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INTRODUCTION
• rm
The development of the policy approaches or polic~ ~alysis goes to the notion that ' (~i~ • f't'
problems could find their solutions through the application of human reason an~ know\edRt
l..i.-..s ,
. th century , it was felt
In the ear ly twen t 1e . that
. government
. could
. solve social Pr"b\
"
,
~Ul,
0
~)\tC'- · r· , ,
by making policies. In the 1930s social sc1ent1_sts churned that if 0 over~rnent wanted to d~
1ntcrprcut1
with the problems of the day , it had to recogmze the need for a more mform_ed theoreticalh HP, .
driven approach to governing. Approaches and models structure and provide a discou~e forn1:e.d a
of analysis which came into use in the 1970s and 1980s. They may be thought of as modes
01
organizing problems, givi ng them a form and a coherence. A model involv es the notion
of constructing a boundary around reality which_l s shared, or held in common by a group 01
scholars or theori sts. When we study public pol1cies we must be aware of how differem EASTO
models of analysis define and discuss problems, and how these clash with each other. David E
In the development of policy approach, the contribution of four scholars, name\\ constitu
Harold Lasswell, Herbert Simon, Charles Lindblom and David Easton, is far-reachin g. ln thii provide1
chapter, we will discuss the leading models and frames of the policy approaches contributed policy t
by these scholars. \V1der e
T
LASSWELL'S POLICY APPROACH conve r
1
H:~ld L~s~well is regarded as a leading scholar of the policy approach 1 His writings on dernar
iu b ic pohc1es may _be dat~d back to the 1930s, when he was inspired by the Chicago Sehr~.{
o e concerned with social probl d . \V1\\~ 3. H~
them. Lasswell was f h ems an taking a multidisciplinary approach for so h: Vi
one o t e early s h O1 h · ti 4. H
policy process,2 such as: c ars w o formulated a set of seven stages tn S,
5. r:
1. Lasswell was instrumental in settin u . A
2. Harold D. Lasswell The Dec · .· g pp the Arnencan Policy Commission a 'thinktank' in 1940s. J· 6. I
Univer st·t O f M ' ision roces·s· S C · ' 11.K r)1la\\ ·
Y aryland, 1956. · · even ategories of Functional Analysis, ina

56
II

---- 1.
2.
J.
Inte llige nce
Pro m o tion
Pres cript ion
4. Invo catio n
5. Appl i catio n
6. Ten n inati on
7. Appr ai sal .
the de, e i0 rnwn r 1"' f ~--le'-·" ,1.·t1.· n1.T" f-f ,,
Lass well is well -kno wn for hi5 cont nbut i0n to
19- 0 m the fir-t 1 , , u ..· ,)f rh1.· IPllrn ,il r ,,t,,··.
article set o ut the state of the policy ,c ience .;. m
ledge 0f the r,<111-..·, pnx t·, .. .ind 111 rhc pnlic•,
Sciences, w he re he intro duce d the idea o f knO\ \
3
ce, 1, th.lt thc- -.. , ln.-
proce ss, and argu ed th at the o utloo k of polic y <;cien
" th~H the -,u~ 1n:t 1t111~ tr> b"' t b>
(a) prob le m -o ri e nte d . Thi 5 prob lem foc us mean
(c ) 1de:is and cechn iq Ut''- FPr t .ts~ w dl. 1h c
multi disci plina ry, and in volv ed in the synth es is of
polic y scien ces are , th ere fore:
co nte xtua l
• mul ti -method
•
• prob lem -o r·ie nte d .
i pl ines conc e rned v.ith t:: '\plu.101n~ the:
Lass well defi ne s the polic y scie nces as the ·'disc
a nd wi th loc.:n ting tlata ,,n<l p rov 1d1n g
polic y-ma ki ng a nd po lic y exec uting proc es!).
e ms of a given perio d ."~
interp reta ti o ns w hic h are re levan t to the polic y probl
dy na mic mod e l o f pol1c y -mi1k tn g that
His syste m a tic a ppro ach in stage s, enab led a more
s o the r than ins tit utio na l and c;onq i tut1 o rual
form ed a ba sis for unde rstan ding po licy in term
arrangeme nts.

EASTON'S MODEL OF POLICY ANALYSIS

prim arily conc erne d wtth ' publ ic pol ic1e:. ·.
David Easto n ' s 5 work , a ltho ug h no t regar ded as
lopm e nt of polic y a ppro ac he s, in that. lt
const itutes a n impo rta nt cont r ibuti on to the deve
tl y infl ue nced the way in whic h the sLud) o r
provided a mod el of the po litica l sy stem that grea
een po licy- maki ng, polic y ourp ub. .1n<l 1t-,.
polic y tende d to conc entra te o n the relations hjp betw
wider envir onme nt.
vie wing the pol icy proce ss in term , l.>f
The main char acter istic o f the Easto njan mode l is
n to o utcom es (see F ig ure 4 . I l .
conve rsion from inpu ts into polic y outp uts and the
a s a ' blac k box· whic h convert.:-, the
The po li c y-m akin g proc ess h as been regar ded
6 hi s an a lys is of po licica l sysce m.s argu ed th~H
dema nds of the socie ty into polic ies. Eas to n . in
I , 1970.
3 n o f the po licy ~cic nces. P o l1c v Scic11 c t.'s. \ ol.
· Harol d D. Lassw e ll , The e me rg ing c o ncep tio
pp. 3-14. Po licy
4 D . Lerne r and Ham id D . Las!'- we ll (fats. ). Thi!
· Ha_rold D. Lassw ell , The po lic y o ri e nt ati o n . in k . f:> .. l
d , F.
5 _ t c~~~ eEs, Standford : Stan ford Uni ve rs ity Press . 195 1, pp. 14- 15 . I c95 ,,_, , an n • ram ewo r · 1ur o 11t1c a
York : Alfre d Knop f.
A aston , The Po litica l Syste m , N e w A . -
V
6_ n:~7asiEs,
p.
New Jerse y: Pre ntice- H a ll , 1965 .
_ a st on, An appro ach to the a na lysi s of po litica
l syste m s, Wo rld Po 1
. .
w cs, o 1 - 9 . pn 1 19 ) 7.
384
 ~ tr 4 ♦ 69
Policy App roachrs and Modds
Political system ,,,1em, ""
<he , oli\ic,\
- , '" •he '"'"••i<>li,e " '"e •lloca,ioo,
, ,hca00 of
'°""''' •
1
"' Demands
Resources
,:: Supports
Parties
Groups
]f-- Decis_ion - J ~
malung
Le?is lation
Adm1n1s tra tion
Adjudicat ion
s. O•<r•;,;.,,,.;
pubh P
The concept
, consli,"" p"blic l">licy « ,olicie,'. . The sy«em

'"" \ o\icy O" "ao ""''"' of lhe '°'""''

'.>"em :
, <heory

f f ,edbock iod,co1e, '"" '""'" poli~es may ha,e, mod,fymg

. .

ent and the demands generated therein, and may also have an effect
effect

6. on the en,u~nm Cle, of <he poli1ic,\ sys1<m. Policy ""P"" may g<oMe oew
Public
opinion process
for the system.
upo n the c tiara w supports or withdrawal of the old supµ orts
Feedb ack playne
ds an · onme nt for foture
' role in generating suitable envu
s an ·im portant
deman
F eedback polic ies.

