Water Air Soil Pollut (2021) 232: 365
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-021-05324-8
Satellite‑Based Air Pollution Potential Climatology
over India
Hareef baba shaeb Kannemadugu ·
Sandelger Dorligjav · Biswadip Gharai ·
Seshasai M.V.R 
Received: 4 June 2021 / Accepted: 18 August 2021 / Published online: 27 August 2021
© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021
Abstract Air pollution potential indicates the
ability of the atmosphere to disperse the pollutants
depends on mixing height and wind speed. This
parameter is essential for air dispersion modeling,
mitigating air pollution, i.e., reducing harmful effects
on human health, and potential site selection for
establishing new industries. Five-year (2015–2019)
mean monthly, seasonal, and annual maps of ventila-
tion coefficient (VC) and air pollution potential index
(APPI) were prepared for the first time for India using
the inputs from daily data of planetary boundary layer
height (PBLH) derived using CrIS onboard SOUMI-
NPP satellite and wind speed from ERA-5. Climatol-
ogy of VC and APPI over 14 cities in India was also
analyzed. Below medium to very low pollution poten-
tial (VC: 6000 to > 10,000 ­m2/s) has been observed at
the east coast of Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu (TN)
during the winter and most of western India and New
Delhi during the summer monsoon. During pre-mon-
soon, western Gujarat, southwest of Rajasthan, and
parts of Indo-Gangetic Plains show below medium
H. b. s. Kannemadugu (*) · B. Gharai · S. M.V.R  1 Introduction
Atmospheric Chemistry Division, Earth and Climate
Science Area, National Remote Sensing Centre, ISRO,
Department of Space, Shadnagar 509216, India
e-mail: babaphyiway@gmail.com
S. Dorligjav  organization 2016) and on climate at the global
Department of Geography, Division of Natural Sciences,
School of Arts and Sciences, National University
of Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar 14201, Mongolia
to low pollution potential. Below medium pollution
potential is observed at the east coast of TN during
the post-monsoon season. Annual averages of VC and
APPI suggest east coastal TN and western Gujarat
consistently are below medium to very low pollution
potential zone, indicating their suitability for setting
up new industries. Annual average VC shows the cit-
ies with increasing pollution potential as Mumbai,
Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Patna, Jaisalmer,
Jodhpur, Varanasi, Kolkata, Kanpur, Lucknow, New
Delhi, Nagpur, and Rourkela. This information is
helpful to the regulatory authorities to prioritize the
air pollution mitigation measures in different cities.
This study has the potential to be extended to prepare
global maps of APPI to identify ventilation corridors
(regions with very low pollution potential) that will
reduce air pollution and its effects on human health,
the environment, and the climate at large.
Keywords  Air pollution potential · Ventilation
coefficient · PBLH · Wind speed
Air pollution caused by industrialization is a primary
concern in today’s society. It affects human health at
a local level (Balakrishnan et al. 2019; World health
level (Ramanathan and Feng, 2009) amid the eco-
nomic development. Though major push is given to
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renewable energy sources of late, it is challenging to
meet the increasing energy demand and thus resorts
to fossil fuel-based energy sources. There should be
concentrated effort to reduce the effects caused by
emissions from polluting industries through a sustain-
able and scientific way. There is a strong need to look
for ventilation corridors or sites with high pollution
dispersion potential towards mitigating these effects.
The atmospheric boundary layer (ABL) influences
the vertical mixing of air pollutants at the earth’s sur-
face, and the planetary boundary layer height (PBLH)
is an essential parameter in the air pollution disper-
sion (Stull 1988). PBLH can be estimated using
radiosonde and Lidar, which is location-specific so
limited by spatial resolution. However, satellite-based
retrievals such as radio occultation (GPS RO) and
atmospheric sounders (AIRS, CrIs, INSAT 3D etc.)
offer both spatial and temporal coverage (Seidel et al.,
2010; Smith et al. 2009; Xie et al., 2012; Hareef baba
shaeb et al., 2021).
Air pollutant’s concentration gets diluted away
from the source in the atmosphere due to mean wind
and convection, which depend on geographic loca-
tion and land surface condition. ABL height and wind
speed can be used in combination to study air pollu-
tion potential (Holzworth 1967). Ventilation coef-
ficient (VC), a product of ABL height and average
wind speed within the ABL, is a good indicator of air
pollution dispersion potential (Goyal et  al. 2006; Lu
et al., 2012). Assimilative capacity, i.e., the environ-
ment’s ability to disperse the pollutants away, avoid-
ing user exposure, can be determined using the ven-
tilation coefficient (Manju et al., 2002). Thus studies
on ventilation coefficient, i.e., ventilation corridors,
are significant to assess the suitability of a particu-
lar location/zone for establishing an industry that can
have a local impact as an air pollution source. Moreo-
ver, an air pollution potential index (APPI) comes as
a valuable tool in governance in assessing a particular
site suitable for the polluting industry establishment
and planning-related mitigation measures. This tool
will also help monitor potential threats caused by
already existing industries in case of an accident and
subsequent air dispersion modeling.
