Therapeutic Potential of Some Medicinal Plants: Poisonous Category

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Conservation, Cultivation and
Exploration of Therapeutic potential of
Medicinal Plants
Abhimanyu Kumar
Madan Mohan Padhi
Narayanam Srikanth
Bishnupriya Dhar
Anupam K. Mangal
Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic

Sciences
Department of AYUSH
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
©2014, Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences, Department of
AYUSH, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India, New Delhi.
ISBN : 978-93-83864-03-4
Published by : Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences

(CCRAS), New Delhi-110058
Printed at : Cirrus Graphics Pvt. Ltd.
Cover Page : Malaxis acuminata D.Don
Disclaimer: All possible efforts have been made to ensure the correctness of
the contents. However CCRAS shall not be accountable for any inadvertent
error in the content. The corrective measures shall be taken up once such
errors are brought to notice.
Preface
Every country has its own traditional health care practices. These
practices have evolved based on culture, philosophy, geographical
conditions, flora, and mineral resources. From historical point of view it is
evident that plants, metals, minerals and animal products are being
exceedingly used in alleviating varied disease conditions. History of use of
natural products of medicinal value can be traced from remote past .Ever
since dawn of history man has been in pursuit of new substances that
could cure illness and promote health and longevity and medicinal plants
contribute a major role in health care.
India, endowed with rich diversity in its flora and fauna is
considered to be one of the top twelve mega-diversity countries of the
world. Being a subcontinent, it encompasses 15- different agro-climatic
zones, 10 vegetarian zones, 25 biotic provinces and 426 biomes. Almost all
the shades of climates, from the hottest Thar desert to arctic environment
in Himalaya, with intermediate gradations, occur in India.
The nature of diversity in environmental regimes and its position at
the tri-junction of African, Eurasian and Oriental biotas have enabled India
to harbor over 125,000 species of living organisms, constituting about 5%
of known species of the world. This country has very rich elements of
endemics in its flora. It has been estimated that about 35% of the higher
plant flora is endemic to India. Out of the 34 hot spots of biodiversity
identified in the world, India share geographic area of four hot spots
located in the Himalaya, Western Ghats & Srilanka, Indo- Burma and
Sundaland. These hot spots are rich in endemic flora.
India has a long history and strong base of Ayurveda and other
traditional systems of medicine which are gaining the attention of
international community. The health promotive, disease preventive,
rehabilitative and recuperative roles of Ayurveda with its holistic approach
are the reasons its acceptance. Based on sound concept and practice,
Ayurvedic System of Medicine is well documented and includes every
aspect of health and disease. In spite of advances in biomedical research,
many new diseases are emerging and management of such refractory
illness is posing a global challenge. Now it is time to integrate the benefits
of Ayurveda with its rational, affordable and evidence based use.
About 80% of population in India is reported to use Ayurveda and
medicinal plants to help meet their primary health care needs and the
safety of this vibrant tradition is attributed to time tested use, textual
reference and further endorsed by scientific studies. India is one of the few
countries that have developed services of traditional medicine through
the official planning process. With the growing use of Ayurveda, the safety
and efficacy as well as quality control have become major concerns and
are being addressed systematically backed by scientific evidence. A
number of scientists and institutions across the country have significantly
contributed for research and development on cultivation, conservation
and validation of safety and efficacy of medicinal plants.
This compendium titled 'Conservation ,Cultivation and Exploration
of Therapeutic potential of Medicinal Plants ' enriched with proficient
contributions by experienced workers in diverse interrelated fields would
certainly serve as useful reference document for scientists, academicians,
practitioners and will also be of immense help to scholars pursuing
research. I am convinced that this endeavor assuredly pose are markable
impact in disseminating the merits of Ayurveda and research outcomes for
their better utilization.
Prof. Dr. Abhimanyu Kumar

Director General
Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences
New Delhi
ii
Contributors
Abhimanyu Kumar
Director General, Central Council For Research in AyurvedIc Sciences, 61-
65, Institutional Area, Opposite 'D'Block, Janakpuri, New Delhi-110058.
Anjali Kak
Division of Germplasm Conservation, NBPGR, Pusa Campus, New Delhi.
A K Mangal
Research officer (Pharmacognosy) Scientist-2, Central Council For
Research in AyurvedIc Sciences, 61-65, Institutional Area, Opposite
'D'Block, Janakpuri, New Delhi-110058.
Amita Kumari
Consultant (Chemistry), Central Council For Research in AyurvedIc
Sciences, 61-65, Institutional Area, Opposite 'D'Block, Janakpuri, New
Delhi-110058.
A K Tripathi
Senior Research Fellow, Ayurveda Regional Research Institute (C.C.R.A.S.),
Department of AYUSH, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare,
Government of India, Itanagar-791111.
A K S Rawat
Scientist & Head, Pharmacognosy & Ethnopharmacology Division, CSIR-
National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow-226001.
Arti Pandey
Department of Food and Nutrition, College of Home Science; GB Pant
University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar 263 145,
Uttarakhand.
Bhagwan Sahai Sharma
Research officer (Ayurveda) Scientist-2, Central Council For Research in
AyurvedIc Sciences, 61-65, Institutional Area, Opposite 'D'Block,
Janakpuri, New Delhi-110058.
Bibhu Prasad Panda
Microbial and Pharmaceutical Biotechnology Laboratory, Department of
Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, Centre for Advanced Research in
Pharmaceutical Science, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jamia Hamdard, Delhi 62
iii
Bishnupriya Dhar
Assistant Director (Pharmacognosy) Scientist-3, Central Council For
Research in AyurvedIc Sciences, 61-65, Institutional Area, Opp.'D'Block,
Janakpuri, N ew Delhi-110058.
Bharti
Assistant Director (Scientist-3), Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic
Sciences (CCRAS), Department of AYUSH, Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare, Government of India, New Delhi.
Charvi Mahalwar
Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Agriculture, GB
Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar 263 145,
Uttarakhand.
Chinmay Rath
Research officer (Botany), Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic
Sciences, Janakpuri, New Delhi-110058.
C K Katiyar
Zandu Foundation for Health Care, 687, Anandapur, E. M. Bypass, Kolkata-
700107.
C S Chopra
Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Agriculture, GB
Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar 263 145,
Uttarakhand.
Dinesh Kumar Agrawala
Scientist-C, Botanical Survey of India, Sikkim Himalayan Regional Centre,
Gangtok-737103.
Divya Patel
Zandu Foundation for Health Care, 687, Anandapur, E. M. Bypass, Kolkata
700107.
G C Bhuyan
iv
Gian Singh Aulakh
nd
Consultant, Rawal Medherb Consultants, Pvt. Limited. C-3/22,2 Floor,
Phase -2, Ashok Vihar delhi-110052.
GVR Joseph
Assistant Director (Botany) Scientist-3, Central Council For Research in
AyurvedIc Sciences, 61-65, Institutional Area, Opp.'D'Block, Janakpuri, N
ew Delhi-110058.
H B Singh
Chief Scientist Herbology, AIMIL Pharmaceuticals (I) Ltd, New Delhi.
J M Pathak
Zandu Foundation for Health Care, 687, Anandapur, E. M. Bypass, Kolkata
700107.
Kaushal K Srivastava
Ex-Director, DRDO, 8-A, Railway Board Officers Flat, Sarojani Nagar, New
Delhi-110023.
K Nishteswar
Professor & Head, Department of Dravyaguna, IPGT&RA, Gujarat
Ayurveda University, Jamnagar.
K V Billore
Ex-Head, National Research Institute for Basic Ayurveda Sciences (CCRAS),
Kothrud, Pune- 411 038.
Lalit Tiwari
Homoeopathic Pharmacopoeia Laboratory, Ghaziabad- 201 002.
Manisha Mangal
Senior Scientist (Agriculture Biotechnology), Division of Vegetable
Sciences, IARI, New Delhi-110012.
M M Padhi
Deputy Director (Technical), Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic
M M Sharma
v
Mojeer Hasan
Pharmaceutical Science, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi-
110062.
M S Chandorkar
700107.
N Haripriya
Former Lecturer in Botany, Ramakrishna Junior College, Narasaraopet,
Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh.
N Srikanth
Assistant Director (Scientist-3), Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic
Nitin Rai
Pharmacopoeial Laboratory for Indian Medicine, Ghaziabad -201002.
Prakash Chandar Bhatt
Pharmaceutical Science, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi
110062.
Pratibha Gupta
700107.
Preety Dixit
Research Fellow, Medicinal and Process Chemistry Division, CSIR-Central
Drug Research Institute,Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Sitapur Road,
Lucknow-226031.
Rajeev Kr Sharma
Pharmacopoeial Laboratory for Indian Medicine, Ghaziabad -201002.
Rajendra Gupta
Zandu Foundation for Health Care, Village-Ambach, Gujrat.
vi
Rakesh Maurya
Chief Scientist, Medicinal and Process Chemistry Division, CSIR-Central
Drug Research Institute,Sector-10, Jankipuram Extension, Sitapur Road,
Lucknow-226031.
Rama Shankar
Research Officer (Scientist-4), Ayurveda Regional Research Institute
(C.C.R.A.S.), Department of AYUSH, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare,
Government of India, Itanagar-791111.
Ratan Kumar
Former Additional Director, DIPAS, Timarpur, New Delhi-110058.
R N Acharya
Institute of Ayurvedic Pharmaceutical Science, Gujarat Ayurvedic
University, A.K. Jamal Building, Guru Nanak Road, Jamnagar-361008,
Gujarat.
Sangita Bansal
Sr. Scientist, Division of Food Grains and Oilseeds Processing, Central
Institute of Postharvest Engineering and Technology (ICAR), Ludhiana-
141004.
Shruti Khanduri
Research officer (Ayurveda), Central Council For Research in AyurvedIc
Delhi-110058
Shweta Yadav
Associate Professor in Zoology, School of Biological Sciences, Dr. H.S.
Gaur Central University, Sagar – 470003.
S K Sharma
Asstt. Professor, Department of Food Science and Technology, College of
Agriculture, GB Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar
263 145, Uttarakhand.
S N Yoganarasimhan
Visiting Professor & Research Co-ordinator, Deptt. of Pharmacognosy,
M.S. Ramaiah College of Pharmacy, (MS Ramaiah University of Applied
Sciences), MSRIT Post, Bangalore-560 054.
vii
Subash Chandra Verma
Research officer (Chemistry), Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic
Sudesh N. Gaidhani
Asstt. Director (Pharmacology), Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic
Veena Gupta
Division of Germplasm Conservation, NBPGR, Pusa Campus, New Delhi.
Vinod Kumar Joshi
Former Dean, Faculty of Ayurveda; Professor & Head, Department of
Dravyaguna; Institute of Medical Sciences, Banaras Hindu University,
Varanasi.
V K Lavaniya
Research officer (Ayurveda), Central Council For Research in AyurvedIc
Delhi-110058.
V K Singh
Ex. Deputy Director (Botany), Central Council for Research in Unani
Medicine, Department of AYUSH, 61-65 Institutional Area, Janakpuri,
viii
Contents
Preface………………………………………………………………………....i
Contributors………………………………………………………………….. iii
Section 1- Conservation and Cultivation

