1

THE GEOLOGY OF AND ENVIRONS INOF NIGERIA

BY

NAU/2009503

A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT

OF GEOLOGICAL SCIENCES
FACULTY OF PHYSICAL SCIENCES
NNAMDI AZIKIWE UNIVERSITY AWKA, NIGERIA

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT

FOR THE AWARD OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCES
(B.Sc) IN GEOLOGY

OCTOBER, 2015
 2

CERTIFICATION

I hereby certify that this study was carried out by, (Registration
No: 2009504), in the Department of Geological Sciences, Nnamdi
Azikiwe University Awka, Anambra state, Nigeria.

……………………………… …………………
Date
(Project Supervisor)

……………………………… …………………..
Date
(Project Supervisor)

……………………………… …………………..
Date

……………………………… …………………..
Date

…………………………….. …………………..
External Supervisor Date
 3

DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to God Almighty with whom I was able to

complete my first degree course.

 4

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I want to acknowledge the Almighty God for a graceful life, divine

mercies, guidance and successful completion of the research

work.My profound gratitude also goes to my parents, for their

support financially and otherwise. They have been a blessing to

me. To my relationsfor their unalloyed support and advice, I want

to say thank you.

I also want to acknowledge my supervisors for their support and

guidance. My special thanks go to all lecturers of the Department

of Geological Sciences for the knowledge I acquired from them.

My unreserved appreciation goes to,who produced our geologic

map, my friends and colleagues for their understanding, support

and cooperation, and to all those who contributed to the

successful completion of this work.

 5

ABSTRACT

The study area lies between latitudes 7°13 ¹N and °¹N, and
longitudes °¹E and °¹E. It covers parts of Local Government Areas
of State. The rock types observed include fissile shale,
ferruginized sandstone, clay and sand, some of which constitute
deposits of economic values in places. The beds dip within the
range of 6° to 9°. The structural features observed are joints,
bedding planes, ripple marks, cross beds, mud cracks and
biogenic structures. Results of grain size analysis showed that
the sand units are medium to very coarse grained, moderately to
poorly sorted, positively skewed (with values of 0.5 to 1.1) and
platykurtic to very leptokurtic (with values of 0.9 to 1.9). The
results of Atterberg limits tests indicate low to high plasticity
ranges. The results of water quality analysis show relatively high
values of sulphate (0 to 852.99mg/l), chloride (17.75 to
355mg/l), total dissolved solids (600 to 24,000mg/l), iron (0.09 to
2.31mg/l), lead (0.23 to 1.90mg/l), total faecal coliform (0.8 to
4ml/l) and total microbial load (7.5 to 200ml/l). It is suggested
that there should be pre-use treatment of water for domestic
uses, safe mining practices and further investigation of the area.
 6

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS PAGE

TITLE PAGE

CERTIFICATION - - - - - - - - - i

DEDICATION - - - - - - - - - ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT - - - - - - - iii

ABSTRACT - - - - - - - - - iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - - - - - v

LIST OF FIGURES - - - - - - - - x

LIST OF PLATES - - - - - - - - xiii

LIST OF TABLES - - - - - - - - - xiv

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Introduction - - - - - - - - - 1
1.2 Location and accessibility of the study area - - - 2
1.3 Objectives of study - - - - - - - 4
1.4 Scope of study - - - - - - - - 4
1.5 Precautions - - - - - - - - - 4
1.6 Problems Encountered - - - - - - - 5

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 Method of Investigation - - - - - - - -7

2.1 Desk Study - - - - - - - - - -7

2.2 Literature Review - - - - - - - - -7

 7

2.3 Reconnaissance survey - - - - - - - -9

2.4 Field work and Sample collection - - - - - -9

2.4.1 Field Work - - - - - - - - - -9

2.4.2 Sample Collection - - - - - - - - 11

2.4.3 Outcrop Studies - - - - - - - - 12

2.5 Instrumentation and Analysis - - - - - 17

2.5.1 Instrument for Sieve Analysis and Atterberg Limit - 17

2.5.2 Instrument for Pebble Morphometry - - - - 17

2.5.3 Instrument for Water Analysis - - - - - 17

2.5.4 Grain Size Analysis - - - - - - - 19

2.5.5 Procedure for Pebble Morphometry -- - - - 20

2.5.6 Consistency of Clays - - - - - - - 21

2.5.6.1 Liquid Limit - - - - - - - - 21

2.5.6.1 Plastic Limit - - - - - - - - 22

2.6 Mathematical and Statistical Methods - - - - 23

2.6.1 Grain Size Statistical Parameter of Folk and Ward - 23

2.6.2 Pebble Morphometric Parameters - - - - - 24

2.6.3 Atterberg Limit Parameters - - - - - - 24

 8

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 Geomorphology and Physiography of the Study area - 25

