UNIVERSIDAD CENTRAL DEL ECUADOR

FACULTAD DE FILOSOFÍA, LETRAS Y CIENCIAS

DE LA EDUCACIÓN

PEDAGOGÍA DE LOS IDIOMAS NACIONALES Y

EXTRANJEROS - INGLÉS

ACADEMIC WRITING

MSc. JORGE CARLOZAMA

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 The process of Writing

The work of a scholar includes reading, writing, and thinking, but not necessarily in that
order. Like the writing process, scholarly work is recursive rather than linear. Critical
readers are working readers. They evaluate sources, ask probing questions, and
approach reading with a strategy. By demanding the best from their sources, they
become better researchers and writers. Critical thinkers ask questions, examine
assumptions, and don't accept ideas at face value. By questioning their own assumptions
and ideas as well as those of others, they come to deeper understandings and learn new
perspectives. Scholarly writing is a result of critical reading and critical thinking, and
scholarly writing generates critical readers and critical thinkers.

The term "scholarly writing" is somewhat misleading because writing as a scholar

varies by disciplinary community and rhetorical situation. However, a few observations
can be made about scholarly writing in general:

• Scholars write with evidence, and particular types of evidence are more acceptable in
particular communities and situations.

• Scholarly writing tends to have a more transparent organizational structure and to be

more explicit than other types of writing.

• Scholarly writing tends to be formal.

• Scholarly communities have conventions, which are more comparable to etiquette than
law.

• Scholars use reading and writing to think.

Scholarly writing is the product of thought and analysis, and the act of writing can often
uncover unanticipated insights and analysis that make a writer's work unique and
valuable. This section compares and contrasts scholarly writing at the undergraduate
and graduate levels, emphasizing the challenges and opportunities that graduate-level
writing presents.

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The writing process has 5 stages:

1.- Pre writing.

The key to a great paper is in the planning, before you sit down to write something, you
need to figure out what you are going to write about.

Most of us start with a topic, and then decide what we have to say about this topic, for
an essay, you might generate a “working thesis” or a main idea (a main idea is a
statement, complete sentence or short paragraph, that sets the stage for the rest of the
paper, it articulates a major argument, or describes and limits the boundaries of the
territory the paper will cover) that you would like to explore, and then start collecting
information and ideas that relate to that main idea.

Ways to generate ideas:

 Free writer or use a journal.

 Brainstorm your likes and dislikes, things, people, place and hobbies that are
important to you.
 Use graphic organizers.
 Participate in class or small group discussions.
 Determine the who, what, where, when, why and how of a topic.
 Determine what you already know and what you still need to learn about the
topic.

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2.- Drafting

Once you have planned out your ideas, the next step is to start drafting or writing. As
you write, keep referring back to your notes and the plan that you determined is stage 1,
but do not be afraid to change the plan when needed.

During the drafting stage, you should concentrate on getting your topic with enough
detail for your audience and purpose.

As you work, keep the following things in mind:

a) Drafts are for the writer.- our brain processes information as we write things
down, you will find yourself making connections and discovering new ideas as
you are writing your first drafts. When this happens, you should go back to the
planning stage 1 to work on the new ideas. You may even need to change your
thesis or the angle you are taking on the topic. Many writers wait to write their
introduction until they have finished the body of the paper.
b) Drafts are not perfect.- because you are really drafting yourself, to understand
your ideas and put them into words, you might be unhappy with your early
results. No not agonize over every word and sentence because you will give
yourself writer´s block. You will never send off a draft to your audience without
at least some sort of revision or at least editing. Just get some words down on the
paper even if they sound silly or awkward. You can always go back and fix it
later, that is what revision is for.
c) Drafting takes time.- the more complicated your writing task is, the more time
you should allow yourself for drafting. As you discover new ideas and
connections, you need the time to incorporate them into your plan. Do not
procrastinate, and do not feel that you have to finish your whole paper in one
sitting.

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3.- Revising.

Revision works best when you have some time to let your writing sit. You will be better
able to look at your writing with a reader´s eye if you can put it aside for a day or two
before working on it again.

If drafting is for the writer, revision is for the reader. During revision you consider your
writing from your audience´s point of view. In fact, to revise means literally to “re-see”
or “re-look” at your writing.

You may need to change the order of your information expand certain sections, or cut
details. Often, you will need to go back to the drafting stage and re-work parts of your
paper. Revising is not editing. Save the spelling, grammar and sentence fixes for later.

Revising for audience:

 Is the level of detail appropriate for my audience?