1. Global Interest in Ayurvedic Medicine and Need for the Cultivation of
Medicinal Plants and Collection of Useful Parts.........................................1
Vinod Kumar Joshi
2. Medicinal Plants Conservation: Indian Perspective...................................17
Sangita Bansal, Manisha Mangal, S K Sharma and Anupam K Mangal
3. Conservation and sustainability of Trade Potential Medicinal Plants........47
Lalit Tiwari, Nitin Rai, Rajeev Kr Sharma, Bishnupriya Dhar and Anupam
K Mangal
4. Development of Mucuna pruriens (Velvet bean) Line with Improved viz.
“Non-itching with High Yield and L-Dopa Content” through
Conventional Breeding...............................................................................65
Rajendra Gupta, M S Chandorkar, JM Pathak, Pratibha Gupta, Divya Patel
and CK Katiyar
5. Good Agricultural and Field Collection Practices for Medicinal Plants:
Retrospect and Prospect.............................................................................79
N Srikanth, N Haripriya, AK Mangal, Bishnupriya Dhar MM Padhi and
Abhimanyu Kumar
6. Medicinal Plants Sector in India- An Appraisal & Strategies....................95
KV Billore, Bishnupriya Dhar and A K Mangal
7. Ex-situ Conservation of Over Exploited Medicinal Plants Using
Biotechnological Approaches..................................................................133
Anupam K Mangal, Manisha Mangal, N Srikanth, Bishnupriya Dhar and
Sangita Bansal
8. Conservation of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants at Indian National
Genebank.................................................................................................157
Veena Gupta and Anjali Kak
9. From Wild to Cultivation: An Approach for Conservation......................177
Gian Singh
ix
10. Cultivation, Collection and Endangered status of Medicinal Plants-
Ancient & Modern Perspectives..............................................................189
K Nishteswar
11. Exploration, Conservation and Cultivation of Therapeutically Important
Medicinal Plants in Meghalaya................................................................219
Rama Shankar, AK Tripathi and Abhimanyu Kumar
12. Conservation and Pharmacognostical studies on Smilax zeylanica –
An alternative source for the Ayurvedic Drug Chopachinee....................239
SN Yoganarasimhan
13. Medicinal Plants of North East India used in Indian Systems of
Medicine..................................................................................................259
GVR Joseph, M M Padhi and Abhimanyu Kumar
14. Issues to be addressed for Cultivation and Conservation of Indian
medicinal plants.......................................................................................291
Dinesh Kumar Agrawala, Bishnupriya Dhar, Chinmay Rath and Subash
Chandra Verma
Section 2- Exploration of Therapeutic Potential

15. Therapeutically Potential Herbs for Prevention and management of
osteoporosis..............................................................................................301
Prakash Chandar Bhatt, Mojeer Hasan, Bibhu Prasad Panda and HB Singh
16. Exploration of Indian Medicinal Plants for Antiostroporotic Lead
Generation................................................................................................317
Preety Dixit and Rakesh Maurya
17. Streblus asper Lour. – An Evidence-Based Ancient Indian Drug to
Combat Filariasis......................................................................................341
VK Singh and Shweta Yadav
18. Medicinal Plants in Eye Care and Exploration of their Therapeutic
Potential: Evidence Based Translational Approach.................................359
N Srikanth, N Haripriya, Chinmay Rath, Bharti, Shruti Khanduri, MM Padhi
and Abhimanyu Kumar
19. Exploration and Utilization of Therapeutic Potential of Alliums: Garlic,
Onion and Others....................................................................................375
SK Sharma, Arti Pandey, Charvi Mahalwar, Sangita Bansal and CS Chopra
x
20. The Adaptive Medicine............................................................................405
Kaushal K Srivastava and Ratan Kumar
21. Impact of Shodhana (Detoxification Procedures) on Certain Poisonous
Herbal Drugs Used in Ayurveda..............................................................427
R N Acharya
22. Challenges in Quality Assurance for Desired Therapeutic Potential of
Herbal
Drugs/Formulations.................................................................................451
A K S Rawat
23. Therapeutic Potential of Some Medicinal Plants: Poisonous Category..469
Sudhesh N Gaidhani, Amita Kumari, Vinod Kumar Lavaniya, Bhagwan
Sahai Sharma, Madan Mohan Sharma, Guru Charan Bhuyan, Subash
Chandra Verma and Chinmay Rath
xi
Issues to be Addressed for Cultivation and Conservation of
Indian Medicinal Plants
Dinesh Kumar Agrawala, Bishnupriya Dhar,
Chinmay Rath and Subash Chandra Verma
I ndia is one of the mega-biodiversity centers of the world and is home to