Cha nge or stability f Systems Approach in 'Policy Ana\-ysis

, ·tations O . akin mcess. Dye soys<hat
Environll:len t L1ttll . du\ aid inolic -m . '".,., ,, ,=s. such"
<he. policyquestions
"nde.s<ondioglies
s theory is a us analysis m the
Physical p y
The systemf the sysiems model lo dimension . ment thal •ene.ale de-ds o,on
Social he value o . 'f1cant s of the environ o

Econornic are she 51gm able >t to

I
Political " I. What . . I s ssem' h oh<ica\ system"'" en
FIGURE 4.1 Policy-m aking process. of t e \l . itse\f over time'?
the poht1ca y . . ficant characten st1cs "
the s1gm \ and to \)reserve . ,
So urce: Adapted from Easton (1975) Wh•S are ds into pubhc po "Y f ,ohtmtl system .
,es.
~ form deman ilieel ilie ch,ntcte, o f nub\,qo\,c
2. trans . nmental inputs ffect the contents o .,
f h poht1cal system a \ "
tative al10cation H w do env1ro
the political system was that part of the society engaged in the "authori conteo\ of pubhc ,o «y I and the chancte,
of what political scientist s have in mind when ~, 3. o do characterisJics o t e aff ecI the
values". This outlook gives a rough
describe Easton's pol icy approach.
idea 4. How vironmen tal inputs thrnugh feedback., the envuonmen .
How do en . he a!feel,
1 5. w does pubhc po ~., howm,, fomte
for the study of public policy is, ,
products of the ~: the political system .
I. lnpurs are seen as the physical, social, economi c and political 6.
ent. They arc received in the political system in the fonn of both demands stem s mode\ . to serve a
environm
and supports. el appeMS to be 10~ s,m;'~~:';; of employ
The usefulness of the sy
input-ou'.,tt :"~ocess. This mod:\,~
wing to several facto:l·that this policy-m :e maxhnioat>on '
and groups to
2. Demands are the claims made on the political system by individu als o It has been argu . the no which are base o
when individu als or groups, l . that " >gnos"
alter some aspect of the environment. Demands occur . d to understandmg Of welfare economJcs odel " oat
in response to environmental conditions, act to affect public policies. usefu at hniques . ,
~at
enr is any condition or event defined as external to the boundaries ol
env;ronmsystem.
Thepolitical
3. the the value-I• ::: ,t;;cial welfare fu::u~;aditional i~put•o; ;;;~.: in the sys~:::~
4 clearly defi hortcoming of b , The misSJng '";._. •. LinebeIT'/strong o I constra•
Another s of the 'black . ox . " of policy-ro. ino akers ,re y
and customs which provide
Supp~"', of•hpolitical
- st system consists of the rules, laws entary nature d institution s . . a\ dec1s1on-m
,community and the authoriti es. Supports h pr~~'~.
are
• basis for , when
rendered g
e?c_e of)s•orpolitical
e ex,.ind1v1dua :~;'.'.'power, pers?.::,:;,"~i:not forget tha\:.l:~i tical system;: of the policy ,
. nmen\ m rtant elem ble potenua
sym boJ'1c or matenal . mputs
. (such the
roups accept
of a system as obdecisions
. or laws · .They are tore . . g these,
·n the envuo . es an impo consider• de\ wou
exammm . ut-output mo . " th
even respecting the national fl ) h· . · ey10g laws, paying taxes, mic fac\ors t d I also tgnor . ) have also a
"causauve .
Eastonian mo e d' g insti1u11ons ttadi\ional mp
·
ag , t at constitute th e Psyc ho log1caJ and maten'al econo
The free rather shan
resources of the system. The . makers (inclu mthey operate.
. hin which . " and value-
. that the pohcy-
At the heart of any political system are the · • . onment wit "facilitati ve
st t the _e ~vir aking system as
policy-making•. 1 These include the chief '" ' Uhons •nd J>Crsonnel involved in dec1s1on -m
ce-H.a\\, \\}SO, ~r
. • ators, judges an d
'. le g,s d C\ifis: Prenu d What D1.fft '
bureaucrats. n the systems version, they translat executive
1 . . Policy,
bl I( Governmen t Does an
Eng\ewoo
· Pu . What
inputs into outputs.
In dte politico/ sden1is15' ve,.,;on, ;, ;, !he block bo, c.owd. d e · h Understanding public47.Policy
Thomas R. Dye, American
e wu Pe.·, 001 •nd inss;tui · h 7. rt L· Lineberry , kker 1984, P·
J>c called ded.,;011-make,s, 00 8. Robe . Marcel De '
New York .
ions w o can
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'tv ,:.,.;,.,, t,~ ,C"<.~P<.' :.,, r;:ll ~olll arttl ul,11,•cj nt ch 111 th<" hurc.tuc.raq, e,1~rl:, <.e,"r.
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i 11\:1'1, :•11 , 11.,ft,1 t;,. ,. h1~h rhr ,.,,, 11ot111wnt tx,th 111 1c rnal and cxternc1l-.
: .: ,, ,. n 1t.f111,·11:{ ,· :~ j..,,h,, 111a~111r l"' 'l ' " · , , 1nf111c.·11u·d hy th e VJlue\ and •do
,,, ,J h !Ill rk·uu1.,: t'. .;.11,.::;;- ;1, tht ~\:.Inn It MJ}'¥Ci. t , th.i f polt(. y-maJon g IO\cJh e\ • ,
:hr 11(11:, \ ll •11.t1 :•,1• . 1-.i:1
qll1tm , :mcJ , a/uc, The value, hdd t;,\
t:ic poll~} n1.1h·1 ., pt•tl
r• 11n, •:,;.\c-1, ::~t. !-•;d,;ts,-..u:~dh :, ~:su 11tcd In he c. n1t1al 111 unc.kr , 1:.11HJ1ng the ;·
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1
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v.hid, th· f",,lll~ 'it.:.!~•: ;1H..-.c·~, v. .1, lt.1111ed 1n tht< 196/J, ~tniJ l97(h.