Several researchers studied pollution potential
based on the ventilation coefficient at several loca-
tions in India and the world (Gassmann and Mazzeo,
2000; Goyal and Rama 2002; Krishnan and Kun-
hikrishnan, 2004; Lu et al., 2012; Iyer and Raj, 2013;
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Water Air Soil Pollut (2021) 232: 365
Abiye et  al., 2016). These studies mostly use regu-
larly available morning (00 UTC) and evening (12:00
UTC) radiosonde data at sparse locations to arrive
at the ventilation coefficient. However, spatial varia-
tion of ventilation coefficient and its implications to
ventilation corridors and pollution potential has not
been attempted. Further, the highest ventilation coef-
ficient, i.e., low pollution potential (or high assimila-
tive capacity), occurs at afternoon time (08:30 UTC)
(Manju et  al., 2002; Lu et  al., 2012). Satellite-based
methods have the advantage of capturing spatial vari-
ation with optimum temporal resolution compared to
point-based radiosonde measurements. Towards this,
we use afternoon time SNPP-Crls soundings (Han
et  al. 2013), representing a fully developed mixed
layer (Anurose et al., 2018; Hareef baba shaeb, 2019)
to arrive at the VC.
This study uses 5 years (2015–2019) of PBLH data
estimated from SNPP-CrIS and mean wind speed
obtained from ERA-5 reanalysis data to generate spa-
tial maps of VC/APPI over India. We also analyze
ventilation coefficient and APPI climatology over
selected cities of India. The objectives of this study
are as follows:
1. To map and study spatial variation of VC/APPI
over India by analyzing monthly, seasonal, and
annual averages of VC and identify the areas with
high VC/low pollution potential
2. To understand the monthly and seasonal varia-
tion of VC/pollution potential at different cities
located near coastal, desert, Indo-Gangetic Plain
(IGP), and inland regions in India
With 1.38 billion populations, India is at the risk
of high air pollution due to increasing anthropogenic
activities, i.e., power production, industries, and
vehicular emissions. These potential pollution maps
and their climatology will assist in designing poli-
cies, planning, and interventions towards sustainable
development.
2 Study Area, Data, and Methods
2.1 Study Area
In India, a variety of climatic regions are present,
namely tropical (south India), temperate and alpine
Water Air Soil Pollut (2021) 232: 365
(Himalayan North), and continental (north Indian
landmass), while coastal regions of the country
experience unvarying warmth and frequent rains
(Attri and Tyagi, 2010). Census data (www.​censu​
sindia.​gov.​in/​2011) reveals that 67% households
use firewood/crop residue, cow dung cake/coal,
etc. (rural, 87%; urban, 26%), while 29% house-
holds use LPG/PNG/electricity/biogas (rural, 12%;
urban, 66%), and the remaining 3% households use
kerosene (rural, 1%; urban, 8%). Population den-
sity (no. of persons per sq. km) is an important fac-
tor in understanding the risk of air pollution and
anthropogenic contribution. Population density
tends to increase in the industrial areas and cities
as the movement of human populations is more
towards these areas, creating air pollution hotspots.
Figure  1a shows population density mapped using
2011 census data (http://​popul​ation​commi​ssion.​nic.​
in). Among the union territories (UT), Delhi has the
Figure 1  a India map showing population density and CEPI scores for industrial cluster/area; b spatial distribution of Cities with
elevation data for India (https://​lta.​cr.​usgs.​gov/​GTOPO​30)
Page 3 of 19 365
maximum population density (11,297 persons/km2),
and among the states, Bihar is the most densely
populated state with 1102 persons/km2. The IGP
region is continuing to be the most populated in the
country.
Comprehensive environmental pollution index
(CEPI) for different industrial clusters/areas is
assigned by Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB), India. A sub-index score of more than 60
shows a critical level of air pollution, whereas a
score in between 50 and 60 shows a severe level of
pollution. A score below 50 is normal. Out of 88
industrial areas, only 20 fall in normal category.
Figure  1a shows air pollution industries locations
and levels measured by CPCB (www.​cpcb.​nic.​in/​
divis ​ i onso ​ f head ​ o ffice/ ​ e ss/ ​ N ewIt ​ e m_ ​ 1 52_ ​ F inal-​
Book_2.​pdf). Figure  1b shows the spatial distribu-
tion of cities considered for the monthly and sea-
sonal analysis of a ventilation coefficient.
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365 Page 4 of 19
2.2 Data and Methodology
2.2.1 Estimated PBLH Data from CrIS on Soumi
NPP Satellite
The Cross-track Infrared Sounder (CrIS) onboard the
Suomi National Polar-Orbiting Operational Environ-
mental Satellite System Preparatory Project (SNPP)
computes the vertical profiles of temperature and
relative humidity with an excellent vertical resolu-
tion (Smith Sr et  al., 2009; Han et  al., 2013). The
retrieval biases for temperature are reported to be
within 0.5 K from the surface up to the lower strato-
sphere. For water vapor, the biases are within 20% up
to 400  hPa (Sun et  al., 2017), which indicates high
accuracy of retrieved profiles (Zhou et  al., 2019).
Estimation of the planetary boundary layer height
(PBLH) was done by the National Remote Sensing
Centre (NRSC), Indian Space Research Organisation
(ISRO), Hyderabad, India, using these vertical pro-
files from SNPP CrIS (Prijith et al., 2016). The daily,
7 days, and monthly estimated PBLH data are availa-
ble at the NRSC, ISRO website (https://​bhuvan-​app3.​
nrsc.​gov.​in/​data/​downl​oad/​index.​php) with a hori-
zontal grid resolution of 0.25° × 0.25°. Prijith et  al.
