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    EASA Module 5 B2 Digital Techniques 2016

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    Nyterelbi tem (1) FOR B2 CERTIFICATION = DIGITAL TECHNIQUES/ aa INSTRUME f Aa ~ Electronic Instrument Systems _- Electrostatic Sensitive Devices ecu Re cn eel me Recon Pere eae an Seno Teeter eC usS ud ieee cer ae er aes eee kea - Multiplexing ated ee MODULE 05 FOR B2 LEVEL CERTIFICATION | DIGITAL TECHNIQUES ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS Aviation Maintenance Technician Certification Series AIRCRAFT TECHNICAL Book Company 72413 US. Hwy 40 Tabernash, CO 80478-0270 USA www.actechbooks.com #1970 726-5111 41970 726-5115 Fax, Ceaser EVENS a rg AVIATION MAINTENANCE TECHNICIAN CERTIFICATION SERIES Author: James W, Wasson Ph.D About the author, Dr, James W. Wasson, an accomplished author, Is founder and President of Growth Strategies International LLC providing Aerospace and Defense Management Consulting Services to the U.S. Air Force, U.S. Navy and Boeing, He is also a Technology Commercialization Business Consutant to the University of South Carolina Small Business Development Center. Dr, Wasson was Chief Technology Officer (CTO) at BAE Systems Inc., where he planned and directed new avionics systems product development. He has 20 years of experience as Drector of ‘Avionics Engineering, Program Management and Business Development at Smiths Aerospace (now GE Aviation) and as Avionics Engineering Manager at McDonnell Douglas (now Boeing) He was Chairman of the Graduate Business and Management College for the University of Phoenix ‘West Michigan Campuses and Adjunct Professor, He has 2 PhD and MBA in Intemational Business Management and a BS in Engineering Technology. He Isa leensed FAA Airraitie & Powerplant Mechanie and Private Plt Copyright © 2015 — Aircraft Technical Book Company, AllRights Reserved, No part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored ina retrieval system, transmitted in any form, cr by any’ means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher. To order books or for Customer Service, please cst +1 970 726-61t1, wwwactechbooks.com Printed in the United States of America ( otrarggtiget7e WELCOME ‘The publishers of this Aviation Maintenance Technician Certification Series welcome you to the world of aviation maintenance, As you move towards EASA certification, you are required to gain suitable knowledge and experience in your chosen area. Qualification on basic subjects for each aircraft maineenance license category or subcategory is accomplished in accordance withthe following matrix. Where applicable, subjects are indicated by an "X" jn the column below the license heading. For other educational tools ereated to prepare candidates for icensure, contact Aircraft Technical Book Company. ‘We wish you good luck and success in your studies and in your aviation career! EASA LICENSE CATEGORY CHART ‘Module number and ile 1 Mathematics Physics Electical Fundamentals 4 Becton Fundamentals 5. iil Tectnius/ lector isrument Stems 6 Natefals an Hardee 7A Maintenance Practices 8 Base Aeodyramics 8A Human Factors 10 Aton Legislation 1A Turbine Aeroplane Aerodynamics, Stuctures and Systems 1B. Piston Aeroplane Rerogynamics, Structures and Systems, 12 Helicopter Aerodynamics, Stuctures and Systems 13 Aral erooyramice, Structures and Systems 14 Propusion 15 Gas Turbine Engine 18 Piston Engine 17A Proper a ‘iplane Tutbine x x x BM Airplane Tut B12 ipl Piston Bia Helicopter Taine 82 Avionics FORWARD PART-66 and the Acceptable Means of Compliance (AMC) aad Guidance Material (GM) of the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) Regulation (BC) No, 1321/2014, Appendix 1 to the Implementing Rules establishes the Basic Knowledge Requirements for those seeking an aigcraft maintenance license. The information in this Module (05B2) of the Aviation Maintenance ‘Technical Certification Series published by the Aircraft Technical Book Company ‘meets or exceeds the breadth and depth of knowledge subject matter referenced in Appendix 1 of the Implementing Rules. However, the order of the material presented is at the discretion of the editor in an effort to convey the required knowledge in the most sequential and comprehensible manner. Knowledge levels required for Category A, BL, B2, BG, and C aircraft maintenance licenses remain unchanged from those listed in Appendix 1 Basic Knowledge Requirements. Tables from Appendix 1 Basic Knowledge Requirements are reproduced at the beginning of each ‘module in the series and again at the beginning of each Sub-Module How numbers are written in this book: ‘This book uses the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) standard of writing numbers. This methods displays lange numbers by adding a space between each group of 3 digits. This is opposed to the American method ‘which uses commas and the European method which uses periods. For example, the number one million is expressed 38 50: ICAO Standard 1.000 000 European Standard 1.000.000 American Standard 1,000,000 SI Units: ‘The International System of Units (SI) developed and maintained by the General Conference of Weights and Measures (CGPM) shall be used as the standard system of units of measurement for all aspects of international civil aviation air and ground operations. Prefixes “The prefixes and symbols listed in the table below shall be used to form names and symbols of the decimal multiples and submultiples of International System of Units (S1) units ern i syw0o. 1 000000080 00 000.000 oa E 1 000000 000000000 pew P 1 000.090 000.000 = a iu 1.600000 000 Bet c 1 000 000 nea M 1000 «10? ko k 100 =10* esto 4 WW =10 deca a 01 10" dei 4 OO =10% cen ¢ 0001 «10% ili » 000001 «10 ico * 000000001 =10" nano . 4000000000001 =10 pico > 2000000 005000001 +10 —Femo £ 4000.00 000000 000001 = 16" ato 2 International Systm of Unis Pees PREFACE Today's aircraftincredsingly rely on digital technology and complexelectronicsystems, not ust for instrumentation, navigation, and comananicasions, bur tocay esen dar Aight soncrols, system monitoring, maintenance planning, and more and more. Fiber optics and fy-by-wire is no longer the exception, but the rue. I's no longer limited to military, but now the basis of private and commercial aircraft both large and small, This module presents the BI or A&P mechanical technician with what he or she needs to know for both’a general understanding of these systems and the ability to work around them in an efficient and safe manner. This book, Module 04B2 covers these topics to the greater depth required for the B2 or SpaceTEC/CertTEC rated avionics and electronics specialist, Module 05 Syllabus as outlined in PART-66, Appendix 1. LEVELS CERTIFICATION CATEGORY B2 Sub-Module 01 - Electronic Instrument Systems : ‘Typical systems arrangements and cockpit ayout of electronic instrument systems. 