ASPECTOS ESPECÍFICOS

ÁREA INGLÉS

COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH – SOME OF

HISTORY

Capacidad: Reconoce las características principales de cada método de enseñanza de Lenguas Extranjeras

TO COMMENT:

A FAIRY TALE

Once upon a time, and not so very long ago, there lived a man whose name was LİANGWİDJ T. CHİNG. He had
a beautiful daughter called GRAMMARELLA... LİANGWİDJ T. CHİNG was very proud of his daughter and he talked
about her wherever he went. They were not rich: GRAMMARELLA and her faithful servant, TRANSLATİO, worked
very hard. But they were happy. Then everything changed...

People began to recognize LİANGWİDJ T CHİNG’s talents. He became a rich man and an eligible marriage
prospect. Soon LİANGWİDJ T CHİNG married a famous lady whose name was LYN GUİSTİCS. She had two proud
and spoilt daughters called PSYCHO and SOCİO. After the wedding things changed dramatically.

GRAMMARELLA still did all the work in the household, but she was never allowed to appear in public and
LİANGWİDJ T CHİNG was forbidden to speak about her. (As for TRANSLATİO, he was locked in the coalshed and
all but forgotten)

But LİANGWİDJ T. CHİNG was besotted by the glamour of the lady he had married that he willingly went along
with everything. He gladly paid out for PSYCHO and SOCİO to chase after every new fad and fashion that came on
the market. Every fortune-hunter in the land sought his house.

One day the King announced that there would be a grand Communicative Ball. Everyone was invited. The theme
of the Ball was to be Creativity. PSYCHO and SOCİO wanted to be the finest dressed people at the Ball, but there
were not creative enough to make their own clothes.
So poor GRAMMARELLA had to cut and sew their new dresses. She had no fine clothes of her own,however.
She was left alone in her old and shabby clothes, while everyone else went off to the Communicative Ball.
By TOM HUTCHINSON

1. What do you think about the attitude of LİANGWİDJ T CHİNG ?

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2. ¿Do you think is necessary to free GAMARELLA and TRANSLATIO ?

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3. ¿What do you think is the role of the characters here in an English class?
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4. ¿In your classes how do you divide each one? According to the topics or the students?
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1. METHODS AND APPROACHES MORE SPREAD IN LANGUAGES TEACHING

There exists diversity of methods and approaches for the teaching and language learning, but we have
chosen eight and they’re here with his more important characteristics so that with your experience you
could adapt them to your style of teaching and to the particular situation at which you are working to.

ACTIVITY 1
Study the following cases and mention what method or approach is using every one of the teachers.
Choose between the following list the one that fits.

1.- Audio – lingual method

2.- Grammar – translation method
3.- Direct method
4.- Silent way
5.- Suggestopedia
6.- Total physical response
7.- Communicative approach
8.- Communicative language teaching

The trainer is watching several English teachers, and this is what he’s found:
 The teacher Alejandro is interested that his students associate the meaning with the word in English
and to do this, he always introduces new vocabulary showing his meaning with realia (objects, figures
and mimes). He never translates the word into the Spanish. In the classroom, everybody tries to
communicate in English and every lessons of the text have tittles as: At the bank, at the office, at the
school, going shopping, etc. The teacher Alejandro never does a grammatical explanation.
 On the other hand, the teacher Lorena every time she introduces new vocabulary or new grammatical
structures to her students, presents them inside a dialog. It’s very important for her, that that the
dialogs are learned across imitation and repetition. She uses many exercises of repetition, substitution
and transformation, always based on the grammatical structures that they have presented in the dialog.
Whenever her students answer correctly, she smiles and has positive expressions as: That’s good!,
Well done!, or she marks 20 to them. Both of them (Lorena and Alejandro), don’t like to give grammar
explanations. For her, it’s more important than the students learn to speak that to reading or writing.
The works of reading and writing are based what it has been learned orally.
 On the other hand, the teacher Noelia likes to be very much to the forefront and her classes are very
funny. She prepares for her students activities as games, she gives them problems that the students
have to solve in group, raises situations simulated in order that the pupils have to speak and she
always uses authentic texts. She never bases her activity of learning on an aspect of the grammar of
the English but on a function as: " Talking about yourself ", " Asking for information ", " describing
things ", etc.
1.- Mr. Alejandro uses : __________________________________
2.- Miss Lorena uses : __________________________________
3.- Miss Noelia uses : __________________________________

1.1 The Grammar Translation Method

This method originally was used to teach Latin and Greek, and
at the end of the 19th century and beginning of the 20th century
it was applied to the education and learning of modern
languages. His purpose was to make the pupils capable of "
exploring the depths of great literature " simultaneously that help
to students to understand better their mother language across
the intensive analysis of the language that they were learning
and of the translation.

This method in his purer form had the following characteristics:

 First the students were learning rules of grammar and bilingual lists of vocabulary extracted of
the reading or readings of the lesson. The grammar was thought deductively by means of long
and elaborated explanations. All the rules were learnt with their exceptions and the
irregularities were explained in grammatical terms.
 Once learned the rules and the vocabulary, they were giving themselves recipes to translate
the exercises that were continuing to the grammatical explanations.
 The comprehension of the rules and of the readings was evaluated by means of the translation
(of the language that was learned to the mother tongueand vice versa).
  The mother language and the second language that was being learned were constant
compared. The aim of the instruction was to translate the mother language into the language
that was learned and vice versa, it was possible to use a dictionary in case of being necessary.
 There were very few opportunities for the oral practice of the language (listen and speak)
except when passages and sentences were read loudly, since this method focused in the
reading and in exercises of translation. Most of the class was devoting itself to speak on the
language; virtually one was not dedicating anything of time to speak in the language.

1.2 The Direct Method

This method originated in the 19th century and was defended by educators like Berlitz and
Jespersen. Those who were supporting this "active" method were thinking that the students learnt
better a language if they were listening too much. They were learning to speak, especially if what was
said was associated simultaneously with the appropriate action. The methodology was basing
essentially on the way how the children learn their own language: the language is learning through the
direct association of words and actions, without using the mother language as an essential factor.

The methodology defended by Berlitz and Jespersen, among others, had the following
characteristics:
 The learning of a language has to begin with here and now, using objects of the class and
simple actions. As soon as the pupils have sufficient knowledge of the language, the lessons
include situations and common scenes.
 A class that uses the Direct Method develops around figures especially constructed into styles
of the life in the country where one speaks the language that they are learning. These figures
help the teacher to avoid the translation that is totally forbidden in the class. The new
vocabulary is taught through the paraphrase in the language that they are learning, across
mime, or manipulating objects.
 From the first classes the students listen complete sentences that make sense for them, which
appear in exchanges of the type question - response.
 In this method it is considered very important to have a good pronunciation, that’s why from the
beginning emphasizes the correct development of this one.
 The rules of grammar are not taught in explicit form but its thought that they will be learned
across the practice. When the grammar explains in explicit form it is done in the language that
is learned.
 The aims of reading are reached also by the route of "direct" comprehension of the text without
the use of dictionaries or translations.

ACTIVITY 2: Answer these questions:

1. What characteristics of this method looks like appropriate for some situations of your
educational practice?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

2. Explains your reasons and discuss them with your companions.

1.3 The Audio-lingual Method

The theory, on which this method is based, has his origin in two schools of the thought that were
given simultaneously: the “Conductismo” and the Structural or Descriptive School, because, they were
very influential in their respective fields in that moment. The union of these two currents got a new
theory of learning language, which was describing the learning process in terms of conditioning. This
method was very popular in the 50s and 60s The method audio-lingual also known as audio - oral it
was considered to be a "scientific" approach of the education of languages. It is based on the following
beliefs:

a. To speak and to listen are the basic skills of the language.

b. Every language has his own and only structure and system of rules.
c. A language is learned across the formation of habits.

This method of learning language has the following principles according to Chastain:
 The goal of the education and learning of the second language is developing in students the
same skills that have got the native speakers. Eventually, the students must handle the
language in an unconscious level.
  The native language of the students must be exiled of the class; it is necessary to support a
“cultural island ". To teach the second language without referring to the mother language.
 The students learn languages across techniques of stimulus - response. The students must
learn to speak without worrying for how the language is organized. It is not necessary giving
them time to think their answers. The memorization of dialogs and practice of the structures are
the means across which determined answers are achieved.
 The exercises of grammatical patterns must be done from the beginning without any
explanation. The intense practice must precede any explanation that is given, and the
discussion of the grammar must be very brief.
 To develop the “four skills " must be kept the natural sequence followed to learn the mother
language (to listen, to speak, to read and to write).

ACTIVITY 3: Answer these questions:

1. The Communicative Approach that is the approach of English Area, appeared as a reaction in
opposition to this method, nevertheless it might be that you agree with some of his principles,
write the and mention why.
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2. What principles of this method aren’t you agree by no means with?

___________________________________________________________________________
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1.4 The Total Physical response Method

This method sustains that the oral comprehension must be
developed to depth, since it happens with a small child that is
learning his mother language, before that should start
speaking. It holds also that the skills are acquired more quickly
if one appeals to the movement. This method developed by
James J. Asher, uses oral instructions that the students follow
to show their comprehension. Like with the direct method, the
language that is learned is the language of instruction. The
students are exposed to the language that is based in here and
now and that is easily understandable across the mime and the
example.
Asher (1974) summarizes of the following way three key
ideas of this Method:

 The comprehension of the oral language must be developed before that to speak.
 The students understand and retain better if they are in constant movement as response to
received indications. The imperative form of the language is a powerful tool because itcan be
used to handle the conduct of the pupils and guide them towards the comprehension by means
of the action. Asher affirms that his research indicates that most of the grammatical structures
of the language that one is learning and hundreds of words can be learned if the teacher uses
with skill this imperative form.
 It is not necessary to force the students to speak if they are not ready. In all that the student
gets inner the language that he is learning, he will start speaking in a natural way.

ACTIVITY 3: Answer these questions:

1. In what situations of learning might you use some of the techniques of the TPR method?
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 2. Create a strategy in which you use the TPR to apply it with your Students
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3. Comments the experience with your colleagues

1.5 Community Language Learning Method

This method emphasizes the role of the affective domain
to promote the cognitive learning. Charles Curran developed
this method in 1976, it is based on taken techniques borrowed
from the psychological advises. The principal theoretical
premise is that the person needs to be understood and
helped in the process of completing personal values and
goals. This becomes better in community by others that are
fighting to obtain the same goals.
This method presents the following characteristic:
 The first principle of this method is that the teacher is the
"conocedor / adviser" whose role is essentially passive.
The teacher is there to provide the students with the
language that they need to express freely and to say what
they should want to say. The students sit down in groups
and the teacher is near them ready to help. The techniques used to try to reduce to the minimum
the anxiety in the groups and to promote the free expression of ideas and feelings. The learning of
a language in community has five stages:
o Stage 1. The pupils say sentences in his/her mother language on what they want to
communicate others in the group. The teacher places his hands on the shoulders of the pupil
and translates the sentence in the ear from this one. The student then repeats the sentence
loudly and this is recorded in a cassette. Another student who wants to answer, say the teacher
who equally will give him the equivalent in the language that he is learning: again the answer is
recorded, so that at the end of the conversation the complete dialog is recorded. This recording
will be used later in the class as a resource for the analysis and practice of the language.
o Stage 2. This second stage known as the “stage auto-assertive " differs from the first one in that
the students try to say what they want without the constant intervention and help of the teacher.
o Stage 3. In this “stage of birth “the students increase their independence of the teacher and
speak in the new language without resorting to the translation, until another pupil asks for it.
o Stage 4. The "teen" stage or “of investment “in that the apprentice has the sufficient safety to
accept alterations on behalf of the teacher or of other members of the group.
o Stage 5. This "Independent" stage is marked by a free interaction between students and
teachers: they all offer to correct mistakes and improvement of styles inside a community spirit.
In this stage the confidence level is very high and nobody feels threatened by this type of
feedback of other members of the group. Always the atmosphere is hot, of acceptance and
comprehension

1.6 The Silent Way Method

This method introduced by Gattegno, can
qualify like of cognitive orientation. According to
Gattegno, the mind is an active agent capable of
constructing his own internal criteria to learn. Three
key words of the philosophy behind this method are:
independence, autonomy and responsibility: every
apprentice must work with his internal resources
(cognitive existing structures, experiences,
emotions, knowledge of the world, etc.) to learn of
what it surrounds him. The silent method assumes
that the apprentices work with these resources and
nothing more since they are only responsible
persons in charge for what they learn.

The function of the teacher is to guide the students in the process of evaluating hypothesis in that
they are constant immersed.
 Stevick highlights five basic principles that base this method:
1. The education must be subordinated to the learning.
2. Learning is not only imitation or exercise.
3. When someone learns, the mind is equipped by means of his own work, essay and mistake,
deliberate experimentation, suspension of judgments and review of conclusions.
4. While it works, the mind assumes to everything already acquired, principally his experience in the
learning of the native language.
5. If it has to subordinate itself to the labor of the teacher to that of the apprentice, the teacher must
stop interfering and step away his labor.

ACTIVITY 4: Answer these questions:

1. What do you think about three key words of the philosophy behind this method?
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2. What principles of this method are you agree and aren’t by no means with?
___________________________________________________________________________
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3. Comments on your experience with your colleagues

1.7 Suggestopedia
This method, known also as Learning and Suggestive
Teaching – “Acelerativa” and as the Method Lozanov,
originated in Bulgaria. It was introduced by Georgi
Lozanov in 1978, he is a psychotherapist who believes
that the techinques of easing and the concentration will
help the apprentices to use their subconscious resources
and to retain more quantity of vocabulary and structures
about which they thought its was possible.

The aspects more important of this method include

the "suggestive" atmosphere in which itis carried out, with
soft lights, baroque music, happy decorations, comfortable
seats and dramatic techniques used by the teacher in the presentation of the material. All this has the
goal the total easing of the students in order that they could open their minds for the learning of a
language without any hobble..

ACTIVITY 5: Answer these questions:

1. From the experience that you had as students in your learning process of the foreign language.
Could you write what methods your teachers were using?.

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2. What did they have in a positive and negative way?

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 DEVELOPING OUR KNOWLEGDE

 Make a visual organizer about the main methods using for teaching a Foreign Language:
 THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH

CAPACIDAD: Elabora los carteles de demandas educativas y necesidades de aprendizaje.

“Making a mistake is NOT a mistake, but, NOT LEARNING from the mistake is A BIG MISTAKE”.
Anonymous

I. THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH IN ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING

1.1 Origins of Approach

In 1960's and 70's foreign language learning was widely extended with the establishment of
comprehensive schools. Led to the teaching of a foreign language to virtually all children. Created for
pressure for a change in teaching methods and curriculum to suit the needs of non-traditional groups of
learners, recognition of inadequacy of traditional grammar/translation methods and also of 'structural'
methods with emphasis on meaningless pattern drills and repetition.
New syllabuses took into account needs of different pupils. Traditional academic syllabuses had
assumed learner's goal was in-depth mastery of target language. But for less academic pupil a more
immediate 'pay-off' was necessary, in terms of usefulness for practical purposes.

1.2 WHERE DOES COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING COME FROM?

Its origins are many, insofar as one teaching methodology tends to influence the next. The communicative
approach could be said to be the product of educators and linguists who had grown dissatisfied with the audio-
lingual and grammar-translation methods of foreign language instruction.
They felt that students were not learning enough realistic, whole language. They did not know how to
communicate using appropriate social language, gestures, or expressions; in brief, they were at a loss to
communicate in the culture of the language studied. Interest in and development of communicative-style
teaching mushroomed in the 1970s; authentic language use and classroom exchanges where students
engaged in real communication with one another became quite popular.
In the intervening years, the communicative approach has been adapted to the elementary, middle,
secondary, and post-secondary levels, and the underlying philosophy has spawned different teaching methods
known under a variety of names, including notional-functional, teaching for proficiency, proficiency-based
instruction, and communicative language teaching.

1.3 WHAT IS CLT?

Communicative language teaching makes use of real-life
situations that necessitate communication. The teacher sets up a
situation that students are likely to encounter in real life. Unlike the
audio-lingual method of language teaching, which relies on
repetition and drills, the communicative approach can leave
students in suspense as to the outcome of a class exercise, which
will vary according to their reactions and responses. The real-life
simulations change from day to day. Students' motivation to learn
comes from their desire to communicate in meaningful ways about
meaningful topics.
Margie S. Berns, an expert in the field of communicative
language teaching, writes in explaining Firth's view that "language
is interaction; it is interpersonal activity and has a clear relationship
with society. In this light, language study has to look at the use
(function) of language in context, both its linguistic context (what is
uttered before and after a given piece of discourse) and its social,
or situational, context (who is speaking, what their social roles are,
why they have come together to speak)" (Berns, 1984, p. 5).