 Are my ideas presented in a logical order that will be evident to the reader?
 Do I use clear transitions to help the reader follow my train of thought?
 Are my sentences clear and specific?
 Do I say what I mean and mean what I say?
 Is my tone and style appropriate for my audience?

Revising for purpose:

 Is my purpose clearly stated for the reader?

 Do I clearly maintain that purpose throughout the document?
 Does all of my supporting information clearly relate to my purpose?
 Do I organize my ideas to best fulfill my purpose?

Revising for form:

 Do I follow the established form of the document I am writing?

 Do I separate ideas into paragraphs with clear topic sentences?
 Do I maintain balance among my points, developing each to the same extent?

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4.- Editing.

While revising focuses mainly on making your content clear for your readers, editing
focuses on making your documents meet the conventions of stands written English.
During the editing stage, check the following:

 Grammar
 Sentence structure
 Word choice
 Punctuation
 Capitalization
 Spelling
 Citation and document format

5.- Publishing

Writing is communication, if you have written something, you must have intended for
someone to read it, even if that person is only yourself. When you publish a document,
you are releasing it to the public for others to read. Not all of your writing will be taken
through the publishing stage, but even turning a paper in to your teacher constitutes
“publishing”.

Punctuation

Punctuation can make an enormous difference in the meaning of whatever it is you’re

writing. Consider the following classic examples of the change in meaning that
punctuation can communicate:

eats shoots and leaves Let’s eat, Grandma!

eats, shoots, and leaves Let’s eat Grandma!

Commas

Commas indicate a separation of ideas or elements within the structure of a sentence.

1. Commas are used to separate three or more words, phrases, or clauses (sentence
parts) in a series.

The entree includes chips, salsa, and a beverage.

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2. Commas are used after an introductory dependent clause (a group of words
before the subject of a sentence that do not form a complete sentence).

Since we would be returning late anyway, we stayed to watch the sunset.

3. Commas indicate that introductory words and phrases moved from the end of the
sentence.

In the light of day, everything looked different.

4. Commas are used between independent clauses (complete sentences) joined by a

coordinating conjunction: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.

My family went to see the live taping of Ru Paul's Drag Race, but I stayed home
with the flu.

5. Commas set off nonessential phrases or clauses (phrases that can be removed
without changing the sentence’s overall meaning) or appositives (words or
phrases that rename a noun).

My cousin, who recently joined the mafia, said it would be best if I skipped
town for a while.

6. Commas separate paired adjectives that describe a noun. You need a comma
between adjectives that could go in any order—they’re not cumulative and could
be separated by the word “and.” Do not use a comma between adjectives that
need to be in a particular order.

They serve cheap delicious meat.

They serve cheap, delicious meat.

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 Quotation Marks
Quotation marks show the beginning and end of a quotation or title of a short work.

1. Quotation marks enclose the exact words of a person.

Sia said, “I’m gonna swing from the chandelier.”

2. Do not use quotation marks around a paraphrase or summary.

Sia said she intended to pendulate from a chandelier.

3. Quotation marks set off the titles of smaller works within larger works.
Book of stories “Short Story”

4. Place periods and commas inside quotation marks.

Gaby said “I will have an extra paper.”

5. Place semicolons and colons outside quotation marks.

I recommended “The works”: they are the best.

6. Place question marks or exclamation points inside the quotation marks if they
punctuate the quotation only. However, if the quote does not include a question
or exclamation, but the sentence itself is asking a question or exclaiming, the
question mark or exclamation point sits outside of the quotation marks.

What did Aesop Rock mean by, “There´s smoke in my iris, but I painted a sunny
day on the insides of my eyelids”?

Parentheses

Parentheses set off elements within a sentence that are related to the sentence but
nonessential.

1. Parentheses set off additions or expressions that are not necessary to the
sentence. They tend to de-emphasize what they set off. They are often seen as
less academic in tone.

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 We visited several European countries (England, France, Spain) on our trip last
year.

2. Parentheses can enclose figures in a sentence. Note: Use of numbers like this in
sentences may vary for different citation styles.

Grades will be based on (1) participation, (2) hoework, and (3) exams

3. When the group inside the parentheses forms a complete sentence but is inserted
inside a larger sentence, no period is needed. However, if a question mark or
exclamation point is needed, it should be included.

The snow (do you remember what snow feels like?) was falling heavily.

4. When parentheses are used to enclose an independent sentence, the end

punctuation belongs inside the parentheses.

I´m not looking forward to presenting to the class on Monday. (My childhood
stage fright has never really left me.) I hope I can get it over with quickly.

Apostrophes

Apostrophes show possession and also indicate where a letter has been omitted to form
a contraction.

