Journal Pre-proof

Prediction of steel wire rope fatigue life based on thermal

measurements

D. Battini , L. Solazzi , A.M. Lezzi , F. Clerici , G. Donzella

PII: S0020-7403(19)34851-9
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2020.105761
Reference: MS 105761

To appear in: International Journal of Mechanical Sciences

Received date: 22 December 2019

Revised date: 5 May 2020
Accepted date: 7 May 2020

Please cite this article as: D. Battini , L. Solazzi , A.M. Lezzi , F. Clerici , G. Donzella , Prediction
of steel wire rope fatigue life based on thermal measurements, International Journal of Mechanical
Sciences (2020), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2020.105761

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 Prediction of steel wire rope fatigue life based on thermal

measurements

D. Battini a,*, L. Solazzi a, A.M. Lezzi a, F. Clerici b, G. Donzella a

a
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Meccanica e Industriale, Università degli Studi di Brescia, Via Branze 38, I-25123

Brescia, Italy
b
Usha Martin Italia S.R.L., Via Antonio Segni 6, I-25062 Concesio (BS), Italy

* Corresponding author: davide.battini@unibs.it Tel.: +39 030 3715807.

Abstract

This paper proposes a thermal method for estimating fatigue life of metallic ropes. Rotating bending fatigue

tests are performed on rope specimens and their temperature evolution is monitored till specimen failure. The

proposed method is justified through a theoretical framework based on thermally dissipated energy and

energy spent for mechanical damage. Experimental fatigue tests are carried out in different conditions by

primarily varying the bending load and the rotational speed. Experimental results are in agreement with the

theoretical model allowing the estimation of damage evolution and rope life via thermal measurements.

Keywords:

Rope; steel wire rope; fatigue of materials; fatigue damage; fatigue life prediction; thermographic method

1. Introduction

A wire rope is a very complex mechanical system and evaluating the stress state of the wires forming the

rope itself is a very challenging and demanding task. Thus, it is only possible to accurately determine the

stress state of the rope for particularly simple geometries and loading conditions. In fact, rope geometry is

tricky due to the strands being composed of wrapped wires and being folded around the core. Moreover,

structural analyses of ropes always involve strong nonlinearities because of wires interactions, boundary and

loading conditions, and the fact that the rope is usually wound on a pulley or a drum. Rope failures are

typically related to complex mechanisms such as wear, corrosion, fretting and fatigue. The failure usually

starts from the outer wires and propagates to the inner wires till a collapse is caused by the overload on the
remaining undamaged wires.

Nomenclature converted into heat ( )

constants in equations (9a) and (9b)
constants in equation (11)
constants in equation (13)
specific heat of rope steel
rope diameter
distance between spindles
energy converted into damage
plastic component of the energy
converted into damage ( )
friction component of the energy
converted into damage ( )
work done by external loads
reversible energy component
irreversible energy component
strain energy
elastic component of the strain energy
( )
elastic component of the strain energy
( )
energy associated with friction
spindle rotational frequency
̃ convective heat transfer coefficient
gauge length of the specimen
total length of the specimen
cycle number
number of cycles at first wire failure
energy converted into heat
plastic component of the energy
friction component of the energy
converted into heat ( )
thermal power stored internally as
temperature rise
energy dispersed to the environment
due to convection
energy dispersed to the environment
due to conduction
energy dispersed to the environment
due to irradiation
temperature
ambient and initial temperature
temperature at first wire failure
time
initial time
time at first wire failure
rotations per minute of the spindle
Greek symbols
rope section fill factor
emissivity
Taylor-Quinney parameter
density
Stefan-Boltzmann constant
temperature rise over ambient

̇, ̇ , etc. time derivative of energy quantities (energy per time unit)

, , etc. energy density quantities (energy per volume unit)
̇, ̇ , etc. time derivative of energy density quantities (energy per time and volume unit)

For these reasons, and considering their extensive usage in structurally-critical applications, metallic rope

failures are not so straightforward to prevent [1–5] and their damaging mechanisms are still being heavily

investigated [5–9]. Moreover, a better understanding of these damaging phenomena would also help in the

optimization of rope maintenance since the failure of some wires can usually be tolerated due to the high

redundancy of the rope system and thus the correct maintenance timings and protocols become fundamental.

Several theories have been developed since the 1950s in order to estimate the stress distribution in ropes and

assess their structural resistance. The first elementary considerations on load distribution within a rope were

reported by Hall [10], who assumed a uniformly distributed traction of individual wires, with a higher load

on
the inner core wires (usually metallic) due to the inclination of the outer wires with respect to the rope axis.

F. Hruska [11] showed that rope wires can be considered uniaxially tensioned only for very small

deformations and W. Leissa [12] introduced the contact pressure between the individual wires into his

theory. W.L. Starkey and H.A. Cress [13] highlighted the difference between line-contacts, concerning wires

of the same layer, and point-contacts, concerning strands of different layers or different strands.

While bending and torsional effects in rope wires were then studied by many other authors [14–16],

experiments performed by G. Paolini and E. Bazzaro highlighted the importance of wire surface damage on

fatigue life [17,18] and the discordance of experimental results with theories, especially regarding the

position of the neutral axis [19].