1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATIVE METHOD

1 Focuses on language as a medium of communication. Recognizes that all communication has a social
purpose - learner has something to say or find out.
2 Communication embraces a whole spectrum of functions (e.g. seeking information/ apologizing/
expressing likes and dislikes, etc) and notions (e.g. apologizing for being late / asking where the
nearest post office is).
3 New syllabuses based on communicative method offered some communicative ability from early stage.
Graded Objectives in Modern Languages - movement which flourished in 1970's and 80's - raised
pupils' motivation through short-term objectives and through teaching language appropriate to a range
of relevant topics and situations (e.g. shopping/ hobbies/ exchanges).
4 Professor Dodson distinguishes between language as a 'medium' level communication and as a
'message' level communication, ex.
1) Young lady teacher is teaching 7 students to say how old they are (how old are you ?'.). They are
merely practising the pattern in the foreign language, for the sole purpose of mastering the
construction - teacher actually knows the age of the class - pupils also know that the teacher knows
their age. According to professor Carl J Dodson, they are all performing at 'medium' level, ie.
practising how to say it in the language but with no added purpose.
2) Suddenly, a curious member of the class raises his hand and asks the young lady teacher 'how old
are you?'. This is language being used at a totally different and higher level, ie 'message' level
( pupil doesn't know the teacher's age, but actually uses the construction practised at the 'medium'
level for a specific purpose, namely that of finding out the teacher's age!
One has to practise language at 'medium' level first in order to be able to exercise it at 'message' level.
The problem is that a great number of teachers never used to go beyond 'medium' level and use the
language for true purposes of sending and receiving 'messages'. They were teaching pupils 'about' the
language, about its patterns and rules, rather than using it actively for real purposes!
5 Classroom activities maximize opportunities for learners to use target language in a communicative
way for meaningful activities. Emphasis on meaning (messages they are creating or task they are
completing) rather than form (correctness of language and language structure) - as in first language
acquisition.
6 Use of target language as normal medium for classroom management and instruction - reflects
naturalistic language acquisition.
7 Communicative approach is much more pupil-orientated, because dictated by pupils' needs and
interests.
8 Accent is on functional/ usable language. Learners should be able to go to foreign country, prepared for
reality they encounter there. Need to be able to cope / survive in a variety of everyday situations.
9 Classroom should provide opportunities for rehearsal of real-life situations and provide opportunity for
real communication. Emphasis on creative role-plays/ simulations/ surveys/ projects/ playlets - all
produce spontaneity and improvisation - not just repetition and drills.
10 More emphasis on active modes of learning, including pairwork and group-work - often not exploited
enough by teachers fearful of noisy class.
11 Primacy of oral work. Emphasis on oral and listening skills in the classroom. Contact time with
language is all-important - paves way for more fluid command of the language / facility and ease of
expression. Not just hearing teacher, but having personal contact themselves with language, practising
sounds themselves, permutating sentence patterns and getting chance to make mistakes and learn
from doing so.
12 Errors are a natural part of learning language. Learners trying their best to use the language creatively
and spontaneously are bound to make errors. Constant correction is unnecessary and even counter-
productive. Correction should be discreet / noted by teacher - let them talk and express themselves -
form of language becomes secondary.
13 Communicative approach is not just limited to oral skills. Reading and writing skills need to be
developed to promote pupils' confidence in all four skill areas. By using elements encountered in
variety of ways (reading/ summarizing/ translating/ discussion/ debates) - makes language more fluid
and pupils' manipulation of language more fluent.
14 Grammar can still be taught, but less systematically, in traditional ways alongside more innovative
approaches. Recognized that communication depends on grammar. Disregard of grammatical form will
virtually guarantee breakdown in communication.
15 Language analysis and grammar explanation may help some learners, but extensive experience of
target language helps everyone. Pupils need to hear plenty said about the topic in the foreign language
at regular and recurrent intervals, so they are exposed to the topic and can assimilate it. (Not mere
passive acquisition of certain lexical items).
16 Communicative approach seeks to personalize and localize language and adapt it to interests of pupils.
Meaningful language is always more easily retained by learners.
17 Use of idiomatic/ everyday language (even slang words as 'out-pocket'). This is kind of language used
in communication between people - not a 'medium'/ grammatical/ exam-orientated/ formal. language!
18 Makes use of topical items with which pupils are already familiar in their own language - motivates
pupils arouses their interest and leads to more active participation.
 19 Avoid age-old texts - materials must relate to pupils' own lives / must be fresh and real Changing texts
and materials regularly keeps teacher on toes and students interested.
20 Language need not be laboriously monotonous and 'medium' orientated. Can be structured but also
spontaneous and incidental. Language is never static. Life isn't like that - we are caught unawares,
unprepared, 'pounced upon!' Students need to practice improvising/ ad-libbing/ talking off the cuff, in an
unrehearsed but natural manner.
21 Spontaneous and improvised practice helps to make minds more flexible and inspire confidence in
coping with unforeseen, unanticipated situations. Need to 'go off at tangents' / use different registers /
develop alternative ways of saying things.
22 Communicative approach seeks to use authentic resources. More interesting and motivating. In
Foreign language classroom authentic texts serve as partial substitute for community of native speaker.
Newspaper and magazine articles, poems, manuals, recipes, telephone directories, videos, news
bulletins, discussion programmes - all can be exploited in variety of ways.
23 Important not to be restricted to textbook, Never feel that text-book must be used from cover to cover.
Only a tool / starting-point. With a little inspiration and imagination, text-book can be manipulated and
rendered more communicative. Teacher must free himself from it, rely more on his own command of
language and his professional expertise as to what linguistic items, idioms, phrases, words, need to be
drilled / exploited/ extended.
24 Use of visual stimuli - OHP/ flashcards, etc - important to provoke practical communicative language. (3
stages presentation / assimilation/ reproducing language in creative and spontaneous way). Visual
resources can be exploited at whatever level one wishes - help to motivate and focus pupils' attention.

1.5 THE CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE COMMUNICATIVE MOVEMENT

Goal of Language Teaching: Communicative Competence that can best serve the needs of the learner.

Communicative Competence (Canale and Swain, 1980)

 Grammatical  Sociolinguistic Competence  Strategic Competence
Competence
(verbal and non-verbal
(knowledge of lexical communication
Socio cultural Discourse
items and of rules of strategies that may be called
Competence Competence
morphology, syntax, into action to compensate for break-
(knowledge of the (knowledge of
sentence- grammar downs in communication due to
relation of rules governing
semantics, and performance variables or to
language use to cohesion and
phonology) insufficient competence)
its non-linguistic coherence)
context)

Principles/applications of the Communicative Approach

Principle
Authentic materials are used
One function can have many different
forms
Students need to learn cohesion and
coherence
Students should be given the opportunity
to express their opinions
Errors are tolerated to a certain extent
Encourage cooperative relationships
among students; opportunity to negotiate
meaning
The social context of the communicative
is essential
Learning to use language forms
Application
Teacher uses newspaper columns, job advertisements,
weather reports, menus, catalogues…
Students can communicate for a specific purpose in many
ways
Teacher uses activities such as scrambled sentences
Games are useful as are activities where students must
communicate and receive feedback (did the listener/reader
understand?)
Other students and teacher ignore errors
Teacher uses strip stories; students work together to
predict next picture
Teacher uses role-plays
Teacher reminds student of the role they are playing or the
 appropriately is important
Teacher acts as advisor/facilitator
Speakers have choices in communication
of what to say and how to say it
Students should be given opportunities to
develop strategies for interpreting
language as it is actually used by native
speakers
particular situation they are in and how that impacts on the
communication; teacher encourages students to develop
independent learning skills
Teacher moves from group to group, offering advice and
answering questions; teacher collaborates with students to
select goals, content and processes
Students and teacher suggest alternative forms that could
be used
For homework, students are asked to listen to a debate on
the radio or watch one on television

1.6. GENERAL TEACHING STRATEGIES AND MATERIALS

1.6.1 The jigsaw technique

Have you struggled with group work in class? The jigsaw technique
can be a useful, well-structured template for carrying out effective in-
class group work. The class is divided into several teams, with each
team preparing separate but related assignments. When all team
members are prepared, the class is re-divided into mixed groups, with
one member from each team in each group. Each person in the group
teaches the rest of the group what he/she knows, and the group then
tackles an assignment together that pulls all of the pieces together to
form the full picture (hence the name "jigsaw").

1.6.2 The gallery walk

The gallery walk is a cooperative learning strategy in which
the instructor devises several questions/problems and posts
each question/problem at a different table or at a different place
on the walls (hence the name "gallery"). Students form as many
groups as there are questions, and each group moves from
question to question (hence the name "walk"). After writing the
group's response to the first question, the group rotates to the
next position, adding to what is already there. At the last
question, it is the group's responsibility to summarize and report
to the class.

1.6.3 Effective discussion

Discussion is an excellent way to engage students in
thinking and analyzing or in defending one side of an issue, rather than listening to lecture. Students must
also respond to one another, rather than interacting intellectually only with the instructor. Good discussion
can be difficult to generate, however. Clicking "more information" below will take you to some tips for
having a good discussion in class and a sample template for class discussion.

1.6.4 Concept sketches

Concept sketches (different from concept maps) are sketches or diagrams that are concisely
annotated with short statements that describe the processes, concepts, and interrelationships shown in the
sketch. Having students generate their own concept sketches is a powerful way for students to process
concepts and convey them to others. Concept maps can be used as preparation for class, as an in-class
activity, in the field or lab, or as an assessment tool.

1.6.5 Using case studies

Case studies have been used successfully for many years in business school and in medical school
for actively engaging students in problem-solving relevant to the discipline. The primary hallmark of a case
study is presentation of students with a problem to solve that revolves around a story (the "case"). In
medical school case studies, the "story" typically involves a sick patient. In science case studies, "stories"
can range from public policy issues to science research questions. Good case studies give the students
considerable latitude in deciding how to solve the problem, rather than leading them through the problem
by the nose, and provide excellent opportunities to engage students in the classroom.
 1.6.6 Debates
Debates can be a very useful strategy for engaging students
in their own learning. Debates force students to deal with
complexity and "gray areas", and they are rich in imbedded
content. Debates can also help provide relevancy of course
material to everyday issues, which can improve student learning.
Debates also improve student's oral communication skills.

1.6.7 Just-in-Time Teaching

Just-in-Time Teaching (JiTT) was developed as a way of
engaging students in course material before class and preparing
them to come to class and participate actively during class. Clicking "more information" below will take you
to a discussion, at the Starting Point site, of using Just-in-Time teaching.

1.6.8 Role playing

Role-playing and simulations in class can be an
excellent way to engage students. A well-constructed
role-playing or simulation exercise can emphasize the
real world and require students to become deeply
involved in a topic.

1.6.9 Authentic materials

To overcome the typical problem that students
can’t transfer what they learn in the classroom to the
outside World and to expose to students to natural
language in a variety of situations, adherents to the
Communicative Approach advocate the use of authentic language materials.
For students of lower proficiency in the target language, it may not be possible to use authentic
materials. Simpler authentic materials for example, the use of weather forecast when working on
predictions. Another possibility for the use of authentic materials with a lower level class is to use realia that
do not contain a lot of language, but about lot of discussion can be generated.

1.6.10 Scrambled sentences

The students are given a passage (a text) in which the sentences are in a scrambled order. This can
be a passage they have already worked with or one they haven’t seen before. They are told to unscramble
the sentences so that the sentences are restored to their original order. This type of exercise teaches about
the cohesion and coherence properties of the language. They learn how sentences are bound together at
the suprasentential level through formal linguistic devices such as anaphoric pronouns, which make a text
cohesive, and semantic propositions, which unify a text and make it coherent.
In addition to write passages, students can also be asked to unscramble the lines of a mixed-up
dialog. Or they might be asked to put the pictures of a picture strip store in order and write lines to
accompany the pictures.

1.7 OME REAL EXAMPLES OF COMMUNICATIVE EXERCISES

In a communicative classroom for beginners, the

teacher might begin by passing out cards, each with a
different name printed on it. The teacher then proceeds to
model an exchange of introductions in the target
language: "Good morning. What’s your name?" Reply:
"Michael," for example. Using a combination of the target
language and gestures, the teacher conveys the task at
hand, and gets the students to introduce themselves and
ask their classmates for information. They are responding
in German to a question in German. They do not know
the answers beforehand, as they are each holding cards
with their new identities written on them; hence, there is
an authentic exchange of information.

Later during the class, as a reinforcement listening exercise, the students might hear a recorded exchange
between two German freshmen meeting each other for the first time at the gymnasium doors. Then the teacher
might explain, in English, the differences among German greetings in various social situations. Finally, the
teacher will explain some of the grammar points and structures used.
 The following exercise is taken from a 1987 workshop on communicative foreign language teaching, given
for Delaware language teachers by Karen Willetts and Lynn Thompson of the Center for Applied Linguistics.
The exercise, called "Eavesdropping," is aimed at advanced students.

"Instructions to students" Listen to a conversation somewhere in a public place and be prepared to answer,
in the target language, some general questions about what was said.

1. Who was talking?

2. About how old were they?
3. Where were they when you eavesdropped?
4. What were they talking about?
5. What did they say?
6. Did they become aware that you were listening to them?

The exercise puts students in a real-world listening situation

where they must report information overheard. Most likely they have
an opinion of the topic, and a class discussion could follow, in the
target language, about their experiences and viewpoints.
Communicative exercises such as this motivate the students by
treating topics of their choice, at an appropriately challenging level.

Another exercise taken from the same source is for beginning

students of Spanish. In "Listening for the Gist," students are placed in
an everyday situation where they must listen to an authentic text.
"Objective." Students listen to a passage to get general
understanding of the topic or message.
"Directions." Have students listen to the following announcement
to decide what the speaker is promoting.
"Passage" "Ideal situation...Transport service to the international
airport...fourty-two luxury rooms, with air conditioned ...International and Elegant restaurant...."
(The announcement can be read by the teacher or played on tape.) Then ask students to circle the letter of
the most appropriate answer on their copy, which consists of the following multiple-choice options:
 a taxi service
 b. a hotel
 c. an airport
 d. a restaurant

(Source: Adapted from Ontario Assessment Instrument Pool, 1980, Item No. 13019)
Gunter Gerngross, an English teacher in Austria, gives an example of how he makes his lessons more
communicative. He cites a widely used textbook that shows English children having a pet show. "Even when
learners act out this scene creatively and enthusiastically, they do not reach the depth of involvement that is
almost tangible when they act out a short text that presents a family conflict revolving round the question of
whether the children should be allowed to have a pet or not" (Gerngross & Puchta, 1984, p. 92). He continues
to say that the communicative approach "puts great emphasis on listening, which implies an active will to try to
understand others. [This is] one of the hardest tasks to achieve because the children are used to listening to
the teacher but not to their peers. There are no quick, set recipes.
That the teacher be a patient listener is the basic requirement"
The observation by Gerngross on the role of the teacher as one of listener rather than speaker brings up
several points to be discussed in the next portion of this digest.
1.8 HOW DO THE ROLES OF THE TEACHER AND STUDENT MIX IN COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE
TEACHING?
Teachers in communicative classrooms will find themselves talking less and listening more--becoming
active facilitators of their students' learning (Larsen-Freeman, 1986).
The teacher sets up the exercise, but because the students' performance is the goal, the teacher must step
back and observe, sometimes acting as referee or monitor. A classroom during a communicative activity is far
from quiet, however. The students do most of the speaking, and frequently the scene of a classroom during a
communicative exercise is active, with students leaving their seats to complete a task.
 Because of the increased responsibility to participate, students may find they gain confidence in using the
target language in general. Students are more responsible managers of their own learning (Larsen-Freeman,
1986).
Here are the main core principles which make it the most successful language learning approach in use
today.