1. To show possession, add an apostrophe and an s to singular nouns or indefinite

pronouns that end in one or body.

Jenny’s book

2. Add only an apostrophe for plural possessive nouns ending in s. Remember that
the apostrophe placement depends on whether there is more than one noun:

student’s books (one student), students’ books (more than one student).
my parents’ car

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 3. Do not use an apostrophe with possessive personal pronouns.
yours, his, hers, ours, theirs

4. Apostrophes are also used in contractions (two words which have been
combined into one) to mark where the missing letter or letters would be.

I am = I’m

Hyphens

Hyphens are used to form compound words or join word units. They are also used to
join prefixes, suffixes, and letters to words.

1. Use hyphens with compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine and with
fractions used as modifiers (adjectives).

forty-two students
three thousand five hundred and sixty-seven students

2. Use hyphens in a compound adjective only when it comes before the word it
modifies. There are exceptions; look up compound adjectives in the dictionary if
you are unsure whether or not to hyphenate them.

a well-liked author
an author who is well liked

a world-renowned composer
a composer who is world renowned

3. Use a hyphen with the prefixes ex-, self-, and all-; with the suffix elect-; and
with all prefixes before a proper noun or proper adjective.

all-star
self-image
non-European

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 4. Use a hyphen with compound phrases. Note: When describing ages, phrases that
function as adjectives will use hyphens, while numbers as adjectives will not use
hyphens.

the nine-year-old boy

he is nine years old
sister-in-law

5. Also, note how hyphens can change meaning, and use them accordingly.

a hot-water bottle (a bottle for holding hot water)

Colons

Colons follow independent clauses and call attention to the information that comes after

1. Colons come after the independent clause (complete sentence) and before the
word, phrase, sentence, quotation, or list they are introducing.

Lately, I have had only one thing on my mind: graduation.

Lately, I have had several things on my mind: papers, grades, and finals.

2. Never use a colon after a verb that directly introduces a list.

The things on my mind are: papers, grades, and finals.

The things on my mind are the following: papers, grades, and finals.

Semicolons

Semicolons separate clauses or phrases that are related and that receive equal emphasis.

1. Semicolons join two independent clauses (complete sentences) that are closely
related if no coordinating conjunction is used.

Megan said she was tired; she had stayed up late cutting giraffe-shaped holes out
of foreign newspapers.

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 2. Semicolons signal to a reader that the information in both sentences should be
taken together.

We were planning to go get coffee; however, he had to cancel.

3. Semicolons help avoid confusion between items in lists where there are already
commas.

She traveled to Sao Paulo, Brazil; Seoul, South Korea; and Nairobi, Kenya.

Dashes

Dashes—often confused with hyphens—connect groups of words to other groups of

words to emphasize a point. Usually, the dash separates words in the middle or at the
end of a sentence.

1. In the middle of a sentence, a dash can put special emphasis on a group of words
or make them stand out from the rest of the sentence.

Our ideas for the weekend, going to a movie, having a picnic, doing homework,
and hiking Garcia Trail, seemed like a lot to squeeze in.

Our ideas for the weekend—going to a movie, having a picnic, doing

homework, and hiking Garcia Trail—seemed like a lot to squeeze in.

2. At the end of a sentence, a dash separates information from the rest of the
sentence.

I knew the material perfectly—until test day.

We went to Slauson Park—the one north of Fifth Street.

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 Sentence Structure

Clauses

 Any sentence or sentence parte that contains at least subject and verb.
 All sentences consist of one or more clauses.
 There are two types pf clauses: Independent and dependent.
 An Independent clause is one that may stand alone and dos not need the help of
another sentence to be complete.

We left for Arkansas on Monday.

He has lived in Florida for years.
She loves her dog.

 A dependent clause is one which may not stand alone because it represents an
incomplete idea. It needs the help of an independent clause in order to be
complete.

Because I like to learn new things.

Before she leaves town.
If you go to the store.

Simple Sentences

A simple sentence consists of one independent clause.

We went to the store for bread and milk.

Jeff called you at about noon yesterday.

Compound Sentences

A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses connected by a

coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, etc).

The lights went but, and everyone began to scream.

Joe is retired now, but he used to be a teacher.

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 Complex Sentences

A complex sentence consists of at least one independent clause with at least one
dependent clause.

If I didn´t know any better, I would think that Mary is having marital problems.

I didn´t realize that Sam´s mother was blind.

Tim´s office, which is on the fifth floor, has a view of the ocean.

Phrases

A phrase is a sentence fragment which may contain subject, verb, or neither, but never
both at the same time.