(2016) used a combination of the vertical gradient
method (Hennemuth and Lammert, 2006; Basha and
Ratnam, 2009; Seidel et  al., 2010; Wang and Wang,
2014, Hareef baba shaeb, 2019) of meteorological
variables to produce the spatiotemporal PBLH data
from CrIS vertical profiles over the Indian landmass.
In the present study, the daily PBLH data have been
used to calculate the atmospheric ventilation coeffi-
cient for 2015 to 2019.
2.2.2 Determination of Average Wind Speed Within
the Mixing Layer from ERA5 Reanalysis Data
The fifth generation of the European Centre for
Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) atmos-
pheric reanalysis of the global climate (ERA5) pro-
vides many atmospheric variables produced at the
surface and pressure levels. Besides, the ERA5 data
are globally available in the Climate Data Store
(https://​cds.​clima​te.​coper​nicus.​eu/​cdsapp#​!/​home)
at 0.25° × 0.25° grids of latitude–longitude with dif-
ferent time scales. ERA-5 winds were validated to
be offering the best estimate of mean wind speeds
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Water Air Soil Pollut (2021) 232: 365
compared to other reanalysis products (Ramon et al.,
2019).
The hourly surface pressure, air temperature, mix-
ing layer height, and orography data were obtained
from ERA5 single level reanalysis data from 2015 to
2019 (Copernicus Climate Change Service, 2017).
Firstly, the pressure at the mixing layer height was
calculated using the hypsometric equation (Eq.  1)
from single level ERA5 reanalysis data (Wallace and
Hobbs, 2006).
g(zi +zs )
−
pzi = ps e Rd T (1)
where pzi is the pressure value at the mixing layer
height (hPa), ps is the surface pressure (hPa), g
is the gravitational acceleration constant (  g=
9.80665  m·s−2), zi is the mixing layer height above
ground level (m), zs is the orography or elevation of
the grid point above the mean sea level (m), Rd is the
gas constant for dry air ( Rd = 287.05 J·kg−1·K−1), and
T is the absolute air temperature (K).
Wind speeds below the obtained pressure level
were averaged at each latitude–longitude grid point of
0.25° for a given time from the ERA5 pressure levels
data over the Indian region. The average wind speed
within the mixing layer is an essential variable in cal-
culating the atmospheric ventilation coefficient (Saha
et al., 2019).
2.2.3 Calculation of Ventilation Coefficient
The ventilation coefficient (VC) is the product of
mixing layer height and average wind speed within
the mixing layer (Saha et al., 2019). The VC is given
by Eq. 2.
VC = zi ∙ U (2)
where VC is atmospheric ventilation coefficient
(­ m2·s−1), zi is the mixing layer height (m), and U is the
average wind speed within the mixing layer (m·s−1).
This has been calculated using Eq.  2 considering
the daily PBLH derived using Crls soundings and
ERA-5 wind speed up to mixed layer height. Later
monthly averages and seasonal averages for all the
years from 2015–2019 are calculated. ArcGIS soft-
ware is used for the interpolation (kriging) and sub-
sequent generation of VC/APPI maps. To study the
seasonal variation of VC, four distinct seasons are
Water Air Soil Pollut (2021) 232: 365
considered, i.e., pre-monsoon (PMS) (March, April,
May), summer monsoon season (SMS) (June, July,
August, September), post-monsoon (PoMS) (Octo-
ber, November), and winter (December, January,
February).
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Spatial Variation of VC and APPI Zones
Figures  2, 3, 4, and 5 show the spatial variation of
monthly mean ventilation coefficient, PBLH, and
mean wind speed obtained using the daily data from
5  years (2015–2019). The spatial variation changes
through different months, indicating the monthly
variation of VC. US National Weather Service (Gross
1970) and Atmospheric Environment Service Can-
ada uses VC criteria of high (< 6000 ­m2/s), medium
(6000–12,000 ­m2/s), and low pollution potential
(>  12,000 ­m2/s). However, based on the variability
of VC over the Indian region, the ventilation coeffi-
cient has been categorized into six different pollution
potential zones or APPI as shown in Table 1.
During the winter months, i.e., December (Fig. 2a,
b, c), the east coast of southern India (especially
Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu) registers maxi-
mum range in PBLH (1600–2000  m). PBLH val-
ues 800–1600  m dominate the south Indian region
and parts of western and eastern India. Central and
northwest Indian parts are dominated by PBLH in
the range 400–800 m and the northern most region’s
minimum PBLH range (0–400  m). Wind speed is
found to be highest (8–10  m/s) in the northeastern
tip of J&K and coast of Tamilnadu (TN) (6–8  m/s).
Parts of Andhra Pradesh (AP), TN, Gujarat (GJ),
and Himachal Pradesh (HP) register wind speed of
4–6 m/s, and the rest of India reports wind speeds of
2–4 m/s with a minimum (0–2 m/s) occurring in the
northeast. This different spatial variation in PBLH
and WS gives rise to different spatial variations in
VC. East coast of TN registers high (> 10,000 ­m2/s)
VC resulting in APPI value of 6, i.e., very low pol-
lution potential, most probable ventilation corridor,
followed by the east coast of AP with APPI value of
4. Parts of Maharashtra (MH), Karnataka (KA), West
Bengal (WB), and TN register APPI value of 3, and
the rest of India registers APPI of 1–2, indicating
very high to high pollution potential. Interestingly,
Page 5 of 19 365
though the IGP region registers moderate PBLH
(800–1600  m) during this month, low wind speeds
(2–4 m/s) result in high pollution potential, leading to
stagnation of pollutants. We also observe in Fig.  2a
that high polluting industries (with a CEPI score of
50–80) are located in this region and also in the Delhi
NCR region in combination with a heavy population
(population density 1100 per sq. km) making it the
polluted hotspot region in Asia (Sen et al., 2017).