Basic Principles for Teachers

 A teacher's main role is a facilitator and monitor rather than leading the class. In other words, "the guide by
the side" and not "the sage on the stage".
 Lessons are usually topic or theme based, with the target grammar "hidden" in the context e.g. a job
interview (using the Present Perfect tense.)
 Lessons are built round situations/functions practical and authentic in the real world e.g. asking for
information, complaining, apologizing, job interviews, telephoning.
 Activities set by the teacher have relevance and purpose to real life situations - students can see the direct
benefit of learning
 Dialogues are used that centre around communicative functions, such as socializing, giving directions,
making telephone calls
 Emphasis on engaging learners in more useful and authentic language rather than repetitive phrases or
grammar patterns
 Emphasis on communication and meaning rather than accuracy. Being understood takes precedence over
correct grammar. The fine tuning of grammar comes later.
 Emphasis is put on the “appropriacy” of language. What is the most appropriate language and tone for a
particular situation?
 Communicative competence is the desired goal. i.e. being able to survive, converse and be understood in
the language.
 Emphasis is put on correct pronunciation and choral (group) and individual drilling is used
 Authentic listening and reading texts are used more often, rather than artificial texts simply produced to
feature the target language
 Use of songs and games are encouraged and provide a natural environment to promote language and
enhance correct pronunciation
 Feedback and correction is usually given by the teacher after tasks have been completed, rather than at
the point of error, thus interrupting the flow

Basic Principles for Learners

 Learners are often more motivated with this approach as they have an
interesting what is being communicated, as the lesson is topic or theme
based.
 Learners are encouraged to speak and communicate from day one, rather
than just barking out repetitive phrases
 Learners practice the target language a number of times, slowly building on
accuracy
 Language is created by the individual, often through trial and error
 Learners interact with each other in pairs or groups, to encourage a flow of
language and maximize the percentage of talking time, rather than just
teacher to student and vice versa
 Unless the focus is on the accuracy stage of the lesson, learners are
corrected at the end of an activity so as not to interrupt their thought process

1.9 PROBLEMS WITH THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH:

"Communicative Approach" sounds perfect in theory, but it will have some problems after being put into
practice. From the literal meaning, we can know that the main emphasis of "Communicative Approach" is
"communication." So the main task of teachers is to teach students how to communicate in English efficiently.
Under this precondition, "communication" is divided into several kinds of "functions," such as asking directions,
ordering dishes at restaurants, buying airline tickets or chatting on the Internet. Each one is regarded as a
function. When introducing one function, teachers give students some key words, sentences or phrases and
design some activities for students to practice what they learn. The purpose is to train students to ask
directions, order dishes at restaurants in English by themselves.
However, there is a big problem here. "Communicative Approach" is conditioned to ESL (English as a
Second Language). There is a condition of this approach: there should be an environment of ESL. That is,
students have to use English to order dishes at restaurants so that they can get enough practice. However, the
environment in Taiwan is different, and it is an environment of EFL (English as a Foreign Language). Nobody
orders dishes in English. If we do not take this difference into consideration and still imitate the western style to
teach students to order dishes in English at the local classrooms, students will lose many opportunities of
practicing repeatedly.
The way to solve this problem is to rearrange the orders of language functions according to the local
environment. For example, how can you do when a foreigner ask you directions? How to chat with foreigners at
pubs? How to ask your superior for a raise of salary in a foreign company? In other words, teachers should
teach students the functions that they can use immediately after learning in native environment. Besides,
teachers can also make good use of classroom environment to provide students with communicative learning
activities. For instance, teachers can use "paired practice", "group work", "problem-solving and information-gap
activities", "role-playing and dramatization". "playing games" "singing songs" and so on. There are so many
activities for teachers to choose from. If those activities can be really exercised in classrooms, students surely
will like learning English.
Another problem is how to correct students' mistakes in pronunciation, grammar and so on. Many students
are too concerned about their mistakes in pronunciation and grammar when speaking English. In order to break
this mental barrier of many students and encourage them to speak English, many teachers encourage students
to put grammar and pronunciation aside first and speak English. Then teachers would gradually correct
students' mistakes. This kind of encouragement is also one of the basic points of "Communicative Approach."
The spirit of encouragement sounds ideal, but it may result in some problems. The toughest one is how and
when to correct students' mistakes. How long can teachers allow students to speak incorrect English? What
mistakes should be corrected? When to correct students' pronunciation and grammar? How to solve all these
problems depends upon teachers' judgments and choices. To sum up, a well-trained and experienced teacher
plays an important role in "Communicative Approach." When students play activities like "paired practice",
"group work" or "role-playing", a good teacher knows how and when to move around, provide immediate help
and collect students' mistakes to discuss late after the activities are over.
Moreover, another problem of "Communicative Approach" is that teachers may have difficulty in evaluating
students' performance. Usually at schools, students' grades mainly come from the results of written tests.
However, as long as "Communicative Approach" is put into practice, students' performance of listening,
speaking, reading and writing should all be taken into consideration. Otherwise, the evaluation of students'
performance will not be that fair. However, we all know that it is not quite easy for teachers to evaluate
students' performance of speaking and listening. There is a method to solve this problem. Before students enter
schools, they can first take the placement test or diagnosis test that include listening comprehension,
pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, speaking, reading and writing. The results of the tests can be used as
students' "English Diagnosis Record." After finishing each academic period or semester, students can take a
post-test. The former and latter tests will be compared with each other. Teachers can see whether students'
mistakes have been corrected or not and whether students' communicative ability has been improved. Then
according to the comparison, teachers can make an objective evaluation.

Not only is convenient for evaluation, "English Diagnosis Record" have

another benefits. Teachers can swift "English Diagnosis Record" into
"English Learning Card." It can be used to record what mistakes and
problems students have and how they are overcome during the process of
learning English. The "English Learning Card" can be an important
supportive data for portfolio evaluation. By making good use of these data,
teachers can catch the improvement of students' learning English.
"Communicative Approach" is aimed at training students' listening and
speaking, so it relatively ignores the training of reading and writing. The
ability of writing and reading is quite important for an intellectual to enter
universities, study abroad, read plenty of original books, hoop up into the
international webs looking for information, write papers or dissertations in
English, etc. All these cannot be acquired merely from "Communicative
Approach." Therefore, "extensive reading" can compensate for the fault of
"Communicative Approach" and the two can work side by side. Let's take
vocabulary for example. According to the spirit of extensive reading,
teachers provide students with reading materials that they are interested in. The vocabulary of the reading
materials should be arranged according to the frequency and difficulty. Teachers can ask students not to check
the dictionary for every new word, and encourage them to comprehend from the context. The main principle of
extensive reading is speed, quantity and consistency. It is unnecessary for students to understand every word.
So is the same with "Communicative Approach." If you order dishes at restaurants in America, you may hear
something you do not understand. But you do not check the dictionary. As long as you understand the main
idea of what you hear, the communicative function is achieved. So is the same with extensive reading. What
teachers should do is find reading materials suitable for students and encourage them to read consistently.

1.10 CONCLUSION
Perhaps the greatest contribution of the communicative approach is
asking teachers to look closely at what is involved in communication. If
teachers intend Students to use the target language, then they must truly
understand all that being communicative competent entails.
Do you agree with this expanded view of communicative
competence? Is achieving communicative competence a goal for which
you should prepare your students? Do you adopt a functional syllabus?
Should a variety of language forms be presented at one time? Are there
times when you do emphasize fluency over accuracy? Do this or other
principles of the Communicative Approach make sense to you? Do you
ever use language games, problem – solving tasks, or role plays? Should
authentic language be used? Are there any other techniques or materials
of the communicative approach that you World find useful?
Finally we can arrive at the following conclusions:

1. Communicative system must take account of the following features:

 Social interaction.
 Unexpected moments in forms of perception and addressing.
 Creativity in forms of perception and addressing.
 Reasons for perception and addressing.
 Personal and social elements of speech production including both emotion and information.
 Success in communication.

2. The communicative characteristics of a language are directly connected with the forms, and such
language norms reflect amount of people for whom such norms are standard norms.

3. Mutual relations between the teacher and students have always been in the spotlight. The
communicative system revises the role of the teacher in class and the main principles of mutual
relations between the teacher and students. The teacher is to be a counselor, a professional adviser to
whom students can appeal with questions.
4. Even in the most democratic countries, a school still remains, to put it harshly, the microcosm of a
totalitarian system. In a communicative class, discipline and order is not achieved by instructions which
are posted in a hall. It is done by understanding that studying is an aim worth of pursuit and
perseverance in itself.

5. Disturbance of discipline most frequently occurs in classes where teaching is carried out only by the
frontal method when the student's personality has no significance in the whole mass, and this mass
must comply with the criteria of the given materials. Students cannot identify themselves in this mass
and loose any interest in studying. The communicative system gives a chance to a student to express
himself in a group which is composed of students with similar background. In a communicative class
there are also examinations and tests, including the explanation of material by a teacher, calling the
parents, or bad mark to students. However, everything is based on new pedagogical principles.

The final line:

Out of the many approaches and methodologies available to the language teacher, the Communicative
Approach has proven one of the most successful in providing confident learners who are able to make
themselves effectively understood in the shortest possible time. It is therefore the teacher's
responsibility to create situations which are likely to promote communication, and provide an authentic
background for language learning.

The Communicative Approach initially prioritizes communicative competence over accurate grammar.
Grammar is hidden within the body of a lesson and highlighted and focused upon once the context has
been set.

Let your students communicate first - build on their accuracy after. For example, do not start by
frightening your adult students off with “Today we are going to learn about the Present Perfect Simple”,
 instead authenticates your lesson with “Today we are going to learn how to do a job interview in
English”.

It is important to remember that as individuals most of us do not learn a language in order to

communicate. First we try to communicate, and in doing so, we learn!

REMEMBER THAT…
You adequate the needs of your students and the learning demands to the context of your school. The main idea
of the communicative approach is COMMUNICATE and look for the situations in order to do it. The level of your
students depends a lot about it, so don’t hurry. Take it easy, go slow, and have fun. If your students have some
problems, try to see if your topics (contents/knowledge) are the enough for the level of each grade… But my last
advice is HAVE FUN each other.

DEVELOPING MY KNOWLEDGE

1. Remark 3 basic principles of learners that you find similar to

the real needs of your students

COMMUNICATIVE
COMPETENCE

2.- What strategies do you apply into your classrooms in order the students develop the
communicative competence?
 __________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________

SELF-EVALUATION

1. Fill the blanks:

a) The Communicative Approach initially prioritizes _______________ competence over accurate

grammar. Grammar is __________ within the body of a lesson and highlighted and focused upon
once the context has been set.
b) Disturbance of discipline most frequently occurs in classes where teaching is carried out only by
the __________________ method when the student's personality has no significance in the whole
mass, and this mass must comply with the criteria of the given materials.
c) About CA, Do you consider a class is more effective when you divide your students in groups or in
a single way.? Reinforce your answer giving an example
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________

2. TRUE (T) OR FALSE (F).

a) CA language teaching makes use of real-life situations that necessitate communication. ( )
b) Suggestopedia was introduced by Gattegno ( )
c) Native Materials are the most important part in GTM ( )
d) The CA was the response to the Audio Lingual Method ( )

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. RICHARDS, Jack. (2001).Approaches and methods. Cambridge University Press.

2. REVELL Jane. Teaching techniques for Communicative English. Macmillan Publishers.
3. BRUNFIT Christopher. (1989)Communicative methodology in language teaching. Great Britain, Cambridge
Language Teaching Library.
4. PATTISON, P. . (1987).The communicative approach and classroom realities.
5. OXFORD NEWSLINE. .(1998) Communication in the Classroom: Applications and Methods for a
Communicative Approach
6. HARMER, Jeremy. (1994) The Practice of English Language Teaching. Longman,
7. RICHARDS, JACK.. (1983) Language and Communication. Longman,.
 TEXT LINGUISTICS

Capacidad: Identifica las bases teóricas de la lingüística textual y su uso pertinente en la

practica pedagógica. .

“Good teaching is one-fourth preparation and three-fourths theatre”.

Gail Godwin

I. BASIC DEFINITIONS

1.1 LANGUAGE

A language is a system of symbols and the rules used to manipulate them. Language can also refer to the use of such
systems as a general phenomenon. Though commonly used as a means of communication among people, human
language is only one instance of this phenomenon.

Properties of language
Languages are not just sets of symbols. They also contain a grammar, or system of rules, used to manipulate the
symbols. While a set of symbols may be used for expression or communication, it is primitive and relatively inexpressive,
because there are no clear or regular relationships between the symbols. Because a language also has a grammar, it can
manipulate its symbols to express clear and regular relationships between them.

Another property of language is the arbitrariness of the symbols. Any symbol can be mapped onto any concept (or even
onto one of the rules of the grammar). For instance, there is nothing about the Spanish word nada itself that forces Spanish
speakers to use it to mean "nothing". That is the meaning all Spanish speakers have memorized for that sound pattern. But
for Croatian, Serbian or Bosnian speakers, nada means "hope".
However, it must be understood that just because in principle the symbols are arbitrary does not mean that a language
cannot have symbols that are iconic of what they stand for. Words such as "meow" sound similar to what they represent,
but they could be replaced with words such as "jarn", and as long as everyone memorized the new word, the same
concepts could be expressed with it.

1.2 DIALECT
Dialect (from the Greek word διάλεκτος, dialektos) is a variety of a language characteristic of a particular group of the
language's speakers. The term is applied most often to regional speech patterns, but a dialect may also be defined by other
factors, such as social class.
In popular usage, the word "dialect" is sometimes used to refer to a lesser-known language (most commonly a regional
language), especially one that is unwritten or not standardized. This use of the word dialect is often taken as pejorative by
the speakers of the languages referred to in that way since it is often accompanied by the erroneous belief that the minority
language is lacking in vocabulary, grammar, or importance.

The number of speakers, and the geographical area covered by them, can be of arbitrary size, and a dialect might
contain several sub-dialects. A dialect is a complete system of verbal communication (oral or signed, but not necessarily
written) with its own vocabulary and grammar.
A dialect that is associated with a particular social class can be termed a sociolect. Other speech varieties include:
standard languages, which are standardized for public performance (for example, a written standard); jargons, which are
characterized by differences in lexicon (vocabulary); slang; patois; pidgins or argots. The particular speech patterns used by
an individual are termed an idiolect.
A dialect is distinguished by its vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation (phonology, including prosody). Where a
distinction can be made only in terms of pronunciation, the term accent is appropriate, not dialect (although in common
usage, "dialect" and "accent" are usually synonymous).
 For linguists, a dialect is the collection of attributes (phonetic, phonological, syntactic, morphological, semantic) that
make one group of speakers noticeably different from another group of speakers of the same language.
A language, say English, is really a collection of dialects. A dialect is a particular variety of a language that differs
noticeably from the variety or varieties of the same language spoken by another group or groups of people. Dialects
themselves are collections of idiolects (and thus so are languages).

1.3 SOCIOLOGY.
Sociology (from Latin: socitus, "companion"; and the suffix -ology, "the
study of", from Greek λόγος, lógos, "knowledge") is an academic and
applied discipline that studies society and human social interaction.
Sociological research ranges from the analysis of short contacts between
anonymous individuals on the street to the study of global social
processes. Numerous fields within the discipline focus on how and why
people are organized in society, either as individuals or as members of
associations, groups, and institutions. As an academic discipline,
sociology is typically considered as a branch of social science. Sociology
is the new discipline which study social structure and patterns, relations
and interactions, agencies and institutions, etc. of the society. "Sociology
is the study of meaningful social actions" Sociology is a cluster of
disciplines which seek to explain the dimensions of society and the
dynamics that societies operate upon. Some of these disciplines which reflect current fields of Sociology are demography,
which studies changes in a population size or type; criminology, which studies criminal behavior and deviance; social
stratification, which studies inequality and class structure; political sociology which studies government and laws; sociology
of race and sociology of gender which examine the social construction of race and gender as well as race and gender
inequality. New sociological fields and sub-fields—such as network analysis and environmental sociology—continue to
evolve; many of them are very cross-disciplinary in nature.
Sociological research provides educators, planners, lawmakers, administrators, developers, business leaders, and
people interested in resolving social problems and formulating public policy with rationales for the actions that they take.

1.4 LINGÜISTICS.
Linguistics is the scientific study of language, which can be theoretical or applied.
Someone who engages in this study is called a linguist.
Theoretical (or general) linguistics encompasses a number of sub-fields, such as the
study of language structure (grammar) and meaning (semantics). The study of
grammar encompasses morphology (formation and alteration) of words and syntax (the
rules that determine the way words combine into phrases and sentences). Also a part
of this field are phonology, the study of sound systems and abstract sound units, and
phonetics, which is concerned with the actual properties of speech sounds (phones),
non-speech sounds, and how they are produced and perceived.
Linguistics compares languages (comparative linguistics) and explores their
histories, in order to find universal properties of language and to account for its
development and origins (historical linguistics).
Applied linguistics puts linguistic theories into practice in areas such as foreign
language teaching, speech therapy, translation and speech pathology.