Noun Phrases

A noun phrase may contain one or more nouns, adjectives that modify the noun in the
phrase, and/or any articles (a, an,the, etc)

Judy and her brothers.

The teacher.

An expensive sports car.

Verb Phrases

A verb phrase consists of one or more verbs or auxiliaries, but never their corresponding
subjects.

Have been looking into

Did not know

Prepositional Phrases

A prepositional phrase must always begin with a preposition followed by a noun phrase.

If a verb follows a preposition, it must be in its noun (gerund) form.

In the hospital.

With many arrogant opinions.

Before taking the test.

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After hearing all of the evidence.

Adverbial Clauses

Adverbial clauses or Adverb clauses are groups of words with a subject and a predicate
that function as adverbs in a sentence.

Just like adverbs, they answer the questions “when?”, “where?”, “how?”, “why?” to
describe time, place, manner, purpose, etc.:

Before you leave, please turn off the lights.

The show will start after the sun goes down.

She acted like it was a joke.

We canceled the trip because the weather has gotten worse.

An adverb clause has a number of essential components:

Many adverb clauses also have objects.

 A subject
 A predicate
 A subordinating conjunction

Subject

A subject is a person or thing that is “doing” something in the clause. It answers the
question “who/what”.

A subject can be a pronoun, a noun, a noun phrase (noun+modifiers) or even a verb (an
infinitive or gerund):

He came home very late. (pronoun)

A cat crossed the street. (noun)

Small children can be hyperactive. (noun phrase)

To leave was a good idea. (infinitive)

Swimming is a great exercise. (gerund)

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 Predicate

A predicate tells us what the subject “does”. It can be a verb or a verb phrase
(verb+objects or modifiers):

Audrey laughed. (verb)

Audrey laughed happily (verb + modifier)

Audrey laughed like a little child. (verb phrase)

Conjunction

Most adverb clauses begin with a conjunction or “trigger word”.

A conjunction sets the context of the sentence. It can indicate time, place, manner,
condition, etc.

Conjunctions used with adverb clauses are called subordinating conjunctions. Adverb
clauses are therefore called subordinate clauses or dependent clauses.

Here are some examples of subordinating conjunctions:

Time when, after, before, until, since, while, once, as, as soon as

Reason because, since, as, so

Condition if, unless

Manner like, as

Comparison as … as, more than, less than

Concession although, even though, even if, while

When talking about clauses, it is important to know the difference between a clause and
a phrase.

An adverb clause always has a subject (who/what) and a predicate (what the subject
does):

If you are late...

When I saw my friend…

Before I go back to school…

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An adverb phrase, on the other hand, does not have a subject and a predicate:

Like a little kid

In two days

Quite well

Adverb clauses at the beginning of a sentence:

Before you leave, please turn off the lights.

Although she hasn’t finished her work, she is watching a movie.

Once they throw you out, you can’t go back.

After the game had finished, everyone went to a pub.

When they went to the zoo, she saw an elephant for the first time in her life.

Because she loved him, she was extremely forgiving.

Adverb clauses in the middle of a sentence:

Chocolate, because it melts at low temperatures, can be tricky to bake with.

Bob, after he bought his new boat, was rarely seen at home.

My grandmother, when she was angry, was better left alone.

Jack, although it was chilly, was only wearing a t-shirt.

Examples of adverb clauses at the end of a sentence:

I don’t think he needs much sleep because he calls me at all hours of the day.

We canceled the trip because the weather has gotten worse.

Turn the TV off so that we can eat our dinner.

She acted like it was a joke.

The show will start after the sun goes down.

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 Adjective Clauses

An adjective clause modifies a noun or pronoun. The adjective clause is introduced by a

signal word. The adjective clause signal words are who, which, what, that, whose,
whom, and sometimes when and where.

Is she the girl whom you met at the party? (whom relates to girl)

This is a book that I like. (that relates to book)

This is a book I like. (that is implied)

This is a house where Washington slept. (where relates to house)

Mike, whose ancestors came from Ireland, marched in the St. Patrick's Day
parade.

The woman who lives next door is a registered nurse.

Williamsburg, Virginia, is a place that I'd like to visit.

Connectors and linkers

Having one’s mind made up (with your ideas, clear) is one thing, but another, more
difficult thing is to express them properly, signaling the right relationship between the
different sentences and parts of a sentences (or clauses). That’s what connectors and
linkers are used to: to establish the right meaning of sentences with other sentences or
within each sentence. Using the wrong word may lead to misunderstanding, if not a
complete loss of what we are saying. That is why mastering as many connectors as you
can, may help you improve your understanding and expression in English.