3 Sub-Module 02 - Numbering Systems ‘Numbering systems: binary, octal and hexadecimal, 2 Demonstration of conversions between the decimal and binary, octal and hexadecimal . systems and vice versa. Sub-Module 03 - Data Conversion 7 Analog Date, Digital Dats; 2 Operation and application of analog to digital, and digital to analogue converters, inputs and outputs limitations of various types. Sub-Module 04 Data Buses Operation of data buses in aircraft systems, including knowledge of ~ 2 ‘ARINC and other specifications. Aircraft Network / Ethernet, Sub-Module 05 - Logic Circuits {@) Kaentifcation of common logic gate symbols, tables and equivalent circuits, 2 ‘Applications used for aircraft systems, schematic diagrams, (b) Interpretation of logic diagrams, 2 Sub-Module 06 - Basic Computer Structure @ Computer terminology (including bit, byte, software, hardware, CPU, IC, - and vatiots memory devices such as RAM, ROM, PROM); Computer technology as applied in aircraft systems). ” LEVELS CERTIFICATION CATEGORY B2 (0) Computer related terminology, 2 Operation, layout and interface of the major components in a micro computer * including their associated bus systems; Information contained in single and multiaddress instruction words, ‘Memory associated terms; Operation of typical memory devices, Operation, advantages and disadvantages of the vatious data storage systems. ‘Sub-Module 07 - Microprocessors Functions performed and overall operation of a microprocessor; 2 Basic operation of each of the following miesoprocessor elements: control and processing unit, clock, register, arithmetic logic unit. Sub-Module 08 - Integrated Circuits Operation and use of encoders and decoders; . 2 Function of encoder types; Uses of medium, large and very large scale integration. Sub-Module 09 - Multiplexing Operation, application and identification in logic diagrams of multiplexers and demultiplexers, Sub-Module 10 - Fiber Optics ‘Advantages and disadvantages of fiber optic data tcansmission over electrical wire propagation, Fiber optic data bus; Fiber optic related terms; » Terminations; Couplers, control termiils, emote terminals; Application of fiber aptics in aircraft systems. Sub-Module 11 - Electronic Displays ‘Principles of operation of common types of displays used in modern aircraft, including Cathode 2 Ray Tubes, Light Emitting Diodes and Liquid Crystal Display. Sub-Module 12 - Electrostatic Sensitive Devices Special handling of components sensitive to electrostatic discharges} 2 ‘Awareness of risks and possible damage, component and personnel anti-static protection devices. Sub-Module 13 - Software Management Control ‘Awareness of restrictions, airworthiness requirements and possible catastrophic 2 effects of unapproved changes to software programmes. Sub-Module 14 - Electromagnetic Environment Influence of the following phenomena on maintenance practices for electronic system: 2 EMC-Electromagnetic Compatiility EMI-Electromagnetic Interference HIRF-High Intensity Radiated Field Lightning/lightning protection wi Module 05 - Electronic instrument Systems LEVELS CERTIFICATION CATEGORY > B2 Sub-Module 15 - Typical Electronie/Digital Aircraft Systems General arrangement of typical electronic/tigital aircraft systems and associated BITE 2 (Built In Test Equipment) such as: ForB1 and B2 only: ACARS-Aircrait Communication and Addressing and Reporting System EICAS-Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System. FBW-Fly by Wise FMS-Flight Management System IRS -Inertial Reference System For B1, B2 and B3: ECAM-Electronic Centralised Aircraft Monitoring EFIS-Electronic Flight Instrument System GPS-Global Positioning System ‘TCAS-Traffic Alert Collision Avoidance System Integrated Modular Avionics Cabin Systems Information Systems ae ee *RAFT bk 4 |_ Modification Date ACKNOWLEDGMENTS | Preface... v Revision Log... vil Acknowledgments. vil SUB-MODULE 01 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS Knowledge Requirements... at Blectronic Instrument Systems 12 Analog Instruments 12 Digital Instruments. 12 Electronic Displays. 12 Electronic Flight Instrument System 13 Engine Indication And Crew Alerting Syston. 15 Electronic Instrument Compating Systems 17 Question, 113 SUB-MODULE 02 NUMBERING SYSTEMS: Knowledge Requirements Numbering Systems. Decimal Binary “ Place Values... : Binary Number System Conversion, Octal. Octal Place Value Chart. 23 24 Octal Number System Conversion 24 Hexadecimal... 24 Hexadecimal Place Vale Chr. 26 Hendecial Number System Contes 26 Binary-Coded Decimals. 26 ASCIL Question SUB-MODULE 03 DATA CONVERSION Knowledge Requirements Data Conversion Analog Data Digital Data a Analog To Digital Conversion Digital To Analog Conversion Limitations OF Conversion Questions! Module 05 « Electronic instrument Systems CONTENTS SUB-MODULE 04 DATA BUSES Knowledge Requirements Digital Data Buses MIL-STD-1553B ARINC 429. ARINC 629... Aircraft Networks/Bthernet... ARINC 664 AFDX. IEEE 1394 Firewire Question... SUB-MODULE 05 LOGIC CIRCUITS Knowledge Requirements. Logic Gates. : NOT Gate Buffer Gate AND Gate. Exclusive OR Gate.. Exclusive NOR Gate Negative Logic Gates Interpretation Of Logic Diagrams. Adder Logic Circuit. ‘TTL And CMOS . Aircraft Logi Cireult Applications... _ 57 Question. ; 59 ‘SUB-MODULE 06 BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE Knowledge Requirements Basic Computer Structure Computer Architecture. Bits, Bytes, And Words Software . Hardware . Central Processing Unit nn sn Memory (RAM, ROM, PROM)....... rvsnenener 65, Integrated Circuits 66 Microcomputers 66 Layout And Interface 67 Operation Instruction Words. Memory Devices " CONTENTS: Duta Storage System: 69 Aircraft Computer Systems 6.10 Question. 6.13 SUB-MODULE 07 MICROPROCESSORS Knowledge Requirements Microprocessor Functions Performed, Overall Operation Functional Component Machine Cyele. Clock Timing. Question... a SUB-MODULE 08 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS Knowledge Requirements. Integrated Circuits 81 Flip-Flops, Comparators. Encoders Decoders. Scale OF Integration Question, all SUB-MODULE 09 MULTIPLEXING Knowledge Requirements our 9 Maltiplexing. 92 Multiplexer. 92 Interieaving. 94 Demultiplexers.... 94 QveStION nnn 97 SUB-MODULE 10 FIBER OPTICS Knowledge Requirements 101 Fiber Optics sevens 102 ‘Advantages And Disadvantages sn vncnnnone 102 Fiber Optic Data Bus. 103 ‘Transmitters 103 Light Emitting Diodes. ve 104 Laser Diodes... . 104 Receivers, 105 Photo-Diode Detectors. 106 Related Terms... . 106 Terminations. vs 106 Couplers And Terminals. 107 Applications in Aitcraft Systems, 108 Question. 309 SUB-MODULE 11 ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS Knowledge Requirements ma Electronic Displays 12 Cathode Ray Tubes... m2 Light Emitting Diodes: M2 Liquid Crystal Displays... . 113 ‘Active Matrix Liu Crystal Display vow MS Question. . 7 SUB-MODULE 12 ELECTROSTATIC SENSITIVE DEVICES Knowledge Requirements. Electrostatic Sensitive Devices. Risks And Possible Damage. ‘Anti-Static Protection... Controlled Environment Static-Safe Workstation ‘Anti-Static Wrist Steps. Grounding Test Stations Tonizes Special Handling. QUestIOM rnnsann SUB-MODULE 13 SOFTWARE MANAGEMENT CONTROL Knowledge Requirements. a 131 Software Management 132 Conttol.. 132 Restrictions And Catastrophic ERCtS.cssnonme 132 Aigworthiness Requirements Bd Question 135 SUB-MODULE 14 ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENT Knowledge Requirements 141 Electromagnetic Environment. soon 42 Electromagnetic Interference (EMD) nu. 42 High-Iotensity Radiated Field (HIRF)..... vw 142 Lightning/Lightning Protection, som 43 Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) surarnsnnne 4 Question = 145 ‘Module 05 - Electronic instrument Svstems SUB-MODULE 15 ELECTRONIC/DIGITAL AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS, 154 182 153. 