE MORE CLOSELY THE RADIUS OF GYRATION
OF THE EFFECTIVE COMPRESSIONCOLUMN, THEREFOREFOR OUR
DESIGN I ~ ! '&" -z. t ~ ~ I 'Z.
) 'Z.

Mu = r:y .S ~ -~r'rr1.-
t~~O\ t~~~1f:;
THE REDUCEDCAPACITY WILL CHANGETHE GOVERNING
REQUIREMENT FROM THE OVERLOAD CONDITION TO THE STRENGTH
CONDITION. HOWEVER, THE MOW~NTCURVES ARE NOT CONSTANT
OYER THE UNBRACED LENGTH BUT ARE REDUCING RAPIDLY INMAGNITUDE.
THE STRESSESARE REDUCINGACCORDINGLY.
LATERAL BUCKLINGWILL NOT BE AS CRITICAL AS
INDICATED. FOR EXAMPLE,IF THE RATIO OF MOMENTS
AT ADJACENT POINTS OF BRACING IS EQUAL OR LESS THAN
0.7, THE MOMENTCAPACITYW~Y BE INCREASEDBY 20%
OVER THAT FOR A LENGTH OF SECTION UNDER CONSTANT
STRESSPROVIDEDTHE MOMENT
SO INCREASEDDOESNOT
EXCEED F,.' S. A 20% INCREASE IS ALLOWED IN THE
CURRENT
ALLOWABLESTRESSDESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
REGARDLESSOF THE STRESS RA~IO AT ADJACENT BRACEDPOINTS.
THIS MAY BE UNCONSERVATIVEFOR HAUNCHEDGIRDERS WHERE
REDUCED UNIT STRESSES ARE COUr~TERBALANCED BY SHARPLY
REDUCED SECTION MODULUSDUE TO REDUCEDDEPTH. THEREFORE,
THE L.F.D. REQUIRElvIENTIS MORE REALISTIC THAN ALLOWABLE
STRESS DEISIGN SPECIFICATIONS AND DOES ACCOUNTFOR
ACTUAL CONDITIONS THAT MAY OCCUR IN ANY GIRDER, STRAIGHT
OR HAUNCHED.

OUR DESIGN HAS A MOMENTAT THE PIER OF 8943 K-FT.,

AND 3570 K-FT. AT 250FT. FROM THE PIER. THE RATIO IS 0.4
WHICH IS LESS THAN 0.7; THEREFORE, INCREASE THE ULTIMATE
MOMENTBY 20% AND WE FIND THAT IT WILL EXCEED ~ywS.
THEREFOREUSE F~ -5 AS THE ULTIW~TE MOMENT.
L
 1.7.73-FA TIGUE

(A) General 29
Tbe analysis oí tbe probability oí fatigue oí steel members or connectiona
under service loads and the aIlowable range of stress for fatigue shall conform
to Article 1.7.2, except Utat Ute limitation imposed by Ute basic desi¡n
criteria given in Article 1.7.1 shall not apply.

ART.

1.7.2-REPETITIVE LOADING AND TOUGHNESS CONSIDERATIONS

(A) Allowable Fatigue Stress
Members and fasteners subject to repeated variations or reversnls of ~tre55
shall be designed so that the maximum stress does not exceed the basic
allowable stresses given in Articles 1.7.1 and 1.7.41 (B) and tha t the actual
range of stress does not exceed the allowable fatigue stress range given in
Table 1.7 .2Al for the appropriate type and location of material shown in
Table 1.7 .2A2 and iIIustrated in Figure 1.7.2.
Main load carrying components subjected to tensile stresses which may be
considered nonredundant load path members-that is where failure of a single
element could cause collapse-shall be designed (or the allowable stress ranges
indicated in Table 1.7.2A1 (or Nonredundan~ Load Path Structur~s.
The range o( stress is de(ined as the algebraic difference between the
maximum stress and the minimum stress. Tension stress is considered 1.0have
the opposite algebraic sign (rom compression stress.
In Table 1.7.2A2 "T" signifies range in tensile stress only "Rf'v" signifies
a range of stress involving both tension and compression during a .-;tresscycle.