3.1 Drainage -- - - - - - - - - 26

3.2 Climate - - - - - - - - - - 28

3.4 Vegetation - - - - - - - - - 30

3.5 Soils - - - - - - - - - - 30

CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 Geology and Hydrogeology of the Study Area- - - 32

4.1 Regional Geologic history and tectonism - - - - 32

4.2 The Geology of Igbariam and Environs - - - - 34

4.2.1 The Imo Shale - - - - - - - - 35

4.2.2 The Ameki Formation/Nanka Sand - - - - 36

4.3 Hydrogeology of the study area - - - - - 38

4.3.1 Surface Water Hydrology - - - - - - 38

4.3.2 Groundwater Hydrology - - - - - - - 38

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 Results and Discussions - - - - - - 39

5.1 Water Quality Assessment - - - - - - 39

5.1.1 Hydrochemistry - - - - - - - - 39

5.1.2 Microbial Analysis - - - - - - - - 41

 9

5.1.3 Discussions - - - - - - - - - 42

5.2 Grain Size Analysis - - - - - - - 46

5.2.1 Interpretation of Grain Size Analysis - - - - 47

5.3 Pebble Morphometry Interpretations - - - - 53

5.4 Atterberg Limits Interpretation - - - - - 56

CHAPTER SIX

6.1 Sedimentology of the Study Area - - - - - 58

6.2 Engineering Geology of the Study Area - - - - 59

6.2.1 Rocks/Soils as Construction Materials - - - - 59

6.2.2 Rocks/Soils as Sites for Construction - - - - 60

6.3 Structural Geology of the Study Area - - - - 61

6.3.1 Primary Sedimentary Structures - - - - - 61

6.3.2 Secondary Sedimentary Structures - - - - 62

6.3.3 Biogenic Structures - - - - - - - 63

6.4 Economic geology of the Study Area - - - - 64

6.4.1 Clay - - - - - - - - - - 64

6.4.2 Sand - - - - - - - - - - 65

6.4.3 Shale - - - - - - - - - - 66

6.4.4 Ironstone - - - - - - - - - 67

6.4.5 Laterite - - - - - - - - - - 68
 10

6.5 Environmental Hazards in the Study Area - - - 69

6.5.1Mining Hazards - - - - - - - - 69

6.5.2 Erosion - - - - - - - - - - 69

6.5.3 Earth Failure (Minor Subsidence) - - - - - 71

6.6 Summary and conclusions - - - - - - 72

6.7 Recommendations - - - - - - - - 73

References - - - - - - - - - - 74

Appendix - - - - - - - - - - 77
 11

LIST OF FIGURES

1: Map Showing the Study Area - - - - - - 2

2: Accessibility Map of the Study Area - - - - - 3

3: Drainage Map of the Study Area - - - - - 27

4: Map of South eastern Nigeria Showing the Rainfall Pattern -

- - - - - - - - - - - 29

5: Correlation Chart for Early Cretaceous-Tertiary Strata in south

eastern Nigeria (Nwajide, 1990)- - - - - - 34

6:Bar Chart Showing the Concentration of Notable Metal Ions in

each of the Water Samples - - - - - - - 45

7: Bar Chart Showing the Concentration of Anions in each of the

Water Samples - - - - - - - - - 46
8: Histogram Showing % Weight Vs Sieve Size for Sample 1 - -
- - - - - - - - - - - 48
9:Histogram Showing % Weight Vs Sieve Size for Sample 2 - -
- - - - - - - - - - - 49
10: Histogram Showing % Weight Vs Sieve Size for Sample - -
- - - - - - - - - - - 49
11: Histogram Showing % Weight Vs Sieve Size forSample 4 -
- - - - - - - - - - - 50
12: Histogram Showing % Weight Vs Sieve Size for Sample 5- -
- - - - - - - - - - 50
13: Histogram Showing % Weight Vs Sieve Size forSample 6 - -
- - - - - - - - - - - 51
 12

14: Histogram Showing % Weight Vs Sieve Size forSample 7 - -

- - - - - - - - - 51
15: Histogram Showing % Weight Vs Sieve Size forSample 8- -
- - - - - - - - - - - 52
16: Histogram Showing % Weight Vs Sieve Size forSample 9- -
- - - - - - - - - - - 52
17: Bivariate plot of SphericityVs OP Index of Omor Pebbles -
- - - - - - - - - - - 54

18: Bivariate plot of SphericityVs OP Index of Igbariam Pebbles -

- - - - - - - - - - - 54
19: Bivariate Plot of Roundness and Elongation Ratio of Omor
Pebbles- - - - - - - - - - - 55
20: Bivariate Plot of Roundness and Elongation Ratio of Igbariam
Pebbles - - - - - - - - - - - 55
21: Graph of Cumulative Weight % Vs Phi Values for Sample 1-
- - - - - - - - - - - 78
22: Graph of Cumulative Weight % Vs Phi Values for Sample 2 -