During the January (Fig.  2d, e, f) and February
(Fig. 2g, h, i) months in the winter season, there is not
much change in the region of highest PBLH. How-
ever, in the other areas, PBLH increases except in the
northernmost areas, and at the same time, wind speed
increases considerably in the IGP region and north-
western parts. This increase leads to VC improve-
ment and APPI in western states (Gujarat, Rajasthan)
and parts of central India. One can understand these
improvements in VC and APPI due to increasing
solar radiation reaching the ground in February com-
pared to December, resulting in more convection and
thereby thicker PBLH.
Similar observations of higher mixing heights in
northeastern and southern parts of the country and
the general increase of the value of north to south
were reported by Vittal Murty et  al. (1980) using
radiosonde ascents data available at 0000 GMT (0530
IST) and at 1200 GMT (1730 IST) at 11 locations
using data from 1959–1963. VC values in the range
4000 to 6000 ­m2/s and uniform VC for central India
were reported, which closely matches with our obser-
vation; moreover, an excellent spatial variation made
possible by satellite-based observations is captured in
the present study.
During PMS month, i.e., March (Fig.  3a, b, c),
the highest PBLH (1600–2000  m) was observed in
the east coast of Tamilnadu and considerably higher
PBLH (1200–1600) in AP, WB, Bihar, Assam Guja-
rat (GJ), Rajasthan (RS), the eastern coast of Odisha,
east Maharashtra, and central Chhattisgarh (CG).
South India is dominated by wind speeds in the range
of 2–4 m/s, while north India is dominated by higher
wind speeds (4–6  m/s). The highest VC values of
6000–8000 ­m2/s (thus APPI of 4) were observed in
eastern parts of TN and IGP and western parts of GJ
and RS. Northernmost parts, i.e., J&K, HP, Uttaran-
chal (UL), and Arunachal Pradesh (ARP), register a
minimum APPI of 1, indicating very high air pollu-
tion potential. In the rest of India, APPI values range
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365 Page 6 of 19 Water Air Soil Pollut (2021) 232: 365

Fig. 2  Monthly mean maps of ventilation coefficient (a, d, g), PBLH (b, e, h), and wind speed (c, f, i) generated using 5-year (2015–
2019) daily data for the months of December, January, and February (winter)

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Water Air Soil Pollut (2021) 232: 365 Page 7 of 19 365

Fig. 3  Monthly mean maps of ventilation coefficient (a, d, g), PBLH (b, e, h), and wind speed (c, f, i) generated using 5-year (2015–
2019) daily data for the months of March, April, and May (pre-monsoon)

from 2 to 3, indicating high to medium air pollution is widespread except higher PBLH (1200–1600  m)
potential in this month was observed. In the April observed in eastern TN, AP, Assam, Bihar, and GJ
month (Fig.  3d, e, f), uniform PBLH (800–1200  m) and lower values (0–800  m) in the northernmost

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365 Page 8 of 19 Water Air Soil Pollut (2021) 232: 365

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 Water Air Soil Pollut (2021) 232: 365
◂ Fig. 4  Monthly mean maps of ventilation coefficient (a, d,
g, j), PBLH (b, e, h, k), and wind speed (c, f, i, l) generated
using 5-year (2015–2019) daily data for the months of June,
July, August, and September (summer monsoon season)
parts. There is not much change in WS observed com-
pared to March. From April to May (Fig.  3g, h, i),
one can observe that high APPI is found in Gujarat,
parts of Bihar, and Jharkhand making them suitable
ventilation corridors. The general decrease of mix-
ing heights and ventilation coefficients from north to
south during April is reported by Vittal Murty et al.
(1980). They attributed this to maximum surface heat
and its pattern this month.
During SMS, months, i.e., June (Fig. 4a, b, c), July
(Fig. 4d, e, f), and August (Fig. 4g, h, i), the southwest
monsoon winds (8–10 m/s) start flowing and consid-
erable drop in temperatures due to rainfall gives rise
to different patterns in spatial distribution of PBLH
and wind speed. This results in high VC value (8000
to > 10,000 ­m2/s) regions and high to very high APPI
values 5 and 6, respectively, in western RJ, Gujarat,
west MH, KA, AP, and the southern tip of Kerala and
TN. In September month, the VC pattern changes
owing to monsoon retreat and decreased wind speeds
(Fig. 4j, k, l), and APPI values in the range 4–5 were
observed in GJ, RJ, IGP, and in few scattered places.
