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Influence of Particle Refractive

Index on the Lower Detection
Limit of Light Scattering Aerosol
Counters
a a a
Seong-Ho Yoo , Seung-Ki Chae & Benjamin Y. H. Liu
a
PARTICLE TECHNOLOGY LABORATORY, MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT , UNIVERSITY OF
MINNESOTA , MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA, 55455
Published online: 13 Jun 2007.

To cite this article: Seong-Ho Yoo , Seung-Ki Chae & Benjamin Y. H. Liu (1996) Influence
of Particle Refractive Index on the Lower Detection Limit of Light Scattering Aerosol
Counters, Aerosol Science and Technology, 25:1, 1-10, DOI: 10.1080/02786829608965374

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/02786829608965374

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 ELSEVIER

Influence of Particle Refractive Index on the

Lower Detection Limit of Light Scattering
Aerosol Counters
Seong-Ho Yoo, Seung-Ki Chae, * and Benjamin Y H. ~ i u ~
PARTICLE TECIjNOLOGY LABORATORY, MECHANICAL. ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT,
UNIVERSITY O F MINNESOTA, MINNEAPOLIS, MINNESOTA 55455
Downloaded by [University of Boras] at 12:29 05 October 2014

ABSTRACT. Light scattering particle counters are widely used for aerosol re-
search. They are also important tools for monitoring airborne particles in the
semiconductor and pharmaceutical industries. For the latter application, it is
important to know the influence of particle material properties on the counter
response, particularly the effect of particle refractive index on the lower detection
limit of the counter. In this paper, the effect of particle refractive index on the lower
detection limit of aerosol particle counters has been studied using the Mie theory.
Counting efficiencies have also been measured to verify the theoretical results. The
measurements were made with PSL (polystyrene latex), silicon, silicon nitride, and
silicon dioxide particles. Two commercially available aerosol counters and a con-
densation nucleus counter were used in the study. The theoretical study show that
both the real and the imaginary parts of the particle refractive index affectthe lower
detection limit of a light scattering particle counter. For transparent particles, an
increase in the particle refractive index causes a decrease in the lower detection
limit. And the absorptive component in the refractive index of the particle causes a
further drop in the lower detection limit for the specific counters studied. Experi-
mental measurements show good agreement with the theoretical results. Among the
test particles used, silicon had the largest refractive index, followed by silicon
nitride, PSL, and silicon dioxide. The lower detection limit of the counters studied
also shows a corresponding decreasing trend with silicon dioxide giving the highest
lower detection limit, followed by PSL, silicon nitride, and silicon as the refractive
index of the particle is increased and the lower detection limit of the counter is
decreased. The difference between the theoretical and experimental lower detection
limits was found to be less than 10% in most cases. AEROSOL SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY 25:l-10 (1996)

* Current Address: Samsung Electronics Company,

Kihueng, Korea.
' Corresponding author.

Aerosol Science and Technology 25:l-10 (19%)