- - - - - - - - - - - 81
23: Graph of Cumulative Weight % Vs Phi Values for Sample 3 -
- - - - - - - - - - - 83
24: Graph of Cumulative Weight % Vs Phi Values for Sample 4 -
- - - - - - - - - - - 85
25: Graph of Cumulative Weight % Vs Phi Values for Sample 5 -
- - - - - - - - - - - 87
26: Graph of Cumulative Weight % Vs Phi Values for Sample 6 -
- - - - - - - - - - - 89
 13

27: Graph of Cumulative Weight % Vs Phi Values for -Sample 7-

- - - - - - - - - - - 91
28: Graph of Cumulative Weight % Vs Phi Values for Sample 8 -
- - - - - - - - - - - 93
29: Graph of Cumulative Weight % Vs Phi Values for Sample- 95
30-34: Graphs showing water content Vs number of blows for the
Atterberg limit parameters obtained - - - - -98-102
 14

LIST OF TABLES

1: Procedure for Hydrochemical Analysis of Water Samples from

the Study Area - - - - - - - - - 19

2: Result of Hydrochemical Analysis of Water Samples from the

Study Area - - - - - - - - - - 40

3: Result of Microbial Analysis of Water Samples from the Study

Area - - - - - - - - - - - 41

4: Grain Size Parameter Calculated for Each Bed - - - 46

5: Average Grain Size Parameter for Each Outcrop - - - 47
6: Average Values for pebble Morphometric Parameters in the
Study Area - - - - - - - - - - 53
7: Atterberg Limit Values for different Locations - - - 56
8: Sample 1 (Outcrop 1 Bed 3), Igbariam - - - - 77

9: Sample 2 (Outcrop 1 Bed 8), Igbariam - - - - 80

10: Sample 3 (Outcrop 2 Bed 1) - - - - - - 82
11: Sample 4 (Outcrop 2 Bed 2) - - - - - - 84
12: Sample 5 (Outcrop 2 Bed 3) - - - - - - 86
13: Sample 6 (Outcrop 3 Bed 1) - - - - - - 88
14: Sample 7 (Outcrop 3 Bed 2) - - - - - - 90
15: Sample 8 (Outcrop 4 Bed 2) - - - - - - 92
16: Sample 9 (Outcrop 4 Bed 5) - - - - - - 94
17: Verbal Terms and Scale (Folk and Ward 1957) - - 97

18: Average Parameter values for Pebbles at Omor - - 103

19: Average Parameter values for Pebbles at Igbariam - - 103

 15

LIST OF PLATES

1: Crossbeds along Nando-Aguleri Road- - - - 61

2: Mudcrack along Nando-Aguleri Road - - - - - 62
3: Joint along Nando-Anaku Road - - - - - 63
4: Burrow along Nando-Aguleri Road - - - - 64
5: Packaging and Mining of ‘Edible Clay’ at Omor- - - 65
6:‘Plaster sand’ and ‘Sharp sand’ at Igbariam- - - 66
7: Ironstone Pit at Aguleri - - - - - - 68 8:
Economic Trees planted to check erosion at Anaku- 70 9:
Minor Subsidence at Anaku - - - - - - 71
 16

CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Introduction

The study was carried out in parts of Awka North Local

Government Area of Anambra state. The major towns covered

areMgbakwu, Urum, Amanuke, Isuaniocha, Okpuno-Awka, Ifite-

Awka, Amansea, Umuogbuefi-Ebenebe and Uguoba. The study

area is made up of rural, semi urban and urban areas withminor

and major industries present. The settlement pattern is

dispersed. The indigenes in the study area are mostly civil

servants, factory workers, farmers, fishermen and sand miners.

The major means of transportation is by canoes, vehicles,

motorcycles and bicycles.

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Fig. 1: Map Showing the Study Area

 18

1.2 Location and Accessibility

The study area lies between latitudes60131N and 60201N and

longitude 70001E and 70101E and. It is situated in Awka North

L.G.A of Anambra state. It covers a total area of 222.6km². The

major route that enhances the accessibility of the area is the

Enugu-Onitsha expressway. Secondary roads like the Ifite-

Amansea, Okpuno-Mgbakwu, Amansea-Ebenebe and Amansea-

Ugwuoba and minor roads and footpaths also made the

accessibility of the area possible. However, gaining access to

sample location sites were not all that easy because of the rough

terrain.
 19

Fig. 2: Accessibility Map of the Study Area

1.3 Objectives of the Study

 To study the geology of the area.

 Petrophysical study of the area.

 To delineate the lithological boundaries in the area.

 To investigate the hydrogeology of the area.