As many places are found with APPI of 5–6 in this
season, the air-polluting industries (Fig.  1a) located
in these places can maximize their production, caus-
ing less pollution concentration at the local level, and
there is an advantage of rain washout of the pollutants
also. So the policies need to be framed in such a way
to maximize production in the month/season when
the region registers an APPI of 5–6, leading to sus-
tainable growth. Vittal Murty et  al. (1980) observed
low mixing heights in the central parts of the country
compared to the southeastern parts during the August
month. Similarly, they reported that the southern tip
of India recorded higher values than northern parts,
which they attributed to the more significant influ-
ence of monsoonal winds in the south.
During October in the post-monsoon season
(Fig.  5a, b, c), wind speeds are observed to be less
(2–4  m/s) in the majority of the Indian region, giv-
ing rise to be not better than APPI value of 3 despite
the good amount of areas showing up PBLH of
1200–1600  m. However, during November (Fig.  5d,
e, f), wind speeds in southern India, particularly TN,
Page 9 of 19 365
AP, and KA, increase (4–6 m/s), possibly caused by
increasing storm activity and associated cyclones
touching the landmass during this month. In associa-
tion with good PBLH (1200–2000  m), this increase
in wind speeds results in APPI value four and better
(5–6), indicating the potential pollutant dispersion in
the east coast of AP and TN.
BLH values of 800–1700 m and VC values of 3000
to 6000 ­m2/s were reported by Vittal Murty et  al.
(1980) for October. They observed that the extreme
southern tip of India registered higher values and
northeast parts, the lowest. This observation closely
matches our results.
3.2 Seasonal Variation of VC and APPI
Figure  6a shows that during PMS, Western GJ, SW
of Rajasthan, and the junction region of UP, Bihar,
CH, and JK show APPI of 4–5(below medium to low
pollution potential). These values make them suitable
sites for industries to reduce the air pollution effects,
or already existing air-polluting industries in these
regions can maximize the production in this season.
The main problem is the concentration of the pollut-
ants, not the pollutants themselves, for which APPI is
the solution. Feasibility is left to policymakers, but
we provide the solution. During SMS (Fig. 6b), most
of western India and New Delhi region show good
APPI value in the range 4–6 (below medium to very
low pollution potential), making these regions possi-
ble sites for industrialization or maximum production.
Figure 1a shows the good number of industries with
high CEPI scores falling in these regions, so the key
is to maximize the production in this season and put
less air pollution burden. During the post-monsoon
(Fig.  6c), the east coast of TN possesses an APPI
value of 4 (below medium pollution potential), mak-
ing it a good site for industrial establishment. Dur-
ing winter (Fig. 6d), the east coast of Tamilnadu and
AP shows APPI values in the range 6–4 (very low to
below medium), making them suitable sites for air-
polluting industries to reduce the effects of pollution.
3.3 Annual Changes in VC and APPI
Figure 7a–e show annual averages from 2015 to 2019
and a 5-year average of VC and APPI. East coastal
Tamilnadu and western Gujarat consistently show
APPI value of 4 and above, implying low pollution
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365 Page 10 of 19 Water Air Soil Pollut (2021) 232: 365

Fig. 5  Monthly mean maps of ventilation coefficient (a, d), PBLH (b, e), and wind speed (c, f) generated using 5-year (2015–2019)
daily data for the months of October and November (post-monsoon)

potential, i.e., ventilation corridors favorable for pol- Telangana, Gujarat, western Rajasthan, UP, and
luting industries. These sites offer the highest disper- Bihar possess low pollution potential, i.e., effectively
sion of pollutants. Five-year annual average maps disperse the pollutants compared to the rest of the
suggest that Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh, southern states/regions. However, look at annual VC/APPI
Kerala, Karnataka, western Maharashtra, western distribution (Fig.  7f) and comparison with Fig.  1a
suggesting that many high CEPI score industries are
placed in very high pollution potential zones. Policy
Table 1  List of air pollution potential index (APPI) categories changes and future planning should consider moving
the highly polluting industries to APPI zones of 4 or
VC ­(m2/s) APPI Pollution
potential greater or maximize production in different seasons,
category making less air pollution.
0–2000 1 Very high
3.4 VC and APPI Analysis over Multiple Cities in
2000–4000 2 High
India
4000–6000 3 Medium
6000–8000 4 Below medium
The analysis of ventilation coefficients over cities
8000–10,000 5 Low
is essential as the population density is more due to
 > 10,000 6 Very low
migration of people from other places to these cities

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Water Air Soil Pollut (2021) 232: 365 Page 11 of 19 365

Fig. 6  Seasonal mean maps of ventilation coefficient for a PMS, b SMS, c PoMS, and d winter generated using 5-year (2015–2019)
daily data

for want of jobs, livelihood, etc. This high popula- metropolitan cities (population > 4 million) and few
tion leads to increased pollution from vehicular traf- other cities of geographical importance (desert, IGP,
fic in addition to polluting industries. Here, major etc.) are considered for the VC and APPI analysis.

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365 Page 12 of 19
Fig. 7  Annual mean maps of ventilation coefficient for the year a 2015, b 2016, c 2017, d 2018, e 2019, and f 2015–2019 generated
using daily data in the respective year
Policymakers can use this information to plan effec-
tive strategies to reduce the impact of pollution on
a large population. Moreover, VC is very useful in
atmospheric dispersion modeling for metropolitan
areas (Holzworth, 1967).