TABLE 7.2B-Stress Cycles

"'
Main (Longitudinal) Load Carrying Members

--
Transverse Memb;rs and Delails Subjected lo Wheel Loads

*Averace Daily Truck Traffic (one direction).

tLonaitudinal members should also be checked for truck loadlng.
.*Members Ihall aIso be investigated for "oyer 2 mllJion" stress cycJes p~duced by pIscina
a baJe truck on the brid,e distributed to tbe lirders as deslanated In ArtJcJe 1.3.1(B) lar
one tralfic I.ne Joadlnl.
 3P
TABLE 1.7.2A1
REDUNDANT LOAD PATH STRUCTURES (1)

~, Allowable Range ol Stress, F sr (ksi) (MPa)

For For For FOf OV!!f

See Table 100,000 500,000
~ 2,000,000 2,000,000
1.7.2A2 Cycles Cycles Cycles
191.& Cycles

A 60 (413.69) 36 (248.21) 24 (165.47) 24 (165.47)

B 45 (310.26) 27.5(189.60) 18 (124.10) 16
r (110.31)
32 (220.~3) 19 (131.00) 13 (89.63) 10 (68.95)
12" (82.74)*
D 27 (186.16) 16 (110.31) 10 (68 .95) 7 (48.26)
E 21 (144.79) 12.5 (86.18) 8 (55 .15) 5 (34.47)
E' 1ti f110.:311 9.4 164.810) 5.8139 .91111) 2.1) {17Q261
F 15 (103.42) 12 (82.74) !) (62 .05) 8 (55.15)
*For lransverse stiffener welds on girder webs or flanges.

*Fot transverse stiffener welds on girder webs or flanges.

**Partiallength welded cover plates shall not be used on flanges more than 0.8 inches
(20mm) thick tor non.redundant load path structures.

(1) Stnlcture types with multi-load paths where a single fracture in a member cannot
lead to the coUapse. For example. a simply supported single span multi-beam bridle or a
multi-element eye bar truss member has redundant load paths.
(2) Structure types with a linde load path where a sinde fracture can lead to a catas-
trophic coUapse. For example, fiange and web platel in one or two girder bridles, main
one-element truss members, hanger platel, cap s at linde or two column bentl have non-
redundant load pathl.

TABLE 1.7 .2A2

Stress IIlustrative
General Kind oí Category Example
Condition Situation Stress (See Table (See Figo
lo 702Al) 1.702)

Plain Base metal \vith rolled or T or Rey A 1,2

Material cleaned surfaces. Flame cut
edgeswith ASA smoothness of
1000 or less

Built.up Base metal and weld metal in T or Rev. B 3,4,5,7

Members members without attachmen~,
built-up of plates, or shapes
connected by continuous full or
partial penetration groove welds
or by continuous fillet welds
para\lel to the direction oí
applied stress

Calculated flexural stress al T or Rev. c 6

toe of transverse stiffener
welds on girder webs2.r flanges
\~
 (' I::;;;:;:;:=:;;::;=",
?
--c.:::::¡¿~:::::?
2'(O6IQm)Rad
- 1I
A514"nd 4517-

-~:::i~:::;i'
- 12

c
) 1) C:::~OIC)ITIOOO' ~
COI..O', C
, .1'-"""

l51~~_~jJJT_'-R_-,
,E
T""-o. 1'

'ti
r

OI
,

E e
--.;::::::: ,"'0-
"_" ~.-
--f.-'-' ..-
~I
-q ~.
~600~1
-U

124.16IO~I>R> '.1152~1 C I
T

I ~:!~.z.~!>~'2"1~~'¡
L 2;~O~~I>R
~:
I [ 1
.'Aloo
--_w
~

Cor~OOr1
E~ l
-Co'~9or1
" E.
-cor~oor)' (in W.'f "'.,~)
(inbos~m:1°
-\
=
~E:~~~j')
-_(in bose
=::=:
111.'°1,
L-
9
- -[~ -o
o-;-~
o
18 .
-
.Al End 01 Weld .Has No LenQlh

FIG. 1.7.2-llIustr8tiv8 EX8mp'"

1!':t
'-
'.
 HIGHWAY BRmGES 1.7.59 32
-='
~r
(4) If a girder panel is subjected to simultaneous action of shear and
bending moment with the magnitud e of the shear higher than O.6Vu. then the
~ moment shall be limited to not more than:

M/Mu=1.37&--O.625V/V u

COMBINED SHEAR AND MO~,ENT EFFECTS MUST NOW BE "1EVALUA

A PROVISION IN LOAD FACTOR DESIGN WHICH IS
NOT INCLUDED IN THE ALLOWABLESTRESS DESIGN SPECIFICATI NS
REQUIRES A REDUCTION IN THE CAPACITY MOMENT, M. WHEN
THE SHEAR AT THE SAME CROSS SECTION EXCEEDS O.6-THE S RCAPACIT
.
THE CRITERIA STATES THATa