tcclucc"
LtNDBLOM'S !NCRIMENiAL MODEL \ / I nut.;11 i.;01iip.i.11,ul\
. t).\,,l:.(.-.':.41\ "'
,\ ~ '1 \1 tn..:,rf'J
d..::?c otl..:f.tC
lnttoduction
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~
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.
l<.J)'J,
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f:.Uiird "'11.k
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, 1, tilr ci,\t'lup , .: ntai appro.u:.
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urrcnt -,1tu.i . ,h..:) .i.n,1 ) '> 1... , b <Y1ed ·1n a t11e ,
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11
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. l . .. <.; ,1t , fl u 4lt r - \n '-unm1..,l. the coo ai.:h ume , but\,hng ~1.1n<l u1( ,n \979, c\anh ·.._rn cncornpas·
;,,no ll '~ t Jc i.ub1>C,➔ ue111 ..r ;i.l c fi4L1\ c:. ..tfc dbnu ~~.~ .h ·Jcrallv!: . daffielllab anew c:: • f rocn the gr undb\orn, I ncremcntah hanoes \1
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' • ' I O •
nLt...(./(lJIJ,,. to Lm<lblnrn. u,11:.1J .1H11•, ul hJnc I rn f.1n . i.k tci1njnc lhc optimal approa, h
proai.: '· I mental c z::
and al\>. a)":> p,ep' f r h.1 -. t111t1..u e .1na\\/tic ap , es on\y incre \\y supporung
1d.:rn1fyrn.11 chc fu ll Ltflgc:.- c,j µoil \. l llltt hgcnLc , a.nu lO I . • f 11) T dccaJe'i a tc I tn A.'- an . a\ternauv , "a rnutua . , \ wot
lJk.1,f!kUL.:ilbh Jd<"ntJ the '-; "lctH..1U1,c•, l!Iid ll ,c-u 1..011i.c :, prc\·c nt pol1c-y-makc rs N
fllUddl wo of tnc1~01ent,1 I'> ·h con::.1u~r.., ·.1~ ich einp\oys n of ana\yuca 1\1
1r1g tlu\Ju 1I 11
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10 . g f}10\..c ,:.~ l:t:,. lfH)J . • . .
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9. I· ~ OJh(:) <'I t1! -~\5 /t',n, A~u,/, .1 ,, /ur .',,., lit/ .\, I I
> c,, ..inij a~ not rc4uiring tl!C: cum :O\ 1.'.0t11.htil)l1'> , ~\',J 1n'-' strategteS . ,, 11 undb\011\ p Review, \lo\ 39 ,
l{J J, St~c4'~h. l'"IJ!l\>. \.\c .il rh <>nd po bti, IX•II, , ~,; 1 ~•/) 1\n,_ Yu,l Wri t nti tonl" :, . na\ys1~ . rran ve
or si1nplify111g a ., ··-,n att'.g1c a bfic Admin1 s
,ind ; . Gra; 1f.:.d, ,._ fnr IJ,:1 , rn 11 na 111., uf p,, 1; ,,
1
1~11, t: 1. otn,c ?,,;
p,, .~ , 1974 , p J I . . l ~ ' \Ou h pu
1nrou\!, ·
I J. Ch ;u ,es LrndbJ,,m , fhc ,c icn, c ,.,f tnuddltn ~ ,,,,.. ': 1 I o n , ,; ,.0 1 1. 111, It a l ') ,tt, " P' \f\\ i.; \p ,u1 • • '
nn 7 \ !O( 1 1 11rnny ' --- . "'"'" Not Yet
 ·~-- ..
analysis·. As he-·po
., .- .. t • t "
'"' .... .
.,, ~ n . ., ''\.
1u U Y\ .. U l
tn e benef1't
s of , noee u
rn ts ou t: n to ~ I)(
. -•..·
~~
In the met ho d of succ es sive limited co mpari so ·conip it~
in two principal n, simplif
way s. Fi rs t. it is icat io n is sy
to th ose po lic achiev ed thro st .
· · ie· s th· at did. ug
Such a hm t1a1Jon mun
ffer in
1 redlativelyth small degree from
h limitation 0 ;~ f O at,cally
acn
it,.
drastically simph.fie e 1ahte y re uces b f poli cies ic
s the c - h e. num .er o a1tem · pres y
entl<oym·1µ~h("''~ 1
ar ac te r ol . au ve s to b 11,
simplifi catio t e mvesu ga e . st n el fer ,'
in
n of
of possible policieanalysis is the practice of igno
uo n of ea ch ... The se ve nd igaled ;
~
s. ri
as w ell as th e values attached ng important po ss ib t° tnet
to th e ne gl ec te d
h<l<l
con se qu
e encoce
nseqs. uue nc~'
Characteristics of Incremental Model
The following fe at ur es ch ar ac terize the decisi
on-making in
1. F ir st , it te n n s o f ' muddling throu
pr oceeds through gh ':
ac ce a succession o
pt th e le gi timacy of exis f in cr em en tal changes . P
con se qu ting policies b olicy-make!\
en ce s of ne w or different ec au se o f the uncertaint
2. Se co nd , it in po licies . ~ the
volves mutual ad
is ag re justment an d ne -
em en t ra ther than goal go ti at io n. The test o f ~ _
policy- m achievement. A g_ood decision
ak in g, w he n the item in gr ee m en t is arrived at very
modificatio n s dispute incr ea easily in
to ex is ting se s o r d ec reases in budg
reducing programmes. T ets, or
po lit ic al te ns io hu s, in cr em entalism is si
3. Third , in n an d m aintaining stabil gnificant in
cr em en ta l ap proach involves ity.
"futile attempt trial and er ro
at supe rh um an comprehensi r m et h o d . It is superior to
maximiz e al l th ve ne ss ". a
ei r va lues~ rather, th H u m an beings rare
seldom search ey act to sa ti ly act to
fo r "o ne be st way", but in sf y p ar ti cu lar demands. Th
work" . T hi s se stea d, se ar ey
close to contem ar ch usually begins ch to find "a way w
porary po with the fa m il hat will
4. Fourth , po licies. ia r- th at is , w
licies it h olicy options
thus more satis . are not made once and for all p
. factory . As L
lik e coherence and . from a theo retical poin· t· of ane puts 1t •
, ' ,1ncrement a1is· 1·s
s1mph.c1.ty ·
" _
14 vi ew as 1t• scores hi m
gh on cn·ten·a
Analytical Incr
ementalism
~n his work , P olitics and
heory of . Markets, Lindb
lom conced