1.5 SOCIOLINGUÍSTICS
Sociolinguistics is a term including the aspects of linguistics applied toward the connections between language and
society, and the way we use it in different social situations. It ranges from the study of the wide variety of dialects across a
given region down to the analysis between the way men and women speak to one another. Sociolinguistics often shows us
the humorous realities of human speech and how a dialect of a given language can often describe the age, sex, and social
class of the speaker; it codes the social function of a language

1.6 SPEECH COMMUNITY

Speech community is a concept in sociolinguistics that describes a more or less discrete group of people who use
language in a unique and mutually accepted way among themselves.
Speech communities can be members of a profession with a specialized jargon, distinct social groups like high school
students or hip hop fans (ghetto lingo, slangs), or even tight-knit groups like families and friends. In addition, online and
other mediated communities, such as many internet forums, often constitute speech communities. Members of speech
communities will often develop slang or jargon to serve the group's special purposes and priorities.

1.7 SOCIAL NETWORK

Understanding language in society means that one also has to understand the social networks in which language is
embedded. This may apply to the macro level of a country or a city, but also to the inter-personal level of neighborhoods or
a single family. Recently, social networks have formed by the Internet, through chat rooms, MySpace, Facebook, Hi5, MSN
Network, groups, organizations, and online dating services.

1.8 INTERNAL VS. EXTERNAL LANGUAGE

In Chomskian linguistics, a distinction is drawn between I-language (internal language) and E-language (external
language). In this context, internal language applies to the study of syntax and semantics in language on the abstract level;
as mentally represented knowledge in a native speaker. External language applies to language in social contexts
(behavioral habits shared by a community). Internal language analyses operate on the assumption that all native speakers
of a language are quite homogeneous in how they process and perceive language. External language fields, such as
sociolinguistics, attempt to explain why this is in fact not the case. Many sociolinguists reject the distinction between I- and
E-language on the grounds that it is based on a mentalist view of language. On this view, grammar is first and foremost an
interactional (social) phenomenon.

1.9 TEXT
The text is the spoken or written evocation of an event or series of events. It is one or more sentences. Greimas
established that text is a graphic or phoneme enunciation that used in a linguistic process.
Text is related with discourse, since this is the concrete emission of a text, for a certain originator, in a situation of certain
communication.
1.10 DISCOURSE
Discourse is communication that goes back and forth (from the Latin,
discourses, "running to and fro"), such as debate or argument. The term is used in
semantics and discourse analysis. In semantics, discourses are linguistic units
composed of several sentences — in other words, conversations, arguments or
speeches.
There is a social conception of discourse that is often linked with the work of
French philosopher Michel Foucault (1926-1984) and Jürgen Habermas' The
Theory of Communicative Action (Theorie des kommunikativen Handelns). Each
thinker had personal conceptions of discourse which are thought to be
incompatible with the other. They remain two important figures in this field;
Habermas trying to find the transcendent rules upon which speakers could agree
on a groundwork’s consensus, while Foucault was developing a battle-type of
discourse which opposed the classic Marxist definition of ideology
(superstructure).

1.11 TEXT LINGUISTICS

Text linguistics is a branch of linguistics that deals with texts as communication systems. Its original aims lay in
uncovering and describing text grammars. The application of text linguistics has, however, evolved from this approach to a
point in which text is viewed in much broader terms that go beyond a mere extension of traditional grammar towards an
entire text. Text linguistics takes into account the form of a text, but also its setting, i.e. the way in which it is situated in an
interactional, communicative context. Both the author of a (written or spoken) text as well as its addressee is taken into
consideration in their respective (social and/or institutional) roles in the specific communicative context. In general it is an
application of linguistic analysis at the much broader level of text, rather than just a sentence or word.
The text linguistics studies the organization of the language not only in its arbitrary in a sentence in linguistic units, as the
conversation, investigating the use of the language in the context of the social interaction.
The text linguistics studies the contextual meaning. Next to the linguistics of the text, there are other disciplines to
describe and analyze the linguistic factors which intervene when we use a language. For example: the sociolinguistics, the
psycholinguistics, the ethnography of the communication. These disciplines understand language as an impregnated unit of socio
culture meanings in common and personal intentions that is to say that all the verbal acts use the language with the intention of getting
different objectives.
Some of these objectives are: to inform, to teach, to convince, to motivate, to argue, to sell, to express feelings, to get
the attention on the own language, to beautify the own language, to establish contact (factice function). Therefore, the
speech carries out fundamental stocks for the social life.

SOMETHING
MORE
ABOUT
TEXT!

The text …
It is not only a literature extract; it is any verbal manifestation that takes place in a talkative exchange. Therefore, it is
considered so much text a sample of oral language as a sample of written language. Any preset extension doesn't exist so
that a group of words can constitute a text. The limits depend on the speaker's talkative intention. So that a verbal sample
is text he/she has to have a topic, to speak about something, to have an intention.

It can be defined text like all analyzable group of signs like a conversation fragment, a novel. (Lázaro Carreter).
According to Dubois, a text is a group of having enunciated linguistic subjected to the analysis. Therefore, the text is a
sample of linguistic behavior that can be written or spoken. According to Enrique Bemárdez, a text is the fundamental
talkative linguistic unit, product of the human verbal activity that possesses social character. It is characterized by their
semantic and talkative closing, and for their coherence. Their structuring is articulated in two groups of rules: those of
textual level and those of the grammar.

According to this definition, in a text they highlight the following dimensions:

• Talkative character.
• Pragmatic character.
• It structures based on the grammatical and textual rules.

One of the most important linguists is Van Dijk (1977, 1980), it uses the term text to refer to the theoretical and abstract
construct that is carried out in a speech: the text is to the speech what the sentence is the one enunciated; for other
authors, however, text is the merely linguistic product of a talkative exchange while the discourse is the text but in a context,
taking in consideration all the elements that intervene at once of communication.
The text and the discourse can be considered synonymous. In the English schools and French they are synonymous,
but some linguists distinguish the text like group of interrelated linguistic units and the speech like the text union and
context. In colloquial language the speech is used in the oral exhibition, more or less colloquial.

II. THE SEVEN CRITERIA OF TEXTUALITY

1. COHESION is a continuity of occurrences that stick together and thus contribute to the stability of the text. It is the
way in which linguistic items of which texts are constituted are meaningfully interconnected in sequences It is based on
syntax.

There was an old woman who lived in a shoe. She had so many children she didn’t know what to do.

"She" is a co-referent to "old woman" – personal reference.

Cohesion may be of 4 types:
a. Reference
b. Ellipsis
c. Conjunction
d. Lexical Cohesion

1a. REFERENCE
Reference realized by nouns, determiners, personal and demonstrative pronouns or adverbs, either points out the
text to a real world item (denotate), this is use of lexis: Can you see that?
 Anaphors: They refer to something mentioned earlier in the texts:
Cesar Vallejo was a great poet. He was born in Santiago de Chuco.

 Cataphors: They anticipate what is coming in the text: My mother bought the following things: pens, pencils,
sharpeners and rulers.

 Coreference:The relationship between two items that refer to the same person or things: He saw himself in the
mirror.

1b. ELLIPSIS
Omission of something referred to earlier: Have some more. It is also a sort of textual anaphor.
 Do not have any of them. They are poisonous.

1c. CONJUNCTION
It is enhanced by syntactic and grammatical connectors.
 Syntactic connectors: adverbials.
 Grammatical connectors: Agreement, sequence of tenses. These connectors create intricate systems of intra-
textual bonds,

1d. LEXICAL COHESION

It establishes semantic and pragmatic connectness in contrast with the previous types of cohesion. It operates over
larger stretches of text establishing chains of related references such as: repetition, equivalence- synonymy,
antonym, hyponymy, hyperonymy, paraphrase, collocation

Examples:
 Synonyms: Work: operate, go, run.
 Antonym: Intelligent: unintelligent, brainless, headless, stupid
 Hyponym: Roses, tulips and daisies are hyponyms of the hyperonym
Flowers.
 Collocations
 2. COHERENCE is present when a text makes sense because there is a continuity of senses which holds a text
together – it has to be semantically and logically OK. It concerns the ways in which meanings within a text are established
and developed

George entered the room. He saw Mary cleaning the table. John fell and broke his neck. (?) John broke his neck and fell.

For example:
a. Cause and consequence: (and, so)
He didn’t study, so he failed English.

b. Condition-consequence (if)
If I have money, I will travel to Ica.

c Instrument-achievement (by)
All the products are done by machinery.

d. Contrast (however)
He was sick, however he went to classes.

e. Compatibility (and), etc.

They get along well and they’ve got married rapidly.

3. INTENTIONALITY concerns the text producer’s attitude that the set of occurrences should constitute a cohesive
and coherent text instrumental in fulfilling the producer’s intentions, e.g. to distribute knowledge or to attain a goal. It relates
to the intention on the part of the sender to produce a cohesive/coherent text aimed at attaining and identifiable goal.
Examples:
I would like you to come to my place this afternoon.
Study systematically since the beginning.

Customer: When is the Windsor train?  Ambiguity [which sense is actually intended?]
Official: To Windsor?
Customer: Yes.
Official: 3:15.

4. ACCEPTABILITY concerns the text receiver’s attitude that the set of occurrences should constitute a cohesive and
coherent text having some use or relevance for the receiver, e.g. to acquire knowledge or provide co-operation in a plan. It
concerns the receivers’ expectation that the text should be coherent/cohesive and of some relevance to them. There should
be conversational maxims with the concept of acceptability: cooperation, quantity, quality, relation, and manner.
Examples :
 I’m too busy for talking just now. I don’t care to talk about it.
 Could you have time to mind my baby this afternoon?.

5. INFORMATIVITY concerns the extent to which the occurrences of the presented text are expected vs. unexpected
or known vs. unknown/certain. It refers to the information theory. Touches upon the (im) probability or (un)expectedness of
a text in the given situation.

There are 3 orders of informatively: Triviality, defaults (información por defecto), and preferences.
 The boy bumped his head.
 They went early to book the flights
 I’d like to travel to US.

 The sea is water. Vs. In addition to being water, the sea is also a solution of gasses and salts.

The second sentence carries a higher order of informativity than the first one.

6. SITUATIONALITY concerns the factors which make a text relevant to a situation of SLOW
occurrence. It is concerns the problem of making a text relevant to a situation. It considers CHILDREN
strategies for monitoring and managing a situation. It deals with situations models, mediation and
AT PLAY
evidence.

Traffic sign has to very economic with words, because drivers speeding by do not have the time to read elaborate
passages.

7. INTERTEXTUALITY concerns the factors which make the utilization of one text dependent upon knowledge of one
or more previously encountered texts. It is concerned with the ways in which the texts are used depending on the
knowledge of other texts. They refer to the text types versus linguistic typology: Descriptive, narrative, and argumentative
texts; literary and poetic texts; scientific and didactic texts.
 SLOW
CHILDREN RESUME
AT PLAY SPEED

 It is hard to make sense of the second sign if the first sign was overlooked.

III. TEXT LINGUISTICS AND THE LINGUISTIC SUB-DISCIPLINES

When studying these standards/principles it becomes clear that a very broad knowledge base of (general and applied)
linguistics is involved in the description of texts. The study of cohesion, for example, entails for certain knowledge of
syntax, semantics (and on some levels even morphology and phonology) whilst intentionality and acceptability cannot be
studied without serious knowledge of pragmatics. Intentionality involves knowledge of information systems - as supplied by
the functional approach to language in the form of FSP. Contextuality is very much dependent on knowledge of
sociolinguistics and pragmatics, while intertextuality has to do with the experience of previous texts (literary and non-
literary). Coherence can be regarded as the umbrella-term for all these aspects while a certain amount of psycholinguistics
is also needed in order to understand the communicative value of a text.

To put it in more bluntly: if you make a diagram with the principles of textuality on the one end, and the different
linguistic sub-disciplines on the other side, you ought to see the picture more clearly:

Cohesion (by means of reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction and lexical cohesion)
Syntax
Semantics
Morphology
Phonology
Normative grammar
Coherence Semantics
Cognitive linguistics
Intentionality Pragmatics
Acceptability Pragmatics
Informativity Semantics (information systems)
Syntax
Contextuality Pragmatics
Sociolinguistics
Intertextuality Literary theory

The premise of this paper is that as all those types of knowledge are involved in the understanding and production of a
text, it can be argued that text linguistics can claim to be the most relevant way of studying linguistics.

Consider for example the traditional way of studying syntax in isolation: normally any syllabus of a course on syntax
contains a study of the different parts of speech and the way these parts of speech are used in sentences. I argue that
syntax will be better studied in the context of a larger chunk of language than the isolated and sometimes fabricated context
of a single sentence. If you can rather use the syntactic knowledge you have of the different parts of speech (e.g. nouns,
pronouns, adverbs, conjunctions, etc.) to construct well-formed texts it should make the syntactic knowledge just that little
bit more useful.

In the same way I can argue about semantics: we traditionally study synonyms (same-ness) and antonymy
(contrastiveness) in a course on semantics but what about the use of this type of knowledge? Why is it necessary to know
that there are relations like synonymy or even antonymy in any language? Again I argue that knowledge of these relations
can be put to good use in the construction of a text. Semantics is certainly not only a word phenomenon but also plays a
big part in communication from a broader perspective.

I could continue in this way to prove my point again and again, namely that the usefulness of the different linguistic sub-
disciplines will become more apparent when looking at these disciplines from a text linguistics perspective. It also means
that an interdisciplinary approach to the study of language (and linguistics) will probably be more justified than the study of
isolated disciplines.

It is tried to prove a relatively simple point: namely that know-ledge of the different linguistic sub-disciplines can be put
to more use if viewed from a text linguistics viewpoint - in which the principles of textuality play an integral part to improve
the understanding of language as such.

Text linguistics certainly does not claim to solve all the problems regarding the study of language, but it does claim that
it can help considerably to solve many problems that have to do with the way language is used to communicate. It
therefore very much seems to be the most relevant component of linguistics, and not just merely another way of studying
linguistics.
 I do trust that with this paper I have succeeded in changing your views about the value of a textual (by implication text
linguistics) rather than a sentential perspective to the study of language.

IV. TEXT TYPES

A Text Type or Genre is a type of written or spoken discourse. Texts are classified into genres on the basis of the intent
of the communicator.

Students need to learn to communicate using different kinds of texts for different purposes; they need to know a variety
of genres in order to be successful in their future lives. Text can be classified into several types. The term of 'type' is
sometime stated as 'genre'. These types of text are Narrative, Report, Analytical Exposition, Procedure, Recount, Spoof,
Anecdote, Discussion, Description, Explanation, Review, Hortatory, News Item, etc.

These classifications on type of text are based on Beewoulf page analysis of three main elements of text. These
elements of text are: The purpose of the text; why is the text made?, what is text made for by its writer. The generic
structure of the text; analyzing the used structure in composing the text, in what way is the text constructed by its writer.

The language feature: taking a look at the linguistic characterizations of the text, what kind of language feature is used
to build the text by its writer. However, a text is not pure form. It is a mixture of genre. In many examples, report text is
sometime mixed with explanation text. Recount text is compromised to report or descriptive type. Texts do not always
conform perfectly to the typical classifications. Understanding types of text should be aimed as understanding general
guiding principles. Studying types of text should be read as studying genres, and not for a factual direction in writing a text.

Below is a description of some common text types or writing genres.