enormously varied floral and faunal diversity. As per present estimate, Indian
flora account for about 11.4% of the total recorded plant species of the world
of which 28% are endemic to our country. The number of vascular plant species in
India is estimated at 19267 (source: Plant Discoveries 2012, Botanical Survey of
India) of which 7263 (source: NMPB website) are having recorded medicinal
value. 960 species are having trade value of which, 178 (source: NMPB website)
are in high demand by the pharmaceutical industries and practitioners in India and
abroad.
India makes a perfect example of one of the oldest civilization where use
of plants or other natural products in the health care system dates back to vedic
period. Apart from the innumerable social benefits, much emphasis has been
accorded to the medicinal value of plants. This is evident by constant and
continuous evaluation of pharmacopoeia of Indian medicinal plants. A
chronological perspective reveals about 289 medicinal plants were in use during
vedic period (3000 BC – 1000 BC) followed by 650 in Samhita period (1500 BC –
500 AD) and about 1814 medicinal plants have been documented during Nighantu
period (500 AD – 1900 AD).
About 65% of Indian population is reported to use either of the AYUSH
systems to meet their primary health care needs (WHO traditional medicine
strategies 2002-2005, Document/WHO/EDM/TRM/2002) and the safety of this
vibrant tradition is attributed to time tested use and textual reference and supported
by scientific studies.
The increasing trend towards alternative system of medicine has put
enormous pressure on the natural medicinal plant resource of our country. Due to
the increasing demand, many pharmaceutical industries have been set up and
today, trade of medicinal plants or crude drugs is a multimillion dollar industry.
However, the unplanned exploitation of medicinal plants is putting enormous
pressure on their natural existence and several species are becoming included
under rare, endangered and threatened categories. Moreover, some of the highly
valuable medicinal plants are on the verge of extinction.
291
Dinesh Kumar Agrawala et al.
There are several issues which could be addressed to frame strategies for
conservation and sustainable utilization of medicinal plants in our country.
· Exploration and documentation of distribution and availability of
medicinal plant species in India.
· Evaluation of their natural distribution and abundance.
· Morphological characterization of medicinal plants for correct
identification.
· Collection of folk–lore claims regarding the traditional use of medicinal
plants by the rural and indigenous people.
· Identification of medicinally important plants of high trade value.
· Explore the possibility of developing alternative climatic/habitat
condition for those species for ex–situ conservation and germplasm
maintenance.
· Develop protected areas in the natural habitats of most important
medicinal plants for in-situ conservation.
· Large scale cultivation using various agro–techniques to meet the
demand.
· Develop sustainable harvesting methods so that source of the drug
material will not deplete after harvesting of the drug part.
· Mass multiplication through seed/tissue/organ culture.
Distribution and availability
Botanical wealth (including medicinal plants) of our country and adjoining areas
was mostly explored by the Britishers during pre-independence period. This has
resulted in the publication of “Flora of British India” (1872-1897) in 7 volumes by
Sir J.D. Hooker. Though this book does not provide much information on the
medicinal value of the plants, it gives morphological description and diagnostic
characters of the plants and is still used as a major reference material for
identification and distribution of medicinal plants. In the post independence
scenario, Botanical Survey of India is the leading organization in exploring the
floristic diversity (including medicinal plants) of our country. This apart, several
other institutes/ universities/ NGOs are also engaged in collecting information on
distribution and availability of medicinal plants and associated traditional
knowledge. As a result, several publications in national as well as regional context
were come out providing information on distribution and availability of medicinal
plants.
India is divided in to 11 phyto-geographic regions such as 1. Western
Himalaya, 2. Eastern Himalaya, 3. North-East India, 4. Gangetic Plains, 5. Arid
292
Issues to be Addressed for Cultivation and Conservation ............
region, 6. Western Ghats, 7. Eastern Ghats, 8. Deccan Plateau, 9. Coastal Region,

10. Andaman & Nicobar Islands and 11. Lakshadeep [Chowdhery & Murty,
(2000) Plant Diversity and Conservation Strategies in India]. The topography and
climatic condition of Himalayas, N.E. India and Western Ghats suits for luxuriant
botanical wealth (including medicinal plants). These areas also have age long
history of using plant materials in the health care systems. Owing to the
availability of large number of medicinal plants, the number of pharmaceutical
industries in these areas is more. These industries are directly or indirectly
dependent on the natural source of the medicinal plants for their raw materials.
Though there are some legislation for unplanned collection of plant materials from
their natural resource, still the industry is finding its way to fulfill its requirement.
Several activities are to be completed before we can satisfactorily fulfill
the requirement of drug industries and at the same time improve the socio-
economic condition of the forest dwellers.
· Survey the unexplored areas and compile the available literature/
information to develop a comprehensive document on distribution and
availability of all medicinal plants in India.
· Estimate the population status of all medicinal plants and their
regeneration capacity in natural habitat.
· Classify all the medicinal plants according to part(s) used as this has a
serious impact on the survival of a particular species.
· Estimate the annual requirement of the industry and identify the plants
having high demand.
· Survey the crude drug markets and analyze the trade related information
like source of the drug material, price, genuineness, authenticity of the
trader etc.
· Regulate illegal collection or trade of medicinal plants through improving
socio-economic status of local communities and create awareness about
the sustainable use of their surrounding resources.
· Constitute community co-operatives/ self help groups or identify
educated village women and entrust the task of collection and trade of the
medicinal plants.
· Persons collecting the drug materials should be trained regarding the
correct identity of the plants, their complete life-cycle, flowering and
fruiting period, maturity time of the drug part, sustainable harvesting
methods and post harvest handling.
· Develop and implement appropriate management options and guidelines
for sustainable harvesting of medicinal plants.
293
· Develop suitable methods for mass-cultivation to meet the demand for

highly traded medicinal plants.
Characterization and certification
The unplanned collection of many highly valuable medicinal plants has made
them either rare or critically endangered in their natural habitats. Practitioners and
industries find it difficult to meet the demand for such medicinal plants.
Sometimes, persons collecting the medicinal plants do not have idea about the
correct identity of medicinal plants and collect some other species which may or
may not have the medicinal properties. Moreover, due to scarcity of highly
demanded medicinal plants or due to constraints in collecting the medicinal plants
available in inaccessible areas or to lower the expenditure in collecting the
medicinal plants, drugs are adulterated or substituted intentionally by the traders.
All these lead to preparation of inappropriate drugs which do not have the
biological activity or sometimes have harmful effects on our body. This can be
overcome through the following activities.
1. Macro-microscopic, phyto-chemical and molecular characterization of
the medicinal plants and the drug parts.
2. Documentation of all above information in the form of monographs.
3. Train the persons/ stakeholders regarding the identity and other characters
involved in collection of medicinal plants.
4. Develop Herbaria/ Musea containing medicinal plant specimens/ raw
drug materials which will act as reference centre for identification of
medicinal plants.
5. Get the drug part identified or certified by the subject expert or relevant
authority before starting any drug development programme.
Cultivation
It is observed that medicinal plants required by the practitioners/ pharmaceutical
industries are mostly harvested from wild. With the increasing harvesting
pressure, species population is depleting and leading towards extinction. To
ensure that medicinal plants are always available, we must learn to grow our own.
Before initiating any cultivation programme we must have basic information
about the climatic condition and nutritional requirement of the medicinal plants.
Most of the medicinal plants are propagated either through seeds or
vegetatively through stem and root cutting. Persons engaged in cultivation of
medicinal plants should know the reproductive behavior of the plants and the
agronomic techniques required for their cultivation. It is important to evaluate the
quality and quantity of active constituents when the drug is collected from
294
cultivated source.
Cultivation practice of medicinal plants often leads to development of
new varieties/ cultivars having superior quality and quantity of bioactive
constituents. Also, the cultivation site acts as ex-situ conservation site for the
medicinal plants. In-situ conservation of natural resources alone cannot meet the
ever increasing demand of pharmaceutical industry. It is, therefore, inevitable to
develop cultivation practices and propagate these plants in suitable agro-climatic
regions. Commercial cultivation will put a check on the continued exploitation
from wild sources and serve as effective means to conserve the rare floristic wealth
and genetic diversity. Various issues to be addressed for a good cultivation practice
of medicinal plants are:
· Identify villagers/ farmers for on-farm pilot propagation and cultivation
trials of medicinal plants to reduce pressure from wild population.
· Farmers should be encouraged to cultivate medicinal plants and provided
with crop insurance and subsidy.
· Farmers/ villagers should be trained about the flowering, fruiting and
suitable maturity time for the drug parts for optimum harvesting.
· The price for the harvested product should be fixed before they initiate the
cultivation work.
· Pharmaceutical industry and government should bear some or all the
investment cost for the farmers cultivating the medicinal plants.
· Forest department should provide land for use in the cultivation purpose.
· Efforts are required to develop appropriate cropping patterns for the
incorporation of these plants into the conventional agricultural and forestry
cropping systems.
· It is also necessary to develop genetically superior planting material for
assured uniformity and desired quality and resort to organized cultivation to
ensure the supply of raw material at growers end.
· The selected propagation materials have to be distributed to the farmer
either through nurseries or seed banks.
Conservation
The universe is the creation of the supreme power meant for the benefit to all
his creations. Individual species must therefore learn to enjoy benefits by
forming a part of the system in close relation with other species. Let not any one
species encroach upon the others right*.
*Isho-Upanishad
295
The concept of biodiversity conservation has been practiced since time