· se d h rncremental pluralism . The w
. e
ia , t at not a·11 in
· ork recognizess much to Et . . ,
terests an d · · th 21 0 . .
)me had consid .
erab . partic ipants in increm at plur . nt s cnttque 15 of h.
en al
ly m or e po wer than t . . . is
. t dec1s
· · 1s
ot a1 10 · g
n-makm
he es s and t lapo
rs. B 1s litic ,
usin r 'e s were _equ was
. C ha rl es Li
nd bl om , The g corporations al, and that
Ja ne -E ri
Sc~ence of Mud
dl
, he opines,
k La ne , Th e Pu in g Th roug h, op
A. E tz io ni , M bl ic Sector, _London: Sa . ci t., pp. 84 - _
ix ed scanning ge, 2000, p. 75 85
Vol . 27 , 19 : A th ud ap .
67, pp. 385-92 . pr oa ch to decision
-making, Pu bl ic A .
 ' IJ fJ() \
o s~ ~~
lr)Pt~q"ehqeQ
~~~ .%
~('Q .
s,v
I ied a predominant · position
. . in th ~ . 4 Pnfic-~~
-------.__:_:_ arhp d i
lt\, d to improve mutuaJ parti san adJ.ll st111e
occup e Potlicy h -n1 ak1n · g Process I . -1 ~1111 ·_'"""•
_________• 63 ___:_
)<tr· eq
ls0 nee · n y " , · · · - lndhl o
Cfr, 1ls In his subsequent 1979 articl e, Still M _g reatl y in1 prnvcd . n1 al~o propn, e~ th
eq ee1.
1 . · . 1. Uddt, 11 - ,, , tratec, - t!
·dea rn an mcrementa 1s t appro·- tcl-, . . . I? 1 nrnuk fi . dL eo 1c Po 1c_1,-n,ak, .. (1
k qll<:J core . • is the hc li r . . · 1,rn nlnrn mak .1 . , 1
11 0 the
'lOcJ hat his aim is to suggest "new a nd improved" c rn •' kr ll in .<olving corn ' c, cle." <ha,
te Of ;,aws a distinction be tween : (a) inc reme nt- r way, of "mudding th,orr P:'.'
p,.,hlem, . and
flees 1
an•es, (b) increme nt a lism as poli cy an 1 ". •s;~
as a po liti ca 1 Pattc,n g hr,' dr, h" he ~ 1
.c 1crementahsm
o . .,
as a. metI10d of sec uring the a ysb,s.I He 111ak es a ca,e for .Pr<, vit 1n--<.te r -h·1-, .
r.-
-r
bu I . a ance of po .
in
sinesses
aki an d arge
H corporations tend to exe r·c · Wer in in .:•, ;,h• •·h·
a plura!1 \t p<ilf,itv <1n,jl 1
,
na process. e argues that there are th ise. a pow er f u 1 influence - over th , e .n ,.,., ,,.c.
(m 1 o . . .. . ree ma,n fo rrns to . ' ' .,, .
.) 5 ·mple mcrementa1 analysis, (u ) Str·ate oi·c . rncrernental ::inalv,i ,. ~ud 1J
1 . .
the following seco tions: ana 1YSts. and (i rr.. ) DrsJ ·
· ·ornted . ·
rnnernemahsm '
'gh,. which can be dzscussed tn 1
Simple incremental analysis
~lllakers
,~
--~ the dIn this form of an_a lysis, only those alternative polic ies or opti ons which are niareinall ,
·t1:erent to the existrng policy are analysed A ct· L' - - .__ '
ecision 1"
analysis method of proceeding to . make
a useful maintains, rndbl om . .<imp/,
to Supporting
<ngsions.
ccordeci '" '"""'' "'"/
the importance or
this tool, isLindblom
siJy in
·ts, or Focusing on small variations from present policy .. . rnakes the most of a,nitahtc
nt in knowledge. Because the new options are not terribly different from present and past
policies, a great deal of what administrators and other participants al,eady know about
existing programmes will be applicable to evaluating the new proposals. While uncertainty
to a may still be substantial, errors probably will be smaller. 18
·t to
'hey Strategic analysis
vi]]
Lindblom argues that since_ completeness of analysis is not possible due to man y constraints.
ms an analyst should take a middle position: "informed, thoughtful" use of methods to "s implify
problems" so as to make better choices. These methods include tri al and error Iearnin o·
is systems analysis; operations res.e arch; management by objectives ; programme evaluation ~~
ia review technique. In using these methods, Lindblom says~-
analysis should not aim for the 'synoptic/root' ideal, but should aspire to deploy them in
the development of strategies to guide and direct: "something to be done. something to be
studied and learned, and something that can be successfully approximated. 19
As for the main difference between the 1959 version of Lindblom ' s 'science· and his
1979 version of Still Muddling Through, he believes choosing between " ill-considered.
d deliberate desioned incompleteness
o ften accidental incompleteness on the one h an d , an ' 0 . , ·bl
. • , d oes no t aim for what 1s not poss1 e.
on the other". In other words, 'strategic ana1ysis
k· Basic Books, 1977, P· 3 6. 4
16. Charles Lindblom, Politics and Markets , New y or: Administration Rei•iew. Vo l. 39, No. 6, 1979.
17. Charles Lindblom, Still muddling through, Publzc
pp. 517-25. . . p 1 rd ed. New Jersey: Prentice-HaJI,
18. Charles Lindblom and E.J. Woodhouse, The Pohcy-makmg rocess. · '
1993, p . 27. .· 318.
19. Charles Lindblom, Still muddling through, op. cit., p.
~ -
,... ---
J -----
A•__:_:n=u,~. r":..:. '=
,r, J Policy r.
~ ~
. . Art a11d Cra,t o,
64 ♦ public policy. . . .....,..-
than an accident . It claims to be a practical
. built in rather - - analv
is ' 'tica1~
Incompleteness
. '·
policy-maki ng.
Disjointed increm entali sm .
. t analys 1·s as argued by Lindblom is 'd·ISJ.0 1·
. ' ·
. f cremen a1 ' i
The tlurd form _0 m AS t.egy oif Decision with David Braybrooke, Lindbl ntect