0 1996 American Association for Aerosol Research
Published by Elsevier Science Inc.
 2 S.-H. Yoo et al.
INTRODUCTION
Aerosol counters based on laser light-
scattering by a single particle are widely
used for measuring the number concentra-
tion and size distribution of airborne parti-
cles. They have a broad range of applica-
tions, such as cleanroom monitoring in the
semiconductor and pharmaceutical indus-
tries, air pollution research, and industrial
hygiene studies. The important response
characteristics of a particle counter include
the sizing accuracy, the counting efficiency,
and the lower detection limit. These char-
acteristics are functions of the particle size,
Downloaded by [University of Boras] at 12:29 05 October 2014
refractive index, and shape, as well as the
wavelength of the light and the collec-
tion geometry of the counter. Hodkinson
and Greenfield (19651, Cooke and Kerker
(19751, and Heyder and Gebhart (1979)
studied the effect of these parameters on
aerosol particle counter response by theo-
retical methods. Whitby and Vomela (1967)
and Quenzel (1969) investigated the effect
of particle properties on the sizing accuracy
experimentally. Wen and Kasper (1986) and
Liu and Szymanski (1987) experimentally
studied the counting efficiency and the
lower detection limit of some commercially
available particle counters.
Light scattering counters are usually cali-
brated by means of polystyrene latex (PSL)
spheres. Since the optical properties of the
PSL sphere generally differ from the prop-
erties of the actual particles being mea-
sured, errors may arise as a result of the
different optical properties of the calibra-
tion and the actual particles. For this rea-
son, it is important to understand the dif-
ference in counter response due to material
property differences and how this differ-
ence may cause measurement errors.
Makynen et al. (1982) have pointed out the
importance of the need to perform calibra-
tion studies using particles of different re-
fractive indices.
Among the response characteristics of a
light scattering counter, one of the most
important is the lower detection limit, i.e.,
the smallest particle that can be detected
by the counter. In the semiconductor indus-
try the operational class of a cleanroom is
Aerosol Science and Technology
25:1 July 1996
defined by the Federal Standards 209E in
terms on the number of particles per unit
volume of air above a certain stated parti-
cle size. The particle size is usually chosen
to be between 0.1 to 0.5 p m depending on
the availability of counters for the mea-
surement. If the lower detection limit of a
counter is affected by the refractive index
of the particles, a change in particle refrac-
tive index due to changes in the nature of
airborne contaminants can cause a change
in the lower particle size limit of the counter
and consequently in the total number of
particles counted. An understanding of the
influence of particle refractive index on the
lower detection limit of particle counters
can help to better understand the source of
measurement errors caused by particle re-
fractive index.
In a typical facility used for semiconduc-
tor device fabrication, various types of air-
borne contaminant particles can be en-
countered. An important source is the pro-
cess equipment itself and particles such as
silicon dioxide and silicon nitride are gen-
erated during the oxide and nitride film
deposition process used in semiconductor
device fabrication. In this study, we have
focused our attention on such process gen-
erated particles. Table 1 lists some of the
particles included in the present study along
with their refractive indices at the He-Ne
laser light wavelength of h = 0.633 p m and
the solid state laser wavelength at h = 0.780
Pm.
Present knowledge about the lower de-
tection limit of the available aerosol counter
is rather limited. Most previous studies were
empirically based. In this study, the lower
detection limit of the counter is studied
both theoretically and by experiments. The
effect of the particle refractive index on the
lower detection limit is then presented.
THEORETICAL STUDY OF THE
LOWER DETECTION LIMIT
Theoretical Response of Aerosol Particle
Counters
The amount of light scattering by a particle
as it passes through the viewing volume of
 Aerosol Science and Technology
25:l July 1996
TABLE 1. Refractive Index" of ~ a r t i c l e s ~
Particle Material
Calibration
Polystyrene Latex (PSL)
Semiconductor
Silicon (Si)
Silicon Dioxide (SiO,)
Silicon Nitride (Si,N,)
Metal
Aluminum (Al)
Chromium (Cr)
Iron (Fe)
Nickel (Ni)
Special Metal
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Copper (Cu)
Silver (Ag)
Gold (Au)
'Refractive mdcx of rnedlurn (air):
1.0-10.0.
From American Institute <,IPhysic\ Handbook
a light scattering counter can be predicated
theoretically if the wavelength of light, the
optical geometry and optical properties of
the particle are known. These predictions
are generally based on the Mie scattering
theory. Numerous researchers have made
light scattering calculations (Hodkinson and
Greenfield 1965; Cooke and Kerker 1975;
Quenzel 1969; Martens and Doonan 1970,
etc.). The theoretical response, R, ex-
pressed in terms of the "scattering cross-
section" of the particle, is given by (Cooke
and Kerker 1975)
where h is the wave length of the light in
the medium, i , and i, are the angular
intensity functions, f(h) is the wavelength
spectrum of the emissive power of the light
source combined with the spectral sensitiv-
ity of the photo detector, and F(B, 4) is a
geometrical factor which depends upon the
convergence of the incident beam and the
geometry of the collecting aperture. Hod-
kinson and Greenfield (1965) have defined
F ( 0 , 4 ) for various optical geometry.
Refractive Index and Light Scattering Detection Limits 3
He-Ne Laser Solid State Laser Diode
(A = 0.633 pm) (A = 0.780 pm)
PMS Counter TSI Counter
1.59-i0.0 1.58-i0.0
3.88-i0.02 3.71-i0.007
1.46-iO.O 1.45-iO.O
2.02-iO.O 2.00-i0.0
1.30-i7.48 2.63-i8.59
3.48-i4.36 4.08-i4.35
235.i3.36 3.00-i3.60
1.92-i3.65 2.43-i4.31
0.88-i3.24 0.24-i4.85
0.27-i4.18 0.27-i5.47
0.13-i3.16 0.08-i4.56
(1'172).CKC tiandbook (1'181). and Palik (1'185).
In the application of aerosol counters,
particles spanning a broad range of refrac-
tive indices are encountered. Table 1 shows
the refractive index of the particle materi-
als of interest. PSL spheres are commonly
used as the calibration particles, and silicon
and its compounds are the particles often
found in a silicon device facility. Some of
the metallic particles are included in the
study because they have a large imaginary
component to the refractive index. In addi-
tion, the real refractive index of the metal
particles are sometimes smaller than that
of the medium.
The computer program developed by
Bohren and Huffman (1983) based on the
Mie theory was used in the present calcula-
tion. A PMS LAS-X counter and a TSI
laser particle counter Model 3753 were
chosen for this study. The LAS-X counter
uses He-Ne laser as a light source and
collects the scattered light over the 35" to
120" range. The TSI 3753 counter uses a
solid state laser and has the light collection
angle of 18.6"-54.2". The lower detection
limit of these counters provided by the
manufacturer are referred to here as the
nominal lower detection limit. For the PMS
LAS-X counter, the nominal lower detec-
tion limit is 0.12 pm, whereas for the TSI
 4 S.-H. Yoo et al. Aerosol Science and Technology
25:1 July 1996