More refined theories were developed by G.A. Costello and J.W. Philips [20], who examined the nonlinear

behavior caused by the variation of the winding angle, without however considering the influence of friction

between the wires. N.C. Huang [21] considered another cause of non-linearity: the possible wire separation

during the extension of the rope. Later, M. Raoof and Hobbs [22] introduced the theory of orthotropic

cylindrical plates, suitable for the study of multilayer ropes and W.S. Utting and N. Jones [23,24] proposed a

model considering both the presence of friction and the flattening of wires due to contact forces.

The brief literature review provided above proves how intricate the evaluation of the stress state in rope

wires can be and how several assumptions and approximations are often necessary to predict rope duration

under cyclic loading. However, to this aim, deeper investigations on rope damage evolution were carried out

in more recent years, thanks to the development of numerical methods and particularly of the finite element

(FE) technique. For example, some researches have focused on the effects of wire fretting [25–27] and others

developed a FE model for a bended single strand [28]. Cruzado et al. used FE models to study the evolution

of the contact load-sliding amplitude hysteresis cycle between wires and to look for correlations with fatigue

and/or wear damage [29,30].

Similarly, Wang et al. [31–34], carried out contact tests between two wires under controlled deformation and

showed that the tangential friction force increases linearly with the number of cycles in the first 1000 cycles

and then stabilizes itself quite suddenly. They also showed that the hysteresis cycle changed from a nearly

rectangular shape (indicating total or gross slip with macroscopic sliding contact surfaces) to an elliptical or

quasi-linear form in the stabilized phase (indicating contact with partial slip condition or contact without
macroscopic sliding, stabilized stick). Simultaneously, at the time of stabilization, the sliding ranges became

smaller or even null, leading to a strongly reduced hysteresis cycle area and therefore a much lower energy

dissipated by friction. The initial stage behavior is largely due to material softening and wear increasing the

surface roughness (and hence the tangential force) without significantly altering the geometry of the contact

surfaces. The following stage behavior, which showed a sudden change and subsequent stabilization seems

instead due to the formation and wearing of debris and thus to a significant change of the contact area.

Test results also showed that the greater the tangential force, the greater the amount of relative sliding and

fretting damage, known as "mixed fretting regime" [35], and thus leading to shorter expected fatigue life.

Therefore, the initial tangential force indicates the extent of the cyclic damage, which then evolves as

described above. In this regard, Cruzado et al. [26,27,29,30] defined a link between the macroscopic wear of

the rope components and the total dissipated energy by friction. Moreover, since frictional energy dissipation

generates a temperature increase of the rope, the so-called thermographic methods [35–44] which correlate

the temperature variations of a component with its fatigue life, should also be useful to predict rope fatigue

life.

With all this in mind, the starting idea behind the present research was to check for a possible correlation

between the mechanical damage of a rope and the heat generated by the sliding wires and their plastic

deformations. In this case, thermal measurements could be used to bypass the analysis of the complex stress

state of the rope and to gather useful data to predict rope life under cyclic loading. To this aim, fatigue tests

under controlled conditions were carried out while tracking rope temperature variations. The test consists of

a particularly simple rotating bending setup where the rope is revolved on itself in a curved configuration

with an ―imposed fixed radius of curvature‖. A rotation at a constant speed is then enforced on one of the

rope ends while the other end is free (see next section for more details). This configuration reproduces the

bending effect of a rope wrapped on a pulley (or a drum) with a 180° wrapping angle but does not introduce

the pulley-rope contact interaction and thus simplifies results interpretation. For the above-mentioned

reasons, this type of test can be also considered a good and easy-to-implement reference for the definition

and comparison of the fatigue resistance of ropes.

In addition, the proposed approach could also be used together with more classical (and simplified) design or

verification methods based on the stress state of the rope in order to optimize or validate them. In the end,
this solution could also lead to future in-situ applications in terms of damage monitoring or in terms of a

system to compare different operating conditions. More specifically, such outcomes would be very helpful

for optimized design practices and maintenance timings or protocols. More in general, a similar approach

might also be very feasible and effective for other complex mechanical components where bypassing the

stress-strain state calculation acquires great value. In fact, we achieved a good correlation between energy-

based quantities and fatigue life while investigating ―real‖ rope specimens without the ―limitations‖ that can

be found in:

- other thermographic studies [35–44] which usually tested simple specimens and

- more classical rope stress-strain state studies [12,26,29–31,45–47] which usually made use of

―heavy‖ simplifications of the rope system or its interactions.

2. Material and methods

2.1 Testing apparatus and main tests specifications

A scheme of the rotating bending test setup is shown in Figure 1. The test setup consists of a U-shaped bent

rope with diameter and with a distance between the two bounded ends along the rope radial direction.

This testing condition simulates a rope wrapped on a pulley of diameter with the advantage of isolating the

rope since the pulley body is not present, and thus, reducing to a minimum the external variables that can

affect the mechanical behavior of the rope.