. ' In his . work tra h' orn 1. ~ .
menta1ism • . . d. ntalism".20 He sees t 1s as a _m_ethod of dee · .· ntrrxi •··;
l ,
,- . - . 1s1on. '
f of "d1sJomte mcreme . . . d'f lllakir,
the no 100 ak e between pohc1es which; are op.
_ y margina lly"
.
. · . 1 fe ·i
·h pans on t es p1ac . Obi _ . rent r:
wluc com d . -h. h there IS no "great goal" or v1s10n to be achieved " . Jes_tives.
ak l b
one another, an m w IC . .
in terms of existing resources, and pohcy- m~ng t es pace. y a tnal and error'
; rn~t
·s d1·sJ·ointed because decisions are not subject to som~ kind of control or coord·1 ,r~
1· · t f d nat·
1
Lindblom 's work thus places incrementa ism m a con muum o un erstanding and ~-
. '
of change. ntaltsm as a form of strategic anal .
Lindblom claims that disjointe· d increme1 - - f -d d. D. . . ys,s n:
.~
enhance decision-making by improving the leve o U? ersta!} mg. lSJomted increme
is an analytical strategy which involves 'simplifying and focusing' problems by the fo~:!·
"'
six methods:
1. "The limitation of analysis for a few familiar alternatives
2. Inte1 twining values and policy goals with empirical analysis of problems
3. Focusing on ills to be remedied rather than on goals to be sought
4. Trial-and-error learning
5. Analysing a limited number of options and their consequences
6. Fragmenting of analytical work to many partisan participants in policy-making''.
Partisan Mutual Adjustment
21 decisiti
In his subsequent work, The Intelligell!:! of Democr acy, Lindblo m argues that
t ~\
making is a process of adjustmenL and compromise which facilitates agreemen
alternani:
coordination. Partisan mutual adjustment, he agrees, is the democratic and practical
evol.rc
to centralized hierarchical controls. As Lindblom argues in his 1993 work: " ... policy
c)
through complex and reciprocal relations among all the bureaucrats elected functionan
representatives of interest groups, and other participants".22 '
Critical Evaluation
. . been a:
Since 1959 when Lindblom advocated . /
apparent "volte face" in h'1 Incremental dec1s10n-making there had ·
. s arguments · In 1977 and 1979, Lindblom ' attacked t he idea
d, r
pluralism, offered a radical c •t· • ee 1'0·
n ique of the b ·
usmess, and believed that there 1s a n
20. David Braybr oo~a d Ch
. n arles L'10dbl om, A Strate
. - . . 6"
21. Charles Lindblom Th
22. Charles Lindbl ' and e Intelligence or Dern gy of DeczSion, New York· Free Press, 19 J. , ..
ocracy, New y k· .
.. om EJ W 'J
PrenLJce-Hall, 1993, p. 68 . . oocthouse, The Polic - or_ . Free Press,
1965. ell
· Y Makin g Process , 3rd ed., Englewood
 ~- - ' fl 1lpter -I
· ---- . Po/,q, 1
. ·•lllknl drnnge ltl n whole rnnl)'e of .. - - --· •'.Yl.!)t•oo c1,es or,
., ,1 1~· I• · , · .. I· • _ e, POht\1 •. " - - - --.:!_Motleh ,
d1J . \tl'ft' th nn s1mp y incrt.>n1ent·ll , -' ,H--eas, unct . 1 1 --...:_ _• 66
, 1 pl 1 • _ . • _ . ' c 11nnge B HU th, , - - .
i1C'tl - .• ,,·ic'~. ut actmg nmre bo.ldlv tltr\ ·11 ..... .' lit socie ti e,,, .. t.: Whnll: wor\cl . . .
. •f' l,'. l l "' , •' • 111 Ill e , .,. . see, · IS II) I' ,
. te mcnt s" .l-' S , · n 1nrapnbk. e " et ~c
.:>
tt 11 ~ : .rnnki n~ nnd on the wny in Whi ch
- :;1,,11 _ - . . ,• . . . PO hey ng ,. . '· nc1, are tt , Xccpt tn
1 1-, I )11 bt'- l-l~ to tht poss1btl1tv ot nny dt''l " t · .
t0 ._c::ndus are nn. . k constr·1in1 .
.. \'c' l l • . . . l .
,,'\ IC ch l ' ;) utl OW iy f 0 1. ' I s on
~111 . {)59 L,tndblom emergt~d as the plup 1., .~nge · rnutated. he 1.
1n 1 ,. _. .• _, . . _ . ,l 1st. advoc , . . ,as
·t dtccu, l; mode ot pohcy-m,tktno- y· L' ,11tng increm, .
-hf nnis . ... - .. -:- · et mdhl 0 . ent.11 decisi0. .
1 .I , tHPl\.' mlhcal r nuqut' ot mcrem.entnt ·, . 111 of the 19?() , · .n-making :is
1
dcCl• 1 . _ .· . -l Sinnsa ' i·· , . s t11rouoh \ ()()
it _ , k 'I' :ihollt ('ll)hi;y-nmkmg prol'ess as rnovino ' l po lttc nl teleology· H· e - Os was
ht~ll . : . , , J .::.- s owly. hut 1-ns , . . e has developed
tx· 111\[ll'l) \ <,;lJ. ' , cominued to 11n · . .
,·:lll I I ell nt.:nn thal .
Tile i ucn·nwnt a npproac 1 hns bee n sub . . . • 1t
. . _ . , Jec ted to crit' •, .
. •fer. i~ nnr l.:(11wmced rhnt ll\Ct't'mcnt ttl model . , . tc1sm t rom many angl . D
ht1\\ t . , • . k' . ~ . . ts euJ1er re·1listi. . - es. ror
. )\l !ll'- ut dt'rts1ou- mn. mg. fo Dr-or. this InO 'i"'l . . . ' · c or satt;;factory 110 .
:ll'l( • . • ' l -.. ts profounctl , . rmalt. ve•
~ conserva.t1 ve and is suitabl
1
" in ttH)S ~ st Wattons w he re policies are deemed t ,_
l,11.l . - . '. ... , • - ·, ,. . - o ()e \vorkm()" 0 1.. ." . . . . e
, ,t,k tM at~ quill st.:lhlc: ovet tune. und w here tl . . . ~ ,ltt:. sc1t1~tactory. where
~ 1, . . . . . .. . 1e 1e a.t e t esources . ·1·
,,.., •,·(·s thnt thc ~,ppronch 1usnttes the sratu ~ ni,cJ ,., ld .
l)t ..,~ 1 ' _ , ' ·
u 'I · u.l 10-nores the , avru
O 'b' ·
,lble. Further he
· •
•h 'll1 ~C. :.t Critil.'S of incremental policy-makin o ·tlso , ,.n • ' . . poss.1 tht y of fundamental