Most of these relationships or functions are achieved by means of clauses (=

proposiciones), which are parts of sentences that would be “shaky and weak” (somehow
semantically unfinished) without a main clause to accompany. Some other times they
are introduced by phrases (= sintagmas), which are simply groups of words that do not
belong to the sentences, syntactically speaking.

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Expressing PURPOSE or AIM

Expressing REASON or CAUSE

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Expressing RESULT or CONSEQUENCE

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Expressing CONDITION

Expressing CONTRAST or CONCESSION

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Adding MORE INFORMATION

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PARAPHRASING

QUALIFYING what you are saying

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Giving EXAMPLES

Ordering logically YOUR IDEAS

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SUMMARISING

Expressing YOUR PERSONAL OPINION:

Expressing FACTS

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 The Paragraph

After sentences, paragraphs are the next order of organization for written English
communication.

A paragraph is a collection of sentences arranged in such an order that they convey a

complete topic.

There is no “formula” to determine how many sentences comprise a paragraph. It

depends on the depth and complexity of the logic employed.

The harmony and relationship of ideas among the sentences determine what constitutes
a paragraph. Every sentence in the paragraph should relate to the main idea in some
clear way.

There are four essential elements to good paragraph writing:

Unity

Every paragraph has one single, controlling idea. That idea is expressed in the topic
sentence. A paragraph is unified around this main idea.

• The topic sentence sums up the whole of the paragraph and ties it all together.

• The topic sentence is usually the first sentence in the paragraph, but not always.

• The topic sentence points the reader toward where you, the writer, are going next.

• The topic sentence is the most “general” sentence in the paragraph.

• In order to write a good topic sentence, think about your theme and all the points you
want to make.

• Decide which point drives the rest, and then write it as your topic sentence.

Paragraph Unity

“Support” sentences add detail to the topic sentence. Supporting sentences develop,
explain, and substantiate the topic sentence. Supporting sentences provide facts, details,
and examples. Supporting sentences explain why the main idea is true. A paragraph
may have as many supporting sentences as needed to corroborate the main idea.

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 Order

“Support” sentences add detail to the topic sentence. Supporting sentences develop,
explain, and substantiate the topic sentence. Supporting sentences provide facts, details,
and examples. Supporting sentences explain why the main idea is true. A paragraph
may have as many supporting sentences as needed to corroborate the main idea.

There are many ways to organize a paragraph. Here are just a few:

• Chronological: the order of events, or time order

• Spatial: looking at how things are arranged in a space (descriptive)

• Emphatic: details presented in their order of importance or for emphasis

• Cause and Effect: a certain situation causes--- or results from---another

• Comparison/Contrast: examining the similarities or differences between things

Coherence

Coherence is the quality that makes your writing understandable. Sentences within a
paragraph need to connect to each other and work together as a whole. One of the best
ways to achieve coherency is to use transition words. These words create bridges from
one sentence to the next.

You can use transition words that show:

• Order (first, second, third)

• Spatial relationships (above, below)

• Logic (furthermore, in addition, in fact)

Other ways to maintain coherence in a paragraph:

• Use consistent verb tense (past, present, future)

• Maintain point of view (person)

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 Completeness

Completeness means a paragraph is well-developed. If all sentences clearly and

sufficiently support the main idea, then your paragraph is complete. If there are not
enough sentences or enough information to develop your main point, then the paragraph
is incomplete.

Usually three supporting sentences, in addition to a topic sentence and concluding

sentence, are needed for a paragraph to be complete. The concluding sentence or last
sentence of the paragraph should summarize your main idea by reinforcing your topic
sentence. The concluding sentence either finishes the paragraph or prepares the reader
for the next paragraph.

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 Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing means putting into your own words what you have read or heard from
research sources. Although you are re-presenting the writer’s ideas using your own
words, you need to reference the source/s from which you gathered the material.

Using information from written material

• Read the text to gain an overall understanding of the article or section

• Write down pertinent points without looking at the original

• Make sure your interpretation is accurate by re-reading the text

• Write in sentence format and indicate your source using parenthetical citations or
endnotes/footnotes, depending on the style guide you are using.

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Compare the following versions. Note how similar the structure of the poorly
paraphrased version is to the original. It is important to note that the paraphrase in this
example could be considered to be plagiarism since it uses the same structure as the
original quote.

Now compare two better versions. The first writer below uses her own language
effectively but retains the sentence structure of the original. This could also be
considered plagiarism. The second writer below uses her own language and employs her
own sentence structure to express Taylor’s ideas.

