A Unified Fatigue and Fracture Model

Applied to Steel Wire Ropes

M.P. Weissa(*), and R. Ashkenazib(**)

a - Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Technion IIT, Haifa 32000, Israel
b - M.R.E. Matron Rope & Wire Rope Engineering Ltd., Gedera, Israel

(*) - mweiss@technion.ac.il,
(**) - matron@netvision.net.il

The behavior of short and very short fatigue cracks, emanating from so called “smooth”
specimens with stress concentrations has been an intriguing research topic for a long time. It is well
known that micro-cracks are embedded in the surface of any smooth specimen and are created during the
manufacturing process. A few of these micro-cracks will eventually propagate due to fatigue loads and
will become major cracks. Due to a combination of high local stresses and stress concentrations, the short
cracks are the first to become the major cracks and eventually cause failure.
A quantitative two-term model for a step by step simulation of crack propagation from very short
cracks to fracture has been proposed by one of the authors, Weiss [1] and Weiss and Hirshberg [2]. The
model is based on the Fatigue Diagram that segregates the whole fatigue and fracture domain into 6
unique zones, and relates each zone to a known fatigue and/or fracture regime. Zone 4 in the diagram is
the most prevalent in industry, as it is so bounded that the stress amplitudes are higher than the endurance
stress, but lower than the elastic limit, and the stress intensity factor ranges are higher than the threshold
and lower than the fracture toughness. Most metal parts and structures that are loaded by alternating
loads, finally break down in this zone, either by gross yielding or by critical crack propagation. In this
zone the superposition of two fatigue crack propagation rules is used.
In the current study, the model is described, discussed and enhanced and is shown to be applicable
to fatigue failure in single wires of steel wire ropes in general and specially in non-rotating tower crane
wire ropes.
In its service life a wire rope is subjected to fluctuating tension loading and to bending over
sheaves. The bending stresses along the individual double helix wire are strongly dependent on the
sheave-to-wire diameters ratio and on the arrangement of the reeving system. Predicting the fatigue life
of a wire rope is considered as an essential objective for users and manufacturers. Generally, the failure
of the individual wire is caused due to an initial crack that propagates to a critical length. In order to
improve the safety level in hoisting appliances, the development of a model that will reliably predict the
fatigue life and the safe service life of the rope, is needed. Moreover, a reliable model based on all the
stress affecting factors, will considerably reduce complex and expensive experimental study.
 In this study a new approach to simulate the fatigue life of individual wires within a wire rope, that
is subjected to tension-tension and bending over sheave is presented. The model is based on the two-term
fatigue propagation model [1] and on a new analysis of the stresses that simulates bending and tension
stresses that are generated along the double helix wire within a rope, as shown by the authors, Elata et al.
[3]. It is assumed that initial flaws that were generated during the cold drawing manufacturing process
exist in the individual wire. Several of these flaws (initial cracks) are located at critical sites where tension
and bending stresses are maximal. Once the hoisting cycle is defined by means of the rain-flow method, it
is converted to an “equivalent” loading cycle with a completely reversed loading (R=-1) by employing the
Gerber parabolic line. The growing of the assumed initial crack is then simulated according to the
appropriate zone on the fatigue diagram [1]. Material parameters are calibrated according to experimental
fatigue data that was measured on eutectoid steel wires.
The theoretical results were tested on regular, industrial wires, using a specially built tension
apparatus, that is free to rotate on one end, so that the twisting moments and deformations that are
generated in tension, can be measured. The results of the stresses were found to be close to the analytical
predictions. Fatigue life was found to be in good agreement with Feyrer 's [4; 5] experimental prediction
formula. Moreover, simulation results predict extensive fatigue deterioration of the wires within the inner
strand layer, under free end attachment using a swivel, just as is customary in many tower cranes.
The model quantitatively emphasizes the strong dependence of the fatigue life on the quality of the
surface finish of the wires, namely on the residual micro-cracks that were generated during the deep cold-
drawing plastic deformation, in the diameter reduction process of the single wires in manufacturing.
The new approach may be applied to predict the fatigue life of a complicated cross section of a
rope within a hoisting system. Moreover, the model will extensively reduce expensive experimental
study and can also be used to design better wire configurations. The demonstrated application in wire
ropes is just one example for the use of the two-term model in fatigue life prediction of complicated
mechanical parts under different stress combinations and histories, from the onset of loading of a
"smooth" part, till final failure.

References:
[1] Weiss M.P., Int. J. of Fatigue, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 91-96, 1992
[2] Weiss M.P. and Hirshberg Z., Fatigue & Fracture of Engineering Materials & Structures, Vol. 19, No. 2\3, pp.
241-249, 1996
[3] Elata D., Ashkenazy R and Weiss M.P., International Journal of Solids and Structures, 2004, Vol 41 /5-6,
pp. 1157-1172
[4] Feyrer K., Drahtseile, Springer-Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg, 1994
[5] Feyrer K., Wire, vol. 45 (2) pp.99-103, 1995