3753 counter it is 0.3 pm. Since PSL spheres

are used as the standard for light scattering
particle counter calibration, the nominal
lower detection of a counter, therefore,
refers to the smallest PSL spheres that can
be detected by the counter.
The PMS LAS-X counter used in the
study is the in-cavity laser version and ef-
fect of the in-cavity design was included 1 0

j
u
.
d

in the calculation by modifying Eq. 1 ac- 0

V]
-

cording to the method described by Liu, 10 , , , , ,,, -

Szymanski, and Pui (1986). The calculation 0.1 1 .o 10.0
results are shown in Figs. 1 and 2 for semi- Part~cleDlameter (pm)
Downloaded by [University of Boras] at 12:29 05 October 2014

conductor and metallic particles, respec-

tively. Using Eq. 1, the scattering cross-
section of various particles as given by the
TSI 3753 counter can be calculated. The
results are shown in Figs. 3 and 4. To
determine the theoretical lower detection
limit of a specific counter for a specific
particle material, it is necessary only to use
these results to find the specific particle
size for the given material at which the
scattering cross-section is equal to that of a
PSL sphere at the nominal lower detection
limit of the counter given by the manufac-
turer. By this means, the theoretical lower
detection limit of the counter can be deter-
mined.
FIGURE 2. Theoretical response of the PMS LAS-X
counter to PSL and metal particles.
Egect of Particle Refractive Index on the
Lower Detection Limit
The actual calculation for determining the
lower detection limit involves first assuming
an imaginary refractive index, and then
varying the real part of the refractive index
in a systematic way. Theoretical determina-
tion of the lower detection limit of the
particle counter is based on the calculated
response and the nominal lower detection

,y.