immemorial. Great emphasis was laid by the ancient Sages on the conservation
ethic in the natural surroundings of their Ashrams, the pride seats of learning in
ancient times. The well known manual of State affairs “Arthashastra”, written in
4th century B.C. by Kautilya, recommends strict protection and establishment of
protected areas (Abhayaranyas). The world's first recorded conservation measures
rd
were enforced and enacted by Emperor Ashoka as back as 3 century B.C., when
he extended his benevolence to all living beings and established hospitals and
protected places for animals and birds.
During 1980, the International Union for conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources (IUCN) launched the “World Conservation Strategy” (WCS)
which defined conservation as “the management of human use of the Biosphere so
that it may yield the greatest sustainable benefit to present generation while
maintaining its potential to meet the needs and aspiration of the future generation
as well”. The WCS had three main objectives viz: 1). Maintenance of essential
ecological process and life support systems; 2). Preservation of genetic diversity;
3). Sustainable utilization of natural resources and ecosystems.
Conservation efforts in India were streamlined in the last quarter of the
Nineteenth Century when several legislations were enacted for the protection of
flora and fauna. The Wild-life Protection Act, 1972, the Biological Diversity Act,
2002 and The Biological Diversity Rules, 2004 are the landmark steps towards
conservation of our biological resources. Trade on several important species is
being regulated through various conventions like Convention on Biological
Diversity (CBD), Convention on International Trade of Endangered flora and
fauna (CITES). Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India has
notified many important and highly exploited species under Negative list of export
and Schedule 38 of Biological Diversity Act, 2002 thereby regulating their
exploitation from wild. International Union for Conservation of Nature and
Natural Resources (IUCN) is engaged in Red Listing of all living organisms in the
world by evaluating the associated threat status so that a suitable strategy can be
framed for their conservation. There are protected areas like Biosphere Reserves,
National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries, Sacred grooves and Reserve Forests for
protecting the medicinal plants in-situ. We have numerous botanical gardens
which act as ex-situ conservation and multiplication sites for medicinally
important, threatened, rare and endemic plant species. These also act as
germplasm repository of medicinal, economic and ornamental plants and their
296
wild progenitors for future genetic resource in crop improvement. Despite all
these conservation efforts, the medicinal plant resource of our country is
continuously depleting due to one or more of the following threat factors:
• Over-exploitation due to medicinal importance.
• Urbanization.
• Grazing.
• Jhoom and Terrace Cultivation.
• Smuggling by traders.
• Over enthusiastic collection by students and researchers.
• Natural Calamities.
• Non-availability of pollinators.
Sustainable utilization
For Sustainable utilization of medicinal plants, the Departments/Institutions
/agencies must be identified for preparation of document on various aspects of
cultivation and conservation covering availability of planting material, agro-
practices, protocol, status of technology, ex-situ and in-situ conservation etc.
various issues to be addressed for sustainable utilization of medicinal plants are:
• Identify the medicinally important species and study their biology.
• Identify the therapeutically important ingredients and set up
pharmaceutical industry.
• Develop scope for their commercial exploitation.
• Set up artificial propagation methods to fulfill the demand.
• Maintain the germplasm through conserving the species in-situ and ex-
situ.
Role of botanical survey of india in conservation of medicinal plants
It is essential to document the distribution and population status of individual
species for framing conservation strategies. Botanical Survey of India (BSI) is the
leading organization in India, which is responsible for survey and documentation
of plant resources (including medicinal plants) of the country and has been playing
a significant role in the conservation of our plant resources. Through its regional
centers situated in most phyto-geographical areas in India, BSI has been engaged
in exploration, sample collection, identification, taxonomic studies,
characterization and documentation of floristic wealth of our country. BSI has also
been engaged in the collection of ethno-botanical data, study of the fragile
ecosystems and protected areas, and listing of threatened and endemic species to
undertake effective conservation measure. BSI is one of the oldest and leading
297
organizations in world, having the repository of millions of herbarium specimens

(including type specimens) which act as reference material for identification of
plants. It has a network of botanical gardens at its regional centers which maintain
large number of valuable medicinal, endemic and threatened plants of respective
phyto-climatic regions. BSI has two National Orchidaria at Shillong and Yercaud
and Orchid Houses at other regional centers for ex-situ conservation of large
number of spectacular, medicinally and horticultural important Orchid species.
The highly medicinal and member of 'Ashtavarga' Malaxis acuminata D. Don
[Jeevaka] is conserved at Sikkim Himalayan Regional Centre, Gangtok and
Northern Regional Centre, Dehradun. This along with few Orchid species
included in Appendix-I of CITES and conserved in BSI gardens are depicted in
Plate-1 and 2. BSI also has in-vitro propagation laboratory at Shillong, Dehradun
and Yercaud for developing protocol for artificial propagation methods of
important plant species having reproductive barriers.
Conclusion
India is a developing country with vast geographical area and population. It has an
ancient history of using plants for health care needs. Majority of its population still
depend upon alternative system of medicine to meet primary health care needs. It
is need of the hour to streamline all the data available for medicinal plant research
and develop a National Medicinal Plant Database (NMPD). Also it is high time to
survey in-depth socio-economic status of rural population and encourage
community based home gardens creating awareness among women and children.
If all the institutions/ Universities/ NGOs will join hands together and work on a
common platform with holistic approach India will soon become the global leader
in medicinal plant research.
References
Anonymous, 2002. Traditional Medicines Stratey-2002, World Health
Organizations, Geneva.
Anonymous, 2009. Good Agricultural Practices for Medicinal Plants-2009,
National Medicinal Plants Board, Department of AYUSH, Ministry of
Health & Family Welfare, Government of India, New Delhi.
298
PLATE-1:
A. Malaxis acuminata D.Don [Whole plant of the Ashtavarga drug 'Jeevaka'].
B. Malaxis acuminata D.Don [close up view of a flower].
C. Vanda coerulea Griff. ex Lindl. [The famous 'Blue Vanda', included in Appendix-I
of CITES, used as one of parents in several hybridization experiments].
D. Vanda coerulea Griff. ex Lindl. [close up view of a flower].
E. Renanthera imschootiana Rolfe [The famous 'Red Vanda', included in Appendix-I
of CITES, used as one of parents in several hybridization experiments].
299
PLATE-2: Paphiopedilums (Lady's Slipper Orchid) included in APPENDIX-I of CITES

A. Paphiopedilum fairrieanum (Lindl.) Stein [Popularly known as 'The Lost
Orchid' due to its rarity].
B. Paphiopedilum hirsutissimum (Lindl. ex Hook.) Stein
C. Paphiopedilum insigne (Wall. ex Lindl.) Pfitzer
D. Paphiopedilum spicerianum (Rchb.f.) Pfitzer
E. Paphiopedilum venustum (Wall. ex Sims) Pfitzer
F. Paphiopedilum villosum (Lindl.) Stein
300
Therapeutic Potential of Some Medicinal Plants:
Poisonous Category
Sudhesh N. Gaidhani, Amita Kumari, Subash Chandra Verma
Vinod Kumar Lavaniya, Bhagwan Sahai Sharma, Madan Mohan
Sharma, Guru Charan Bhuyan and Chinmay Rath
A llopathic drugs are cause of various side effects; therefore new