Figure 1 – Test schematization and experimental apparatus for rotating bending fatigue tests. is the distance
between the spindles and thus the curvature of the U-shaped specimens. is the diameter of the wire rope.
Moreover, the described testing scenario allows reducing the duration of the tests since it is more severe than

usual operating conditions: in fact, as an example, a rope running on two opposing pulleys undergoes a less-

critical alternating and non-rotating bending. The intensity of the bending load applied to the rope is function

of the ratio . The testing machine is composed of a column drill to which a secondary spindle has been

added; it can be positioned at a specific distance , in order to obtain different values of the ratios

without changing the rope diameter. The specimens consist of short parts of rope with a length that is

sufficient to obtain a specific ratio (see Figure 2a). Another testing parameter is the spindle rotation

speed ( .

Figure 2 – a) Some examples of wire rope specimens: 10 mm diameter and 200 ÷ 300 mm length. b) Standard 7x19
(which might also referred as 6x19 with metal core) rope composition used for all the tests.

The main tests were performed on a classic 7x19 (which might also referred as 6x19 with metal core) dry

rope (see the composition in Figure 2b). A 10 mm 7x19 rope configuration has been chosen for this first

study as it is a very general purpose and widespread rope type. The wire material is a typical galvanized rope

steel with a tensile strength of 1960 MPa. The rotational speeds, , varied from 150 to 250 rpm and the

spindle distance varied from 80 to 160 mm, resulting in a ratio in the range of 0.0625÷0.125. While

more usual values range from 0.04 to 0.05 when considering rope/pulley systems, such severe bending

conditions (and thus a reduced rope endurance) were chosen to collect a good number of tests in a reasonable

amount of time. Moreover, having high speeds and severe bending loads help emphasizing the temperature

rise due to damaging phenomena.

All the tests were carried out until specimen failure, defined as the first wire breaking, which typically

happened in the rope core during our tests. This breaking is easily detected as it causes a dry noise and the

formation of dust (see Figure 4) and it is followed by the progressive breaking of the outer wires, until the

complete breaking of the rope specimen.

2.2 Temperature measurement

As already mentioned, the present research proposes a characterization of rope fatigue life via a dissipated-

energy method (and thus the temperature evolution of the specimen). However, determining the relationship

between the specimen temperature variation and the energy dissipation is not straightforward (and will be

discussed in the next section), as it depends on rope geometry and on heat transfer mechanisms between rope

and environment.

Some preliminary tests were carried out with an infrared camera to perceive the temperature distribution on

the whole specimen. This allowed the choice of the best point for subsequent local measurement with a

pyrometer and helped figuring out the proper assumptions for the theoretical framework used for energy

calculations. Some experimental tests were also performed to assess the emissivity which is necessary to

correctly calculate rope temperature and they resulted in , a typical value for steel wires [48]. More

specifically, during preliminary tests a part of the rope specimen was covered with a matte and opaque black

spray paint of known emissivity ( ). A water bath was used to heat the rope at temperatures

different from ambient and to ensure a uniform temperature distribution. The correct temperature of the rope

was then verified by looking at the painted part of the rope in the IR camera image. At this point the

emissivity was estimated by looking at the unpainted part of the rope and changing the emissivity setting of

the IR camera until the reading returned the correct temperature. However, even if the black paints would

guarantee a more accurate setting for the emissivity, fatigue tests were always carried out on unpainted rope

specimens. In fact, the severe bending conditions and the friction involved in testing would damage the paint

and lead to inconsistent measurements.

Figure 3 shows the image of the rope temperature distribution during one of first testing cycles. It is quite

evident that the temperature is almost uniformly distributed in a quite extended central region around the

neutral axis and the symmetry plane of the U-shaped rope specimen. This kind of measurement was carried

out with a thermal camera with a ±2% uncertainty and a thermal sensitivity lower than 0.1°C.
 Figure 3 – a) Thermal camera and b) measurement on the central portion of the rope during preliminary tests.

According to these evidences, the temperature measurements during the tests were carried out with a

pyrometer (measurement uncertainty of 1°C) pointed on the neutral axis of the specimen at the symmetry-

plane section of the U-shape specimen (see Figure 4) which, ideally, is also the most critical cross-section.

Figure 4 – a) temperature measurement system using a pyrometer and b) damaged sample showing a broken wire
and the pyrometer measurement spot.

The sampling interval of the temperature was two minutes, but it was changed at the occurrence during the

tests according to the temperature variation rate. During the tests, ambient temperature was always recorded

and almost no variation was noticed during the test itself considering the limited duration of each test (up to

one hour maximum). Moreover, even when investigating environmental condition evolution during the test

campaign, the difference in ambient temperature from test to test was limited to just a few degrees (°C).

3. Theoretical framework for rope fatigue life prediction

The justification of the proposed approach for predicting the fatigue life of a rope is reported in Figure 5. The

framework is based on energy considerations and mainly revolves around the irreversible component ( )
of the external work ( ) done on the rope.