I.,1
'

- - - - .
Si3N4
- - - PSL s*

Particle Diameter (pm) Particle Diameter ( ~ m )

FIGURE 1. Theoretical response of the PMS LAS-X FIGURE 3. Theoretical response of the TSI LPC 3753
counter to PSL, silicon, and silicon compound parti- counter to PSL, silicon, and silicon compound parti-
cles. cles.
 Aerosol Science and Technology Refractive Index and Light Scattering Detection Limits 5

0 1 2 3 4
0.1 1.o 10.0
Particle Diameter (pm) Real Part of Refractive Index (n)
Downloaded by [University of Boras] at 12:29 05 October 2014

FIGURE 4. Theoretical response of the TSI LPC 3753 FIGURE 5. The lower detection limit of the PMS
counter to PSL and metal particles. LAS-X counter as a function of the real part of the
refractive index.

limit of the counter. The scattering cross-

section of the PSL sphere with physical cles with a small imaginary component to
dimension equal to the nominal lower de- the refractive index, the lower detection
tection limit of the counter was first calcu- limit decreases as the absolute difference
lated. Then the size of different refractive between real parts of the particle and the
index particle which has the same scatter- medium refractive index increases. Light
ing cross-section as the PSL sphere was absorbing particles generally show smaller
found. The refractive index for the medium lower detection limit than transparent par-
used in the calculation is 1.00-i0.0 for air. ticles. Also, the lower detection limit of
In the calculation, the real part of the these particles does not change very much
particle refractive index was increased in with variation in the real part of the refrac-
steps of 0.01 over the range from 0.01 to tive index.
4.00 with a fixed imaginary component of
the refractive index. The same procedure
with different imaginary part of refractive
1.0- , 7-----i I
index was then repeated.
The calculated lower detection limit of
the PMS LAS-X counter is shown in Fig. 5
with various real part of refractive index
and Fig. 6 with various imaginary part of
the refractive index. Figures 7 and 8 show
the results for the TSI 3753 counter. Sym-
bols in the graph indicate particle location
based on their refractive index values given
in Table 1. Both counters show that the
lower detection limit increases as the parti- 0.05 i

0 1 2 3 4 5 6
cle refractive index approaches the medium
refractive index. Scattering intensity calcu- Imagmary Part of Refractive Index (k)
lations do not converge if the refractive FIGURE 6. The lower detection limit of the PMS
indices of the particle and medium are too LAS-X counter as a function of the imaginary part of
close to each other. For transparent parti- the refractive index.
 6 S.-H. Yoo et al. Aerosol Science and Technology
25:l July 1996

LPC 3753
g 1.0

a 3 oo
.. 4 00

a
- -3--===
1

o , l o l ! " ' ' L , , , I , , , I

0 1 2 3 4
Real Part of Refractive Index (n) Imaginary Part of Refractive Index (k)
Downloaded by [University of Boras] at 12:29 05 October 2014

FIGURE 7. The lower detection limit of the TSI LPC FIGURE 8. The lower detection limit of the TSI LPC
3753 counter as a function of the real part of the 3753 counter as a function of the imaginary part of the
refractive index. refractive index.

Tables 2 and 3 summarize the calculation
results for various real and imaginary parts
of the refractive index. For the PMS LAS-X
counter, the lower detection limit is as small
as 0.087 p m for silicon particle whose real
refractive index is considerably higher than
that of PSL. The ability of the counter to
detect particles as small as 0.087 p m can be
attributed to the large real refractive index
of the Si particle. On the other hand, the
lower detection limit of the counter for
silicon dioxide particles is only 0.13 p m due
to the smaller real refractive index of SiO,
in comparison with that of PSL. For the
TSI 3753 counter with a nominal lower
detection limit of 0.3 pm, the theoretical
lower detection limit of the counter for Si
and SiO, particles are 0.18 and 0.33 pm,

TABLE 2. Lower Detection Limit of PMS LAS-X Counter in wm for Various Particle Refractive Indices