l , , , • • . . - b • , - qucst10n the consequ f ,
llllxk t,t :ic t1 t)ll . ln pml'tttc:. laws mmuiate periodic evah ·u· f . .. . ences o such a
, . . , .· ,, ll .,. , , . i. ton o p10g1 arnmes. An ao-ency o
,\Ul~)tn ,H 1c.1 Y goes o ut of busmess at the e d t· .
'.1 1,nH!r:untnt:
~ . .. " • · n o a g1.ve n penod . unl e
, tJ.1r
k~isl:1tun.' :ll·t·~ sp~c1t1ca1ly to renew or modify it. ~ ess e
The.
im:rc mrntalist
. .
approach
.
to polic)1-makinl"'
. .. . e
is incte,~.., 1·s•· 1·ve . An L
s ane puts 1t: "its
· .
dt'ltucn Ye_ pow~r ts ~ons_trnrned by the d1fticulty m specifying whnt an increment is whilst its
dt'ffl'·l' ut l'On.ttrn HHtlm 1s reduced by the typical occurrence of shift-points in policy-making
which defy the inrerprerntion of the increment11list equations as stable linear growth
nwtkl~".!~"' For all its simplicity. this model see ms to be too crude in the context of the
1.'ompkxi ty of cJ1t' policy proce ss.
Taken as a whole. the ce ntral concern of his work has been to explore the constraints
th.l! shupt' d~rision -making in the modern policy process. lncrementalism, it may be noted,
!us not been a mnjor l'om.:ern of his writings so much as the relationship between power.
hnman knnwledge and politics . Lindblom thus exhorts. "Hence. anyone who wants . to
undt>r~tilnd what goes wrong in che effort to use government to promot~ l~uman well-bemg
tlt't\is to comprehend how power relations shape and misshape public pohcies-~d to pr_obe
ht)\\' r1) . . . l . . i . - i . "' t ~tte1· pol1' cies.. 26 For him. "pohcy-
t re- at1ons nu (r ht be resu·ucturec to p1 oc net )t:
l \\t.~1 · u •
m·lk,· .. ::::- . . ... . " d'' 11
· ing ts a compkx.ly interJcti\'l: proct:!SS without beg111mng 01 en ·
DROR'S NORMATIVE-OPTIMUM MODEL OF POLICY-MAKING
board tJ 1e criticisms of the
Yt'h t'l.kd D •· .
'.; Ch -
------ IO r IS __ ,
· ,llH}f her ct!lt<.:
• • 3 l rattomtlist
. . who has taken on
19
,,~"!.,. rp. l _, L'. 1D
ar!t>"'
Y,ehciJ...eJ ror,om.
ndbl
_ --·-
· Mudd!"
. - , '.,.·' . an,
Dt·mocra , I AI,irk
. ~_rsr,·m.
, ,·r
Os lo: Norwegian
. U111.verst1Y . Press. . I9~8. , ' P· 11.
~'-i.,,._;; : b 7, ' ougIt- ·science ' or · incrtiu "? Puhl ir t1dmir1i.,·0·111ii •, Rt 1•ie•·. Vo l. 24, 64,
10
~
th
11
,t} ('l., i.:.flk_ U\
' . ne. t)J' .·
,\,_, r;,·'·1-l.11,
, it's. t..Jndbl . < a .. p. .76
- id., n ~ · l L om and \~' oodhouse.
. or. cir., p. Yii .
p ·c·" ,4 ,,afys1s -- - .. _ -
.. J Craft of pOll J - ---~-- ......_ .........-
.
. · tirt a,.
public policy. .
·
f ·ncrementa1ism an d puts f·orward . ...
66 ♦ . ts the idea o t <tl tcrn, ,
ch. He reJec hes. . . . •tl1 v.
rationalist appro~ mentalist approac 1·st Model' of dec1 s1on-mak1 ng quit, t1
1 and mcre 'I rementa I h . . . e to
the rationa . Lindblom's nc . cremental approac ts unJu st, as it c n8trv\
Dror_ f ; r He believes that ~ those who have little power. The ll:ltte~C:ttcH/
1nd
and unsausfac h~- have more po~er ab 0 t change.28 In place of incremental Categ(/
0
d
between t~os~ ~ ·t difficult to bn~g a ~ 1 which seeks to accept the ari ra1t,
eople will ftn t al an aiternauve mo e i_

P D offers so ..
models, ror . . ·n Simon defimtton) . .
Need for rationaltty _(1 f management techmque s for enhancing ratio . .
1. Need for introductton o na1i1~'
2. ki at low levels . .
decision-ma ng (Lasswell's term) to deal with complex problems r .
Policy science approach equ1ri:
3· .. at the hi(Jher levels . d ..
decIS1ons O
f 1 s and irrational elements m ec1s1on-making
4. Need to take account o va ue .
. . ( ) . crease the rational content of governme nt and (b) .to build .lrl'
Dror's aim ,ts to a t· m , dimensions of dec1s10n- . . k' H 11
ma mg. e ca s this norm .
his model the extra-ra wna1 I( h
the measurement
Ql1,,
. z· , h. h combines core elements of the rational mode sue as th
optzma ism, w IC h. h I d d f r1

enefits) with extra-rational factors w IC are exc u e rom e pure· rationa/i1

costs an d b · h f' r h' I
model. He maintains, "What is needed is a model wh1c ~ts rea tt_y w 1 ~ berng direcw.
towards its improvement, and which can be applied to poltcy-m akmg while motivatingi
29
maximum effort to arrive at better policies" .
Thus, Dror presents a modified form of rational model which can move policy-makin;
in a more rational direction. Policy analysis, he argues, must acknowle dge that there is;
30
realm of extra-rational understanding based on tacit knowledge and personal experience . Hi
argues that the aim of analysis is to induce decision-makers to expand their frameworkstr.
deal better with a complex world. Thus, in place of a purely rational model, Dror offersi
more complex model of some 18 stages, 31 listed as follows:
Metapolicy-making stage
1. Processing values
2. Processing reality
3. Processing problems
4.
~ur:ey!ng, processing, and developing resources
5. es1gnrng, evaluation , and redesi nin th .
6- Allocating problems v g g e pohcy-m aking system