generation is more cognisant about the consequences of allopathic
medicines. Keeping in the mind a large number of scientists are
searching alternatives of these allopathic drugs in ayurveda. All the way through
the history of mankind, herbal remedies were the only medicines accessible to
treat various illnesses. Approximately 100 years ago, 59% of all medicines listed
in 1890 version of US Pharmacopeia were from herbal products (Swerdlow, J.L.,
2000). In present scenario one third to approximately half of all drugs available in
the market are derived from plants or natural resources. For example, the
antibiotics streptomycin is derived from a soil bacterium (Streptomyces griseus)
(Comroe, J.H., 1978) while the immunosuppressant drug cyclosporine, which is
used to prevent organ rejection (host verses graft disease) in transplant recipients,
is derived from a soil fungus (Kaminski, H.J. 2008). Several anticancer drugs such
as vincristine, vinblastine (Kokate, C.K., 2009) and paclitaxel (from the bark of
Taxus brevifolia) (Taxol) (Wall & Wani MC 1995) are also derived from plants.
The widely used cardioactive drug digoxin is extracted from the foxglove plant
(Digitalis lantana) (Hollman, A., 1996). When medicinal plants remain the base of
allopathic drugs by direct or indirect way, extensive manufacturing processes are
employed to isolate the active natural ingredient from crude plant products. In
addition, rigorous quality control procedures are primed to ensure the amount of
the active ingredient, basically to check the amount of active ingredient which is
constant or nearly consistent among all samples. But in preparing ayurvedic
formulations, such rigorous quality control procedures are not always adhered to
the amount of active ingredients, hence the composition of active ingredient may
vary extensively from sample to sample. Repeatedly use of these products cause
toxicity in humans due to accumulation of unwanted ingredients in different parts
of body. Consequently in case of ayurvedic drug formulations, one ingredient may
produce desired therapeutic benefits and other ingredients may produce toxicity,
since all compounds are extracted together in using ayurvedic drug formulation.
Drug toxicity by allopathic medicines is known to health care providers,
due to rigorous research in the supposed field. But toxicities of ayurvedic drug
469
Sudhesh N. Gaidhani et al.
formulations are not well studied. For example, during the 1990s, kava, an
auyrvedic drug obtained from the roots of Piper methysticum, consist active
principal ingredients kavalactones, and all are considered psychoactive (Pittler &
Ernst, 2003). Due to said property, kava was used as anti-anxiety, sleep aid and
considered relatively safe and as effective as some prescription antidepressant
drugs i.e. tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs). However, now it is well-established
that long-term use of kava may cause severe liver toxicity and even death
(Teschke, R., 2010), consequently, kava is regulated in a number of countries
(Sarris, J., et al., 2011). But it is interesting that the South Pacific Islanders who use
kava drinks for religious ceremonies are not suffering from liver damage. This may
be due to the fact that they drink kava extract infrequently or they drink aqueous
(water) extract of kava which may not contain harmful chemicals. In the US most
kava products sold are a water/alcohol extract of the plant. Present chapter deals
with medicinal plants having therapeutic potential to treat diverse diseases but are
poisonous in a number of ways. So caution must be taken in their use.
Plant containing gastrointestinal toxins
Adonis aestivalis L.: The plant is a cardiotonic, diuretic and stimulant. Flowers are
considered to be diuretic, laxative and lithontripic. But glycoside adonilide of the
plant cause gastrointestinal and myocardial necrosis (Wood, L.W., et al., 2004)
(Table 1 (S.no. 9).
Colchicum autumnale L.: It is commonly known as autumn crocus, meadow
saffron or naked lady, is a flower that resembles the true crocuses, but blooms in
autumn. The bulb-like corms contain colchicines (Bruni, A., et al., 1986), an useful
drug with a narrow therapeutic index. Colchicine is approved by the US FDA for
the treatment of gout and familial Mediterranean fever (FDA, 2009). All parts of
the autumn crocus are highly toxic and can cause severe gastrointestinal signs
(e.g., drooling, vomiting, gastrointestinal bleeding, bloody diarrhea, etc.), liver
and kidney damage, respiratory failure, central nervous system signs (e.g.,
seizures), and even death. Poisonings and fatalities from Colchicum autumnale
have occurred around the world, in countries such as the United States, Slovenia,
Croatia, Austria, Japan, and other countries. (Klintschar, M., et al., 1999,
Lascaratos, J., et al.,1995, Sannohe, S., et al., 2002, Sundov, Z., et al., 2005,
Finkelstein, Y., et al., 2010).(Table 1 (S.no. 28).
Rhododendron aberconwayi Cowan: All parts of this plant contain toxic resins
(andromedotoxins, now commonly referred to as grayanotoxin) and leaves being
the most potent source. Grayanotoxin produces gastrointestinal irritation with
some hemorrhage, secondary aspiration pneumonia, sometimes renal tubular
470
Therapeutic Potential of Some Medicinal Plants: Poisonous Category
damage and mild liver degeneration (Spoerke & Smolinske, 2000, Jing, X., et al.,
2009) (Table 1 (S.no. 50).
Solanum nigrum L.: Toxic glycoalkaloids of the plant including solamargine,
solasonine and solanine (Aslanov, S.H.,1971, Mohy-ud-Din, A., et al., 2010). The
toxins are most concentrated in the unripe green berries, but also occur in ripe
berries (Robert, H., 2001). Main target organs of active ingredients are the
cardiovascular and central nervous system, and the gastrointestinal tract.
Symptoms may appear rapidly i.e. nausea, vomiting, abdominal pains, diarrhoea,
headache, mydriasis, flushed and warm skin, delirium, psychomotor agitation,
coma, paralysis, circulatory and respiratory depression, loss of sensation and even
death. Unripe, green fruits should always be considered poisonous (Cooper &
Johnson, 1984,). (Table 1 (S. no. 52).
Solanum tuberosum L.: Main glycosides of the plant, α-chaconine and α-solanine
exhibit antifeedant, fungicide, and pesticide activities and both are used in the
treatment of asthma and epilepsy (Jensen, P.H., 2008). Alkaloid solanine is
gastrointestinal toxic phytochemical of the plant (Barceloux, D.G., 2009).
Plant containing central nervous system toxins
Argemon mexicana L.: Yellow juice of the plant is used to treat dropsy, jaundice
and cutaneous affections (Sarkar, 1926). Plant alkaloids sanguinarine and
dihydrosanguinarine are hepatotoxic (Pathak, N.K.R., et al., 1985).The seeds
resemble the seeds of Brassica nigra (mustard), as a result, mustard can be
adulterated by argemone seeds, rendering it poisonous (Watt, 1889-96). (Table 1
(S.no. 16).
Atropa belladonna L.: Belladonna has been used in herbal medicine for centuries
as a pain reliever, muscle relaxer, anti-inflammatory, to treat menstrual problems,
peptic ulcer disease, histaminic reaction, and motion sickness (Vaughan, J.G.,
2003; Lee, M.R., 2007; Manuchair, E., 2007). Belladonna preparations are used in
homeopathy as treatments for various conditions (Brien, S. et al., 2003). Tropane
alkaloid from the plant affects central nervous system (Trabattoni, G., et al., 1984;
Caksen, H. et al., 2003; Mateo, M.A., et al., 2009). (Table 1 (S.no. 17).
Brassica juncea (L.) Czern.: Brassica juncea significantly prevented the
development of insulin resistance in rats fed fructose-enriched diet (Grover, J.K.
et al., 2002; Yokozawa, T. et al., 2003; Lavanya, B., et al., 2011). Glycosides from
the plants are toxic and reported for cattle poisoning (Cheeke, P.R. et al., 1989;
Kernaleguen, A. et al., 1989, Semalulu & Rousseaux, 1989) (Table 1 (S.no.18).
Cimicifuga racemosa (L.) Nutt. : Plant is found from Bhutan to Kashmir at
471
altitude of 7,000 to 12,000 ft. Plant has a wide action upon the cerebrospinal and
muscular system, as well as upon the uterus and ovaries. Useful in the treatment of
rheumatic, nervous subjects with ovarian irritation, uterine cramps and heavy
limbs. Its muscular and crampy pains, primarily of neurotic origin, occurring in
nearly every part of the body (Fabricant, D.S., et al., 2005; Nappi, R.E., et al.,
2005). Herbal medicinal product prepared from the plant is used for the relief of
menopausal complaints such as hot flushes and profuse sweating. Empirical data
suggest black cohosh should be avoided during pregnancy because of its possible
uterine-stimulating effect and during lactation as it may cause colic (Burdette,
J.E., et al., 2003; Whiting, P.W., et al., 2002). (Table 1 (S.no. 24).
Conium maculatum L.: Conium contains the piperidine alkaloids coniine, N-
methylconiine, conhydrine, pseudoconhydrine and gamma-coniceine (or g-
coniceine), which is the precursor of the other hemlock (Chopra, R.N. et al.,
2006). Alkaloids of the plant produce depression of CNS which result nausea and
vomiting (Vetter, J., 2004). (Table 1 (S.no. 29).
Lathyrus sativus L.: The seeds contain variable amounts of β-N-Oxalyl-L-α,β-
diaminopropionic acid or ODAP, a neurotoxic amino acid (Rao, S.L.N., et al.,
1964; Murti & Seshadri, 1964). ODAP causes wasting and paralysis if eaten over a
long period, and is considered as the cause of the disease neurolathyrism, a
neurodegenerative disease that causes paralysis of the lower body and emaciation
of gluteal muscle (buttocks) (Rao, S.L.N., 2001) (Table 1 (S.no.38).
Lobelia inflata L.: It is reported that patient after ingesting tea made of the leaves
of this plant, developed tachycardia, vomiting and diarrhea, salivation, agitation,
and convulsions (Siegel, R.K., 1976). Phytoconstituent lobeline from the plant
affect central nervous system. (Barthelson, R.A., et al., 2006). (Table 1 (S.no. 39).
Mandragora officinarum L.: Juice from the finely grated root was applied
externally to relieve rheumatic pains. The fresh or dried root contains highly
poisonous alkaloids, including atropine, hyoscyamine, scopolamine, scopine, and
cuscohygrine (Chan, T.Y., 1995, Frasca, T., et al., 2009, Al-Quran, S., 2009,
Hanus, L.O., et al., 2005) (Table 1 (S.no. 40.).
Nymphaea alba L.: Plant contains the toxic alkaloids nupharine and nymphaeine,
these substances have an effect on the nervous system (Chopra. R.N., et al., 2006).
(Table 1 (S.no. 44).
Paeonia emodi Wall. ex Royle: Plant is found in E. Asia-Himalayas from Pakistan
to W. Nepal. The tubers are a useful medicine for the treatment of hysteria,
convulsions, colic, uterine diseases and obstructions of the bile duct. They are
472
given to children as a blood purifier. The seeds are cathartic and emetic. An
infusion of the dried flowers is useful in the treatment of diarrhea (Chopra, R.N. et
al., 2006). A tea made from the dried crushed petals of various peony species has
been used as a cough remedy, as a treatment for haemorrhoids and varicose veins.
If taken in full doses, the drug produces headache, noise in the ears, confused
vision, vomiting. The seed are emetic and cathartic (Chauhan, N.S., 1999) (Table 1
(S.no. 45).
Papaver dubium L.: Plant is found in Western Himalayas from Garhwal and
Kumaon to Hazara and in the plains of Northern India as a colder weed. Capsules
contained alkaloid aporeine, which produces a burning and numbing sensation on
the tongue, and is a titanic poison (Kiritar & Basu, 1999; Kapoor, L., 1995) (Table
1 (S.no. 46).
Papaver rhoeas L. : This plant is met only in Kashmir and Pangi. The leaves and
latex have an acrid taste and are mildly poisonous to grazing animals. Plant is
potentially poisonous to horses, cattle and sheep if eaten in large quantities, but
unlikely to cause human poisoning (Bown, D., 2008). The flowers have been used
in treating mild pain caused by earache, toothache and neuralgia. Infusion of the
petals is traditionally taken for coughs, insomnia and poor digestion (Cooper,
M.R., et al., 2003). (Table 1 (S.no. 47).
Papaver somniferum L.: India, Australia and Turkey are the major producers of
poppy for medicinal purposes and poppy-based drugs, such as morphine or
codeine (Yadav, H.K., et al., 2006). Cattle have been poisoned in Europe after
ingesting either stalks with pods that were being discarded or seed residue left over
from oil extraction. Humans are either poisoned or addicted by various contained
and derived chemicals found in the opium poppy. Oil seed is insecticidal (Ziegler,
J., et al., 2003). Latex from poppy is anodyne, antitussive, astringent, diaphoretic,
emmenagogue, hypnotic, narcotic and sedative. As well as its pain-relieving
properties, the latex has also been used as an antispasmodic and expectorant in
treating certain kinds of coughs, whilst its astringent properties make it useful in
the treatment of dysentery etc. A homeopathic remedy is made from the dried
latex. This is used in the treatment of a variety of complaints, including
constipation, fevers and insomnia (Gomez-Serranillos, M.P., et al., 2003). (Table
1 (S.no. 48).
Solanum lycopersicum L.: Tomato leaves and stems contain solanine that is toxic
if ingested, causing digestive upset and nervous excitement (Pittenger, D.R.,
2002; Barceloux, D.G. 2009). Fruit contain lycopene, due to lycopene it is
473
reported to be protective against oxidative damage in many epidemiological and