The essay and its parts

An essay is a piece of writing that is written to convince someone of something or to

simply inform the reader about a particular topic. In order for the reader to be convinced
or adequately informed, the essay must include several important components to make it
flow in a logical way. The main parts (or sections) to an essay are the intro, body, and
conclusion. In a standard short essay, five paragraphs can provide the reader with
enough information in a short amount of space. For a research paper or dissertation,
however, it is essential that more than five paragraphs are present in order not to
overwhelm the reader with too much information in one paragraph.

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Intro: prepares the audience to read the essay.

 Must contain an attention grabber for the reader or at least make the essay sound
interesting, may begin with a quote about the particular topic.

 Ensure that the intro moves from the general to the specific in regards to the topic.

 Provides the reader with a “road map” of the essay in a logical order.

 At the end there should be what is called a thesis statement, arguably the most
important component of the intro.

 The thesis statement states the aim of the paper and may give insight into the author’s
examples and evidence.

Body: develop the main idea (thesis or claim) of the essay.

 Includes the evidence and support of the paper in addition to the author’s ideas.

 Paragraphs must include a topic sentence which relates the discussion back to the
thesis statement.

 Logical ordering of ideas: 3 types of order

1. Chronological order---order of time, good for narratives.

2. Spatial order-good for descriptions of locations; top to bottom, e.g.

3. Emphatic order-least important to most important; most common for college writing.

 Ensure that transition sentences are present to create a good flow to the essay.

 Include substantial examples and evidence to support your argument and remember to
cite, cite, cite!

 Make sure each example is relevant to your particular topic.

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Conclusion: brings the essay to a logical end.

 This section should wrap all of your arguments and points.

 Should restate the main arguments in a simplified manner.

 Ensure that the reader is left with something to think about, particularly if it is an
argumentative essay.

• Provide closure for the reader by reviewing main points (make sure that this review is
brief – after all, these points have already been fully developed in the body paragraphs),
linking the main idea of the essay to a larger issue, predicting an outcome related to the
main idea, giving an opinion, or using a quotation that helps sum up an essential aspect
of your main point;

• Remind readers of the primary focus of the essay, which can be done by restating the
main idea in different words;

• Avoid introducing new ideas;

• Avoid apologies.

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 The Argumentative Essay

It´s a genre of writing that takes a position on a debate issue, it will use logical
arguments and facts related to the topic to convince the reader of the chosen position or
idea.

The argumentative essay contains a thesis / antithesis focused position on a debatable

topic. Furthermore, argumentative writing is dependent on the personal viewpoint of the
writer.

The goal in the argumentative writing is to first develop your own opinion on a
debatable issue and then use the resources available to support that opinion or position
in the body of the paper. Furthermore, the main goal is to point out the writer´s skill in
crafting the argument.

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 The Descriptive Essay

Description presents information in a way that appeals to one or more of the five senses,
usually with the purpose of creating a specific impression or feeling. Descriptive writing
makes ideas vivid, so the audience can almost see, hear, smell, taste, or touch what is
being written about. For instance, the writer might describe the odor and appearance of
a substance made by combining two chemicals in a chemistry lab report for college.

Step 1: Select the topic.

Be familiar with the topic or select one that can be easily learned. Narrow this topic to
emphasize a particular slant or angle. Instead of describing a guitar’s physical
appearance in general, focus on its usefulness, beauty, or value.

Step 2: Collect details to describe the subject.

Brainstorm: describe the object to a friend, writing down the words used, draw a sketch
of the subject and label the parts, or list sensory details.

Step 3: Find comparisons.

Look over the list of details, and think of appropriate comparisons for each one: similes,
metaphors, and personifications should be utilized. Jot these down next to the
appropriate detail on the list. Do not expect to come up with a comparison for each
detail; instead, try to find one or two strong comparisons.

Step 4: Choose a vantage point.

To use a moving or fixed vantage point, think about the aspect of the subject being
emphasized and how it can be best communicated. Ask which vantage point will give
the reader the most useful information and which vantage point can reveal the most
striking details.

Step 5: Create the dominant impression.

This sentence is the thesis of the paper; in other words, it is the most important sentence
of the entire paper, as it defines the direction the rest of the paper will go. This sentence
creates the mood or feeling about the subject, which all other details in the essay will
support. Select the attitude about which you feel the most confident. It should appeal to
the audience, offer an unusual perspective, and provide new insights on the subject.

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Additional prewriting may be needed to gather support of a dominant impression,
collecting “evidence” composed of sensory details.

Step 6: Write, rewrite, and edit.

Writing Process of a descriptive essay

Introduction: This paragraph will provide the background and setting. The last
sentence of this paragraph will be the thesis or dominant impression. The introduction
should include the context of the description, background information, setting, and
dominant impression.