153 Knowledge Requirements Digital Aircraft Systems Electronic Instrument Systems Blectronic Flight And Engine Instruments... Integrated Modular Avionics (IMA), Information Systems, And Bite. Communications, Navigation And Surveillance Systems. ‘Aiceaft Communication Addressing And Reporting System (ACARS) Inertial Navigation System (INS). 184 186 156 156 Ring Laser Gyros 156 MEMS. 187 Global Positioning Sytem (GPS). 187 Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) 158 Flight Management System (FMS) 159 ‘Trafic Alert And Collision Avoidance Sytem (TCAS)15.10 Automatic Dependent Surellance Broadcast (ADS-B). 15.11 Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT).. 15.13 Flight Conerol Systems. Mechanical Flight Control System: Autoatie Digital Fight Control Systems (ADFCS). 15.7 Cabin Systems... 15.19 Question 15.21 Acronym Index nme on AL Tnx senso ll Module 05 - Electronic instrument Systems Samerarr CONTENTS i | | a Module 08 - Electronic Instrument Svatema, DIGITAL TECHNIQUES ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS: SUB-MODULE 01 PART-66 SYLLABUS LEVELS cennricanion catecony~ B2 Sub-Module 61 - Electronic Instrument Systems Knowledge Requirements 5.1 ~ Electronic Instrument Systems ‘Typical systems arrangements and cockpit layout of electronic instrument systems. 3 Level Ages kaomloge ofthe sort and practi apse fhe bjt te a capaci to combine nd py he epee fowl in ‘ogi td comprehen ne, Objective: (0) The applica shuld kaw the they ofthe jet ad Inethtonship with ther ajc, (0) Theapplicae sbcld beable gives detleddesrpon of he abject sng heretic fundamental and spec ripe (© Thesppcae shuld ndenand ae betas thems formal clare othe ster (@) Thespian shouldbe bere understand and pepe theese drawing ad sche deveing be sabe. (@) Thpplian shoul ke be opp is koowedge inspite rmaner sing manuf astra (© Theappant shold be atleto inept esas rom vrow rues sad mesutenet and apply carer soa whee appropiate URCRAFT ‘Module 05 - Electronic Instrument Systems ELECTRONIC ItySTRUMENT ‘SYSTEMS. cit ee ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS Jnstruments that aid the pilot in controlling the altitude, attitude, airspeed and heading of the aierafé are known as flight instruments. Since the early days of fight there have been four basic flight instruments that have formed the well-known "T" arrangement located in the center of the instrument panel, as shown in Figure 1-1, These four basic instruments are 1) the airspeed indicator, located on the top lef, that measures the aircraft's speed in nautical miles per hour; 2) the attitude indicator, located on top center, that shows the aireraft’s attitude relative to the earth's horizon; 3) the altimeter, on the top right, that displays the barometric altitude as measured in feet; and 4) the gyro-slaved heading indicator, in the bottom center, which shows which direction the aireraft is ying, These four basic flight instruments are typically augmented with a turn-and-bank indicator that displays the rate of turn in the roll axis and mount of bank in the yaw axis, and a vertical speed indicator that displays the rate of ascent or descent in feet per minute. Assuming that the aircraft has radio navigation aids, it will also come equipped with a Radio Magnetic Indicator (RMI) coupled to an Automatic Direction Finder (ADF), and a Course Deviation Indicator (CDI) driven by VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR) and Instrument Landing System (ILS) receivers, The ILS receiver drives the glideslope needle co set the glide path ‘on an instrument approach and localizer needle provides lateral guidance to the center of the runway. Figure 11. Basic analog cock ight stumens. ANALOG INSTRUMENTS ‘These early fight insteuments were analog meaning that they contained either mechanical or electro-mechanical rotating mechanisnis to drive the pointer dials on the instruments, For example, an analog airspeed indicator receives air pressure from the pitot tube, which expands bellows that turns the dial on the indicator. With a digital system, the pitot air pressure enters an air data computer that converts the analog information into a digital data stream. Digital data is then sent to the airspeed indicator via an aircraft data bus where the data is converted back into analog signals to drive a pointer dial and/or is displayed digitally in numbers DIGITAL INSTRUMENTS With the advent of digital electronics in the early 1970's, Electronic Instrument Systems, also known as "glass cockpits", evolved that were more much more reliable than mechanical or electro-mechanical analog instruments, and had the advantage of combining several flight and navigation functions into one display to provide the crew with greater situational awareness. ‘The first commercial transport aircraft to employ an Electronic Instrument System (EIS) was the McDonnell Douglas MD-80 in 1979, The EIS on the MD-80 used Cathode Rey Tube (CRT) technology. However, during the next 10 years, Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) technology matured thereby replacing CRT. Flat-panel LCDs are lighter than CRT displays, require less volume, and consume less electrical power, thereby generating less cockpit heat. Glass cockpit configurations vary widely between aircraft models from a single fight and navigation display in a small private aircraft to five or more LCD displays in & commercial tcansportaireaft. (Figure 1-2} ELECTRONIC DISPLAYS The early EIS displays mimicked the analog display formats for ease in pilot training as the crew transitioned from older analog displays to digital displays that were driven by aircraft data computers, known as display Processors or symbol generators. Figure 1-3 depicts an early model Boeing 737 instrument panel with an analog Attitude Direction Indicator (ADI) and analog Horizontal Situation Display (ISI) in the left picture, and a later model B737 instrument panel with electronic Figure 1-2, rts A380 wt 8 lrg LCD es. ADI (EADI) and electronic HSI (EHSI) displays shown in the right picture ‘The ADI or EADI is an artificial horizon with lateral bars superimposed to display computer-generated pitch and bank steering commands from the Flight Director computer. The HSI or EHSI is similar to a heading indicator, except that it combines navigation commands from the VHF Omni-Range (VOR) or Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers which are used for en-route guidance, or from the Instrument Landing System (ILS), which is used for terminal guidance, Besides heading, the HS1/EHSI also provides actual track, desired track, track angle error, drift angle, cross-track deviation, and distance to destination information from the Dinstance Measuring Equipment (DME) or Inertial Navigation System (INS) (Figure 1-4) ‘The pilot and the co-pilot not only have independent EADI and EHSI displays, but they also have independent Display Processor Units, also known as Symbol Generators, to drive their displays (Figure 1-5). aan ‘Module 05 - Electronic