Figure 5 – Scheme of the theoretical framework used to relate temperature variations during the fatigue tests to
mechanical damage evolution and thus to specimen fatigue life. A part of the energy entering the rope system is
spent on two irreversible phenomena: plasticity and friction. The irreversible energy can then be split into a heat
generation and mechanical damage: the first being related to (and thus monitored through) temperature variations,
and the second being related to rope failure. For this reason, temperature rise can also be related directly to rope
failure.

During each stress cycle of the rope (for example, tensioning and/or bending for the passage on a pulley), the

applied external loads determine the internal actions in the wires and the contact actions between the wires:

the work done by these loads on the rope will be denoted as .

Both the internal and the contact actions contribute to the generation of a stress and strain field in the wires,

to which a strain energy is associated. This energy component can be partly elastic and partly plastic

. On the other hand, the contact forces are also the source of a friction energy due to the relative

motion between the wires.

While is a reversible energy component, the irreversible energy component ( ) is associated with

plastic deformation and friction, as shown in the following equation.

Moreover, the irreversible energy component, , determines damage in the material ( ) and heat

generation ( ). The Taylor-Quinney coefficient allows defining the fraction of plastic energy that

transforms into heat ( while its complement ( ) defines the fraction of plastic energy that turns into

mechanical damage, . The determination of the Taylor-Quinney coefficient for a specific case is not

easy due to the complexity of the thermomechanical phenomena and its sensitivity to many factors such as

material type, strain rate, phase transformations, loading mode, plastic deformation, etc. [49–55]. In our case,

there is the need for a ―macroscopic‖ mean value of due to the complexity of the rope stress field and the

approach proposed for temperature measurements. Considering [52–54], a value of 0.9 was assumed as

realistic for rope steel and our testing conditions.

Moreover, due to the lack of more scientific data to the authors knowledge, we assume that can be also

considered as the fraction of frictional dissipation energy that converts into heat ( ) since there is a

similarity between the energy dissipated by plastic deformation and the energy dissipated by friction: in fact

the fretting damage occurs through micro-plastics deformations ( ) of material surface asperities

[26,30,31,56,57].

( (

( ) (

Therefore, considering equation (5), the energy associated with mechanical damage results directly

proportional to the generated heat and their ratio, , is fixed by the Taylor-Quinney
parameter. The temperature rise over ambient, , of the rope during the fatigue tests, is also related to the

generated heat ( and thus to mechanical damage as ( . Considering the correlation between

(or if one prefers) and , it is then reasonable to expect a correlation between and the fatigue life. All

of the above equations are also valid for time derivative quantities (powers instead of energies) ̇ , ̇, ̇ ,

etc., for volume derivative quantities (energy densities) , , , etc. and their time derivatives (power

densities) ̇ , ̇ , ̇ , etc..

From equation (5), the total damage energy density, , at a generic time instant during the test ( , and at

failure, , can thus be expressed through a time integral of the thermal power ̇ from the test start time

as:

( )∫ ̇ → ( )∫ ̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ ̇ (

where is the time instant at specimen failure, ̇ is the thermal power that is stored internally as

temperature rise of the rope and ̇ , ̇ and ̇ , are the heat fluxes dispersed by the rope via convection,

conduction and irradiation, respectively. All the terms in equation (6) can be expressed as a function of time,

since the temperature rise, , with respect to ambient temperature, , is monitored throughout the whole

test duration and thus ( . Moreover, the temperature gradient along the rope axis on the

symmetry-plane section is very low during the whole test duration and this led to the assumption of the

conduction heat flux being negligible ( ̇ ).

Following these hypotheses and considering the central section of the rope as an equivalent cylinder

(infinitesimal axial length) with a fill factor , the terms in equation (6) can thus be calculated as:

( (
̇

̇ ̃( ( (

̇ ( ( )

where:

 is the ambient temperature (and the rope temperature at test start).

 J/(kg K) is the specific heat of rope steel.

  kg/m3 is the mass density of rope steel.

 being the fill factor of the tested rope specimens.

 ̃ W/(m2 K) depending on the temperature of the rope (calculated from [58]), is

the assumed convective heat transfer coefficient.

 is the emissivity coefficient estimated via experimental testing.

 W/(m2 K4) is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant.

With the above equations being defined, equation (6) can be written as:

( (
( )∫ [ ̃( ( ( ( )] (

( (
∫ [ ̃( ( ( ( )] (

Moreover, if considering the failure time instant and isolating the only history-dependent terms, one can also

come to the following form:

( )* ( ( ( ∫ (̃ ( ( ( ) )+ (

4. Results

The typical temperature rise versus cycle number ( ) in four representative testing conditions is shown

in Figure 6 and Figure 7.

Figure 6 – Trend of temperature rise for four tests in very different conditions. From the highest specimen curvature
(black points) showing extreme heating and a fast failure, to the lowest curvature (orange points) showing limited
heating and slower failure.

Similarly to [37,40] in which tests were divided into three stages, the qualitative trend of our curves

can be divided into five phases:

1. Initially, the rope increases its temperature according to a linear trend with respect to the number of

cycles. Energy dispersion towards environment is negligible ( ̇ ̇ ) due to and

being small and thus ̇ ̇ . This phase is associated with small mechanical damage and wear

phenomena start affecting the contact surfaces.