Body paragraphs: these 2 or more paragraphs will provide supporting details for the
description. Be sure to only include relevant details, keep the description focused, and
ensure the details fit the essay’s tone and point of view. These paragraphs can be
portrayed in many different ways:

Spatial order: This method of writing systematically describes an object or term

starting at a focal point and moving to objects that surround it.

Chronological order: This order is best for describing events or changes that occur
over a given period of time, such as a child growing older or a play from beginning to
end.

Most-to-least or least-to-most order: This is used to place things in order of size,

severity, etc.

Conclusion: This paragraph references the dominant impression (thesis) and draws the
essay to a close.

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 How to write an Article.

An article is usually an independent piece of prose found in newspapers or magazines. It

is usually non-fiction and informative in nature. The name of the writer is always
mentioned with the article.

An article

• is a piece of writing usually intended for publication in a newspaper, magazine or

journal.

• is written for a wide audience, so it is essential to attract and retain the readers’
attention.

• may include amusing stories, reported speech and descriptions.

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• can be formal or informal, depending on the target audience.

• should be written in an interesting or entertaining manner.

• should give opinions and thoughts, as well as facts.

• is in a less formal style than a report.

Format:

• Title : Eye-catching

• Introduction : Put the topic in perspective

: Catch the reader’s attention

• Exposition of topic : Merits/demerits, causes-results, effects, etc.

• Winding up : Your comments, opinion, criticism, etc.

• Conclusion : A hope, warning, an appeal or a call for action.

• Name of the writer : It can be placed just after the heading or at the end of the article

Points to remember:

• The purpose of writing the article should be clear.

• The title can be a single word, a phrase or even a sentence, which is catchy.

• The body of the article follows a structured approach.

• Think of the kind of readers expected to read the article and then attempt to write it.

• The vocabulary and grammar has to be specific to the topic and use of difficult and
bombastic language should be avoided.

• The visual/verbal input should be used to the optimum and interpreted as per the needs
of the article.

• The points, quotations, etc., in the article have to be planned out.

• Quotations should be added only when absolutely essential. Do not overdo the use of
quotations.

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 Informal Letter

An informal letter or a personal letter is a letter to a close friend or an acquaintance.

Letter writing still has a sentimentality about it that transcends all other forms of
communication, and this is probably why some people stick to it even though they could
use other means.

This type of personal writing is represented by personal correspondence, thank you

letters, letters of congratulation or condolences. All of these can be printed or
handwritten.

Formatting of a personal letter is similar to business one, but the differences are in style
and punctuation.

1.The heading in the upper right corner may consist of an address and date. We do not
use punctuation at the end of the heading lines.

2.The salutation placed at the left-hand margin is rather friendly and informal. We do
use comma here, e.g. Dear Gran, Beloved Mum, Dearest Susie,

3. The body may consist of one or more paragraphs, dealing with personal topics.

4. The complimentary close is followed with a comma: e.g. Love, Jane Sincerely yours,
Tom Yours, Alan

5. Signature is written below the complimentary close.

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 Formal Letter

Business correspondence should get across the message in a direct, clear and natural
way. In contrast to informal writing, one should avoid using slang and casual language,
clichés, short forms and abbreviations. The writer should avoid overly formal and rigid

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language too. The letter should be logically structured and organized. The layout of a
formal letter follows basically the same order.

1. The heading should include a street address, city, state, ZIP code and the date. Your
address should be at the top of the letter or in the right-hand corner. The house number
goes first, then street. Do not mention your name. The date is usually on the right below
sender`s address.

U.S.: 8.20.2011

U.K.: 20.8.2011 (20th August 2011)

Other ways: August 20th 2011 20 August 2011 August 20, 2011

Avoid writing 2/5/2011 (means 2nd May in the U.K. and 5th Feb. in the U.S.)

2. The inside (receiver`s) name and address are written on the left and may be in a
block form. Always write a proper title before the name (Mr. or Ms.). If you use a title
after a person`s name, do not use one before the name (Ken Hovind, M.D. or Mr. Ken
Hovind).

3. The attention line and salutation: You can include the receiver`s name and position
in an attention line (For the attention of the PR Manager), below which you can
continue with salutation. Dear Sir/Dear Madam/Dear Sir or Madam/Dear Sirs-
U.K./Dear Gentlemen-U.S. are used when you do not know the name or sex of the
person you are writing to. If you do know the name, use:

U.S.: Dear Mr. Green, Dear Ms. Green, Dear Dr. Green,

U.K.: Dear Mr Green, Dear Ms Green, Dear Dr Green,

English usage places no fullstop after Mr, Ms, Dr. Both, English and American, use
comma after the greeting. If a letter is intended for more than one person, use plural
form:

Dear Professors Hovind and Green,

Dear Professor Hovind and Professor Green,

4. The body of the letter may be indented or blocked. It is usual to use block form and
leave a line space between paragraphs in the body. In any case, be consistent with the
style you choose.