 Narrative  Procedure
 Literary Recount  Procedural Recount
 Observation  Factual Recount
 Literary Description  Explanation
 Personal Response  Exposition
 Review  Discussion
 Factual Description
 Information Report

Text Type Social Purpose Teaching Strategies

Narrative To entertain, create, Teacher reads aloud a variety of narratives.
eg some picture books, stimulate emotions Teacher explicitly models narrative stages.
short stories novels, motivate, guide, teach Students retell and act stories/poems heard.
some ballads, fairy/folk Students jointly construct elementary narratives
tales some myths, with teacher.
fables, legends, and Students read and retell familiar stories.
some song lyrics, films, Students talk about visual images (where
videos, television applicable).
programs.
Example
Literary Recount To entertain by dealing with Teacher reads a range of recounts and explicitly
eg some picture books, a sequence of events that models recount stages.
short stories, some establishes a relationship Students give elementary oral recounts of shared
fables and myths, between a experience.
autobiographies, writer/reader/speaker/ Students and teacher jointly construct recounts —
humorous stories, some listener. spoken and written.
poems, films, videos, By developing an understanding of the staging of
television programs. recount, students learn about its social purpose.
Example Students write recounts.
Observation To record events and Teacher explicitly models the stages of
eg early writing of respond to them in a observation.
children, some picture personal way. Observation Students and teacher jointly construct spoken and
books, some poems. does not have a sequence written observations using familiar topics.
Example of events. Students write observations.
Literary Description To describe, in literary Students give brief descriptions of familiar people,
eg some picture books, terms, natural, physical, animals.
some poems. cultural and individual Students listen to teacher explicitly model stages
Example phenomena. of description.
Students and teacher jointly construct descriptions.
Personal Response To summarize and respond Students give spoken personal responses to
eg response to text personally to a text. literary texts read aloud by teacher.
activities in classroom Teacher guides students’ responses.
 contexts such as
English and Creative
Arts.
Example
Review To summarize / analyze a Teacher explicitly models review. Students give
eg oral and written literary text and assess its spoken responses, eg title, author, illustration,
commentaries about appeal and value. dedication, publisher, expression of a positive or
literary texts and negative response to the work.
creative arts, typically
found in print, radio and
television.
Example
Factual Description To describe a particular Teacher points out factual descriptions in texts
eg texts in information living, non-living or natural read to students.
books, films, videos, phenomenon. Students give simple spoken descriptions of
television. familiar things, eg animals, places, buildings.
Example Students and teacher jointly construct and read
elementary factual descriptions of familiar topics.
Information Report To classify and describe Teacher reads aloud factual texts, including
eg scientific texts in general classes of pictures and labels.
books, films, videos, phenomena. Teacher and students research and share
television. information about familiar topics, eg animals.
Example Teacher explicitly models stages of an information
report.
Students and teacher jointly construct information
reports about a specific topic, eg bears, cats.
Procedure To achieve a goal/outcome Teacher points out procedures and directions in
eg information books, through a sequence of texts and models procedures with stages in
television programs steps. spoken language.
focusing on how to do Teacher and students jointly construct written and
and make things. spoken procedures about very familiar classroom
Example and home activities, eg recipe, instructions for
crossing road safely.
Students draw and sequence steps for basic
procedures.
Procedural Recount To record (orally and in Teacher refers to the steps taken in a procedure to
eg information books, writing) in sequential order achieve goal.
television, films and the steps taken to achieve Teacher and students jointly construct spoken and
videos focusing on how a particular goal/outcome, written procedural recounts about very familiar
things were made. after doing a procedure. activities.
Example Focus on accurate sequence of steps.
Students may draw or sketch to accompany steps
in sequence.
Factual Recount To record a series of events Teacher explicitly models stages of a factual
eg historical texts in in the sequence in which recount.
books, films, videos, they occurred. Students give elementary factual recount, eg
television. family members, grandparents.
Example Teacher and students jointly construct spoken and
written factual recounts.
Focus on the introduction of time words.
Explanation To explain scientifically how Teacher reads aloud factual texts referring to
eg scientific texts in technological and natural photographs, diagrams and sketches.
books, films, videos, phenomena come into Teacher and students share information about
television. being. familiar topics, eg toys.
Example Teacher explicitly models the stages of an
explanation.
Teacher and students jointly construct brief
explanations about familiar topics in the form of
labeled flowcharts.
Focus on using common connecting words such
as ‘and’, ‘then’.
Exposition To state a position with Teacher provides opportunities for class
eg texts in information respect to an issue and discussions about very familiar issues in the
books, print, visual and argue a case for or agains context of the classroom.
oral media, eg letters to Teacher explicitly models the stages of an
editor, editorials. exposition.
Example Teacher and students jointly construct spoken and
written expositions about very familiar topics.
 Focus on language that states a position, eg ‘I
don’t think we should bring toys to school because
…’
Discussion To examine issues from Teacher provides opportunities for class talk about
eg texts in information more than one perspective very familiar issues.
books, print, visual and and make Teacher encourages students to consider different
oral media, eg recommendations based on positions about the same issue.
submissions, debates. evidence. Teacher models the stages of discussion about
Example very familiar topics.
Focus on language that indicates different
positions can be taken about an issue, eg ‘ There
are different points of view about whether children
should bring pets to school’.
Develop an argument for each point of view.
4.1 TEXT TYPES: SOME EXAMPLES WITH TOPICS

NARRATIVE
Purpose: To amuse/entertain the readers and
to tell a story
Generic Structure:
1. Orientation
2. Evaluation
3. Complication
4. Resolution
5. Reorientation
Dominant Language Features:
1. Using Past Tense
2. Using action verb
3. Chronologically arranged

RECOUNT
Purpose: to retell something that happened in the past and to tell a series of past event
Generic Structure:
1. Orientation
2. Event(s)
3. Reorientation
Dominant Language Features:
1. Using Past Tense
2. Using action verb
3. Using adjectives

Narrative and recount in some ways are similar. Both are telling something in the past so narrative and recount usually
apply PAST TENSE; whether Simple Past Tense, Simple Past Continuous Tense, or Past Perfect Tense. The ways
narrative and recount told are in chronological order using time or place. Commonly narrative text is found in story
book; myth, fable, folklore, etc while recount text is found in biography.

The thing that makes narrative and recount different is the structure in which they are constructed. Narrative uses
conflicts among the participants whether natural conflict, social conflict or psychological conflict. In some ways narrative
text combines all these conflicts. In the contrary, we do not find these conflicts inside recount text. Recount applies
series of event as the basic structure

DESCRIPTIVE
Purpose: To explain the processes involved in the formation
or working of natural or socio-cultural phenomena.
Generic Structure:
1. General statement
2. Explanation
3. Closing Dominant
Language Features:
1. Using Simple Present Tense
2. Using action verbs
3. Using passive voice
4. Using noun phrase
5. Using adverbial phrase
6. Using technical terms
7. Using general and abstract noun
8. Using conjunction of time and cause-effect.
REPORT
Purpose: to presents information about something, as it is.
Generic Structure
1. General classification
2. Description
Dominant Language Feature
1. Introducing group or general aspect
2. Using conditional logical connection
3. Using Simple Present Tense

EXPLANATION
Purpose: to describe a particular person, place or thing in detail.
Dominant Generic Structure:
1. Identification
2. Description

Language Features:
1. Using Simple Present Tense
2. Using action verb
3. Using adverb
4. Using special technical terms

ANALYTICAL EXPOSITION
Purpose: To reveal the readers that something is the important case
Generic Structure:
1. Thesis
2. Arguments
3. Reiteration/Conclusion
Dominant Language Features:
1. Using modals
2. Using action verbs
3. Using thinking verbs
4. Using adverbs
5. Using adjective
6. Using technical terms
7. Using general and abstract noun
8. Using connectives/transition

HORTATORY EXPOSITION
Purpose: to persuade the readers that something should or should not be the case or be done
Generic Structure:
1. Thesis
2. Arguments
3. Recommendation
Dominant Language features:
1. Using Simple Present Tense
2. Using modals
3. Using action verbs
4. Using thinking verbs
5. Using adverbs
6. Using adjective
7. Using technical terms
8. Using general and abstract noun
9. Using connectives/transition

Then what is the basic difference between analytical and hortatory exposition. In simple word. Analytical is the answer
of "How is/will" while hortatory is the answer of "How should". Analytical exposition will be best to describe "How will
student do for his examination? The point is the important thing to do. But for the question" How should student do for
his exam?" will be good to be answered with hortatory. It is to convince that the thing should be done

PROCEDURE
Purpose: to help readers how to do or make something
completely
Generic Structure:
1. Goal/Aim
2. Materials/Equipments
3. Steps/Methods
Dominant Language Features:
1. Using Simple Present Tense
2. Using Imperatives sentence
 3. Using adverb
4. Using technical terms

DISCUSSION
Purpose: to present information and opinions about issues in more one side of an issue (‘For/Pros’ and ‘Against/Cons’)
Generic Structure:
1. Issue
2. Arguments for and against
3. Conclusion
Dominant Language Features:
1. Using Simple Present Tense
2. Use of relating verb/to be
3. Using thinking verb
4. Using general and abstract noun
5. Using conjunction/transition
6. Using modality
7. Using adverb of manner
REVIEW
Purpose: to critique or evaluate an art work or event for a public audience
Dominant Generic Structure:
1. Orientation
2. Evaluation
3. Interpretative Recount
4. Evaluation
5. Evaluative Summation
Dominant Language features:
1. Focus on specific participants
2. Using adjectives
3. Using long and complex clauses
4. Using metaphor

ANECDOTE
Purpose: to share with others an account of an unusual or amusing incident
Generic Structure:
1. Abstract
2. Orientation
3. Crisis
4. Reaction
5. Coda.
Dominant Language Features:
1. Using exclamations, rhetorical question or intensifiers
2. Using material process
3. Using temporal conjunctions

SPOOF
Purpose: to tell an event with a humorous twist and entertain the readers
Generic Structure:
1. Orientation
2. Event(s)
3. Twist
Dominant Language Features:
1. Using Past Tense
2. Using action verb
3. Using adverb
4. Chronologically arranged

NEWS ITEM
Purpose: to inform readers about events of the day which are considered newsworthy or important.
Dominant Generic Structure:
1. Newsworthy event(s)
2. Background event(s)
3. Sources
Dominant Language Features:
1. Short, telegraphic information about story captured in headline
2. Using action verbs
3. Using saying verbs
4. Using adverbs: time, place and manner.

V. THE ROLE OF TEXT LINGUÍSTICS IN THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE CLASS

 Throughout the short history of text linguistics research, some studies have pointed out the relevance of the text as a
basic unit to approach a foreign language. This part deals with some of the activities on text type characteristics put into
practice with Spanish students with upper intermediate level of English language. Following the classical classifications on
text typology (Werlich 1975, Beaugrande and Dressler, 1981, or Hatch, 1992, among others), this article will provide an
outline of the structure of a foreign language class based on text linguistics. The application of the outline will be shown in
relation to two kinds of texts: diaríes / joumals and descriptive texts.

5.1 Introduction
Before the existence of text linguistics, a sentence grammar and not a text grammar was used to analyze the main
features that characterize a text. It is not until the 70s that the first approaches to the text are produced. From that time
onwards there is a gradual increase of studies on text linguistics. At the beginning of the 80s, Beaugrande and Dressler
(1981) and other text linguists take into consideration the previous studies on text generation and structure analysis. They
make reference to the speakers' world knowledge in their procedural approach to text linguistics. This speakers' world
knowledge will be the departure point in the session corresponding to a text linguistics class.

The two kinds of texts chosen to be examples of a text linguistics class cannot always be found in the existing
classifications of texts. Because of the different sentence used in their creation, the number of text types included in each
classification vary, and the existence of a different taxonomy depending on the expert creating it is a well known fact. At the
same time, there is not a single classification that can be used to order and classify all types of texts. Regarding the criteria
used in the different text typologies, most of the taxonomies take into consideration contextual factors and the purpose the
speaker has in mind when producing a text.

Most linguists agree on the classification into five text-types: narrative, descriptive, argumentative, instructive, and
comparison/contrast. Some classifications divide the types of texts according to their function. Others differ because they
take into consideration the topic of the texts, the producer and the addressee, or the style. Overlaps of different text types
are frequent, and in most cases the text cannot be identified as an example of just one text type. In relation to the
overlapping, Adam and Petitjean, (1989) propose the analysis with text sequences. Virtanen (1992) establishes a double
classification (discourse type and text type) to be used when the Identification text-text type is not straightforward.

Different studies offer partial solutions to the present problems of the text typologies.
The foUowing three characteristics are only three of the most common in the
classifications created up to now: lack of agreement on what criterion must be foUowed
when classifying text types, unequal study of the different text types, and existence of
texts that cannot be included in any of the classifications created up to now. Despite this
situation, most of the text analysts decide upon one of the classical taxonomies when
classifying a specific text.

Overlaps of different text types are frequent, and in most cases the text cannot be
identified as an example of just one text type. In relation to the overlapping, Adam and
Petitjean, (1989) propose the analysis with text sequences. Virtanen (1992) establishes a
double classification (discourse type and text type) to be used when the Identification text-
text type is not straightforward. Different studies offer partial solutions to the present
problems of the text typologies. The following three characteristics are only three of the most common in the classifications
created up to now: lack of agreement on what criterion must be followed when classifying text types, unequal study of the
different text types, and existence of texts that cannot be included in any of the classifications created up to now. Despite
this situation, most of the text analysts decide upon one of the classical taxonomies when classifying a specific text.

5.2 Text-linguistic session

The following outline summarizes the steps to follow in a class based on text Linguistics. Initially, the activities were
planned for upper-intermediate students. However, most of them can be adapted to students of different levels of the target
language (by eliminating some steps, reducing the difficulty, shortening the writing pieces, etc.).

Previous to the session, the teacher chooses a text for that class which will not be given to the students at the
beginning of the session. They will get the text after reflecting on what they are going to read. For the first time it is
advisable to bring a text as homogeneous as possible, í.e. with most of its sequences characterizing a text type. Aspects
such as difficulty of vocabulary, structure (paragraphs, stanzas, etc....), and length must be taken into consideration in all
cases.

Step 1.- Eliciting characteristics of text type

The students indicate the main characteristics of the text type regarding function, addressee and structure. Depending
on their level of the target language, they can also add the most remarkable features in relation to the vocabulary and the
syntax expected. All these characteristics are explained, completed and complemented by the teacher. In relation to the
Identification of texts, Benoit and Fayol (1989) point out that eleven-year-old children are able to distinguish narrative,
descriptive, and argumentative texts.

Step 2.- Providing examples.

Students point out examples of the text type that is analyzed within that class. This part of the session is based on their
previous personal experiences as readers. They cite the sources that contain the text type object of study, and the teacher
collects those contributions and suggests additional examples.
 Step 3.- Discussing possible channels.
Discussion of the channel where a text of that type might appear (novels, newspapers, magazines, etc.); when
applicable any connection with some films may be mentioned, for example, plots of the films based on novels, where the
text type is present though maybe slightly transformed because of the different channel used to present it.

Step 4.- Practice.

The students are presented with a text of a specific text type in order to analyze the above-mentioned characteristics.
This part of the session starts with reading the text provided by the teacher. The text characterizes a text type. The specific
features of the text type are identified (verb tenses for a narrative text, use of adjectives for descriptions, analysis of
connectors for argumentative, succession of events for instructive, etc.).

Step 5.- Research.

A paper on the text type analyzed that day is required: the students try to find an example of the text type analyzed in
class and write a paper describing the main characteristics that were mentioned that day. As an additional or alterative
activity they might produce a sample of the type of text where those features are present.

5.2.1 Descriptive texts

In order to analyze the main characteristics of a descriptive text, we start with a contrastive analysis of a descriptive
text and a narrative text. This is advisable since examples of narrations and descriptions are frequently found in the same
piece of writing. Because of their experience as readers, students are familiar with this simultaneity.

Step 1.- Eliciting characteristics of the text type

This step consists of identifying the function of a descriptive text, and an analysis of a descriptive structure through
comparison with a narrative text. Afterwards, the different kinds of description are identified (topography, portrait, etc.). The
most frequent topics of descriptions are mentioned, and also the difference between objective and subjective descriptions,
and the main characteristics of the vocabulary they expect to find. Special attention should be paid to the role of adjectives
within the descriptive texts.

Step 2.- Providing examples

The students contribute with examples of descriptions they have read, both within a novel or as independent texts.

Suggested questions for this section:

- Mention descriptions you have read: 'Who / What was described?', 'Was it a subjective / objective description?',
'Why?', 'What do you think are the adjectives that most successfully qualify the topic described?'.
- 'What are the adjectives you would use to describe a sport you like / your best friend / a country you would like to
visit?' 'Do you think these descriptions should be objective or subjective?', 'Why?'

Step 3.- Discussing possible channels

Apart from the above-mentioned inclusion of descriptions within novels, readers can find examples of descriptions
through different kinds of channels such as travel guides or brochures. These and other examples (textbooks, reference
books, etc.) are provided by the students and complemented by the instructor.

Step 4.- Practice

In order to put into practice the ability to identify descriptive texts, different kinds of activities can be done in the class.
These can be altered, depending on the students' age and their level of the target language.

Suggested activities:
- On comparison: focusing on length and complexity, compare sentences from a narrative text and sentences from a
descriptive text. Also compare paragraphing and layout. The purpose is to identify the syntactic characteristics of a
descriptive text.
- On the topic of description: identifying the topic of description and the purpose of the text.
- On vocabulary: highlighting of the adjectives used in the text, classifícation of those adjectives (size, colour, shape,
etc.), analysis of diñicult words, study of static verbs.

Example:
This extract from J.K. Rowling's Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, (2001:20) was one of the texts analyzed in
order to identify the main characteristics of a descriptive text.