2. After the initial phase, there is a transient phase in which convection and irradiation dissipations are

not negligible anymore and thus the temperature rise deviates from the linear trend and starts

stabilizing. During this phase, the total mechanical damage is still limited but it increases quickly,

and the contact surfaces are evolving to reach their stable state.

3. The regime condition is finally achieved, and the temperature stabilizes. The heat produced due to

damage phenomena is now balanced by the heat dispersion towards the environment and thus the

internal thermal energy is not time dependent anymore ( ̇ ). Mechanical damage is

accumulating quickly, and contact surfaces should now be in a stationary condition.

4. At the time the first wire of the rope is breaking, a sudden temperature drop can be appreciated,

probably due to stress/strain redistribution and loss in flexural modulus.

5. During the final phase, temperature starts rising again and diverges up to complete specimen break.

It should also be noted that not all these phases can always be appreciated. Specifically, tests in the most
severe conditions are never getting to a regime conditions and thus the second and third phases cannot be

distinguished. The temperature drop on first wire breaking is also not evident in severe tests due to damage

accumulating very fast and temperature being constantly increasing. It is also worth noting that only Figure 6

and Figure 7 are showing the complete test data up to complete specimen break: every other figure reported

in this paper is truncated at the first wire failure time instant since this research aims at finding a predictive

model for rope life which is in fact intended as first wire failure.

Figure 7 – Trend of temperature rise for the same four tests reported in Figure 6. The different phases of the test are
evidenced for each one. A linear temperature rise is evident at first, with negligible energy being transferred to the
environment. Following the initial phase, a transient evolution leads to a stabilization where the energy transferred
to the environment is balanced by the heat generated from damage phenomena. In the end, a temperature drop (due
to stress redistribution and stiffness reduction) is usually visible during first wire failure, followed by a temperature
rise when more and more wires are breaking.

Fatigue tests showed very good repeatability and low dispersions as can be seen in Figure 8 where the testing

conditions for the four specimens were fixed at = 160 mm and = 200 rpm.
 Figure 8 – Fixed testing conditions: D = 160mm and v = 200rpm. The curves are very close to each other during the
whole test duration showing good test repeatability.

The same repeatability can also be appreciated when only the rotational speed is changed. In this case, a

normalization over the rotational speed (or frequency) causes the curves at different speeds and fixed

bending load to collapse on a single curve, as can be seen in Figure 9b. This behavior shows that varying the

rotational speed does not affect the damaging phenomena and in fact the number of cycles at first wire

failure for the tests reported in Figure 9 are similar. Alternatively, this can be looked at as the rotational

speed mainly affecting the temperature rise over ambient in terms of lowering or increasing the time (per

cycle) available to the rope-environment heat exchange phenomena. More precisely, the four curves reported

in each chart of Figure 9 are calculated from a total of 14 tests (4 tests at 200 and 150 rpm and 3 tests at 250

and 225 rpm) and their average number of cycles at first wire failure is ≈7650 with a standard deviation

of ≈510 cycles.
 Figure 9 – All the charts show data of tests at constant curvature (D = 160 mm) and rotational speed ranging from
150 rpm to 250 rpm. Each curve is the average of 3 or 4 tests. Chart a) shows temperature rise against number of
cycles. Chart b) shows temperature rise divided by the rotational speed against number of cycles. Chart c) shows
temperature rise against time. All the charts evidence that the change in rotational speed has no effect on rope
failure: the same amount of heat per cycle is generated due to irreversible damage phenomena, but during faster
tests less energy is transferred to the environment due to the shorter time available.

While Figure 9 shows the temperature rise for the same bending load and different rotational speed, Figure

10 shows the temperature rise for different bending loads but the same rotational speed.
 Figure 10 – Temperature rise curves at different bending loads (the higher the curvature, the higher the bending
load) and fixed rotational speed.

In the end, Figure 11 is also reported below and shows the temperature rise as function of time for all the

tests that were performed.

Figure 11 – Temperature rise curves over time for all the tests considered in this study.

4.1 Relationship between initial dissipated energy variation and rope specimen endurance

While retaining very similar , curves in Figure 9a also show a very similar | suggesting a

correlation between and | . This correlation is similarly suggested by Figure 10 where decreasing

values of | are associated with increasing cycles to failure ( ). For this reason, with Figure 12, this

research proposes a relationship between the energy dissipated per cycle | (which is strictly tied to

| , as later demonstrated via equations (10) and (11)) during the initial test stages and the number of
cycles at specimen break.

Figure 12 – Fatigue curve, | ( , for the whole test family. The energy dissipated at test start seems related to
the number of cycles at first wire failure through a Basquin-like power law equation.

Similarly to other energy fatigue criteria [36,37], the data represented in Figure 12 are well approximated by

a Basquin-like power-law relationship as shown in equation (9a):

| (

Where is calculated from equation (8b), is the number of cycles at first wire failure, is the number of

cycles at a generic time instant , is the testing frequency and , and are parameters depending on

rope type and geometry.