Real Imaginary ( k )
(n) 0.0 0.05 0.1 0.5 1.O 5.0 7.0
 Aerosol Science and Technology Refractive Index and Light Scattering Detection Limits
25:l July 1996
TABLE 3. Lower Detection Limit of TSI LPC 3753 Counter in p m for Various Particle Refractive Indices
Real
n 0.0 0.05 0.1
Downloaded by [University of Boras] at 12:29 05 October 2014
respectively. High imaginary component in
the refractive index generally causes a de-
crease in the lower detection limit. For
instance, for gold particles whose refractive
index is 0.13-i3.16 for He-Ne laser light,
the lower detection limit is 0.066 p m for
the PMS LAS-X counter and 0.206 p m for
the TSI 3753 counter.
From these results, the importance of
the refractive index on the lower detection
limit has been demonstrated. While the
present calculations are limited to the PMS
LAS-X and TSI 3753 counters, the results
should be equally valid considering the gen-
eral trends if the optical geometry of the
counter is not greatly different from that
for the two counters studies in this paper.
Of course, to obtain quantitative results,
actual calculations using the actual counter
optical geometry will have to be made.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF LOWER
DETECTION LIMIT
Apparatus and Procedure for Measuring
Lower Detectiog Limit
Aerosol particle counters have their lower
sizing limit due to the inherent noise of the
7
Imaginary ( k )
0.5 1.O 5.0 7.0
instrument. In practice, the lower detection
limit of an instrument is determined by the
signal-to-noise ratio and a reasonable dis-
criminator setting to distinguish signal from
noise. A high discriminator setting will
cause fewer particles to be counted, while
suppressing the counts generated by the
instrument noise. One way of specifying the
lower detection limit of a particle counter
is to define it as the size at which the
instrument counting efficiency is equal to
certain s~ecifiedvalue. For instance, one
can defink the lower detection limit as the
particle size at which 50%, 90%, or 95% of
the particles are counted. Both of the above
approaches have been used to specific lower
detection limit of particle counters. Heyder
et al. (19711, for instance, define the lower
detection limit as the uarticle size that has
a signal-to-noise ratio of one. Liu and
Szymanski (1986) used the counting effi-
ciency approach, and defined the lower limit
as the particle size at which the counting
efficiency is 50%. In this paper, this latter
approach is used.
The experimental setup for measuring
the counting efficiency of light-scattering
particle counters for different particle ma-
 8 S.-H. Yoo et al. Aerosol Science and Technology
25:l July 1996

Excess
Air t Sheath Air

Diffusion
Dryer
Po-210
Neutralizer
-1
H.V. Power
Supply

Necleus
Aerosol
Particle
Counter Counter

Differential
Absolute Mobility
Downloaded by [University of Boras] at 12:29 05 October 2014

Filter Analyzer
Clean
Air
Atomizer
Po-210
Neutralizer Computers
Air

FlGURE 9. Schematic diagram of the experimental setup for lower detection limit measurement.

terial and sizes is shown in Fig. 9. The same Results of Counting EfJiciency Measurements
counters used in the theoretical studies are Experimental result for the LAS-X counter
also used in the experiments. Aerosol of a is shown in Fig. 10. All particle materials
known size and material is first generated used in the experiments showed about
by the particle generation system consisting 100% counting efficiency at a particle size
of an atomizer, a neutralizer, and a differ- 2 0.2 pm. However, different counting
ential mobility analyzer (DMA). Monodis-
perse particles generated by the DMA are
introduced to both the particle counters
and the condensation nucleus counter
(CNC). Among the particle materials listed
in Table 1, PSL, silicon, silicon nitride and
silicon dioxide particle are used in the ex-
perimental study.
To determine the counting efficiency, the
TSI 3760 CNC was used as the reference
counter. Previous studies of CNC by Wen
and Kasper (1986) show that the absolute
counting efficiency of a CNC is nearly
0.08 0.1 0.2 0.3
100%. The counting efficiency of the parti-
cle counter, therefore, can be determined Particle Diameter (pm)
by comparing the aerosol concentration FIGURE 10. Experimental counting efficiency of the
measured by the counter and that by the PMS LAS-X counter for PSL, silicon, and silicon com-
rcference CNC. pound particles.
 Aerosol Science and Technology Refractive Index and Light Scattering Detection Limits 9
25:l July 1996