7 Deter . . ' a1ues and resources
· • mmmo0 policy -maki ng strategy.
Pobcy-making stage
8. Sub-allocating resources
28 - Yehezkel D
1989) ror, Public Po!icv-M k .
29. Yehe;k~j' 143- 147. . a zng Re-examined, 2nd e . . iislit
p. Dror, Muddling th . d. (New Brunswick : Transaction pub
30 164 · rough-sc1e nc ·
. Y~hezkel Dror . e or inertia?, Pub/i . . . . 14, 19
31. Ibid. , pp ' Public Policy R . c Adm1mstr atwn Revtew, Vol. ,,
· 163-164. e-examzned O .
' p. cu., pp. 15- 16.
 ll . .__ .,_. . .
.E-sta b11snwg uµc: rnuo nai _::::,o-o·: s, \:Vtth s . ---.:.....:. '~ ro11,·1,f!.1•...!_• r1,1 Atort"' -
9. . -h· o
-
, '
sio . . -Ome orcte . .
E-stabhs me a set of theu
e-lll 6 cant l of pl'·1 . -- -~ • 07_
10. . . . ' Values, w· . · 0nty - · --
Prep ann g a set of maj or alte n1at ive P r tt 11 son,
I I. . b , inctt1d". c Orde r of I)1to111 .· .·
" Prep arin.g re 1rn le predictions of t I1e oSt_icies .- tng so y
1-- . gntf o:an t l . "' ,. ine ·goo i
l ones·
altemat1ves )ene fit .
· . s and cos ls 1-' -
,., Companng'b the, predicted benet·1·t :s~ anct c .. ·
n the v• • s
Minu
j_,. · osts of the
fying the est ones . v,111 ous · It
. h b ~ f · ·' crnntivcs ., 1 .
1-+ ·
Evaluatmg t e enefits and cost ~ .s O th e 'bes t' . . . · ' llt 1eh:nli-
th are ' 0 ood~ or not . , ,1 1tcrnuti vcs . I
ey e . ,lil t dt\.: id .
ing whether
post-policy-making stag e
execution of policy
15 _ Motivating the
J6. Executing
the policy
l 7. Evaluating policy-n1aking"" after execut·tng the policy
. . :-'. . . .
l 8. Commurucation and feedback channel s mte1connectm o ·111 pl
o < 1ases
· d I sho uld anal . ·
Dror s mo e sug ges ts tllat we publ ic polic y · b ·
· b l Th tI ·18-staoe outlined yse b .is emg... mnd e ''ll tw\,
inreracung su -p iases. · us, le 0 a ove must be seen •.
a! aspe cts. as a cycle which has
irs rational and extra-ra t.Ion
s at two interactinoo ph ases ,
Dror·s fram ewo rk ope·11rate . . 1n phase 1 "the process11. 1g of
aki
. . 1-m ng WI mvo lve "specifyino and o d . ·j
values'· dec1s101 .::i r enng values to be a 0oene . I
. •~ gmc e
'
cy-makino". At the rat·.., al , b :
for identifyingf: pro blem s and for poli . .::, ion su phase . tins mvo.lves,
f, • . cost s" , .an d at t1.1e extra-rational
• • •
rmat.1on . on eas1 b11Ity and opp ortu nity
•·oathermg m1o . . d ..
. . bac- 0 ,,; llllg
-ma.king will mvo lve "value J·udo.::,ements ' taci't ' e,cul
e •
subphase . dec1 s10n an CO~l1ltlOn -
. . ,, 3.,
formatJOn skills . -
In this nor mat ive- opti ma/ ism com bini ng
botl1 descriptive (in the real world decision -
ng is driv en by rati ona l and extr a-ra tion al influences) and prescriptive (improving both
maki
t11e rational and extr a-ra tion al asp ects ) approac
h, Dror envisages a radical reform of the public
e is the need to bring about ch:rnges in the
policy-making process. Acc ord ing to Dror, ther
nnel (pol itici ans, bur eau crat s and exp erts ); and in structures and process (to improve
perso
policy-making); as well as in the general
systematic thinking and inte gra ting exp erts into
. ..
environment of poli cy-m akin g.
, Dro r' s mod el aim s at ana lyzi ng the real world which involves values and dift~rent
Thus ents ot
th
e
roac h whi ch com bine s core elem
perceptions of real ity, and has crea ted an app
rational model with extr a-ra tion al factors.
.
Conclusion ·ove public policy-making ts .
D . str ategy to unpi II Btit whereas Lasswell·
ror is of the con cert ed vi ew that a lon g-te nn h Lasswe • ion and democratt-
nee ry for human pro ores s. In this , Dro r seems to ec o , -·pat
essa nt.
· ohtenme . ema nci t Dror·
·
0 · 1 rna.king. To quo e ·
saw th e pohcy. scie nce s as hav ino a "rol e rn en 10 i·cy-
1
. 0 th eople 111 po
2ation" Dr . see ms to hav e very little rega rd for e P
, or

~~----
... Ibid. , p. 312 _
 .r Policy Arw,.,J--· ~
and Craft 01
. po/icy: Arl ' . .
the people s abthty to judoe th .
68 ♦ P11bltc d d
depen e 011 . c:, e rn .
of democracy Jd surely have penshed by now" 33 a1n I\..
· . th success cy wou . , . • ~'il
--But 1f e . ei·its then democra Cycle which has its rat10nal ' anct , "·.
their m ' · en as a ext
issues ~n d I of 18-stages is se . t out here that the reaJ strength of D ra-rati\},
ms mo e I . ce to potll . . ror' I~
nents. It may be of re evan rescription dimen sion of hi s model. so much s ana!:
compo be seen in terms of the p 1·cy-making process. as in•.
is not to . . ·des to analyze the po I
framework it p10v1
ETZIONI'S MIXED SCANNING APPROACH .
f a modified form of the . rat10nal model of Pol
. . . nother advocate o .
b ard the criticisms of the rat10naJ approach anct has :,.
Amitai Etzt0m is a
- D
analysis. Like ror,
he has taken on
h
° ..
beli·eves offers a realistic model whic h avo·ct ~:
h.11·d pproach t at 11e ' . . . 1 s •:
forward a t a. l' t osition as articulated by Lmdblom. Etz1om calls his 111()11~:
conservatism of the mcrementa is p
mi.red scanning:
. . . h t deci sion-makino requires greater resources th an decision-