3.4.1 Coastal Region
Figure  8 shows 5-year monthly and seasonal mean
variation of ventilation coefficient over three met-
ropolitan cities located on the west coast (Mumbai)
and east coast (Chennai and Kolkata). Maximum
VC (10,466 ± 7234 ­m2/s) in Mumbai is observed
during the monsoon season (maximum in July—
15,785 ± 5353 ­m2/s) and minimum VC in PoMS
(4390 ± 2870 ­m2/s) followed by winter (minimum in
13
Water Air Soil Pollut (2021) 232: 365
January—3761 ± 2128 ­m2/s). This implies that Mum-
bai offers very low pollution potential during the
SMS (with APPI—6) and medium pollution potential
(APPI—3) during the PoMS. In contrast to the west
coast, in the east coast, maximum in VC (8626 ± 4109
­m2/s for Chennai and 5512 ± 2962 ­m2/s for Kolkata)
occurs in the winter season (maximum in Decem-
ber for Chennai—10,261 ± 5088 ­m2/s and in Janu-
ary for Kolkata—6156 ± 2920 ­m2/s), and minimum
VC (2789 ± 3343 ­m2/s for Chennai and 3545 ± 4321
­m2/s for Kolkata) occurs during SMS (minimum
in June for Chennai—1582 ± 1942 ­m2/s and in July
for Kolkata—2148 ± 541 ­m2/s). It is observed from
Fig.  2 that during winter, these stations have high
PBLH (1200–2000  m), which in association with
the wind speed (4–6  m/s), result in high VC values.
Water Air Soil Pollut (2021) 232: 365
Fig. 8  Monthly and seasonal variation of VC for Mumbai (a, d), Kolkata (b, e), and Chennai (c, f) generated using 5-year (2015–
2019) daily data
Low and medium pollution potential (APPI—5 and
3) respectively was observed for Chennai and Kol-
kata during the winter season, and high pollution
potential (APPI—2) occurs for both cities during the
SMS. Annual mean VC values for Mumbai, Chen-
nai, and Kolkata are observed to be 5739 ± 3467 ­m2/s,
5639 ± 4039 ­m2/s, and 4568 ± 3010 ­m2/s, respectively.
Vittal Murthy et al. (1980) observed the afternoon
(12:00 UTC) ventilation coefficients for Mumbai,
maximum VC was observed during the SMS (i.e.,
August), and the minimum was observed during win-
ter (i.e., January). They attributed maximum observed
values during this season to the strong winds of the
SMS. However, the minimum for Chennai and Kol-
kata reported occurring during PoMS (i.e., October)
at this time (12:00 UTC). Iyer and Ernst Raj (2013),
using the radiosonde data (00 UTC) for 30  years
(1971–2000), reported that the Mumbai, Chennai,
and Kolkata metros have relatively low pollution
potential due to their proximity to the coast, which is
influenced by the processes such as land/sea breeze
circulations.
Page 13 of 19 365
3.4.2 Inland Region
Figure  9 shows the 5-year monthly and seasonal
mean variation of ventilation coefficients over three
cities, Bangalore, Hyderabad, and Nagpur, located
inland with increasing latitude. Maximum in VC
(8669 ± 10,164 ­m2/s for Bangalore and 8765 ± 10,209
­m2/s for Hyderabad) occurs in the SMS (maximum
in July for Bangalore—12,870  ± 
13,128 ­ m2/s and
2
Hyderabad—10,129 ± 10,618 ­m /s), and minimum
VC (2370 ± 2040 ­m2/s for Bangalore and 3134 ± 1860
­m2/s for Hyderabad) occurs during PMS (mini-
mum in April for Bangalore—1150 ± 1370 ­m2/s and
Hyderabad—1933 ± 2242 ­m2/s).
From Fig.  3, one can observe that low wind
speeds (2–4  m/s) in PMS are responsible for an
observed minimum in VC though PBLH range
from 800 to 1600  m during this season. Low pollu-
tion potential (APPI—5) was observed for Banga-
lore and Hyderabad during the SMS, and high pol-
lution potential (APPI—2) occurs for both cities
during the PMS. However, in Nagpur, maximum
VC (3964 ± 1168 ­m2/s) is observed during the PMS
(maximum in July—5522 ± 7940 m2/s) and minimum
13
365 Page 14 of 19
Fig. 9  Monthly and seasonal variation of VC for Bangalore (a, d), Hyderabad (b, e), and Nagpur (c, f) generated using 5-year
(2015–2019) daily data
VC (2722 ± 2886 ­m2/s) in winter (Minimum in
December- 2027 ± 2339 ­m2/s). This observation
implies that Nagpur offers medium pollution potential
during the PMS (with APPI—3) and high pollution
potential (APPI—2) during the winter. Annual mean
VC values for Bangalore, Hyderabad, and Nagpur are
observed to be 5510 ± 7351 ­m2/s, 5195 ± 5736 ­m2/s,
and 2722 ± 2886 ­m2/s, respectively.
Kumar (2019), using radiosonde data at 06:00
UTC during 2012–13, observed similar seasonal
variation in VC at Hyderabad with maximum value
occurring during SMS (July and August) and mini-
mum during winter followed by PMS. This vari-
ability is attributed to higher wind speeds during the
SMS compared to PMS and winter. Kompalli et  al.