experimental studies (Mourvaki, E., et al., 2005). Tomato consumption has been
associated with decreased risk of breast cancer (Zhang, C.X., et al., 2009), head
and neck cancers (Freedman, N.D., et al., 2005) and antimutagenic activities
(Polivkova, Z., et al., 2010). (Table 1 (S.no. 51).
Plant containing hallucinogenic toxins
Datura metel L.: Leaf juice is used in asthma, seeds are narcotic, antiseptic and
sedative, tropane alkaloids. Toxic if ingested in a tiny quantity, symptomatically
expressed as flushed skin, headaches, hallucinations, and possibly convulsions or
even a coma (Vardhana, R., 2008; Taha, S.A., et al., 1984). Atropine and
scopolamine are reported in the plant (Steenkamp, P. A., et al., 2004). (Table 1
(S.no. 30).
Datura stramonium L.: The incidence of D. stramonium L. poisoning is sporadic
with a cluster of poisoning cases in the 1990s and 2000s, the United States media
reported some cases occurring mostly among adolescents and young adults dying
or becoming seriously ill from ingesting (Dewitt, M.S., et al., 1997). The major
tropane alkaloids hyoscyamine and scopolamine and several minor tropane
alkaloids have been identified in Datura species (Oseni, O.A., et al., 2011). Used
in the treatment of asthma (Soni, P., et al., 2012), extract is used in treatment of
diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria (Shagal, M.H., et al., 2012). Plant is
reported for its hallucinogenic properties (Al-Shaikh & Sablay, 2005).
Myristica fragrans Houtt. : Plant contains toxic constituent myristicin, compound
shown neurotoxic effects on neuroblastoma cells (Lee B.K., et al., 2005). It has
psychoactive properties at doses much higher than used in cooking. Raw nutmeg
produces anticholinergic-like symptoms, attributed to myristicin and elemicin.
The intoxicating effects of myristicin can lead to a physical state somewhere
between waking and dreaming; euphoria is reported and nausea is often
experienced. Users also report bloodshot eyes and memory disturbances.
Myristicin is also known to induce hallucinogenic effects, such as visual
distortions. Nutmeg intoxication has an extremely long time before peak is
reached, sometimes taking up to seven hours, and effects can be felt for 24 hours,
with lingering effects lasting up to 72 hours (McKenna, A., et al., 2004). (Table 1
(S.no.41).
Plant containing Cardiovascular toxins
Brassica napus L.: Anthers are reported to cause asthma among farmers (Alverez,
M.J. et al., 1989). Rape seed, containing the goitrogenic L-5-vinyl-2-
474
thiooxazolidone, can produce goiter in animals consuming modest quantities