th . .
A rat10nahst1c approac O O •
·ncremental strategy which takes mto· account e l11ruted capacitv
makers comman d. Th e 1 . . · M·
1xed
.'
scanning
fosters decisions which neglect basic societal rnnovat10ns.
of ac tors, . · · h d t ·1 ·
in
unrealistic aspects of rationalism by 11m1tmg t e e· a1 s required
re duces the • 1 f ·
fundamental decisions and helps to overcome the conservative s ant o mcrementa11sm by
exploring long-run alternatives. 34
Etzoni ' s idea of 'mixed scanning' is drawn from early weather forecasting anc
observation techniques. His idea has, however, to be placed in the context of his wider
intellectual concerns and his work as a whole. After the publication of his 'mixed scannin{
35
paper in 1967, Etzioni published a large work on The Active Society in 1968. In the 199t\
he became most closely associated with 'communitarian ism'. 36 But the work, 'The Active
Society' remains, however, as possibly the best introduction to his idea of the policy analysi;
Etzioni believes that personal transformation is rooted in the "joint act of the communi~
37
~ransf~nning itself." ~e s~ys th_at the aim of public policy is ultimately to promote a socie~·
10
whi~h people are active. 111 their communities and in which "political action and intellectu~
: ~~t:u~
reflection
· •• would have
relationship between powe

. a higher' more public status" . Th.·1s 1s

, 1, e ctive oczety Etzwn 1·
d k '
·

. t o b e ac h"1eved throug h ra1·,1·" n:cr

~:d b~:ck1e~hl coAns~ioussne~s and ~ new emphasis on "symbolization " as opposed to
.
exammes the social context of knowle ge:
d the
r an nowledge th d' ·b ut10n • , era1
consciousness'. His view · th h . ' e istn of knowledoe, and soct ·
. . is at, t e rational m 0 d I . o ·1h~ r
reahstic nor satisfactory no • e and mcrementalist approach are nei
h b . nnative accounts f d . . t tK
t e as1s for promoting an ' t· . o ec1s1on-making. These approaches canno 1.al
ac 1ve society' Th· ·
. · ts is a society in which people, through soc
33. Ibid. , p. 289.
34. Amitai Etzioni Mixed .
V I 27 ' scanning·. A ' th.ird, approach to .. . el'ie11.
35 o :
. , 1967, p. 385.
· Arrutai Etzioni, The A . . decision-making, Public Administratwn R
1968. ctive Society: A Th
36 · · eory of S · p ei1·
. ~:t~ Et~ioni , The Spirit o' C ocietal and Political Processes, New York: Free r.
ork. Crown p bl' 'J 0 mmunity · R •
. . . Age1itfa,
37. Amitai Etzioni Th Au ~shers, 1993 . . zghts, Responsibif'r •
1
' e ctive Society . ies and- the Communttanan ·
' Op. Cit., p. 2.
~-·--
 ·ties
tiVl . and
- l
·al
lare s..
decsoc
kno wle dge , can tran sform soc iety in acc
Cha pter 4
ord anc e
Policy App-roach~s and Mod e~
w·
i th •ts al
• 69 -
~olleC ~t he I v ues. 1n
. d. .
" . conte hi. mse lf free
.h1S set . wit hou t ex.tend mg· the
h •sam
. e hbe ny to his fellow men and the
"" NO rtna uon o 1
o l can
fllal f the self is dee p y roo
ansf te m t e JOmt act of a community transforming
tr 38
itself. _,;1re
. Lin . dbl om , he doe s not
. ,abahndo
" hn hthe use
b of ana lysi s to imp rov e society (and
'fhU S, UIIU " bas is on 'co mm uni ty _w 1c_ _as een
lf) cen tral to his late r writings. has
se · The ero plapced 1•n the con tex t of . hts beh
• ef m the 39
the f Ore to be 'au the nti c' pub hc poh cy pro ces s.role of kno wle dge in brin gin g about
there ope n and_ mo re
more . nt an ac tiv e soc iety is the one wh ich . inv olv es the pub lic in the ana lysi s.
a for Etz io l 1
' . cie ty , the kno wle dge elit es -1nte lectua s, expert&and po\.1t1 . .
J,Aoreo ver ' in an act1
t wit h puve so cian s-
bl.
tcs in a for m of col lec tive
. 41test ing. 40 R eb u1·1ct·1ng society
·
ld interac knO wle dge and a mo ral
rea
. lity . there-
shoU bot h a d1r nen s1o n.
fore, invo. lves
.
Etz1om , s ID.1 . _xed sca nning app roa ch trie s to exp1·1c1t ·l b.
y com 1ne:
l. hig h-o rde r, fun dam e~t al pol icy -ma kin g pro ces ses which set bas ic directions, and
2 _ inc rem ent al one s wh ich pre par e for fun dam ent al decisions and work them
they hav e bee n rea che d. 42 out after
ln a way , Etz ion i' s ide a of 'mi xed sca nni ng' is lon g removed from Dror' s technocratic
manage rialism . Fo r hi~ _
, the mix ed- sca nni ng app roa ch is a description of the reality of
deci sion-ma kin g stra teg ies and it is als o a mo del for bet ter decision-making.43 lt recognizes
that decision-m ake rs hav e to con sid er the cos ts of kno wle dge , because not everything can be
scanned. Thus, pol icy -ma ker s sho uld end eav our to sca n key areas fully and rationalistically.
and can subject oth er are as to a mo re 'tru nca
ted ' rev iew .
Co nc lus ion
It is conten ded her e tha t res pon ses to the rati ona list ver sus the incrementalist approaches
have , in fact, giv en rise to a con tin uum of the
• <::. ~nr\ r\ """' " ',..,.
PO lClP.
ori es and mo del s wh ich advocate ways in which
0 • •
.... •
..,..,.,-,,l r, - ~ _ __ •
•
1