“Perhaps it had something to do with living in a dark cupboard, but Harry had
always been small and skinny for his age. He looked even smaller and skinnier
than he really was because all he had to wear were old clothes of Dudley's and
Dudley was about four times bigger than he was. Harry had a thin face, knobbly
knees, black hair and bright green eyes. He wore round glasses held together with
a lot of Sellotape because of all the times Dudley had punched him on the nose.
The only thing Harry liked about his own appearance was a very thin scar in his
 forehead which was shaped like a bolt of lightning. He had had it as long as he could remember and the
first question he could ever remember asking his Aunt Petunia was how he had got it.”

Once the students have gone through the steps 1, 2 and 3, they are ready to identify the main characteristics of this
descriptive text. The Identification can be carried out throughout individual work or group work. Before identifying the main
characteristics of the text, they provide some Information on the novel and/or the film, the author and their main characters.
Afterwards, they identify the topic of description (portrait of Harry Potter), the purpose of the text (inform about the
physical characteristics of the main character) and the potential addressees (children and teenagers). This step might lead
to long discussions if the text is as well known as this one. Issues such as the addressee and the function of the text might
elicit open answers and not only one of them is the correct one. It is advisable to limit the time dedicated to discussion in
order to avoid running out of time for the analysis of the linguistic features of the text.
The students recognize the characteristics of a physical description underlining adjectives, analyzing the use of
comparatives and the presence of copulative sentences. They also identify if the description is objective or subjective. In
relation to vocabulary, since they have been given the context of the new words, they can derive the new word meanings
from it.
Finally, they analyze the role of the supporting characters in relation to the main one in order to find out to what extent
their characteristics enhance Harry's.

Step 5.- Research.

Students try to find examples of descriptions, either according to the characteristics mentioned in class or they are
given a topic and find specific descriptions according to it. As an alternative, or as an additional activity, when they are given
the topic, the students produce a description where they use the main devices present in a descriptive text analyzed in
class.

5.2.2 Diaries / Journals

The use of diaries /journals in the foreign language class is recommended because it stimulates imagination, creativity,
and observation of everything that surrounds the students. Writing a diary entry is an opportunity to let English flow and
improves the writing skills without the worry of writing without errors. Usually, only the self is in mind as an audience, though
it is not uncommon using the dialogue journal as way to communicate with the instructor who becomes audience and reads
and responds to what the student has written (Brown, 1994:328, Grabbe and Kaplan, 19%:333).

Step 1.- Eliciting characteristics of the text type

 Analysis of the concept of privacy and the role of the addressee of this kind of text. Discussion of the habit of
journal keeping. The students provide personal experiences as journal writers and explain briefly the role of the
audience (if any) they write to. Questions for the class use: 'Have you ever written a journal?', 'For how long?',
'Would you like anybody to read it?', 'Do you still keep it?', etc.
 Writing to get feelings 'off the chest'. Its influence on vocabulary. Register. Writing without tension implies
loosening up, and this has an influence in the language. Questions raised: 'Would you use the same expressions /
vocabulary when writing in your journal as you do when writing an essay for the class?', 'Why? / Why not?', 'Can
you provide examples?' 'Is there a code language in any journal?'
 Punctuation. Questions raised: 'What are the most frequent punctuation devices in the entry of a journal?', 'Are
they important?', 'Why do you think they are present in the text?'

Step 2.- Providing examples.

The students mention journals / journal entries they have read. They analyze what was told, and analyze the role of
personal circumstances in their examples. Relevant 'journal writers' that the students might be familiar with, should be
mentioned: Adrian Mole or Anna Frank, among others.

Step 3.- Discussing possible channels.

Even if the journal entries are created to be written in a notebook and in most cases not to be read by an addressee,
the students might be familiar with some films whose plot was based on a famous diary. This is the case of Anna Frank and
Bridget Jones, whose stories have been adapted for the cinema.

Step 4.- Practice.

The students are provided with an entry of a diary / journal and analyze the function and structure of the text. They also
analyze the different syntactic devices mentioned in step 1 and the role played by the different punctuation devices.

Example: This is a diary entry from Sue Townsed's “The Secret Diary of Adrián Mole
aged 13 %” {\995:20).

“Monday January 19*

I have joined a group at school called the Good Samaritans. We
go out into the community helping and stuff like that. We miss Maths
on Monday aftemoons. Today we had a talk on the sort of things we
 will be doing. I have been put in the old age pensioners' group. Nigel has got a dead yukky job looking
after kids in a playgroup. He is as sick as a parrot.
I can't wait for next Monday. I will get a cassette so I can tape all the old fogies' stories about the
war and stuff. I hope I get one with a good memory.
The dog is back at the vet's. It has got concrete stuck on its paws. No wonder it was making such a
row on the stairs last night. Pandora smiled at me in school dinner today, but I was choking on a piece of
gristle so I couldn't smile back. Just my luck!”

After going through stages 1, 2, and 3, the students are able to identify the main features of a diary entry through
individual or group work. They discuss the function of the text (tell the most relevant events which happened that day) and
addressee (the writer or potential readers of the diary). Afterwards they should be able to identify the characteristics
analyzed in the first steps of the lesson. Regarding this extract, the students should identify the following: most events are
described in first person (main character writing about what happened to him that day); when the third person is used the
main purpose is telling what happened to characters that are very close to the writer and they are relevant to the main
character's development.
The style is informal, as it can be appreciated in the vocabulary, with the use of idioms: "as sick as a parrot" and
colloquial expressions: "stuff" “like that", "sort of things", "dead yukky job", "old fogies' stories" "war and stuff", and "no
wonder"; Depending on the students' level and their ability to derive meanings from the context, these expressions might
require an explanation / translation from the teacher. Finally, regarding the punctuation, the students should recognize the
use of contractions and the exclamation mark used to finish the entry: "just my luck!".

Step 5.- Research

Search of examples of diary entries and production of a diary entry based on a personal experience.

5.3 Conclusions
A foreign language class based on the above-mentioned outline is a balanced class where the four skills (speaking,
writing, reading and listening) are put into practice. A session based on the study of a specific type of text is mainly practical
and the students continuously play an active role in the development of the class. The most remarkable advantages shown
in the students' learning are the following three:
 Stimulates reading. After the discussion described in the second step of the sessions, an interest in other
students' reading arises and recommendations about specific texts or novels are very frequent. The texts the
students mention in the second step are usually the ones they remember because of a positive experience and
this creates curiosity among the students who have not read that piece of writing. Their background knowledge on
literature and on different kinds of publications also increases.
 Writing skills are improved. Since the students get familiar with a specific text structure in the sessions, and the
same structure is required in their writing pieces, an improvement in the students' writing has been shown, and the
use of specialized vocabulary is also gradually included.
 First steps in research are taken. For some students, a class on text linguistics provides them with an
opportunity to take the first steps in research when they try to find a sample of the text type studied in class.

SELF-EVALUATION
1. Draw a conceptual map about the types of text
1. What kind of texts do you use in your classes?.

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2. Do you think it’s neccesary to adequate the texts into your students’ needsl? Why? Explain briefly

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3. Mention the tittle of some texts you had used developing the reading skill

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SOCIOLINGUISTICS

Capacidad: Identifica y reconoce las bases teóricas de la sociolingüística en la aplicación de

conocimientos del área.

“Education is what survives when what has been learned has been forgotten”.
B. F Skinner

3.1 What is sociolinguistics?

Sociolinguistics is a sub discipline of linguistics that treats the social aspects of language. It is the study of the effect
of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context on the way language is used.
Sociolinguistics overlaps to a considerable degree with pragmatics.
It also studies how lects differ between groups separated by certain social variables, e.g., ethnicity, religion, status,
gender, level of education, etc., and how creation and adherence to these rules is used to categorize individuals in social
class or socio-economic classes. As the usage of a language varies from place to place (dialect), language usage varies
among social classes, and it is these sociolects that sociolinguistics studies.
The social aspects of language were in the modern sense first studied by Indian and Japanese linguists in the 1930s,
and also by Gauchat in Switzerland in the early 1900s, but none received much attention in the West until much later. The
study of the social motivation of language change, on the other hand, has its foundation in the wave model of the late 19th
century. Sociolinguistics in the west first appeared in the 1960s and was pioneered by linguists such as William Labov in the
US and Basil Bernstein in the UK.

 The term first appeared in the 1950s as a way to bring together the perspectives of linguists and
sociologists.
 In the 1960s and 1970s it gained importance and is still doing so today.
 Sociolinguistics is a recent sub discipline and much work still needs to be done.

“Sociolinguistics has close connections with the social sciences, in particular, sociology, anthropology, social
psychology, and education. It encompasses the study of multilingualism, social dialects, conversational interaction,
attitudes to language, language change, and much more” (Romaine ix).

3.2 VARIATION
Language variation: the ways language differs across social settings.

- Standard language : is a variety that ranks above the others. It is the main
or only written language. It is more fixed and resistant to change than any
other variety in the community. It is used in school, print, mass media,
taught to the non- native speakers as a foreign language, and associated
with wealth, education, literature, political leadership and high social status.
- Sociolects : are sub divisible into several smaller categories: socioeconomic
status, gender, ethnic group, age, occupation.
- Regional varieties : differ from each other systematically in terms of lexical or
phonological criteria.
- Registers: or functional speech varieties, are bits of talk that are appropriate to particular speech situations.
They can be casual, formal, technical, simplified, etc.
 There are different kinds of variation:

 Phonetic: For example, [t,d,n,s,z] are dental in some New York City dialects.
 Phonological: For example, the difference between caught and cot for some Americans, not others.
 Morphological: For example, “hisself” for “himself”, “theirselves” for “themselves”.
 Syntactic: For example, right used as an adverb in Appalachian English (This is right delicious).
 Semantic (vocabulary choice): For example, pop, soda pop, coke, soft drink, “dope” in parts of South.

3.3 DIALECT
Dialect: Is any variety of a language characterized by systematic differences in pronunciation, grammar, and
vocabulary from other varieties of the same langua ge
Examples :
British English American English
Lay by Rest area
Petrol Gasoline
Lorry Truck
Minerals Soft drinks
Lift Elevator
Flat Apartment
Bobby Police officer
Dustbin Trash can

 Speech community: can be a small town, village, or even a club or as large as a nation or a group of nations. Its
members share a particular language as well as the norms for the appropriate use of their language in social
context.
 Standard Dialect: is the variety of speaking and writing granted the most public prestige.
 Non-Standard Dialect: is a variety that has not general public prestige and that differs from standard varieties
in grammar and vocabulary.
 Idiolect is a dialect spoken by one person. We all have differences in the way we speak regarding the
rest of the people.
 Accent is a certain form of a language spoken by a subgroup of speakers of that language which is defined by
phonological features.

WE ALL SPEAK A DIALECT, AND WE ALL HAVE AN ACCENT

3.4 What is the difference between a language and a dialect?

Dialect is used to indicate a subordinate variety of a language. A regional dialect is a variety associated with a place.
A social dialect is a variety with boundaries of a social nature.

3.5 What is diglossia?

It is the situation in which two languages or dialects in a bilingual community are used differently according to
different social situations.

Janet Holmes defines diglossia as having three crucial features:

1. In the same language, used in the same community, there are two distinct varieties. One is regarded as high (H)
and the other low (L).
2. Each is used for distinct functions.
3. No one uses the high (H) in everyday conversation.

3.6 Why are there different dialects?

There are social and historical conditions that surround language change. Some of the main factors are:

 Settlement
 Migration routs
 Geographical factors
 Language contact
 Economic ecology
 Social stratification
 Communication networks
 Group reference
 Personal identity
 There is also a linguistic explanation for the existence of dialects:

 Rule extension
 Analogy
 The transparency principle
 Grammaticalization
 Pronunciation phenomena
 Words and word meanings

3.7 PIDGINS AND CREOLES

A pidgin is a language developed by speakers of different languages who need to communicate.

It has a very simple struc ture and doesn’t last a long period of time.
When the pidgin is an evolved form of language and has native speakers, it becomes a Creole.
 Can you guess what language this is?

These lines are taken from a famous comic strip in Papua New Guinea:
"Sapos yu kaikai planti pinat, bai yu kamap strong olsem phantom."
"Fantom, yu pren tru bilong mi. Inap yu ken helpim mi nau?"
"Fantom, em i go we?"

Translation:
'If you eat plenty of peanuts, you will come up strong like the phantom.'
'Phantom, you are a true friend of mine. Are you able to help me now?'
Where did he go?'

It is the Creole of Papua New Guinea, Tok Pisin, which is the national language.

Superstrate language : the dominant language that provides most of the vocabulary of the pidgin.
Substrate languages: these are the other minority languages in the pidgin.

Can you guess what major language (the superstrate) contributed to the vocabulary in each of these Creoles? This
table is taken from Janet Holmes, " An Introduction to Sociolinguistics":

a. mo pe aste sa banan I am buying the banana

b. de bin alde luk dat big tri they always looked for a big tree
c. a waka go a wosu he walked home
d. olmaan i kas- im chek e. li pote the old man is cashing a check
sa bay mo he brought that for me
f. ja fruher wir bleiben Yes at first we remained
g. dis smol swain i bin go fo maket this little pig went to market

ANSWERS:

a. French based Seychelles Creole

b. English based Roper River Creole
c. English based Saran
d. English based Cape York Creole
e. French based Guyanais
f. German based Papua New Guinea Pidgin German
g. English based Cameroon Pidgin

3.8 LANGUAGE AND GENDER

Gender-exclusive differentiation refers to the radically different speech varieties used by me n and women in
particular societies. In these societies, a woman or a man may, except in special circumstances, not be allowed to speak
the variety of the other gender.

Gender-variable differentiation is much more common in the languages of the world than is gender-exclusivity.
This phenomenon is reflected in the relative frequency with which men and women use the same lexical items or other
linguistic features.

Can you tell who, most likely, is speaking?

"Wow what a beautiful home!"
"That outfit looks lovely on you!"
"Nice coat."
"Where can I find a pair of shoes like that, I like them."
"This is a super cool shirt, I love it."
"This shirt is cool."

These are examples of how in North American societies, women use more frequently politeness formulas.
Also, some studies suggest that women use more verbal hedges than do men. These are words such as perhaps or
maybe which are less assertive in conversations than utterances without hedges.

3.9 SPEECH STYLE, SLANG AND JARGON

Speech style is the way of speaking according to the social situation.

Slang is the new colloquial vocabulary, usually used by one group of speakers.
Jargon is a kind of "trade slang," or specialized vocabulary used by a particular profession, club, academic
discipline, sport, or other activity or organization. Example : “hacker jargon”.
Argot is the word used to denote “secret language” and very often is interchangeable with jargon. Example :
“gay lingo”.
3.10 THEORETICAL SOCIOLINGUISTICS

It is concerned with formal models and methods for analyzing the structure of speech communities and speech
varieties, and providing a general account of communicative competence.

APPLIED SOCIOLINGUISTICS

Applied sociolinguistics deals with the social an political implications of fundamental

inequalities in language use in various areas of public life.

ANOTHER APPROACH

The field is often divided into macro and micro-sociolinguistics.

Macro-sociolinguistics is also called the sociology of language. It takes society as its starting point and deals with
language as a pivotal factor in the organization of communities.
Micro-sociolinguistics begins with language and treats social forces as essential factors influencing the structure of
languages.

DEVELOPING YOUR KNOWLEDGE

1. Make a visual organizer with some English words that you had listened to your students and divide them according to
the grammatical category.

2. When you use songs in your classes, how you choose the songs, according the lyrics, the Tense, or the rhythm?

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3. If the song chosen would have a lot of slang. Do you still use it? Why? How do you apply it?

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4. Do you know what’s the meaning of What’s uo, Hey dude, I’m out-pocket, Life’s a beach?

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 CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

Capacidad: Identifica y discrimina las principales características de la cultura inglesa y americana.

“The Americans are identical to the British in all respects except, of course, language." Oscar Wilde

"We (the British and Americans) are two countries separated by a common language." G.B. Shaw

4.1 Introduction
Talking about English Culture is to refer to two main countries The United Kingdom and The United States of North
America.
The culture of the United Kingdom is rich and varied, and has been influential on culture on a worldwide scale. It is a
European state, and has many cultural links with its former colonies, particularly those that use the English language (the
Anglo sphere). The origins of the UK as a political union of formerly independent states has resulted in the preservation of
distinctive cultures in each of the home nations.
By the other side, The Culture of the United States is a Western culture, and has been developing since long before
the United States became a country. Today the United States is a diverse and multi-cultural nation.
Its chief early influence was British culture, due to colonial ties with the British that spread the English language, legal
system and other cultural inheritances. Other important influences came from other parts of Europe, especially countries
from which large numbers immigrated such as Ireland, Germany, Poland, and Italy; the Native American peoples; Africa,
especially the western part, from which came the ancestors of most African Americans; and young groups of immigrants.
American culture also has shared influence on the cultures of its neighbors in the New World.
The United States has traditionally been known as a melting pot, but recent left leaning academics tend towards
cultural diversity, pluralism and the image of a salad bowl rather than a melting pot. Due to the extent of American culture
there are many integrated but unique subcultures within the United States. The cultural affiliations an individual in the
United States may have commonly depend on social class, political orientation and a multitude of demographic
characteristics such as ancestral traditions, sex and sexual orientation. The strongest influences on American culture came
from northern European cultures, most prominently from Germany, Ireland and Britain. There are great regional and sub
cultural differences, making American culture mostly heterogeneous.