(Lewis, R.A., 1998). Rape has been incriminated in several poisoning syndromes,
i.e. respiratory, digestive, nervous, and urinary. Traditional rapeseed is unsuitable
as a source of food for either humans or animals due to the presence of two
naturally occurring toxicants in the seed, erucic acid and glucosinolates. The
presence of erucic acid in rapeseed oil has been associated with fat accumulation
in the heart muscle of laboratory rats, resulting in cardopathogenic effects
(Smolinska, U., 1997; Bell, J.M., 1984). Glucosinolates, located in the seed meal,
were found to cause thymus enlargement in laboratory animals and therefore their
presence also limited the nutritional value of the meal as feed for livestock (Table
1 (S.no.19).
Aconitum falconeri Stapf.: Found in the sub-alpine and alpine zones of the
Garhwal Himalayas. Sedative, carminative and anti-inflammatory (Chopra, R.N.,
et al., 2006). Used in the treatment of nervous system, digestive system,
rheumatism and fever (Malik V., 2005). The root alkaloids contain bishatisine,
bishaconitine, falconitine, mithaconitine and aconitine. Aconitine is responsible
for cardiotoxic effects by the plant (Friese, J. et al. 1997; Srikantamurthy, K.R.,
2001; Bhattacharya, I.C., 1961; Malik V., 2005). Treatment with cow's milk
reduces cardiotoxic effect of the root (Table 1 (S.no. 4).
Aconitum ferox Wall. : Plant is found in Alpine Himalayas of Nepal and Assam.
The dried root is alterative, anaesthetic, antiarthritic, deobstruent, diaphoretic,
diuretic, sedative, stimulant. It has been used in India and Nepal in the treatment of
neuralgia, leprosy, fevers, cholera and rheumatism (Daniel, M., 2006). Plant has
depressant action on the heart but when the roots are soaked in cow's urine, they
become soft and lose their depressant action on the heart, becoming a stimulant
instead (Deore, S.L. ., et al., 2013). (Table 1 (S.no. 5).
Actaea spicata L.: Plant is found in temperate Himalayas from Bhutan to Hazara.
The root is antispasmodic, cytostatic, emetic, nervine and purgative. In India it is
used in the treatment of rheumatism, goitre and asthma. (Chopra, R.N., et al.,
2006). In Canada the root is used in the treatment of snakebite. It is also considered
useful in the treatment of nervous disorders and rheumatic fever. Due to presence
of protoanemonin it is responsible for cardiotoxic effects (Anonymous, 2013)
(Table 1 (S.no. 9).
Aconitum napellus L.: Aconite produced from the roots of Aconitum which is
used ethnomedically in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), to treat coldness,
general debility. Misuse of the medicinal ingredients contained in this plant can
negatively affect the cardiovascular and central nervous systems, thus resulting in
475
death (Chan, T.Y., et al., 1994; Fabienne, M. et al., 2005). Homoeopathic

medicine Aconitum napellus also prepared from Aconitum napellus. (Table 1
(S.no. 7).
Cerbera odollam Gaertn.: The seeds are excessively toxic, containing cerberin as
the main active cardenolide. It is used both for suicide and homicide. This plant,
which grows in India and Southeast Asia, contains a potent compound called
cerberin, which has the ability to disrupt heartbeat by blocking calcium ion
channels in the heart (Gaillard, Y., et al., 2004). Cerberin is a perfect weapon for
murder by poisoning, because its flavor can be easily disguised in food
(Laphookhieo, S., et al., 2004). (Table 1 (S.no. 23).
Plant containing multiorgan-system toxins
Aconitum chasmanthum Stapf.: The dried root is analgesic, anodyne,
diaphoretic, diuretic, irritant and sedative. The root is a rich source of active
alkaloids, containing around 3%, abundant in alpine and subalpine zones of the
Western Himalayas from Chitral and Hazara to Kashmir, between altitude of
7,000 to 12,000 ft. This is a very poisonous plant (chronic toxicity) and should
only be used with extreme caution and under the supervision of a qualified
practitioner. Indaconicotine is characteristic alkaloid of the species (Table 1 (S.
no. 3).
Calotropis procera (Aiton) Dryand.: The plant is known as aak in Ayurveda and
was used in cases of cutaneous diseases, intestinal worms, cough, ascites, asthma,
bronchitis, dyspepsia, paralysis, swellings, intermittent fevers, anorexia,
inflammations and tumors. In large doses, Arka is known to act as a purgative and
an emetic (Puri, H.S., 2003). Calotropis species are usually found in abandoned
farmland. Cattle often stay away from the plants because of their unpleasant taste
and their content of cardiac glycosides. Root bark has a Digitalis-like effect on the
heart, but was earlier used as a substitute of ipecacuanha. They are poisonous
plants; calotropin, a compound in the latex, is more toxic than strychnine (Poonam
& Punia, 2013). (Table 1 (S.no.21).
Gloriosa superb L.: Plant is an endangered medicinal plant of India (Lal &
Mishra, 2011). Tuber is used for the treatment of bruises and sprains,colic, chronic
ulcers, hemorrhoids, cancer, impotence, nocturnal seminal emissions and leprosy
. The plump roots of the plant have been used in the treatment of parasitic skin
infections, leprosy, and internal worms (Kavithamani, D., et al., 2013; Jana &
Shekhawat, 2011 ). Tuber of the plant is extremely poisonous and can be fatal if
eaten (Allender, W.J., 1982). (Table 1 (S.no. 37).
476
Plant containing hepatotoxins

Abrus precatorius L. : Plant is commonly known as jequirity, crab's eye, rosary
pea, 'John Crow' bead, precatory bean, Indian licorice, akar saga, giddee giddee,
jumbie bead, ruti, and weather plant. Attractive seeds of the plant contain abrin
(Verma, D., et al., 2011) which is responsible for its toxic effects. Toxicity of abrin
in mice is 75 times higher that of ricin (Patocka & Streda, 2003 ). Symptoms of
poisoning include nausea, vomiting, convulsions, liver failure, and death, usually
after several days. Ingesting a single seed can kill an adult human. The seeds have
been used as beads in jewelry, which is dangerous; inhaled dust is toxic and
pinpricks can be fatal. The seeds are unfortunately attractive to children
(Fernando, C., 2001). Used in skin related problems, abdominal pain, coughs and
colds. (Raamachandran, J., 2008.) (Table 1 (S.no.1).
Plant containing dermal and mucous membrane irritants
Aconitum balfourii Stapf.- It is a rare medicinal herb from Himalaya. Roots of
these plants have been used in the Indian and Chinese systems of medicine as
analgesic and anti-inflammatory (Sharma & Gaur, 2012). Several in-vitro
techniques are tried to cultivate this rare plant (Bist, R. et al., 2011) . The whole
plant is highly toxic - simple skin contact has caused numbness in some people
(Anonymous, 1985). (Table 1 (S.no. 2).
Aconitum violaceum Jacq.: Plant is found in shrubberies and open slopes, 3600-
4800 meters from Pakistan to C. Nepal, E. Asia-Himalayas. The entire plant is
used in Tibetan medicine, for its cooling potency. Antidote, anti-inflammatory and
febrifuge, it is used in the treatment of snake and scorpion bites, contagious
infections and inflammation of the intestines. Simple skin contact has caused
numbness in some people (Chopra, R.N., et al., 2006; Miana, G.A. et al., 1971).
(Table 1 (S.no. 8).
Agave acicularis Trel.: The juice of plant causes acute contact dermatitis with
blistering which lasts several weeks and recurring itching for several years
thereafter (Crosby, D.G., 2004). Leaf tea or tincture taken orally to treat
constipation and excess gas. It is also used as a diuretic. Root tea or tincture is
taken orally to treat arthritic joints. (Thomas, J.E., 2000). (Table 1 (S.no.12).
Brassica nigra (L.) K.Koch: Black mustard is an appetizer, digestive, diuretic,
emetic, irritant and stimulant. Grounded seeds are applied externally to the skin in
cases of rheumatism, sciatica, peritonitis, neuralgia, and numerous internal
inflammations. It reduces skeletal and muscular pain. Herbal tea or grounded seed
sprinkled on bath water is helpful in cases of fevers, colds and influenza (Grieve,
M., 1984). The seed contains substances that can irritate the skin and mucous
477
membranes. Do not use it if your thyroid function is low or if taking thyroxine.

Massage by oil may damage skin integrity and permeability (Darmstadt, G.L., et
al. 2002). (Table 1 (S.no.20)
Caltha palustris L.: Plant found in western Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal at
altitudes of 7,500 to 10,000 ft. In Hazara district root is considered to be
poisonous. The whole plant is anodyne, antispasmodic, diaphoretic, diuretic,
expectorant and rubefacient. The root is antirheumatic, diaphoretic, emetic and
expectorant. All parts of the plant can irritate or blister the skin or mucous
membranes (Bruni, A., et al., 1986, Bonora, A., et al., 1987). (Table 1 (S.no. 22).
Clematis gouriana Roxb. ex DC.: Plant found in the western Himalayas upto an
altitude of 5,000 ft. and hilly districts throughout of India. Clematis species are
used in many parts of the world as a folk remedy for the treatment to reduce pain
and fever (Khar, C.P. , 2007). The plant abounds in the acrid poisonous principle
protoanemonin, known for its antisporulant activity (Deepak, S.A., et al., 2004).
The leaves and fresh stem, if crushed and applied to the skin, produce vesication
but both has fungicidal activity (Misra, S.B., et al., 1977). (Table 1 (S.no. 25).
Clematis napaulensis DC.: Plant is acrid and poisonous due to presence of
anemonin. Leaves are used as irritating agent.. (Pullaiah, T. et al., 2006). Used in
treatment of kidney disorders (Kunwar, R.M., et al., 2003; Joshi, A.R., et al.,
1990). (Table 1 (S.no. 26).
Ranunculus arvensis L.: Plant is used in the treatment of intermittent fevers, gout
and asthma. All parts of the plant are poisonous when fresh; the toxins are
destroyed by heat or by drying. Plant has strongly acrid juice that can cause
blistering to the skin (Yenidunya, M.O., et al., 1999; Akbulut, S., et al., 2011)
Plant containing other toxins
Aconitum heterophyllum Wall.: Found in Maharashtra & Himalayan regions, the
juice of roots along with milk is an expectorant. Root powder is given orally in
cervical lymphadenitis. Seed and root are used in ascites. Seeds are laxative. The
seeds are diuretic; the root decoction reduces burning of urinary tract. It increases
volume of urine (Table 1 (S.no. 6).
Adonis chrysocyathus Hook. F. & Thoms: Yellow Himalayan oxeye daisy is
found growing in large clumps on alpine meadows in the Himalyas, from Kashmir
to W. Nepal and W. Tibet, at altitudes of 3000-4300 m. Reported for sheep toxicity
(Thomas, S.C.L. et al., 2009) (Table 1 (S.no. 11).
Allium satium L.: Some people suffer from allergic reactions after handling
478
onions. Symptoms can include contact dermatitis, intense itching,