The proposed modified Basquin-like equation achieves a very good fit (with > 0.98 and a normalized

mean absolute error lower than 8%) over all the 52 tests considered. Specifically, ≈ 8.87E+07 J/(cycles

m3 , ≈ -1.09 and ≈ 4.25E+03 J/(cycles m3).

In addition, the above relationship can also be expressed as a function of the initial variation per cycle of the

damage energy density since equation (9a) holds even if replacing with due to equation (5) and being

assumed constant:

( ) | (

At this point, one can also demonstrate that the good correlation between the energy quantity, | , and

showed in Figure 12 can be rewritten in terms of the quantity | that were easily appreciated from
the raw data of Figure 9 and Figure 10. In fact, the dissipated power definitions reported in equations (7) and

the small temperature rise, , at test start, lead to the following approximations:

̇ | ̇ | ̇ | ̇ | → ̇ ̇ | ̇ (

For this reason, equation (9a) and (10) yield to the Basquin-like equation (11) for the more convenient

measurand | that can be directly observed in any curve:

| (

While, equations (9) and (11) strongly imply that the behavior at test start can describe rope endurance

independently from test conditions, it is also very physically reasonable that the faster the specimen

dissipates energy, the faster it damages and the shorter it will endure. Moreover, due to the approximations in

(10) holding, the above finding are almost completely independent from the values assumed for the heat

transfer parameters ̃ and , in fact, the system can be considered nearly adiabatic if the temperature rise and

the time are small enough.

4.2 Relationship between temperature rise at first wire failure and rope specimen endurance

Interestingly enough, the curves of Figure 11 suggested another correlation: between the time at first

wire failure and the temperature rise at first wire failure . Again, a good fit (with > 0.97 and a

normalized mean absolute error lower than 7%) is achieved by using a modified 3-parameters Basquin-like

equation (12) as shown in Figure 13.

( ) (

with ≈ 724 K/ , ≈ -0.25 and ≈ 63.2 K.

Figure 13 – Temperature rise versus time at first wire failure. Similarly to the previous figure, a Basquin-like power
law equation seems a good approximation for the experimental data points.

This behavior shows that two different variables, | and , could be used to predict the number of

cycles at first wire failure and both the equations, (11) and (12), indicate that the failure is not sensitive to

the transient phase (at least if the load is kept constant during the test). For this reason, by combining

equations (11) and (12), a link between the initial temperature rise per cycle, | , and the temperature

rise at failure, can also be explicitly written as follows:

* ( | )+
(
* ( +

Notice again that the above finding are experimental evidences and thus are almost completely independent

from the values assumed for the heat transfer parameters ̃ and .

4.3 Threshold value for the cumulated damage energy density at failure

The normalized curves of Figure 9b and the curves of Figure 9c also suggest that

specimens tested in different conditions (as long as the rope type is fixed) could dissipate almost the same

cumulative amount of energy density to reach first wire failure since the integral quantities of the curves at

different rotational speeds look very similar. Analogous considerations can be made by looking at Figure 10

where higher bending loads are associated with smaller , higher ̇ and higher at shorter times.

In this sense, the cumulated damage energy density history, , represents an integral quantity of and it is
reasonable to assume that the amount of damage energy density needed to break the specimens would ideally

be constant (see equation (13) below) if considering the same rope typology and same rope geometry.

→ ( ) (

with being the variance.

From the perspective of cumulative-damage criteria, the above statement becomes of particular interest as it

leads to a very simple damage fraction definition with the ratio . In fact, while Basquin-like

equations are better suited approaches for fatigue life prediction in case of a non-variable loading cycle, this

last evidence becomes particularly relevant when considering variable load scenarios (or, more in general,

different loading conditions) as the ratio automatically defines a physically-significant energy-based

damage fraction which can be used with the Miner’s rule [59] or similar cumulative-damage criteria.

In these regards, Figure 14a shows the damage energy density evolution during the test calculated according

to equation (8a) and Figure 14b shows the total damage density energy at first wire failure calculated

according to equation (8c) and normalized over the average value of all the tests ( = 5.6E+07 J/m3).

Even if a slight overestimation for tests at higher speeds and underestimation for tests at lower speeds might

be observed, and considering the number of tests performed in very different loading conditions, the

dispersion of these results is limited to a standard deviation of ≈17% confirming that the assumptions

reported in equation (13) seem appropriate.

Figure 14 – a) Damage energy density history as function of number of cycles with the average energy density at first
wire failure being the dotted line. b) Cumulated damage energy density at first wire failure normalized over the
average value. The charts show that all the tests have very similar values of cumulated damage energy density at
first wire failure even if very different bending loads and rotational speed were applied.

Nonetheless, a slight trend of the cumulated damage energy density at first wire failure over the specimen

length, can still be observed in Figure 14b. It is not straightforward to identify the root of this trend, but a

reasonable explanation could be researched in the internal energy calculations. In fact, while equations (6) to

(8) are written with respect to the central section of the rope considering an infinitesimal length, they could

also hold when considering the whole specimen volume because:

- the loading conditions are constant along almost the whole gauge length (due to the constant

curvature) and so is the heat produced by friction and damage phenomena;

- the heat transfer coefficients undergo negligible variations along the gauge length.