(2014), using the radiosonde measurements at 9:00
UTC (14:00 LT) during 2011–2012, observed that the
maximum VC occurred at Nagpur during the PMS
and minimum during the SMS and followed by the
winter season. Maximum in VC during the PMS was
attributed to higher PBLH owing to thermal convec-
tion driven by high surface temperature and during
winter to the calm winds and shallow PBLH.
13
Water Air Soil Pollut (2021) 232: 365
3.4.3 Desert Region
Figure  10 shows the 5-year monthly and sea-
sonal mean variation of ventilation coefficient
over two cities, Jodhpur and Jaisalmer, located
near the Thar desert. Maximum in VC occurs in
the PMS (7062 ± 5478 ­m2/s) for Jodhpur and SMS
(6081 ± 4454 ­m2/s) for Jaisalmer. For both cities,
maximum VC occurs during March (9473 ± 9524
­m2/s for Jodhpur and 7540 ± 5165 ­m2/s for Jaisalmer).
Minimum VC (2237 ± 2012 ­ m2/s for Jodhpur and
2
2229 ± 2045 ­m /s for Jaisalmer) occurs during PoMS
(minimum in November for Jodhpur—1443 ± 1802
­m2/s and Jaisalmer—1950 ± 1224 ­m2/s). Figures  3,
4, and 5 suggest that moderate to high wind speeds
(4–8  m/s) in association with moderate PBLH
(800–1200  m) result in high VC during PMS and
SMS, while low wind speeds (2–4  m/s) and PBLH
(400–800 m) result in observed low VC values during
the PoMS. This observation implies that the below
medium pollution potential (APPI—4) is observed
during the PMS and SMS, respectively, for Jodhpur
and Jaisalmer. High pollution potential (APPI—2) is
observed during PoMS for both cities. Annual mean
Water Air Soil Pollut (2021) 232: 365
Fig. 10  Monthly and seasonal variation of VC for Jodhpur (a, c) and Jaisalmer (b, d) generated using 5-year (2015–2019) daily data
VC values for Jodhpur and Jaisalmer are observed
to be 4934  ± 4761 ­ m2/s and 5000  ± 
4545 ­ m2/s,
respectively.
Vittal Murty et  al. (1980) reported that the maxi-
mum in VC occurs in April and the minimum during
January for Jodhpur. However, this is during the after-
noon hours at 12:00 UTC in contrast to the present
study, which uses the data at 09:00 UTC correspond-
ing to a fully developed mixed layer.
3.4.4 In and Around IGP Region
Figure  11 shows the 5-year monthly mean and sea-
sonal variation of ventilation coefficients over six
cities, New Delhi, Lucknow, Kanpur, Varanasi,
Patna, and Rourkela, located in and around IGP.
Maximum in VC (4202 ± 3869 ­m2/s at New Delhi;
Page 15 of 19 365
4814 ± 3114 ­m2/s at Lucknow; 5267 ± 2822 ­m2/s at
Kanpur; 6251 ± 4297 ­m2/s at Patna; 5801 ± 3612 ­m2/s
at Varanasi; 4184 ± 2477 ­ m2/s at Rourkela) occurs
during PMS. It can be observed from Fig.  3 that in
this season, PBLH in the range 800–1600  m caused
by high surface temperatures and wind speeds in the
range 4–6  m/s are observed, which lead to high VC
during this season. Maximum VC occurs in Sep-
tember for New Delhi (5717 ± 5549 ­m2/s), Lucknow
(7421 ± 5394 ­m2/s), Kanpur (5633  ± 3656 ­ m2/s)
and in March, July, and May for Patna (7388 ± 3946
­m2/s), Varanasi (7441 ± 7425 ­ m2/s), and Rourkela
2
(5006 ± 3456 ­m /s), respectively. Minimum VC
occurs during PoMS (2048 ± 2362 ­m2/s at New Delhi;
2818 ± 2813 ­m2/s at Lucknow; 2251 ± 2183 ­m2/s at
Kanpur; 4008 ± 3038 ­m2/s at Patna; 3062 ± 2592 ­m2/s
at Varanasi) except for Rourkela, where the minimum
13
365 Page 16 of 19 Water Air Soil Pollut (2021) 232: 365

Fig. 11  Monthly and
seasonal variation of VC for
New Delhi (a, b), Kanpur
(c, d), Varanasi (e, f), Patna
(g, h), and Rourkela (i,
j) generated using 5-year
(2015–2019) daily data

13
Water Air Soil Pollut (2021) 232: 365
(1694 ± 2278 ­m2/s at Rourkela) occurs during SMS.
Figure  5 shows that the minimum in VC during
PoMS is caused by low PBLH (400–800 m) and wind
speeds (2–4  m/s). Minimum VC occurs in July for
Lucknow (2618 ± 2798 ­m2/s) and Kanpur (753 ± 199
­m2/s), in November for Patna (2524 ± 1204 ­ m2/s)
2
and Varanasi (2015 ± 1216 ­m /s), and in October and
August for New Delhi (876 ± 684 ­m2/s) and Rourkela
(962 ± 676 ­m2/s), respectively. The result indicates
that the cities in and around IGP possess medium
(APPI—3; New Delhi, Lucknow, Kanpur, Varanasi,
and Rourkela) to below medium pollution poten-
tial (APPI—4; Patna) during PMS. High (APPI—2;
New Delhi, Lucknow, Kanpur, Varanasi) to medium
(APPI:3; Patna) pollution potential is observed during
PoMS, while at Rourkela, very high pollution poten-
tial (APPI—1) is observed. There is an urgent need to
frame policies and mitigation measures to combat air
pollution effects, which worsen due to the high pollu-
tion potential observed in IGP, and large population
density (Fig. 1a) is going to be affected by this.