Instrument Systems Display formats are produced by the Symbol Generators that receive inputs from the crew and various on-board systems. The Flight Director Systems, Navigation Systems, Air Data Systems, and Weather Radar provide inputs to the Symbol Generators, along with commands from the each crewmembers display control panel. ‘The Symbol Generators produce the graphics for the BADI, EHSI, and an optional Multi-Function Display (MED) that is mounted in the center instrument pane ‘The MED, which is physically identical to the EADI and EHSI, is eypicaly used to display weather radar information; however, it can also be used to display either flight information or navigational information in the event of an EADI or EHSI failure The following section will discuss the Boeing 777 EIS, which is amore advanced example of the one just covered. ELECTRONIC FLIGHT INSTRUMENT SYSTEM The Boeing 777, which first entered service in 1995, has six 8° x 8" multi-color LCD displays as shown in Figure 1-6, The B777 EIS consists of a dual-redundant Electronic Plight Instrument Systems (EFIS) and Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System (EICAS). On the left side of the instrument panel is the Captain's EFIS, consisting of a Primary Flight Display (PFD) loceted outboard and a Navigation Display (ND) located inboard. ‘The Co-Pilot’s EFIS located on the right instrument panel hasan identical PFD and ND, located outboard and inboard respectively. All the displays are interchangeable to reduce the number of required spares. The information shown on each display, whether for fight or navigation, is determined by what each crew member selects on their individual display contol panel 13 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT ‘SYSTEMS. Roll Pointer, Roll Sele Ade Alt Groundspeed Pech Scale Miers Speed Eror Sle Seed sor Pointer Aine Sphere Aircraft Symbol Heading Select Bug Heading DataSource Seated Coute (Course Selec Pointer ‘TolProm Indicator Aine Syl Selected Heating Dizetor Command Bar Selocted Dession Height Radi Alstde Flight Decor Pich And Rol Command Bars (Gideope Desinion Sse (Gidetge Devistion Pinter Mater Bexon Lose Deviation Sele Locales Deviation Pointer Siip Indian Forward Ler Line Navigation DataSource Later Deviation Bar Gidesope Pointer (lidesope Sele Groundipeed Age Lubber Line gre 1. EAD top ard EHS tan) Dla Symbology ‘The PFD takes the place of the EADI and displays all the information critical to flight, including attitude, airspeed, barometric altitude, vertical speed, heading, flight modes, radio aticude, ILS data, and Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (SCAS) resolution advisory. The PFDs are designed to increase the crew's situational awareness by integrating all of this information into a single composite display instead of the crew having to monitor several independent analog instruments, Also, the colors on the display change to alert the crew to potentially hazardous flight conditions, such as low airspeed, high rate of descent, etc. Figure 1-7 is a typical Primary Flight Display format showing the artificial horizon in the center of the ery Sameera display, airspeed on the left side, altitude on the right side, heading on the bottom, and flight modes on the top ofthe display. Notice how the moving ladder format, used for altitude and airspeed provide both absolute and relative information so the crew knows not only the exact numeric value, but also the rate that the altitude and airspeed is changing. ‘The Navigation Display, shown in Figure 1-8, tak the place of the EHSI display to show the requisite information to navigate the aircraft, including heading, VOR, GPS, and ILS guidance. The ND has the ability to overlay additional information on the navigation page to eliminate the need fox separate dedicated displays Some examples of information that is typically overlaid Module 05 - Electronic Instrument Svstems s=% Display Drive Signals Figwe 1-8. Boeing 77 Becton num Sytem has 6 LOD says. ‘on the ND include weather information from either the onboard weather radar or ground based sensors, and digital maps showing pre-programmed routes and waypoints from the Flight Management System. ENGINE INDICATION AND CREW ALERTING SYSTEM ‘The Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System (EICAS), also called an Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor (ECAM) on Airbus aircraft, performs the monitoring of aircraft systems that was previously ‘Module 05 - Electronic Instrument Svster performed by the Flight Engineer in three crew member cockpits. As previously shown in Figure 1-6, the two EICAS displays on the B77 are located in the center instrument panel. ‘The upper EICAS display shows engine performance data, such as pressure ratio, N1 rotor speed, exhaust gas temperature, total air temperature, thrust mode, etc., in addition to cabin pressure, flav/slat position, landing gear position, and crew status alerts. [Figure 1-9] The EICAS engine display format mimics the round analog instruments, while also providing digital readouts of the parameters. 16 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT ‘SYSTEMS. cn) Fast on ‘aaa ced Figure 1-7, Primary taht splay format Fur 1-8.BCAS engine dpa format. Alone Tack Heng, ETA Ditnc Go ry aaPeya oe _ Set Heng Canoe Wa aigay Proce Tam Selected Heading Vector Runa Centering Imerection and 1D Marker Bescon Holding Pater Waypsine and 1D ‘mod NAVAID Radial VORTAC snd 1D Verte Deviation Pointer Runway sod 1D VORsnd ID Range To Sele Atte ‘Active Fight Plan Path Wind Rietion Curved Trend Vector 2 Fiore 1-8. Navigation map day mat 16 AURCRAET ‘Module 06 - Electronic Instrument Svstams EICAS improves situational awareness by allowing the crew to see systems operation in graphical format and alerting them to any failures or impending failures. For example, if low oil pressure is detected, the BICAS will provide an aural alert and show to the oil pressure page ona lower display with a ed box outlining which engine has low oil pressure. ‘The Airbus ECAM system provides the crew with the following levels of warning along with detailed messages as to the nature of the problem and suggested courses of, + Level 3: An overspeed, fre, or stall condition will cause a repetitive chime aural warning with a bright red flashing light Level 2: A system failure, but not a safety of fight issue, will result in a single chime aural warning and a steady amber light. * Level 1; Failure leading (o system degradation results only in an amber light. + Mode or System Status: Ifeverything is normal, a Breen light will illuminate. ‘The lower EICAS display is called a Multi-Function Display because it provides auxiliary information to the flight crew and maintenance crew. The MFD can be used as a secondary engine display, status display, communications display, maintenance page, or electronic checklist. The MFD formats also include synoptic displays that provide system status diagrams for the fuel, electrical, hydraulic, light conteol, and environmental control systems, in addition to showing door and landing gear positions. On some aircraft, the MED is also used to display images from the ground rmanewvering camera system, Figure 1-10 is a schematic diagram of an Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System with all its associated components. The display select pane allows the crew to choose which computer is actively supplying information. It also controls the display of secondary engine information and systene status displays on the lower monitor, EICAS has a unique feature that automatically records the parameters of a failure event to be regarded afterwards by maintenance personnel. Pilots that suspect a problem may be occurring during Aight can press the event record button on the display select Module 05 - Electronic Instrument Systems panel. This also records the parameters for that flight period to be studied later by maintenance, Hydraulic, electrical, environmental, performance, and Auxiliary Power Unit (APU) data are examples of what may be recorded, EICAS uses Built-In-Test Equipment (BITE) for systems and components. A maintenance conteol panels included for technicians. When the aircraft ison the ground, push-button switches display information pertinent co various systems for analysis. (Figure 1-11) ‘This section contained an overview of a state-of-the-art aircraft cockpit with its Electronic Instrument System, The following section will discuss how digital data streams are formed and processed by aircraft computers and then sent over digital data buses to cockpit displays to provide essential information for the light crew and saiatenance crew, ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT COMPUTING SYSTEMS ‘The Boeing 777 was the first commercial aircraft to make use of the Integrated Modular Avionics (IMA) concept in what Boeing calls its Airplane Information ‘Management System (AIMS), the main computer for controlling the electronic instrument system. AIMS integrates multiple functions that require large {quantities of data collection and processing. As shown in Figure 1-12, AIMS provides the display processing and symbol generation forthe two PFDs, two NDs, EICAS and MED display units (DU) AIMS interfaces with approximately 130 LRUs, sensors, switches and indicators through multiple data buses, in addition to analog and discrete (ON/OFF) signals, to permit the integration of information from a majority of aircraft systems in one place. The onboard maintenance system uses AIMS for the BITE computing function. Besides driving the six LCD electronic displays, AIMS accepts control inputs from the two EFIS control panels, two cursor control panels, two display switching panels, two instrument source select panels, a center display control panel, and display select panel. [Figure 1-13] ‘The Captain and First Officer display switching panels select the desired display format (PFD, NAV, MED. or BICAS) on the inboard display units. The normal modes forthe inboard displays ate either the Navigation (NAV) or Multi-Function Display (MFD) pages. The er ww ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT ‘SYSTEMS: i oe a eae | ‘Aural Warning Standy Engine Indleators Engine Sensors Ny Ollrese ‘Ol quantity Oltomperature EPR Vibvaton ect Ge £08 temps ‘APUEGT. RPM. ‘system Sensors Hyeraulc quantity & press ‘ADC hydra sytem tnperature Control surtace postions Eecical system: vols aps toa or ve tmperatire Sty Engine Prary Displays ‘Other System Discretes FoCMCDP ‘THC intetace FE interface FAG intertace RAD Altice intertace ADGintrtace Brake temperature Figure 110. BCASsehemati dagrar ‘wo cursor control devices are used to select and activate items on the MFDs, much like a mouse on a personal computer (PC). The EFIS (Electronic Flight Instrumentation System) controls are used to select the desired source of the EFIS data. For the PFD (Primary Flight Display), che EFIS control panel selects the barometric altitude reference, radio altitude decision height, flight path vector and altitude reference. For the ND (Navigation Display), it selects the display mode format (map, plan, approach, or VOR navigation) and range, and turns on/off the VOR (VHF Omni-Range) and ADF (Automatic Direction Finder) pointers, Weather Radar (WXR) display, TCAS (Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance Systern) display, and other navigation and surveillance inputs. Electronic Instrument Computing Systems are triple redundant to allow for several automatic reversionary and manual override modes to switch ut faulty Display Management Computers (DMC) if the event of a failure. Figure 1-14 shows the architecture of the Airbus A330 Electronic Instrument System (EIS) in normal mode where DMC-1 is driving the Captain's EFIS PED and ND, DMC-2 is driving the First Officer's EFIS PFD and ND, and DMC-3 is deiving the ECAM (Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor) Engine/ Warning Display (E/WD) and System Display (SD). Note that the SD on the Airbus aircraft provides the as an MED on Boeing aircraft. same functioy In the event that an outboard display unit fails, the altitude, attitude, and airspeed information that was displayed on the PFD will automatically revert to being displayed on the inboard display unit since flying ee eee \ito or Manat vent In Memory ee) Figure 1-11 E048 malnonance cro panel DT ND EICAS 7D re Lek Left Upper Right || Outbaaet Inboud Clie Outbard || Rite emote ig Be a So" || Ti Snor eee ry tt + + + it c MD lowe RRINC 629 Bus (4) Lower cee oe — ipane | Fig Consol 2 oe, Syteme | ARINC 629 Bus (3) —— eae | ARINC 429] ‘DSP ioe? 3500 mee >| OPAS. : Es Ses on cane a Device) Roe. ESSaiam cao 7 See . Gun Sete RNC SHE Mog AIMS Cibinee(2) que 112. AMS is be computing syste fr he Bosing 777 ‘Module 08 - Electronic Instrument Systems =AIRCRAST a ‘SYSTEMS. ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT the aircraft always takes precedence over navigation. Likewise, if the top center DU fails, engine and warning information will revert to being displayed on the SD. Figure 1-15 depicts how the system would reconfigure in the event of a multiple DMC failure. In this example, the EFIS computer fails in DMC-2 and both the EFIS and ECAM computers fail in DMC-3. In this case, the First Officer’s EFIS would be driven by DMC-1 with the same display formats as the Captain, and the ECAM would run off of DMC-1 or DMC-3. Se Captain Display Switching Panel First Officer Dispay Switching Panel EFIS Control Pane? “S6 6 oS Peae Ej - 16 Or U ee S5OCOe on ae (CTAPHL BRIGHTNES ROS, e10As EVENT RCD p77 300 006A = ea al"S (Genter Display Control Panel Display Select Panel gue 1-19. AMS accepts control puts ram mull slay contol pares. See eee eee RECONFIGURATION POSSIBILITIES - ARCHITECTURE é 3 3 ef 6S a PFD ND |) ED | ND PFD se 4 vy 2} 2 3 tf CAPT EFIS F/O EFIS 5 “| a 44 i i ECAM DMC | ‘AUTO sD | “Ay O. ECAM ThA cris ome : . eris Me ee OFF SIDE COPY NORM 3 ys 0 eFis | ECAM [ erts | ecam cris | ECAM DMC1 DMc3 DMc2 Sip arate Cone Ose hanertne area | Dia Manager Compt Figure 1-14 Abus A330 8 reongtation posses Reconfiguration - ECAM on DMC‘ + F/O on EFIS DMC1 ‘w | a) ( oan EFIS FiO EFIS AAA s NORM al 3 ___OFF SIDECOPY i 3, o | © il 4 seam) [ie calle FIS, ECAM Dmc1 DMc2 rom on a Fire 1-18. ne of many reversion des in een of mui DMC lire, ‘Module 05 - Electronic Instrument Systems fe _=arcrarr ee ee Question: 1-1 “What are the differences between snalog and digital insteuments? Question: 1-2 ‘What are the