efficiency curves were obtained with dif-

ferent particle material for particles smaller
than 0.2 pm. This can be attributed to the
different particle refractive indices causing
different response characteristics. The
lower detection limit-i.e., particle size at
which the counting efficiency is 50%-can
be determined by interpolation between the
adjacent data points spanning the 50%
counting efficiency point. As was expected
from the theoretical study, the lower detec-
tion limit of the counters decreases with 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
increasing particle refractive index as the Particle Diameter (pm)
particle material is changed from silicon
Downloaded by [University of Boras] at 12:29 05 October 2014

dioxide with the smallest refractive index,
to PSL, silicon nitride, and silicon with in-
creasing particle refractive index.
Figure 11 shows the results for the TSI
3753 counter. This result also shows a simi-
lar trend as that shown by the LAS-X
counter. It should be noted, however, that
the nominal counting efficiency of this
counter as determined by the method de-
scribed above was found to approach 120%
rather than the theoretical limit of 100% at
large particle sizes. The cause of the greater
number of particles counted by the TSI
3753 laser particle counter is thought to be
caused by the fact that there is no sheath
air protection around the aerosol stream.
The lack of a sheath air around the aerosol
stream can cause particle circulation within
the sensing volume of the counter, leading
to a higher particle count for large particle
sizes. For this reason, we have determined
the lower detection limit of the TSI 3753
counter by determine the particle size at
which the measured counting efficiency is
FIGURE 11. Experimental counting efficiency of the
TSI LPC 3753 counter for PSL, silicon, and silicon
compound particles.
equal to one half of the nominal maximum
counting efficiency of 120%.
The nominal lower detection limit pro-
vided by the manufacturer was verified with
PSL spheres and it turned out that the
nominal and the actual lower sizing limit
are quite close. The comparisons between
the theoretical and experimental results are
given in Table 4. The difference between
the two values is generally much less than
10%. The data thus support both the valid-
ity of the theoretical and the experimental
lower detection limit values obtained here.
From this comparison, it seems reasonable
to conclude that the lower detection limit
obtained by the theoretical study such as
the results shown in Tables 2 and 3 can be
used to make a reasonably accurate esti-
mate of the actual lower detection limit

TABLE 4. Comparison of Theoretical and Experimental Results

PMS LAS-X TS13753
Particle Theory Experiment Difference Theory Experiment Difference
Material ( pm) ( pm) (%) ( pm) ( pm) (%I.
Si 0.0871 0.0868 0.31 0.180 0.201 11.7
Si,N, 0.104 0.106 2.11 0.282 0.267 5.31
PSL 0.120 0.119 0.58 0.300 0.301 0.33
SiO, 0.130 0.133 2.47 0.330 0.341 3.33
 10 S. -H. Yoo et al.
of the counters for different particle ma-
terials.
SUMMARY
Theoretical studies based on the Mie the-
ory were made to obtain the lower detec-
tion limit of aerosol particle counters over
a wide range of the real and imaginary
parts of the particle refractive index. Calcu-
lations were made for two commercial
counters: a PMS LAS-X laser particle
counter and a TSI 3753 laser particle
counter. The results show that the lower
Downloaded by [University of Boras] at 12:29 05 October 2014
detection limit of the counters increases as
the real part of the particle refractive index
approaches that of the medium and de-
creases as the real part of the particle
refractive index deviates from that of the
medium in both directions. For both coun-
ters, a transparent particle will need an
infinite particle size for the counter to de-
tect as the real part of the particle refrac-
tive index approaches that of the medium,
as the particle becomes essentially invisible
as the particle and medium refractive index
becomes equal. Generally, a high imaginary
part of the refractive index will cause the
lower detection limit to decrease. The
smallest lower detection limit calculated
was less than 50% of the nominal lower
detection limit.
The result of the theoretical studv was
verified by experiments with several parti-
cle materials. The lower detection limit
measured with PSL aerees " well with the
nominal lower detection limit given by the
manufacturer. The experimental results fol-
low the general trend of the theoretical
results. The difference between the theo-
retical and experimental results is less than
10% in most cases.
Aerosol Science and Technology
25:1 July 1996
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