4.2 AMERICAN CULTURE

What is culture?

Culture, whether in the United States or in general, consists of beliefs and values learned through the socialization
process as well as material artifacts. American society features a very diverse culture that features numerous sub-cultures
ranging from the Orthodox Jewish community in New York, to Chinatowns in many major cities to agnostic professionals
residing in urban lofts. Yet even in the United States, certain cultural norms and values such as a belief in the virtue of
honesty are generally shared by nearly all groups and cultures. Culture guides the social interactions between members of
society and influences the personal beliefs and values that shape a person's perception of their environment.
Culture does not remain stagnant: it evolves. Culture changes with advances and changes in public opinion,
technology, geopolitics, and science. The female beauty ideal presents itself as an excellent example. Before the turn of the
20th century the beauty ideal for women in the United States and most other western nations included someone who was
somewhat overweight or plump. Today, American culture has changes alongside most other western cultures. The modern
female beauty ideal in the late 20 th century and early 21st century was a thin, tall woman with a somewhat athletic look. The
relatively recent change in American culture concerning beauty among females is indicative of the manner in which culture
and with it the manner in which persons perceive the world around them changes.
4.2.1 History of United States of America

The United States of America (commonly referred to as the United States, the U.S., the USA, or America) is a
federal constitutional republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country is situated mostly in central North
America, where its forty-eight contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and
Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the
continent, with Canada to its east and Russia to the west across the Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in
the mid-Pacific. The country also possesses several territories, or insular areas, in the Caribbean and Pacific.

At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km²) and with about 306 million people, the United States is the third or
fourth largest country by total area and third largest by land area and by population. The United States is one of the world's
most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many countries. The U.S.
economy is the largest national economy in the world, with an estimated 2008 gross domestic product (GDP) of US $14.3
trillion (23% of the world total based on nominal GDP and almost 21% at purchasing power parity).

The nation was founded by thirteen colonies of Great Britain located along the
Atlantic seaboard. On July 4, 1776, they issued the Declaration of Independence,
which proclaimed their independence from Great Britain and their formation of a
cooperative union. The rebellious states defeated Great Britain in the American
Revolutionary War, the first successful colonial war of independence. The
Philadelphia Convention adopted the current United States Constitution on
September 17, 1787; its ratification the following year made the states part of a
single republic with a strong central government. The Bill of Rights, comprising ten
constitutional amendments guaranteeing many fundamental civil rights and
freedoms, was ratified in 1791.

In the 19th century, the United States acquired land from France, Spain, the
United Kingdom, Mexico, and Russia, and annexed the Republic of Texas and the
Republic of Hawaii. Disputes between the agrarian South and industrial North over
states' rights and the expansion of the institution of slavery provoked the American
Civil War of the 1860s. The North's victory prevented a permanent split of the
country and led to the end of legal slavery in the United States. By the 1870s, the national economy was the world's largest.
The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the country's status as a military power. In 1945, the United States
emerged from World War II as the first country with nuclear weapons, a permanent member of the United Nations Security
Council, and a founding member of NATO. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union left the United
States as the sole superpower. The country accounts for approximately 50% of global military spending and is a leading
economic, political, and cultural force in the world.

4.3 BRITISH CULTURE

4.3.1. Introduction
Britain is the birthplace of Newton, Darwin, Shakespeare and the Beatles; home of
the world's largest foreign exchange market, the world's richest football club - Manchester
United, the inventor of the hovercraft and the JK Rowling, the author of the Harry Potter
books. From Scotland to Cornwall, Britain is full of customs and traditions. A lot of them
have very long histories. Some are funny and some are strange. But they're all interesting
and are all part of the British way of life.

Why is England or the UK sometimes called Britain?

'When people say England, they sometimes mean Great Britain,
sometimes the United Kingdom,
sometimes the British Isles - but never England.'
'How to be an Alien' by George Mikes

"England" is sometimes, wrongly, used in reference to the whole United Kingdom, the
entire island of Great Britain (or simply Britain), or indeed the British Isles. This is not only
incorrect but can cause offence to people from other parts of the UK. The diverse history
of England, Scotland and Wales has led to very different cultural traditions; The Scots and
Welsh have right to feel aggrieved whenever the term 'English' is used wrongly, to mean
all three.

Countries within a Country

The name United Kingdom refers to the union of what were once four separate countries:
England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland ( though most of Ireland is now independant.)
 4.3.2 History of the making of the UK
In 1485,
Scotland was separate from England. Wales and Ireland were under some English control buy were not fully part of
the kingdom. The four countries were united by 1750. In 1485:
 England was ruled by the King of England
 Scotland was ruled by the King of Scotland
 Wales, a principality, ruled by the Prince of Wales (eldest son of the English King). Wales had its own culture and
language.
 Ireland - small parts were controlled by the English Kings but in many places the English control was weak.
In 1750:
 England was ruled by the King of England who was also the King of Scotland
 One King ruled both countries.
 Wales remained a principality but more clearly under English control. English language and customs were more
fashionable, but the Welsh language and culture was still strong.
 Ireland - ruled by the Kings of England. English Kings were also Kings of Ireland.

4.4 Differences between American and English culture

There are vast differences in culture between Americans and their British Commonwealth counterparts throughout
the world.

American English is spoken in the USA, Canada and many Pacific Rim countries where America has exerted an
influence.

British English is spoken throughout the British Commonwealth of 54 countries, some of the most notable being the
United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa, with Canada being the exception. Although part of the
Commonwealth, Canadians tend to speak a mixture of American and British English due to that country's proximity to the
USA (although they spell the British way). There are many cultural differences, but you can find it into the support material
you received (the CD).

4.5 Differences between American and British English

While there are certainly many more varieties of English, American and British English are the two varieties that are
taught in most ESL/EFL programs. Generally, it is agreed that no one version is "correct" however, there are certainly
preferences in use. The most important rule of thumb is to try to be consistent in your usage. If you decide that you want to
use American English spellings then be consistent in your spelling (i.e. The color of the orange is also its flavour - color is
American spelling and flavour is British), this is of course not always easy - or possible. The following guide is meant to
point out the principal differences between these two varieties of English.

Use of the Present Perfect

In British English the present perfect is used to express an action that has occurred in the recent past that has an
effect on the present moment. For example:

I've lost my key. Can you help me look for it?

In American English the following is also possible:
I lost my key. Can you help me look for it?
In British English the above would be considered incorrect. However, both forms are generally accepted in standard
American English. Other differences involving the use of the present perfect in British English and simple past in
American English include already, just and yet.
British English:
I've just had lunch
I've already seen that film
Have you finished your homework yet?
American English:
I just had lunch OR I've just had lunch
I've already seen that film OR I already saw that film.
Have your finished your homework yet? OR Did you finish your homework yet?

Possession
There are two forms to express possession in English. Have or Have got

Do you have a car?

Have you got a car?
He hasn't got any friends.
He doesn't have any friends.
She has a beautiful new home.
She's got a beautiful new home.
While both forms are correct (and accepted in both British and American English), have got (have you got, he hasn't
got, etc.) is generally the preferred form in British English while most speakers of American English employ the have
(do you have, he doesn't have etc.)
The Verb Get
The past participle of the verb get is gotten in American English. Example He's gotten much better at playing tennis.
British English - He's got much better at playing tennis.

Vocabulary
Probably the major differences between British and American English lies in the choice of vocabulary. Some words
mean different things in the two varieties for example:
Mean: (American English - angry, bad humored, British English - not generous, tight fisted)
Rubber: (American English - condom, British English - tool used to erase pencil markings)
There are many more examples (too many for me to list here). If there is a difference in usage, your dictionary will
note the different meanings in its definition of the term. Many vocabulary items are also used in one form and not in
the other. One of the best examples of this is the terminology used for automobiles.

American English - hood British English - bonnet

American English - trunk British English - boot
American English - truck British English - lorry

Once again, your dictionary should list whether the term is used in British English or American English.

Prepositions
There are also a few differences in preposition use including the following:

American English - on British English - at the

the weekend weekend
American English - on a British English - in a
team team
American English - British English - please
please write me soon write to me soon

Past Simple/Past Participles

The following verbs have two acceptable forms of the past simple/past participle in both American and British English,
however, the irregular form is generally more common in British English (the first form of the two) and the regular form
is more common to American English.

Burn Burnt OR burned

Dream dreamt OR dreamed
Lean leant OR leaned
Learn learnt OR learned
Smell smelt OR smelled
Spell spelt OR spelled
Spill spilt OR spilled
Spoil spoilt OR spoiled

Spelling
Here are some general differences between British and American spellings:

Words ending in -or (American) -our (British) color, colour, humor, humour, flavor, flavour etc.
Words ending in -ize (American) -ise (British) recognize, recognise, patronize, patronise etc.

The best way to make sure that you are being consistent in your spelling is to use the spell check on your word
processor (if you are using the computer of course) and choose which variety of English you would like. As you can
see, there are really very few differences between standard British English and standard American English. However,
the largest difference is probably that of the choice of vocabulary and pronunciation.

Into the mood

There are many British words which are different to American words.
For example:
 A lorry is a slimmer truck.
 A lift is an elevator.
 A fortnight is two weeks.
 A chemist is a person who works in a drugstore.
 A dual carriageway is a freeway.

To the practice

The words are arranged in categories to make viewing easier for school work.

Clothes
In the UK, we would be embarrassed if people saw our pants. why?

British English American English

Trousers Pants
Pants / Underwear / Knickers Underwear / panties
Jumper / Pullover / Sweater / Sweater
Jersey
Pinafore Dress Jumper
Vest Undershirt
Waistcoat Vest
Wellington Boots / Wellies Galoshes
Mac (slang for Macintosh) Rain Coat
Plimsolls Gym Shoes
Trainers Sneakers
Braces Suspenders
Suspenders Holds up stockings
Dressing Gown Robe
Nappy Diaper
Pinny / Apron Apron
Polo Neck Turtle Neck
Dressing Gown Bath Robe
Swimming costume / Cozzy Bathing Suit

At School
"Stop mucking around and get on with your work," shouted the teacher to two students who were off task.
British English American English
Friend / Mate Friend
Glue Gum
Rubber Eraser
Maths Math
Public School Private School
State School Public School
Holiday Vacation
School dinner Hot Lunch
Staff Room Teachers Lounge
Plimsolls Gym Shoes
"Mucking Around" / Off Task Off Task / Fooling Around / "Goofing Off"
Play Time / Break Time Recess
Open Day / Open Evening Open House
Marking Scheme Grading Scheme
Drawing pins pushpins or thumbtacks
On the Road
In the UK, we drive slowly over sleeping policemen. Are we afraid of waking them up?
British English American English
Sleeping Policeman /speed bump Speed bump
Car park Parking Lot
Car Journey / drive Road Trip
Zebra Crossing / Pedestrian Crossing Cross Walk
Lollipop Man or Lady Crossing Guard
Motorway Freeway
Traffic Jam / Tailback Traffic Jam
Lorry Truck
Articulated Lorry Tractor Trailer / Trailer Truck
Petrol Gas / Gasoline
Pavement Sidewalk
Petrol Station Gas Station
Skip Dumpster
Diversion Detour
Fire Engine Fire Truck
Phone Box Telephone Booth
Buildings / Shops

British English American English

Semi-Detached House Duplex
Flat (one storey) appartment Apartment
Terrace (row of houses joined) Town House
Chemist Drug Store / Druggist
Cafe / Caff (not 24 hrs) Diner
Bungalow House (one story)
Ranch House

Food
Are you Peckish? (Are you Hungry?) What's for afters? Have you had your pudding yet?
Are you feeling peckish (hungry)? That food looks very scrummy (delicious)

British English American English

Biscuit / Bickie Cookie
(A cookie is a large biscuit)
Scone Biscuit
Fairy Cake Cup Cake
Courgette Zucchini
Sweets Candy
Sausage / Banger Sausage
Crisps Chips
Chips French Fries
(French Fries in McDonald's)
Starter Appetizer
Puddings / Afters / Dessert / Dessert
Sweets
Jacket Potato / Baked Potato Baked Potato
Jam Jelly or Jam
Jelly (a dessert in the UK) Jell-o (flavoured gelatin)
Aubergine Eggplant
Sandwich / Butty / Sarny Sandwich
Ice lolly Popsicle
Bill (at restaurant) check
Grill Broil
Food / Grub / Nosh Food
Rasher A slice of bacon
Eggy bread (fried) French Toast
Runner beans Green beans
Soldiers (We dip soldiers in our soft boiled eggs) Finger sized slices of toast.
 Take-away Take out
Scotch Pancakes Flapjacks
Flapjacks in England are oats mixed with honey and/or golden syrup and baked then cut into slices.
Sometimes raisins are added to the mixture.

Parts of a Car

British English American English

Bonnet Hood
Windscreen Windshield
Boot Trunk
Reversing lights Back-up lights
Exhaust pipe Tail pipe / Muffler
In and around the House
I watch the telly whilst lying on the settee. Whilst is used in British English. It is another word for while

British English American English

The Toilet / Loo / The John / Bathroom / Restroom
Bog / WC / Visiting the little boys (little girl's
room).
Bathroom - the room where the bath is. If you asked us for the bathroom we will think you
want to have a bath!
Tap Faucet
Garden Backyard / Yard
Wardrobe Closet
Bin / Dust Bin Trash Can
Telephone / Blower / Phone Telephone
Television / Box / Telly/ TV TV / Television
Cooker Range or Stove
Couch / Sofa / Settee Sofa
Hand Basin / Sink Sink
Run the bath Fill the tub

People

British English American English

Girl / Lass Girl
Boy / Lad Boy
Man / Bloke / Gentleman / Guy / Man / Guy
Chap
Lady / Woman Lady
Policeman / Bobby / Copper Policeman / Cop
Postman Mailman
Dustman Garbage Man
Friend / Pal / Chum / Mate /  
Buddy Friend / Buddy
Cashier Teller
Lollypop Man Crossing Guard
Nutter Crazy Person
Mum / Mummy / Mom Mom

Sport

British English American English

Football Soccer
Rounders Baseball
Bat (table tennis) Paddle (ping pong)

Other Words

British English American English

Torch Flashlight
Plaster Band-Aid
Autumn Fall
Bank Holiday National Holiday
Lift Elevator
Queue Stand in a Line
There's a queue. There's a line.
Quid (slang for pound) Bucks
Surgery Doctor's office
Trodden on Stepped on
I'm knackered I'm Beat
Kip / sleep sleep
Nick steal
 Wireless / Radio Radio
Starkers / naked Naked
Come round Come over
Off you go Go ahead
It's gone off It's spoiled
Lady bird Lady bug

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. BLAKE, Robert . (1982) The English World: History, Character & People. London: Thames & Hudson..
2. BOWLE, John. (1968) England, a Portrait. London: Benn..
3. BOWLE, John. (1971) The English Experience: A Survey of English History. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
4. BROGAN, D.W. (1943) The English People: Impressions and Observations. London: Hamish Hamilton. }
5. BUTTERFIELD, Herbert. (1944) The Englishman and his History. Cambridge. UP.

COMMON EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK OF

REFERENCE FOR LANGUAGES

Capacidad: Reconoce los principales requisitos de suficiencia del Marco Europeo de Referencia
de Lenguas Extranjeras.