advantages of Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD) over (Cathode Ray Tabe (CRT) instruments used in “Glass Cockpits"> Question: 64 ‘What types of information does an Electronic Attitude Direction Indicator (BADI) and an Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator (EHIS) provide to the fight crew? Question: 4 ‘Whats the purpose of the Multi-Function Display (MED? . Module 05 - Electronic Instrument Systems arcs QUESTIONS Question: 15 ‘What information does a Primary Flight Display (PFD) provide? Question: 1-6 ‘What typeof information is typically oveaid onthe Navigation Display (NDP Question: 17 How information does the Engine Indication and Crew Alerting Syston (EICAS) provide to improve crew situational awarenes? Question: +8 ‘Wha ocurs when the Aight crew pushes the “event” button onthe EICAS Display Select PeneP er 413 ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT ‘SYSTEMS. Psy ANSWERS Answer: H1 Analog instruments ae typically mechanical or electro-mechanical devices, whereas digital instraments are driven by a digital data stream sent from a computes called a Display Processor Unit ora Symbol Generator. Answer: 12 Flat-panel LCDs are lighter than CRT displays, require les volume, and require less electrical power, thereby generating less cockpit heat. Answer 13 The EADI isan ar to display computer-generated pitch and bank steering commands from the Fight Director computer. The EHS is simile toa cal hor2on with lateral bars superimposed heading indicator, except thatit combines navigation commands, from the VHF Omni-Range (VOR) o Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers which reused for en out guidance, o from the Instrument Landing System (ILS), which is used for terminal ‘guidance, Anwer 4 ‘The MFD is typically used to display weather radar information; ‘an also be used to display ether Aight information cor navigational information ic the event ofan EADI or EHST failure. In addition, the MFD can be used a secondary engine display, stats display, communications display, maintenance page, ‘orelectronic checklist. The MFD formats also include synoptic splays that provide sytem status diagrams forthe ful electrical, bowen hyde, Bight cont, and envionment contro systems in Audition to showing door and landing gear postions. Answer 15 ‘The PFD takes the place of the EADI and displays all the information critical to fight, including attitude, airspeed, barometric ltcude, vertical speed, heading, ight modes, ratio altitude, ILS data, and Trafic Alet and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS) resolution advisory, Answer: 6 ‘Some examples of information thats typically overlaid on the ND include weather information from either the onboard weather radar or ground based sensors, and digital maps showing pre- programmed routes and waypoints from the Flight Management System Answer 17 ‘The BICAS display shows engine performance data, suchas pressure ratio, NI rotor sped, exhaust gas temperature, total air temperature, thrust mode, et, in ation to cabin pressure, fat/ slat postion, landing gear position, and crew satus alerts. EICAS improves situational awareness by allowing the crew to ste stems operation in graphical format and alerting them toanyfilures or impending flues, newer: 18 Pushing the event button records the parameters for catfight period tobe studied later by maintenance. Hyrauli, electrics, ‘environmental, performance, and Aurilary Power Unit (APU) data ae examples of what may be recorded DIGITAL TECHNIQUES ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENT SYSTEMS PSOne SUB-MODULE 02 PART-66 SYLLABUS LEVELS cenmiicanon category B2 Sub-Module 02 - Numbering Systems Knowledge Requirements cs - Numbering Systems Numbering systems: binary, octal and hexadecimal, 2 Demonstration of conversions between the decimal and binary, octal and hexadecimal systems and vice versa Level2 A general knowledge of the teal end praia pce ofthe ‘abject and an abit app hat kone. Objective: (@) Thespplca shouldbe slew undetand the thereat fandamenth ofthe sabe, (8) Thespian shouldbe alto gives ener eiption ofthe sabjet sing apron, tpcl spe. (@)Theegplce should be alo weather fxm in nj wih ply tvs derbi the abject (@) Thesplice shoul be abla ed and derstand sketches, Arwing sed schematic deebing the aj. (@)Theeplican shost be leo pp his koowedge ina pata ‘mune sing dalled procedure. Module 06 « Electronic inatrament Sestems oy NUMBERING SYSTEMS: NUMBERING SYSTEMS DECIMAL Numbers are used to describe the quantity of something. A numbering system is a written system for expressing numbers as symbols. All umbering systems have bases to understand how the numbering system works. For example, the symbol "10" could mean "ten" in decimal form (base-10) oF it could mean "two" in binary form (base). ‘The most common numbering system that used in everyday life is the decimal system. ‘The prefix in the word "decimal" is a Latin root for the word "ten", Thus, the decimal system uses ten different symbols (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,7, 8, and 9) and is referred to as a base-10 numbering system. To represent a number higher than 9, go to the next digit placement, such that 10 means ero units of one and one unit often. At the ast symbol, a new placement is created to the left and counted up, so that 100 appears after 99, and so on. Each additional placement is an additional power of 10. Knowing this will help in understanding the other bases. BINARY ‘The binary number system has only two symbols: 0 and 1. The prefix in the word "binary" is a Latin root for the word "two", and as suc, is referred to as a base-2 numbering system. The use of the binary numbering system is based on the fact that switches or valves have two states: OPEN or CLOSED (ON or OFF). Primary uses of the binary number system include computer architecture and digital electronics. In computers, information is stored asa series of O's and 1's, forming strings of binary numbers known as machine language. Similarly, the binary number system is used in digital electronics because the two basic conditions of 1%) ON and OFF, can represent the two digits of the binary number system. When a switch is ON, it represents the digit 1, and when itis OFF, it represents, the digit 0. electi Millions and even billions of tiny switches are arranged so that digital devices can perform the functions they do with a binary number system. Itis easy to recognize a binary number when written because it only uses 1's and 0's, To ensure itis not mistaken for another number system expression, a binary number system numeral may be written with a prefix or suffix that indicates it is binary. Binary number system identifiers are shown in the following example. There are others. The value ofall of the binary numbers shown in this example i the same (11 in the decimal number system). 