In this regard, as the internal energy acts as a reservoir, its integral quantity over the volume should not be
calculated by considering the gauge length but the total length of the specimen. In fact, the ends of the rope

specimen that are inside the spindles, get almost as hot as the rest of the specimen because on the one hand

the rope is very conductive and on the other hand, radiation, convection and conduction (due to insulating

material) phenomena inside the spindles are negligible.

With the above interpretation, the internal energy was increased by a factor where are the gauge

length and is the total length of the specimen. The total length, , of each specimen is higher than the

gauge length, , since the fixture length (which is the rope part inside the spindle) must also be considered.

Due to the fixture length being 45 mm on each end for all the specimens, the total length results in

This tentative ―correction‖ leads to Figure 15 which shows a much lower dispersion with a standard

deviation of ≈9%, compared to the previous Figure 14b.

Figure 15 – Similarly to Figure 14b, the cumulated damage energy density at first wire failure normalized over the
average value is reported in the chart. However, differently from Figure 14b, the internal energy component,
̇ , was corrected with the total length over gauge length ratio ( ). This “correction” generates even less
dispersed results while still being very physically-reasonable

4.4 Additional lubricated tests at 525 rpm

A couple of lubricated tests were carried out to check the predictive capabilities of the proposed model in

different conditions. As can be seen in Figure 16, the lowest bending load at = 160 mm was chosen to

maximize specimen life and a very high rotational speed was chosen ( = 525 rpm) to maximize the

temperature rise over ambient, , and thus emphasize any effect of the lubrication on rope life. Three tests

were performed: one in standard dry conditions, one with lubricating oil and one with lubricating grease.
 Figure 16 – Temperature rise over time curves for the additional tests at 525 rpm. Due to the very high rotational
speed, one test was performed in dry condition for comparison with previous ones. The remaining two tests were
instead performed in lubricated condition: one with standard rope grease and one with standard rope oil.

The | ( curve of Figure 17a shows very good agreement with the proposed model. On the

one hand, the dry specimen failed at ≈7650 cycles, in line with previous tests at D = 160 mm although

the significantly higher speed and temperature rise involved this time. On the other hand, the

lubricated tests showed much higher endurance than the dry ones due to the positive effect of

lubrication on wear (and fretting) phenomena. Specifically, the grease extended rope life to ≈12600

cycles and the oil extended rope life to ≈17850.

 Figure 17 – Charts for the initial test family with the addition of three tests at 525 rpm, two of which were in
lubricated conditions: a) Fatigue curve, | ( . b) “non-corrected” Cumulated energy density at first wire
failure normalized over the average value . While a very small number of tests have been added, very
different testing conditions were applied and results were still very in line with previous findings.

The values of the total energy density at first wire failure ( ) are quite in line with the previous tests even

if an overestimation seem to be present (see Figure 17b). However, this behavior might be caused by the

very high rotational speed used for these tests which is more twice the higher speed used for the previous test

family.

5. Conclusions

An extensive experimental campaign of alternating bending fatigue tests is performed in the present research

and a theoretical model based on heat transfer and damage energy considerations is proposed. The model

correlates the temperature increase in the initial phase of a rope undergoing bending fatigue to the number of
cycles necessary for rope failure. Experimental tests were carried out by varying the bending load ( ) and

the test spindle speed ( ; overall, the range from few hundreds cycles to 10-20 thousands cycles was

thoroughly investigated.

The importance of such an approach, which is based on a macroscopic energy-like quantity, also lies in the

fact that the determination of the stress state present in a rope is too challenging to be used for standard

fatigue life criteria. Moreover, the stress state of a rope is also highly sensitive to the operating conditions

which might be problematic to define due to contact interactions and other complex mechanisms.

In comparison, evaluating the temperature rise (over ambient) of a rope is much easier, and nevertheless, it

allows estimating rope endurance. In addition, the proposed model showed a very good correlation between

early stage data (such as | ) and first wire failure conditions leading to a reliable and fast prediction

of the number of cycles and the temperature at first wire failure. These features are also very important from

the producer perspective as they make comparative analyses between rope types, loading conditions, etc.,

more reliable and affordable. Interestingly enough, very similar values of the total energy density at first wire

failure were also observed for all the different testing specifications, leading to a possible easy definition of a

significant energy-based damage fraction for cumulative damage criteria. Moreover, the proposed approach

could also be used for the validation or optimization of more classical (and simplified) design and

verification methods based on the stress state of the rope. Furthermore, some in-situ applications for

comparing different service conditions or monitoring damage evolution could also be explored in the future.

In the end, a similar approach could also show its effectiveness for other complex mechanical components

where bypassing the stress-strain state calculation turns out to be of great value.