Annual mean VC values for New Delhi, Luc-
know, Kanpur, Varanasi, Patna, and Rourkela are
observed to be 3568 ± 3471 ­m2/s, 4240 ± 3210 ­m2/s,
4335 ± 2839 ­m2/s, 4773 ± 3649 ­m2/s, 5193 ± 3943
­m2/s, and 2497  ± 2613 ­ m2/s, respectively. Vittal
Murty et  al. (1980) observed that the maximum VC
occurred in PMS (April month) and minimum dur-
ing SMS (August month) at New Delhi. Iyer and Raj
(2013) reported high pollution potential in Delhi dur-
ing all seasons. However, these studies are done using
radiosonde data collected at 00 and 12 UTC com-
pared to our results derived using the satellite data at
09 UTC.
4 Conclusions
We prepared 5-year (2015–2019) mean monthly,
seasonal, and annual maps of VC and APPI for the
first time for India using the inputs from daily data
of PBLH derived using S-NPP vertical profiles and
wind speed from ERA-5. Climatology of VC and
APPI over 14 cities in India is analyzed, which aids in
dispersion modeling for the pollutant concentrations,
site planning, and mitigating industrial air pollution.
The conclusions are presented below.
1. VC/APPI exhibits spatial and temporal varia-
tion, as dynamic variables modulate this; i.e., PBLH
Page 17 of 19 365
and mean wind speed vary with location. The follow-
ing regions are identified as sites that allow maximum
dispersion and are thus suitable for setting up air-
polluting industries to reduce their effects on human
health. Moreover, already existing air-polluting indus-
tries in these regions can maximize the production in
respective seasons, and policymakers can move in the
air-polluting industries (high CEPI score) in other
regions to these sites.
i. During the winter season, the east coast of
Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh shows high VC
(6000 to > 10,000 ­m2/s) and below medium to
very low pollution potential (APPI values in the
range 4–6).
ii. During PMS, Western Gujarat, Southwest of
Rajasthan, and the junction region of Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand
show high VC (6000–10,000 m ­ 2/s) and APPI of
4–5 (below medium to low pollution potential).
iii. During SMS, most of western India and Delhi
NCR show good to high VC (6000 to > 10,000
­m2/s) and APPI value in the range 4–6 (below
medium to very low pollution potential), mak-
ing these regions possible sites for industrializa-
tion or maximum production.
iv. During PoMS, the east coast of TN possesses
an APPI value of 4 (below medium pollution
potential), making it a good site for Industrial
establishment.
v. Annual averages of VC and APPI suggest that
east coastal Tamilnadu and western Gujarat con-
sistently show below medium to very low pollu-
tion potential (APPI ≥ 4).
2. Maximum VC is observed at New Delhi, Luc-
know, Kanpur, Jodhpur, Patna, Varanasi, Rourkela,
and Nagpur during PMS; at Jaisalmer, Mumbai,
Hyderabad, and Bangalore during SMS; and at Kol-
kata and Chennai during the winter season. Minimum
VC is observed at New Delhi, Jaisalmer, Lucknow,
Kanpur, Jodhpur, Patna, Varanasi, and Mumbai dur-
ing PoMS; at Kolkata, Rourkela, and Chennai during
SMS; and at Hyderabad and Bangalore during the
PMS. This information can be used by authorities in
planning the vehicular and industrial pollution miti-
gation measures, thus reducing the effects on human
health.
13
365 Page 18 of 19
3. Using the annual average VC, the cities with
increasing pollution potential are identified as Mum-
bai, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Patna, Jais-
almer, Jodhpur, Varanasi, Kolkata, Kanpur, Lucknow,
New Delhi, Nagpur, and Rourkela. This knowledge
enables the regulatory authorities to prioritize the air
pollution mitigation measures in different cities.
The present study has more significant implica-
tions for performing a similar analysis for the globe,
prioritizing the locations for the industrial develop-
ment in various countries. One can adopt a compara-
ble method to create global maps of VC/APPI. Inter-
national regulatory authorities can monitor the setting
up of the polluting industries by different countries in
the highly ventilated corridors (APPI—6) to reduce
air pollution-induced climate change effects.
Acknowledgements  The authors are thankful to all the
online database science teams ((ERA5: https://​cds.​clima​te.​
coper​nicus.​eu/​cdsapp#​!/​home and NICES: https://​bhuvan-​
app3.​nrsc.​gov.​in/​data/​downl​oad/​index.​php) for supplying free
and valuable data used in this study. We thank Director NRSC
for the support and encouragement throughout this study.
Author contribution  Hareef baba shaeb. K: Conceptualiza-
tion, methodology, investigation, writing – original draft, writ-
ing – review and editing.
Sandelger Dorligjav: Data analysis, methodology, computa-
tion, and editing.
Biswadip.G: Review and editing and supervision.
Seshasai MVR: Review and editing and supervision.
Data Availability  Not applicable.
Code Availability  Not applicable.
Declarations  program. ESSA technical memorandum. WBTM NMC 47,
Conflict of Interest  The authors declare no competing inter-
ests.
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