1011, 101tbasez bin 1011 Ob1011 1011b When reading or pronouncing a binary number, it is common to simply say "1" or "0" moving from left to right until all che digits are pronounced. To read 1012, say, “one, zero, one, one" PLACE VALUES ‘As stated previously, the decimal number system used in everyday life isa base-10 system. ‘There are 10 symbols available for use as place value holders; 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8, and 9. When positioned in a number, they are also positioned to represent a place value. If is exceeded, the place value resets to 0 and a 1 must be placed in the next place value column to the left. Figure 2-1 illustrates the decimal number system place values. They are derived by sequentially raising 10 to a higher power moving from right to left. Thus, each position has a value 10 times that of the position to its right. ‘The binary number system is a base-2 system. There are 2 digits available for use as place value holders; 0 and 1, Each place value in the binary number system represents 2 raised to @ sequentially higher power from right to left. Tis is similar to the decimal system used in everyday life. Figure 2-2 illustrates the place values of, the binary number system. It shows to what power 2 is raised to establish value and the decimal number system equivalent ofeach place. Bach place value position has a value 2 times that of the position to it right DECIMAL PLACE VALUE CHART 10’ 108 10s 10) =19000000 =1000000 = 100000 10000 10° 10 10° 10° 100010010 “1 Face 2-1. Pac vate ol the dexial number item, “An oo “RAFT Module 05 - Electronic Instrumant Systems. BINARY PLACE VALUE CHART 7 ma s Po =m 264 “2 “6 2 2B » n oe =4 2 a que 2-2. eration ofthe place values of te binary number system. Remember, when writing binary numbers and placing digits in positions of place value, the only digits available are Oand 1, To exceed 1, the place value is reset to 0 and 411 is placed in the next place value column to the left. Place values are used to convert our everyday decimal numbers to binary numbers. Figure 2-3 illustrates how binary numbers are formed by placing a 1 ora 0 in the binary place value positions. Binary digits are called “bits” ‘the Least Significant Bit (LSB) is the bit with the smallest weight. The LSB on the far right of the binary place value position table is 2°, which equals 1. In this last column, alternate every other time going down the column inserting 1s and Os. Likewise, the next LSB is 2', or 2, which means alternate every 2 times down the column inserting 1s and 0s, and so forth. The Most Significant Bit (MSB) is the bit with the largest weight. The MSB is on the far left side of the binary place value postion table. Here the bts alternate every 8 times between 1s and 0s. ‘Together all four bits across each row form the binary equivalent of the decimal number shown in the far left column. BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM CONVERSION, Bach binary number column has 2 decimal value. To convert from decimal to binary, find the binary column that has the largest value but is equal to or smaller than the decimal number being converted. Place a 1 in that column and subtract the column value from the decimal number being converted. Look at the difference. Place 4.1 in the column that has the largest value but is equal to or smaller than the decimal number difference of what was just subtracted. Now subtract this column, value from the difference of the decimal number being converted and the previous column difference. If a column is not used, place a zero in it. Continue this operation until all of the binary place value columns with 1's, when added together, have the same value as the decimal number being converted. Write the number in binary form including a 1 oa 0 for each column, Example: Convert the number 1000 to a binary number, Use the binary place value chact in Figure 2-4 to assist in remembering the decimal equivalent value foreach binary place valve holder. The largest decimal qumnber system value in a binary number system place holler that is less than or equal to 100 is 64. Thus, a1 is paced in the 64 column (29 of the binary place value chact, Subtract 64 from 100 fora difference of 36, “The binary place value holder that is less than or equal t 36 is 32. Phive a 1 in the 32 column (2°) of, the bin Aslfference of 4. "Ihebinary place valuc hokler that is less than or equal to dis 4. Picea 1 in the 4 colurma (2°) of the binary phice vahte chart. Subtract 4 from nee of 0, Since there is nothing left to ¥ place vale chart, Subtract 32 frum 36 for Vora be conver thar do place « 0 in all place value columns alma}, Write the nunber using all the T's and O's recorded in the chart from right to left; 1100100» = 10020 ‘To convert a binary number to a decimal number, simply add the column values ofthe binary place holders with a1. Example: Convert the binary number 100101 11 to a decimal number, Prom left right, the base-2 value represent by each 1 in this binary number are alded together: 128 + 16444241 = 151, 10010112 1s" Ascan be seen, a binary numbers typically much longer that its decimal equivalent. However, modern circuits have very fast switching speeds so that the lengch of binary numbers can be tolerated. ‘This is especially true because of the reliability that is gained from a system that i built from components that are either 1 (ON) or 0 (OFF), thats, either have voltage or do not have voltage. OCTAL The binary numbering system requires many bits to sepresent relatively small numbers. In the preceding example, it required 8 binary bits (10010111) to represent ae aa NUMBERING SYSTEMS. EGE SESS DECAL, 8 adeovemsonis¢d gure 23, inary value le positions, Ei 2 4% 4 Figure 24. seo binary number system laevis to ‘ie various deal umber in bnary sey, a3-digit decimal (151). Assuch, analyzing the numerical states of digital logic using the binary numbesing system can become quite tedious for computer programmers developing machine language code. For this reason, place-weighted numbering systems, such as octal, were developed. The prefix in the word “octal” is a Latin root for the word "eight", and as such, it is referred to as a ‘base-8 mummbering system. Octal has 8 symbols available as place value holders (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7). As shown in Figure 2-5, each place weight differs from the ‘one next to it by a factor of 8, instead of only by a factor of 2 asin the binary system, OOTAL PLACE VALUE CHART To convert an octal number to a decimal, one must ‘multiply the value ofthe power of 8 depending on where the digit falls on the above octal place value chart, Example: Convert octal number 42 to a decimal. ‘The leas significant digit of 2s multiplied by 8°, which is 1, and the nest digit of 4 is multiplied by 8, which is 8. The results are then added as shown below 2x22, 48-32, 2432-34 OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM CONVERSION Octal numerals can be made from binary numerals by grouping consecutive binary digits into groups of three, To convert a decimal to an octal number, begin by converting the decimal to a binary number. Then separate the binary number into groups of 3 digits starting from the right. If needed, add implied zeros to the left of the number to form complete groups of 3 digits each. Next, convert each group of 3 digits to an octal value using Figure 2-6, Exawaple: Convert the number 1009 % an octal number by first converting it eo its binary number of 7700100. Break the binary number into groups of ree and convert So as not to confuse an octal number of 144 with the decimal number of 100, any ofthe following conventions ‘may be used either before or after the octal number. 