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5. Complimentary close is the letter-ending. It depends on salutation. If you start with
Dear Sir or Madam etc., finish with Yours faithfully.

If you begin with a person`s name (Dear Dr Green) close with Yours sincerely, or
Sincerely yours,

The comma after complimentary close is optional.

U.S.: Yours truly, Truly yours, Sincerely, Best regards

U.K.: Best wishes, Kind regards

Old-fashioned phrases to be avoided:

Respectfully yours, We remain yours faithfully,

The signature is below complimentary close, usually in black or blue ink and above
your typed name. Do not include your title in written signature, only after your typed
name below the signature:

(signature)

Ken Hovind

Sales Manager

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51
 Writing a Curriculum Vitae (CV)

A curriculum vitae (a.k.a. “vita” or “CV”), like a resumé, is used as a marketing tool to
provide key information about your skills, education, and experience to a potential
employer. In this country a CV is typically used to apply for academic, research, and
some educational administration positions. It is longer than a resume and displays
academic credentials and accomplishments in greater detail. A CV for a young
professional can be 2 – 4 pages in length while a CV for a veteran professional may be
6 – 8 pages long.

Structure:

Personal data: The only required information is your name, address, phone number,
and e-mail address. Be sure to provide both permanent and current address, and the
telephone numbers.

Career objective: An objective tells potential employers the sort of work you are
hoping to do. A concise statement indicating your career goals is recommended if you
have specific career desires. Otherwise, include your objective in your cover letter to a
specific employer or for a specific job.

Summary of skills/professional expertise: A concise statement highlighting your

strongest skills and areas of professional expertise can be an advantage to you,
especially if you have a mix of experiences in your career history.

Education: One rule of thumb is that unless you are more than five years out of school,
your education section should precede your experience section. List the names of the
institutions you attended with the most recent listed first. List the degree received plus
your major area of study. Include special programs from your university, such as junior
year abroad, a six-month internship, etc. Indicate either the degree name or the degree
initials. Indicate the area of specialization or major after the degree title. Include the
thesis topic in italics if it relates to your professional goals. Mention academic honors
including a brief explanation of honors or awards that are not self-explanatory,
particularly for international students. It is not necessary to include your grade point
average unless requested by an employer.

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Work experience: Internships and volunteer experience can be considered in this
section if they relate to your professional goals, or you can create a section called
"Additional or Related Experience," or "Community Service." In a CV, work and
education may be listed in chronological order however many employers prefer the
reverse chronological order (put your last job first and work backward to your first). It
should include title of position, name of organization, location of work (town, state),
dates of employment, describe your work responsibilities with emphasis on specific
skills and achievements. When describing work experience, summarize your
accomplishments rather than listing job tasks. Students and recent grads often fail to
make an effective presentation of their experience because they use too narrow a
definition of work experience. First of all, relevant "work" experience is in no way
limited to paid employment. Also consider including nonpaid work, volunteer work,
part-time and temporary positions, internships, unstructured work, self-employment,
odd jobs, and miscellaneous informal services you may have provided to your academic
department or a favored professor.

Publications: List those publications that relate directly to your career goal. Employers
most interested in publications will be teaching hospitals, research organizations,
consulting, and international organizations. It is usually recommended to create a
separate list and indicate on your resume that publications are available upon request.

Computer skills: It is advisable to provide information about your computer skills.

Languages: If you are fluent or conversant in several languages, list the languages you
speak and/or write as follows: "Fluent in French, proficient in Japanese, knowledgeable
in Spanish." Think carefully about your level of proficiency. Do not overrate your skills
as you may be asked to demonstrate your language ability during an interview.

Interests: One or two lines about your outside interests, hobbies, or travels can
sometimes add interesting information to the interview and may spark conversation.
You may add key or special skills or competencies, leadership experience in volunteer
organizations Generally, avoid information about your marital status, children, or age in
this section (unless you feel it is relevant to the work you will be expected to do).

References: You can write "References Available upon Request" if you have space.
Employers will ask directly for references, so prepare a list with names, titles,
addresses, and telephone/fax numbers. Ask people if they are willing to serve as

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references before you give their names to a potential employer. Give careful
consideration to your choice of references, as some will be more appropriate to an
employer than others.

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