“It is possible to store the mind with a million facts and still be entirely uneducated." Alec Boune

5.1 Why a Common European Framework of Reference for Languages?

Developed through a process of scientific research and wide consultation, this document provides a practical tool for
setting clear standards to be attained at successive stages of learning and for evaluating outcomes in an internationally
comparable manner.
It is the result of extensive research and ongoing work on communicative objectives, as exemplified by the popular
'Threshold level' concept. The Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) provides a basis for the mutual
recognition of language qualifications, thus facilitating educational and occupational mobility. It is increasingly used in the
reform of national curricula and by international consortia for the comparison of language certificates.
A European Union Council Resolution (November 2001) recommended the use of this Council of Europe instrument in
setting up systems of validation of language competences.
The Committee of Minister of the Council of Europe addressed a Recommendation to the members states on the use
of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages and the promotion of plurilingualism
The Framework is a document which describes in a comprehensive manner:
- the competences necessary for communication
- the related knowledge and skills
- the situations and domains of communication
The CEFR has become a key reference document and valuable tool for educational and professional mobility. It is
available in over 30 language versions.
The Framework facilitates a clear definition of teaching and learning objectives and methods. It provides the necessary
tools for assessment of proficiency.
The Framework is of particular interest to course designers, textbook writers, testers, teachers and teacher trainers - in
fact to all who are directly involved in language teaching and testing.
It is the result of extensive research and ongoing work on communicative objectives, as exemplified by the popular
'Threshold level' concept.
The Framework has become a key reference document and valuable tool for educational and professional mobility.
The CEFR defines levels of attainment in different aspects of its descriptive scheme with illustrative descriptors scale.
The illustrative descriptor scales, plus other descriptors related to the CEFR.
CEFR is of particular interest to course designers, textbook writers, testers, teachers and teacher trainers - in fact to all
who are directly involved in language teaching and testing.
It facilitates a clear definition of teaching and learning objectives and methods and provides the necessary tools for
assessment of proficiency.

5.2 Synopsis
 Chapter 1 defines the aims, objectives and functions of the proposed Framework in the light of the overall language
policy of the Council of Europe and in particular the promotion of plurilingualism in response to European linguistic and
cultural diversity. It then sets out the criteria which the Framework should satisfy
Chapter 2 explains the approach adopted. The descriptive scheme is based on an analysis of language use in terms of
the strategies used by learners to activate general and communicative competences in order to carry out the activities and
processes involved in the production and reception of texts and the construction of discourse dealing with particular themes,
which enable them to fulfil the tasks facing them under the given conditions and constraints in the situations which arise in
the various domains of social existence. The words underlined designate the parameters for the description of language
use and the user/learner's ability to use language.
Chapter 3 introduces the common reference levels. Progress in language learning with regard to the parameters of the
descriptive scheme can be calibrated in terms of a flexible series of levels of attainment defined by appropriate descriptors.
This apparatus should be rich enough to accommodate the full range of learner needs and thus the objectives pursued by
different providers, or required of candidates for language qualifications.
Chapter 4 establishes in some (but not exhaustive or definitive) detail the categories (scaled where possible) needed
for the description of language use and the language user/learner according to the parameters identified, covering in turn:
the domains and situations providing the context for language use; the themes, tasks and purposes of communication;
communicative activities, strategies and processes; and text; especially in relation to activities and media.
Chapter 5 categorises in detail the user/learner's general and communicative competences, scaled where possible.
Chapter 6 considers the processes of language learning and teaching, dealing with the relation between acquisition
and learning and with the nature and development of plurilingual competence, as well as with methodological options of a
general or more specific kind, in relation to the categories set out in Chapters 3 & 4.
Chapter 7 examines in greater detail the role of tasks in language learning and teaching
Chapter 8 is concerned with the implications of linguistic diversification for curriculum design and considers such
issues as: plurilingualism and pluriculturalism; differentiated learning objectives; principles of curriculum design; curricular
scenarios; life-long language learning; modularity and partial competences.
Chapter 9 discusses the various purposes of assessment and corresponding assessment types, in the light of the
need to reconcile the competing criteria of comprehensiveness, precision and operational feasibility. The General
Bibliography contains a selection of books and articles which users of the Framework may wish to consult in order to go into
greater depth with regard to the issues raised. The bibliography contains relevant Council of Europe documents as well as
works published elsewhere.
Appendix A discusses development of descriptors of language proficiency. Methods of and criteria for, scaling and the
requirements for formulating descriptors for the parameters and categories presented elsewhere. are explained.
Appendix B gives an overview of the project in Switzerland which developed and scaled the illustrative descriptors.
The illustrative scales in the text are listed with page references.
Appendix C contains the descriptors for self-assessment at series of levels adopted by the DIALANG Project of the
European Commission for use on the Internet.
Appendix D contains the "Can Do" descriptors at the series of levels developed by the Association of Language
Testers in Europe (ALTE)

5.3 Levels of Proficiency

One of the aims of the "Common European Framework of Reference: Learning, Teaching, Assessment", Council of
Europe reference document for the European Language Portfolio, is to help partners to describe the levels of proficiency
required by existing standards, tests and examinations in order to facilitate comparisons between different systems of
qualifications. For this purpose the Council of Europe has developed a European Framework with common reference levels.
There does appear in practice to be a wide consensus on the number and nature of levels appropriate to the
organization of language learning and the public recognition of achievement.
These six levels are an interpretation of the classic division into basic, intermediate and advanced.
The scheme proposed in the "Common European Framework of Reference: Learning, Teaching, Assessment" adopts
a "Hypertext" branching principle, starting from an initial division into three broad levels:
 Basic User: A1 and A2
 Independent User: B1 and B2
 Proficient User: C1 and C2
Such a simple "Global Scale" makes it easier to communicate the system to non-specialist users and will also provide
teachers and curriculum planners with orientation points.
However, in order to orient learners, teachers and other users within the educational system for some practical purpose, a
more detailed overview is necessary. Such an overview is presented in the form of a Self-Assessment Grid showing major
categories of language use at each of the six levels. It is intended to help learners to profile their main language skills, and
decide at which level they might look at a checklist of more detailed descriptors in order to self-assess their level of
proficiency.
5.4 Global Scale

Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or read. Can summarise information
from different spoken and written sources, reconstructing arguments and accounts in a
Proficient C2
coherent presentation. Can express him/herself spontaneously, very fluently and
precisely, differentiating finer shades of meaning even in more complex situations.
Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and recognise implicit meaning.
Can express him/herself fluently and spontaneously without much obvious searching for
expressions. Can use language flexibly and effectively for social, academic and
User C1
professional purposes. Can produce clear, well-structured, detailed text on complex
subjects, showing controlled use of organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive
devices.
Can understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete and abstract topics,
including technical discussions in his/her field of specialisation. Can interact with a degree
of fluency and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with native speakers quite
Independent B2
possible without strain for either party. Can produce clear, detailed text on a wide range of
subjects and explain a viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages and
disadvantages of various options.
Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar matters regularly en-
countered in work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal with most situations likely to arise whilst
travelling in an area where the language is spoken. Can produce simple connected text
User B1
on topics which are familiar or of personal interest. Can describe experiences and events,
dreams, hopes & ambitions and briefly give reasons and explanations for opinions and
plans.
Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of most
immediate relevance (e.g. very basic personal and family information, shopping, local
geography, employment). Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a
Basic A2
simple and direct exchange of information on familiar and routine matters. Can describe
in simple terms aspects of his/her background, immediate environment and matters in
areas of immediate need.
Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases aimed at
the satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can introduce him/herself and others and
User A1 can ask and answer questions about personal details such as where he/she lives, people
he/she knows and things he/she has. Can interact in a simple way provided the other
person talks slowly and clearly and is prepared to help.

LANGUAGES COMMONLY EQUIVALENCES ACCORDING CEFRL

    A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2
Alemán Start Start Zertifikat   Zentrale Zentrale
Deutsch Deutsch 2 Deutsch Mittelstufen- Oberstufen-
1 (ZD) prüfung prüfung (ZOP)
(ZMP) Kleines
Deutsches
Sprachdiplom
(KDS)
Catalán   Certificat Certificat de Certificat de Certificat de Certificat de
de nivell nivell nivell nivell nivell superior
básic de elemental intermedi de suficiència de català
català de catalá català de català
Danés   Prøve i Prøve i Prøve i Studieprøve  
Dansk 1 Dansk 2 Dansk 3 n
Español     Diploma de Diploma de   Diploma de
Español Español Español (Nivel
(Nivel (Nivel Superior)
Inicial) Intermedio)
Euskera         Euskararen  
Gaitasun
Agiria (EGA)
Finés   Suomen Suomen Suomen kieli Suomen kieli Suomen kieli
kieli kieli keskitaso 4-5 ylintaso 6 ylintaso 7-8
perustaso perustaso ylintaso 5
1 2-3
keskitaso 3
Francés Diplôme Diplôme Diplôme Diplôme Diplôme Diplôme
d'Etudes d'Etudes d'Etudes en d'Etudes en Approfondi Approfondi de
 en en Langue Langue de Langue Langue
Langue Langue Française Française Française Française
Français Française (DELF B1) (DELF B2) (DALF C1) (DALF C2)
e (DELF (DELF
A1) A2)
Griego     Bebaevsh Elinomathias    
Ellhnomaqe Epipedo
iai (Veveosi Eparkias
Elinomathia
s)
Inglés Prelimin Key Preliminary First Certificate in Certificate of
ary English English Certificate in Advanced Proficiency in
English Test Test (PET) English English English (CPE)
Test (KET) BEC 1 (FCE) (CAE) BULATS 5
(PET) Young BULATS 2 BEC 2 BEC 3 ISE IV
GESE 2 Learners ISE I BULATS 3 BULATS 3 GESE 12
BULATS GESE 5 y 6 ISE II ISE III
1 GESE 7, 8 y GESE 10 y
ISE 0 9 11
GESE 3 y
4
Italiano Diploma Certificato Diploma Diploma Diploma Certificato di
Element di Intermedio Avanzado di Commerciale Conoscenza
are di Conoscen di Lingua Lingua di Lingua della Lingua
Lingua za della Italiana Italiana Italiana Italiana Livello
Italiana Lingua (DILI) (DALI) (DALC) 5 (CELI 5),
(DELI), Italiana Certificato Certificato di Certificato di PLIDA C2
PLIDA Livello 1 di Conoscenza Conoscenza
A1 (CELI 1), Conoscenz della Lingua della Lingua
PLIDA A2 a della Italiana Italiana
Lingua Livello 3 Livello 4
Italiana (CELI 3), (CELI 4),
Livello 2 PLIDA B2 PLIDA C1
(CELI 2),
PLIDA B1
Luxemb   Zertifikat Éischten Zweten   Ieweschten
urgués Lëtzebuer Diplom Diplom Diplom
gesch als Lëtzebuerg Lëtzebuerge Lëtzebuergesc
Friemspro esch als sch als h
och Friemsproo Friemsprooc
(ZLaF) ch (1DLaF) h (2DLaF)
Neerlan   Profiel Profiel Staatsexame Staatsexame  
dés Toeristisc Maatschap n n
he en pelijke Nederlands Nederlands
Informele Taalvaardig als Tweede als Tweede
Taalvaard heid (PMT) Taal Examen Taal Examen
igheid I (NT2-I) II (NT2-II)
(PTIT) Profiel Profiel
Professionel Academisch
e e
Taalvaardigh Taalvaardigh
eid (PPT) eid (PAT)
Norueg     Språkprøve   Test i norsk  
o n i norsk for for fremmed-
voksne språklige
innvandrere Høyere nivå
Portugu   Certificad Diploma Diploma Diploma Diploma
és o Inicial Elementar Intermédio Avançado de Universitário
de de de Português de Português
Português Português Português Língua Língua
Língua Língua Língua Estrangeira Estrangeira
Estrangeir Estrangeira Estrangeira (DAPLE) (DUPLE)
a (CIPLE) (DEPLE) (DIPLE)
Sueco     Sfi-provet   Test in  
Swedish for
University
Studies
(TISUS)
 A1 A2 B1 B2 C1 C2
I can recognise I can understand I can I can I can I have no
familiar words phrases and the understand the understand understand difficulty in
and very basic highest frequency main points of extended extended understanding
phrases vocabulary clear standard speech and speech even any kind of
concerning related to areas speech on lectures and when it is not spoken
myself, my of most familiar matters follow even clearly language,
family and immediate regularly complex lines of structured and whether live or
immediate personal encountered in argument when broadcast, even
concrete relevance (e.g. work, school, provided the relationships when delivered
surroundings very basic leisure, etc. I topic is are only implied at fast native
UNDERST

when people personal and can reasonably and not speed,

speak slowly family understand the familiar. I can signalled provided. I have
Listening
and clearly. information, main point of understand explicitly. I can some time to
shopping, local many radio or most TV news understand get familiar with
area, TV and current television the accent.
employment). I programmes affairs programmes
can catch the on current programmes. I and films
main point in affairs or topics can understand without too
short, clear, of personal or the majority of much effort.
simple messages professional films in
and interest when standard
announcements. the delivery is dialect.
relatively slow
and clear.
I can I can read very I can I can read I can I can read with
understand short, simple understand articles and understand ease virtually
familiar texts. I can find texts that reports long and all forms of
names, specific, consist concerned complex the written
words and predictable mainly of with factual and language,
very simple information in high contemporary literary texts, including
sentences, simple frequency problems in appreciating abstract,
for example everyday everyday or which the distinctions of structurally or
ANDING

on notices material such job-related writers adopt style. I can linguistically

Reading and posters as language. I particular understand complex texts
or in advertisements, can attitudes or specialised such as
catalogues. prospectuses, understand viewpoints. I articles and manuals,
menus and the can longer specialised
timetables and description of understand technical articles and
I can events, contemporary instructions, literary works.
understand feelings and literary prose. even when
short simple wishes in they do not
personal personal relate to my
letters. letters. field.
I can interact I can I can deal I can interact I can express I can take part
in a simple communicate in with most with a degree myself fluently effortlessly in
way provided simple and situations of fluency and and any
the other routine tasks likely to arise spontaneity spontaneousl conversation
person is requiring a whilst that makes y without or discussion
prepared to simple and travelling in regular much obvious and have a
repeat or direct an area interaction searching for good
rephrase exchange of where the with native expressions. I familiarity with
things at a information on language is speakers can use idiomatic
slower rate of familiar topics spoken. I can quite possible. language expressions
speech and and activities. I enter I can take an flexibly and and
help me can handle unprepared active part in effectively for colloquialisms.
formulate very short into discussion in social and I can express
SPEA

Spoken what I'm social conversation familiar professional myself fluently

Interaction trying to say. exchanges, on topics that contexts, purposes. I and convey
I can ask and even though I are familiar, accounting for can formulate finer shades
answer can't usually of personal and ideas and of meaning
simple understand interest or sustaining my opinions with precisely. If I
questions in enough to keep pertinent to views. precision and do have a
areas of the everyday life relate my problem I can
immediate conversation (e.g. family, contribution backtrack and
need or on going myself. hobbies, skilfully to restructure
very familiar work, travel those of other around the
topics. and current speakers. difficulty so
events). smoothly that
other people
are hardly
aware of it.
 I can use I can use a I can connect I can present I can present I can present
simple series of phrases in a clear, detailed clear, detailed a clear,
phrases and phrases and simple way in descriptions descriptions of smoothly-
sentences to sentences to order to on a wide complex flowing
describe describe in describe range of subjects description or
where I live simple terms experiences subjects integrating argument in a
and people I my family and and events, related to my sub-themes, style
know. other people, my dreams, field of developing appropriate to
living hopes and interest. I can particular the context
conditions, my ambitions. I explain a points and and with an
Spoken educational can briefly viewpoint on a rounding off effective
KING

Productio background give reasons topical issue with an logical

n and my present and giving the appropriate structure
or most recent explanations advantages conclusion. which helps
job. for opinions and the recipient
and plans. I disadvantage to notice and
can narrate a s of various remember
story or options. significant
relate the plot points.
of a book or
film and
describe my
reactions.
I can write a I can write I can write I can write I can express I can write
short, simple short, simple simple clear, detailed myself in clear,
postcard, for notes and connected text on a wide clear, well- smoothly-
example messages text on topics range of structured flowing text in
sending relating to which are subjects text, an appropriate
holiday matters in familiar or of related to my expressing style. I can
greetings. I areas of personal interests. I points of view write complex
can fill in immediate interest. I can can write an at some letters, reports
forms with needs. I can write essay or length. I can or articles
personal write a very personal report, write about which present
details, for simple personal letters passing on complex a case with an
example letter, for describing information or subjects in a effective
WRITING

entering my example experiences giving letter, an logical

Writing
name, thanking and reasons in essay or a structure
nationality someone for impressions. support of or report, which helps
and address something. against a underlining the recipient
on a hotel particular what I to notice and
registration point of view. I consider to be remember
form. can write the salient significant
letters issues. I can points. I can
highlighting select style write
the personal appropriate to summaries
significance of the reader in and reviews of
events and mind. professional
experiences. or literary
works.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. www.coe.int/T/DG4/Linguistic/CADRE_EN.asp
2. en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_European_Framework_of_Reference_for_Languages
3. www.coe.int/T/DG4/Linguistic/Source/Framework_EN.pdf
4. www.linguanet-europa.org/plus/en/extLink.jsp?urlKey=global-scale-grid
5. www.ecml.at/help/detail.asp?i=121