144; 144base8 oct 144 Ocl44 144e HEXADECIMAL Another place-weighted numbering system is hexadecimal with a base of 16. Each hexadecimal digit represents four binary digits (bits) and there are eight bits in each byte. Hexadecimal notation is more OCTAL PLACE VALUE CHART gr 8 e st 20971522621 264085, 8 ge su “ 8 1 Fre 25, Darran ote pae valves ote otal nant yen, 24 ” Ce lest 7 000 00000000 0 ‘20000001001 1 000000 002 2 0000011 003 3 op00100 004 4 oooo1o1 00s 5 0000110 006 6 ooo0o11 007 7 0001000, a10 8 0901001 | ott 9 ooooio =z A | opooion | 013 B ooor100 lt c ooooer ols D coool = O16 E ooo = a7 F 90010000 020, 10 oo1o0e1 oz 1 oo1od10 = 022 2 oootoon 023 B ooo1oi00 ans 4 ooo = as 15 ooo10 026, 6 coon = a7 v7 0011000 030 8 ooor001 BL 19 ooo =x 1A oot = 033. 1B 001100034 1c oooitior =a 1D oo1t10 036 1E ooo = 07 1 (00100000 040 Py 0100001 oft 2 oo1oo01 © ase 2 olga 04s 2B 0100100 oa 2m colon = 0s 25 10010046 2% ootoon = ow7 7 ‘0101000050 28 oo1o1001 0st 2 oolo110 0s 2A colin = 053, B oro100 0s 2c ooio1io1 055; 2D ouino 056, 2 ooo 0ST F ‘00110000060 30 + gorto01 061 3 ce fe 50 | 00110010 062 2 51 o0tt0011 oss 2 52, 00110100064 4 53 | oo1to1o1 065 35 54 optto119 066 36 55 | oom O67 37 56 | 00111000070 38 Ss? optttoo1 7 9 58 ooo oz 3A 8 ooo O78 3B 60 o0ttt100 «O74 3c. 4 | oom os 3D 62 ooo | 076 3E 63 | opm O77 F 6 100000100 0 65 100001101 4 6 © 1000010102 2 67 1000011108, 8 68 01000100104 “4 6 = orooo1or 05 45 7% —o1000110 106, 4% moron 107 a m2 o1go1000 110 48 7% otooroon 0 74 1001010112 4A 7% oot 3 B 7% — owouoo 4 4c 7 owouor us ~D 78 owoo1t10. «6 4E 7 = ooo 7 aF 80 © 01010000120 50 fs cuonooon. at 3 2 — ouoiga0. 1d 2 oro 123 53 se —cron01o 14 s4 85 o1owolnn-S 125 55 8% 01010110126 56 7 noma 7 se 101100030 38 a out 31 39 9 oom SA ono 3 SB 92 o1o1st00 34 sc 93 owolol 35, sD 9% g}ONO «136 SE os win 197 SF 96 = 110000040 0 97 or100001 a1 el 98 = 0110000 M2 2 99° onmgo 3 8 10 ottog109 as 64 Fae 26, Bray to oll nd hexanal conversion 1b Se ne 25 NUMBERING SYSTEMS. popular because binary bit grouping in computing and digital electronics are in multiples of eight (8, 16, 32, 64, and 128 bit), Hexadecimal symbols include normal decimal symbols of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9, plus : six alphabetical characters of A, B, C, D, E, and F. The $ hexadecimal place value chart is showa in Figure 2-7. o 4 Similar to the octal notation, each place weight differs ey from the one next to it, but by @ factor of 16 (instead of 8), thereby reducing the number of bits in half to provide | the same amount of information. HEXADECIMAL PLACE VALUE CHART ‘Toconvert a hexadecimal (hex) number toa decimal, one must multiply the value ofthe powerof 16 depending on where the digit falls on the above hexadecimal place value chart Example: Convert hex iemal, The is 40, and the neve lig whichis 16. The results are tlien added! as shown hen ee T= 10, 16, (+16 =26 So as not to confuse the hex number, of say 10, with the decimal number of 16, any of the following conventions ay be used either before or after the hex number 1016 10basel6 hex10 0x10 10x 1EXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM IVERSION, Hex numerals can be made from binary numerals by placing consecutive binary digits into groupings of 4, instead of 3 as with octal numbers. To convert a decimal toa hex number, begin by converting the decimal to a binary number. Then separate the binary number into groups of 4 digits starting from the right. Again, add implied zeros to the left of the number to form complete ‘groups of 4 digits each. Next, convert each group of 4 digits toa hexadecimal value using Figure 2-6. we mamber 10.) tx hes tw its binary number of vusisher by first converting (001100100. Break the binary number into groups of four starting from the right and convert. O110=6, 0100-4, Hex number = 64x To summarize, the “native language” of digital electronics, referred to as machine language, is binary. Octal and hexadecimal are more efficient variations of binary for programming since octal and hexadecimal are based on powers of 8 and 16, respectively, which are ceven multiples of the binary’s base-2. This sub-module demonstrated how binary digits are grouped together and directly converted fo or from their respective octal or hexadecimal numbers. It is important to understand that all digital devices, such as computers will operate only off of binary digits or bits BINARY-CODED DECIMALS Computers instructions are formed by groupings binary digits to form words. A series of four binacy digits will form a 4-bit word, These 4-bit words are represented by Binary-Coded Decimals (BCD). As shown in Figure 2-3, binary 1000 represents decimal 8 and binary 0010 represents decimal 2, BCD coding uses the binary equivalent of the decimal number; however, BCD coding and binary numbers are not the same. A BCD ‘number must be between decimal number 0 and 9 since each BCD number is expressed in units tens, hundreds, thousands, etc. For example, the binary number equivalent of decimal 82 is 01010010, However, the BCD expression would be two 4-bit words consisting of 1000 representing number 8 and 0010 representing umber 2 as two separate decimals. Example: Convert the number 26%, to a BCD. nuamber by fist separating each decimal number in to its place vafue an laen eon h decional into 4-bit BCD words 2-001 6-010 4 owe ASCII The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) was developed as a character encoding scheme for telerype aad computer keyboards. 4 HEXADECIMAL PLACE VALUE CHART 167 16° 16° 16° 259435456 16777216 104857665536 16 16° 16" 16° 406 256 6 1 gue 2-7. Desa fe place ves fh hexanal number st, " Assuch, its based on the English alphabet and encodes 128 specified characters into 7-bit binary numbers as shown in Figure 2-8. For example, entering the letter "AY on akeyboard would output binary number 1000001 to the input of a computer as an instruction, ee ene eee ee cau NUMBERING SYSTEMS 0 | 0500) 1) Oot 2 0002 3 O08 4 0104 5 0905 6 | 0106 7 007 8. 008 9 os09 10 O*0A 1 0B. 12 oxoC 13. «oD 14 O08, 15 OOF 16 ox10 oat 18 ont 9 ons 20 Oud a Ons 2 oul6 BOT ue ong. 2 og 2 081A 27 Oak 2B owe 2% oD 30 OdE 31 OdF 2 090 3 Owl B02 35 003 36 On2e 37 Os 38 005 39 Ow? 0 908 a 009 2 OWA 8 008 4 oc 45 02D 4 OE 47 OOF 8 000 9 Oat 30082 51 083 52004 53 ous 000 oo 02 03 08 ons 006 07 10 ou oz a3 ow as as a7 OF as os 2s 026 or 030 ot 032 033 034 035 036 037 on on on 043 ou 045 46 OW 050 051 052 033 05¢ 053 056 0357 060 ost 062 064 065 a ‘000010 no00tt 000100 cono101 000110 oooottt 001000, oot001 cooto10 ovor011 0001100 ooo1101 ooort10 oooni3i 210000 010001 cor0010 co10011 o10100 ooroio1 ooxot10 oorati1 011000 oro ooni010 conn ooi1100 oon01 oon1110 conti ‘100000 ‘atoo001 ‘oo010 ‘oogo1) ‘xgo100 100101 ‘10110 ‘ngo1tt ‘oro1000 101001 101010 o1o1o11 no1100 o1o101 101110 oom 110000 110001 110010 110011 10100 nora a sTX, BIX EOT ENO, ACK BBL. BS TAB LF VT a us 54 | O06 55 | 087 56 08 57 0339 58 OA 59 0:38 6 | o3C 61 08D 82 OSE 6 08F 6 Oe 65 Ont 5 Ont 67 0083 Os Ons 7 Ont6 ToT 2 et B09 4 Oud 1S OxB 1 Ons TT Oe 1B OE 1 OME 050 81 Ost 0s? 83 0

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