= \.315 -O. ~ Z5 .-
M;Mu
(..jhen v
..f.o,.. OVf'
k.
v =
Vu BY THE POST BUCKL1NG FORMULA 1S 740 K W1TH AN
ASSUMED VALUE OF do = 108'1 ST1FFENER SPAC1NG AND 1
0./0 V,,= ltL.,L., k. WH1CH IS GREATER THAN 346K, THEREFORE THE
IS NO REDUCT10r~.
USUALLY WHEN THE APPLIED SHEAR EXCEEDS 0.6.
THE SHEARCAPACITY, THE BEST SOLUTION WILL BE TO
1 NCREASE THE SHEAR CAPACITY BY DECREASING THE
STIFFENER SPACING RATHER THAN INCREASING THE MOMENT
CAPACITY. TRIS WILL USUALLY REQUIRE THE ADDITION
OF ONLY ONE EXTRA STIFFENER.

1.1;

~ 185 [O.5Z5 + (J. 230]

l.B. .p.e.

Vu /9 compuled lo ~tuo/ 740 K wifh do:, 108 " o$,S'umedO."

Vil :' O.Gx 740 K = 444K > 341; K no redllahon
:
V¡v"
(
8. 33

IN THE DESIGN EXAMPLE, A REDUCTION IN SECTION

IS INDICATED ALONG WITH THE CALCULATIONS FOR A POINT
BETWEEN THE PIER AND THE POINT OF DEAD LOAD CONTRA-
FLEXURE; AND ANOTHER BETWEEN THE ABUTMENT AND THE
POINT OF MAXIMUMPOSITIVE MOMENT. THE SAME PROCEDURES
ARE USED AT THESE LOCATIONS AS PREVIOUSLYDESCRIBED.
AT THE CHANGEIN SECTION NEAR THE PIER. OVERLOD
GOVERNSBECAUSE THE DECK SLAB IS NOT IN COMPRESSIONA
THE SECTION IS SIMILAR TO A NON""COMPOSITE.NOT-COMPACTSECTION.
ADDITIONALLY. LATERAL STABILITY, COMBINED
SHEAR AND MOMENT, AND FATIGUE ARE CONSIDERED IN THE
SAME MArfNER AS .AT THE PIER. BECA USE THE FLANGE I
THICKNESS VARIES, FATIGUE FOR BUTTWELDSIS ALSOCONSIDERED.

AT THE CHANGE IN SECTION NEAR THE ABUTMENT,

THE STRENGTH REQ UIREMENT GOVERNS FOR MOMENT BECA USE
AT THIS LOCATION THE SECTION IS COMPOSITEWITH THE
DECK SLAB FULLY EFFECTIVE. FATIGUE FOR BUTTWELDS
IS CONSIDERED BECAUSETHERE IS A CHANGEIN FLANGE
THICKNESS. HOWEVER, LATERAL STABILITY AND COrvlBINED
~~OMENT Arm SHEAR ARE NOT CRITICAL HERE.
 't

.~
( .. , 34

- ;..

INVESTIGATION OF SHEAR AND STIFFENERS IN THE

POSITIVE MOMENTREGIONS WILL NOWBE CONSIDERED. IF
THE RATIO OF THE WEB DEPTH TO ITS THICKNESS IS LESS
THAN 150, AND THE SHEAR FORCE IS SUFFICIENTLY LOW
(LESS THAN THAT wHICH WILL CAUSE ELASTIC BUCKLING)
SUCH AS 248 K VS. 251 K, TRANSVERSE STIFFENERS MAY
BE OMITTED.

IN THE EXAMPLE PROBLEM AN ADDITIOr~AL DESIGN

IS MADE FOR A HYBRID GIRDER. THE DESIGN IS QUITE
COMPLETEAND USES HYBRID SECTIONS IN THE POSITIVE
AND NEGATIVE MONiliNTREGIONS. THE PRIMARY DIFFERENCE
BETWEENTHE HYBRID GIRDER AND THE HOMOGENEOUS GIRDER
DESIG~TS IS IN THE DESIGN OF THE WEB. FOR HYBRID
GIRDERS, TENSION FIELD ACTION OF THE WEB IS NOTALLOWED.
IT IS FELT THAT SUFFICIENT KNOWLEDGEIS
NOT AVAILABLE TO CONSERVATIVELYINSURE THE DEGREE OF
TENSION FIELD WHICH CAN BE RELIED UPON FOR THIN WEBBED
GIRDERS, HAVING APPRECIABLE YIELD STRAINS IN THE WEBS
AT INITIAL FLANGE YIELDING. THEREFORE, FOR THE
HYBRID DESIGN, TRANSVERSE
STIFFENERSWILL BE SPACED
CLOSERTOGETHER.

-~ 150

:-