rhinoconjunctivitis, blurred vision, bronchial asthma, sweating and anaphylaxis
(Borrelli, F., et al., 2007). The toxicity is caused by the sulfoxides present in raw
and cooked onions (Zhao, N.N. et al., 2013). Ingestion results in anaemia caused
by the distortion and rupture of red blood cells (Rahman, K. et al., 2007; Chan,
K.C. et al., 2007; Steiner & Lin, 1998). Used in the treatment of hyperlipidaemia
with garlic (Mader, F.H., 1990). (Table 1 (S.no. 13).
Anamirta cocculus (L.) Wight & Arn. : Plant is found in Assam, Eastern Bengal,
Oudh, Orissa and Konkan, southwards to Ceylon. Fruits of the plant are highly
poisonous and are used in India to poison fish and crows, but rarely for poisoning
cattle; the flesh of fish so poisoned also becomes poisonous. (Table 1 (S.no. 14).
Aquilegia vulgaris L.: Plant is found in the temperate and subalpine Himalayas. It
is possible that inhaling the crushed seeds dust or otherwise absorbing oils from
them may cause poisoning or at minimum exhibit symptoms of poisoning due to
HCN glycosides (Chopra, R.N., et al., 2006). Plant is used as herbal medicine due
to its hepatoprotective activity (Adamska, T. 2003). The dried crushed seeds made
into a dusting powder and used to kill lice effectively. (Table 1 (S.no. 15).
Clematis orientalis L.: Plant is found in Northwest India. Plant is antiseptic and
refrigerant, used for gargle in ulcerated throats, to treat dog bites (Hazrat, A., et al.,
2010) and for fungal infection treatment (Zhizhi, D., et al., 2003). Plant is acrid
and poisonous due to presence of anemonin (Dekanosidze, G.E., et al., 1979).
Delphinium ajacis L.: Plant is found in Indian gardens as an ornamental plant,
seeds are reported to be emetic, cathartic, anthelmintic and insecticidal. Plant is
applied in the form of tincture for the destruction of lice in the hair (Chopra, R.N.,
et al., 2006.). Their use, however, appears to be inadvisable on account of their
high toxicity, as it is capable of being absorbed through the skin and is more
dangerous than efficient (Lewis, R.A., 1998). (Table 1 (S.no. 32).
Delphinium brunonianum Royle: Plant is found in Western Himalaya and Tibet,
between 13,000 and 17,000 ft above sea level (Khare, C.P., 2007). A parasiticide is
obtained from the leaves. It is quite toxic and so is for external use only. In the
Himalayas it is only used to destroy ticks on animals (Tripathee H. P., et al., 2011)
Brunonine. (Table 1 (S.no. 33).
Delphinium caeruleum Jacq. ex. Camb.: The roots have been used to kill maggots
in the wounds of goats. A parasiticide is obtained from the leaves and roots. It is
quite toxic and so is for external use only (Chopra R.N., et al., 2006; Arya P.Y.,
479
1998; Anonymous, 2002; Wang, Y. et al., 1996) (Table 1 (S.no. 34).

Delphinium elatum L.: Used to treat intestinal worms, fluid retention, poor
appetite, and trouble sleeping (insomnia). All parts of the plant contain various
diterpenoid alkaloids, typified by methyllycaconitine, so are very poisonous
(Welch, K.D., et al., 2010; Olsen, J.D., et al., 1990). (Table 1 (S.no. 35).
Delphinium vestitum Wall. ex Royle: Plant is found in West and Central
Himalayas at altitudes of 8,000 to 12,000 ft (Chopra, R.N. et al., 1965). Used to
treat eye redness, glaucoma and for infections of eyes (Khan & Khatoon, 2008;
Sharma & Sood, 2013). (Table 1 (S.no. 36).
Nigella sativa L.: It is extensively cultivated in many parts of India for its seeds,
native to south and southwest Asia. Thymoquinone, found in the seed oil extract of
N. sativa, has been shown to have anti-neoplastic effects in rats and mice and in
cultured human cells from several types of cancer, including pancreatic ductal
adenocarcinom as (Ali & Blunden, 2003; Khare, C.P., 2004). It has protective
antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, and promotes apoptosis (cell death) of
the cancer cells (Chehl, N., et al., 2009). (Table 1 (S.no. 43).
Conclusion
The aforementioned medicinal plants have potential therapeutic uses and
being used in Indian system of medicine since centuries due to presence of active
compounds, but the excess of these compounds may be lethal to human as
well as animals. These active compounds are present as defensive power of
plants against their enemies but these poisonous active compounds are
responsible for serious risk of illness, injury, or death to humans or animals if they
consumes in huge amount. Human fatalities caused by poisonous plants
especially due to accidental ingestion of poisonous parts of plant, so deadly ones
probably must be avoided or must not ingested deliberately. Use of these
medicinal plants in drug form must be used in appropriate recommendation of
Ayurvedic medicos. Present poisonous categories of medicinal plants
highlight the fact that still an active area of research is required to understand the
accurate behavior of these poisonous compounds, in order to understand the
important implications of plant behavior and to achieve new heights in medical
research under medicinal plants.
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Therapeutic potential of some medicinal plants: Poisonous category

Chapter · April 2014

Dr Subash Chandra Verma

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Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic

Published by : Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences

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Cover Page : Malaxis acuminata D.Don

Prof. Dr. Abhimanyu Kumar

Section 1- Conservation and Cultivation

Section 2- Exploration of Therapeutic Potential

I ndia is one of the mega-biodiversity centers of the world and is home to

region, 6. Western Ghats, 7. Eastern Ghats, 8. Deccan Plateau, 9. Coastal Region,

· Develop suitable methods for mass-cultivation to meet the demand for

The concept of biodiversity conservation has been practiced since time

organizations in world, having the repository of millions of herbarium specimens

PLATE-2: Paphiopedilums (Lady's Slipper Orchid) included in APPENDIX-I of CITES

A llopathic drugs are cause of various side effects; therefore new

reported to be protective against oxidative damage in many epidemiological and

thiooxazolidone, can produce goiter in animals consuming modest quantities

death (Chan, T.Y., et al., 1994; Fabienne, M. et al., 2005). Homoeopathic

Plant containing hepatotoxins

membranes. Do not use it if your thyroid function is low or if taking thyroxine.

onions. Symptoms can include contact dermatitis, intense itching,

1998; Anonymous, 2002; Wang, Y. et al., 1996) (Table 1 (S.no. 34).

Anonymous (1960). Solanine poisoning from potatoes. FDA Poisonous Plant

Indian J Pharmacol. 23: 276-278.

Food Chem Toxicol. 45(3): 502-507.

Fernando, C. (2001). Poisoning due to Abrus precatorius (jequirity bean).

leaves of Aconitum balfourii Stapf. (Ranunculaceae). J Chem Pharm Res.

Michael, H. (1987). Traditional Herbal Remedies. p.124.

Poonam, Punia, G. (2013). A review on varieties of arka- Calotropis procera

ingestion of meadow saffron-case report. Forensic Sci Int. 149(2-3): 253-

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