Appendix A

[---] [---] [rpm] [mm] [---] [mm] [mm] [s] [°C] [J/(m3 cycles)] [---]
Test
ID
lubrication |
#01 dry 150 160 0.063 310 8235 3295 30.8 9.74E+03 104%
#02 dry 150 80 0.125 155 1200 480 89.8 5.04E+04 94%
#03 dry 250 160 0.063 310 7040 1690 54.2 1.13E+04 110%
#04 dry 250 160 0.063 310 7545 1810 51.9 1.02E+04 111%
#05 dry 250 160 0.063 310 7545 1810 50.1 1.13E+04 108%
#06 dry 225 160 0.063 310 7820 2085 43.7 9.96E+03 104%
#07 dry 225 160 0.063 310 7650 2040 46.3 8.77E+03 107%
#08 dry 225 160 0.063 310 7200 1920 47.7 8.38E+03 105%
#09 dry 200 160 0.063 310 8000 2400 40.4 1.00E+04 107%
#10 dry 200 160 0.063 310 6800 2040 44.1 9.02E+03 101%
#11 dry 200 160 0.063 310 8000 2400 39.5 1.08E+04 114%
#12 dry 200 160 0.063 310 7960 2388 39.5 1.10E+04 110%
#13 dry 150 160 0.063 310 8280 3310 26 1.05E+04 90%
#14 dry 150 160 0.063 310 8235 3295 29.5 1.12E+04 99%
#15 dry 150 160 0.063 310 8235 3295 30.8 9.74E+03 104%
#16 dry 250 150 0.067 290 7000 1680 54 8.68E+03 112%
#17 dry 250 150 0.067 290 6000 1440 60.2 9.48E+03 110%
#18 dry 250 140 0.071 270 5500 1320 64.4 1.21E+04 114%
#19 dry 250 140 0.071 270 6000 1440 64.6 1.25E+04 119%
#20 dry 250 140 0.071 270 6500 1560 62.1 1.16E+04 122%
#21 dry 250 130 0.077 250 4625 1110 58.6 1.34E+04 92%
#22 dry 250 130 0.077 250 5000 1200 62.3 1.35E+04 101%
#23 dry 250 130 0.077 250 4375 1050 63.5 1.49E+04 95%
#24 dry 250 120 0.083 230 3500 840 75.5 1.56E+04 99%
#25 dry 250 120 0.083 230 3375 810 76.7 1.93E+04 101%
#26 dry 250 120 0.083 230 3375 810 76.3 1.78E+04 98%
#27 dry 250 110 0.091 210 2500 600 82.2 2.04E+04 90%
#28 dry 250 110 0.091 210 2250 540 84.2 2.20E+04 87%
#29 dry 250 110 0.091 210 2500 600 77.2 2.06E+04 85%
#30 dry 250 100 0.100 190 1875 450 94.7 2.99E+04 95%
#31 dry 250 100 0.100 190 1875 450 92.5 2.91E+04 92%
#32 dry 250 100 0.100 190 1625 390 95.5 3.10E+04 88%
#33 dry 200 100 0.100 190 2100 630 85.5 2.78E+04 99%
#34 dry 200 100 0.100 190 2000 600 88.9 3.04E+04 100%
#35 dry 200 100 0.100 190 1600 480 83.8 2.94E+04 84%
#36 dry 150 100 0.100 190 1875 750 71.3 2.58E+04 89%
#37 dry 150 100 0.100 190 2175 870 70.1 2.51E+04 94%
#38 dry 150 100 0.100 190 1950 780 69.4 2.60E+04 88%
#39 dry 250 90 0.111 175 1375 330 112.8 4.07E+04 100%
#40 dry 250 90 0.111 175 1375 330 114.7 4.35E+04 102%
#41 dry 250 90 0.111 175 1125 270 118.3 4.67E+04 98%
#42 dry 200 90 0.111 175 1200 360 97.3 3.95E+04 87%
#43 dry 200 90 0.111 175 1400 420 95.6 3.86E+04 92%
#44 dry 200 90 0.111 175 1500 450 97.8 4.11E+04 98%
#45 dry 250 80 0.125 155 750 180 133.5 6.95E+04 104%
#46 dry 250 80 0.125 155 750 180 140.4 7.25E+04 109%
#47 dry 250 80 0.125 155 750 180 132.5 6.97E+04 103%
#48 dry 200 80 0.125 155 900 270 121.7 6.63E+04 105%
#49 dry 200 80 0.125 155 1000 300 122.9 5.93E+04 108%
#50 dry 200 80 0.125 155 1100 330 108.3 5.11E+04 97%
#51 dry 150 80 0.125 155 1050 420 89 5.04E+04 87%
#52 dry 150 80 0.125 155 1050 420 87.8 5.03E+04 87%
#53 dry 525 160 0.063 310 7615 870 91.1 1.02E+04 119%
#54 oil 525 160 0.063 310 17850 2040 55 7.76E+03 136%
#55 grease 525 160 0.063 310 12600 1440 67.6 8.30E+03 126%

Table A.1 – Table of the experimental data and results for all the specimens reported in the current study.
Acknowledgments: the authors would like to acknowledge the engineer Pietro Freddi of the Usha Martin

company for his support in the experimental tests.

Funding: this research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial,

or

not-for-profit sectors.

Declarations of interest: we wish to confirm that there are no known conflicts of interest associated with

this publication.

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