 Geophysical investigation of the area.

 20

 To study/note the earth materials that are of economic

importance.

 To produce the geologic map of the area.

1.4 Scope of Study

The scope of this project thesis is to study and establish the

detailed geology of the study area by investigating the lithologic

units, structural features, stratigraphy, petrography,

hydrogeology and geologic deposits which are of economic value

to the area and Nigeria in general. It also involves outcrop

mapping and their relationship with the sedimentary cycles of

south eastern Nigeria and lastly to produce the geologic map of

the area.

1.5 Precautions

Precautions were taken in the field to ensure accurate results

and to avoid being injured. The precautions taken include:

 Jeans trousers as a thick clothing and safety boots were

worn to avoid being pierced by thorns and animal/insect

bites.
 21

 Proper use of instruments or equipments was ensured to

avoid error in our result, such as parallax error while

reading the instrument/equipment.

 Use of thick sack for collection of samples to avoid tearing.

 Formations were traced further into the bush in order to

delineate it from road construction materials.

1.6 Problems Encountered

Some of the problems encountered during the field work include:

 Inaccessibility of some roads and footpaths due to rainfall

and overgrowth of vegetation.

 Difficulty in determining the boundaries of different

lithologic units in some outcrops due to extensive

weathering and the covering of lithologic units with laterites

washed from the topmost lateritic unit of the outcrop by

water.

 Non-existence of some geologic and manmade features

aforementioned in the base map e.g. some of the minor

paths in the base map doesn’t exist.

 Limited number of instruments such as petrographic

microscope.
 22

 Finding of true bedding planes yet to be altered by

weathering or other surface processes was almost

impossible.
 23

CHAPTER TWO

METHODS OF INVESTIGATION

2.1 Desk Study

Detailed desk study was done and this involved meeting with my

project supervisor, who highlighted me on some geologic and

topographic features in the area, the reading of available

journals, reports and relevant materials concerning the study

area. The topographic and administrative maps of the area were

studied and all these provided hints on the location, boundary

features and accessibility of the area.

2.2 Literature Review

This involved a review of the past work in the area and

Southeastern Nigeria as a whole. The first geologic work in

southern part of Nigeria was conducted by the Mineral Survey of

Southern Nigeria between 1903 and 1913 under the direction of

the Imperial Institute of London for the research of fossil fuel.

This recorded a success with the discovery of sub-bituminous

coal near Udi in 1909.

Wilson (1925) suggested that Imo formation consist of thick

clayed shale, fine textured dark gray to bluish gray with

 24

occasional admixture of clay iron stone and thin sandstone

bands. Carbonized plants remains may be locally common and

the formation becomes sandier towards the top where it may

consist of an alteration of bands of, sandstone and shale. Shell

D’Arcy (1934-1941) in the course of mineral survey and

petroleum exploration respectively.

Reyment (1965) undertook the first detailed study of the

stratigraphy of the Southern Nigerian sedimentary basin, and he

proposed many of the lithostratigraphic units in the region using

pelecypods and foraminiferids. Reyment (1965) said that in

southeastern Nigeria, the Imo formation shows lateral variation

into sandstones in places. These arenaceous lateral equivalents

are the Igbalu sandstone, Ebenebe sandstone and Umunna

sandstone.

Whiteman (1982) noted that the Imo Shale was deposited under

Marine conditions and that it is mainly fine textured dark grey to

bluish shale with thick sandstone bands and ironstone.

The Ameki Group consists of the Nanka Sand, Nsugbe

Formation, and Ameki Formation (Nwajide, 1979), which are

laterally equivalent.
 25

Topographically, the Nanka Sands form the North-South trending

Awka-Umuchu-Orlu Cuesta.The sandy units of the Formation

form thick viable aquifer (Egboka et al., 1985).

Egboka and Okpoko (1984) also added that high pore water

pressures reduce the effective strength of the unconsolidated

coarse Nanka Sands and that the behaviour of the interbedded

shales within the Formation, undergoes large changes in volume

as a result of alternate wetting and drying which enhances

gullying.

2.3 Reconnaissance Survey

Reconnaissance survey was carried out before the actual field

work. This involved establishing the adjoining boundaries of the

area with a view to proper delineation of the area to be mapped.

Accessibility to the area and features of geologic interest were

also noted. Thus, a general overview of the study area was

observed during this stage of the investigation. A good rapport

was also established with the occupants & indigenes of the area.

2.4 Field Work and Soil Sample Collection

2.4.1 Field Work

 26

A detailed field work was carried out in the month of April 2012.

Traverses were made using a base map of 1: 100 000. The

detailed study encompasses the study of variation in lithology

easily recognized owing to difference in colour, texture, structure

and composition and vegetation changes. In places where clear-

cut boundaries do not exist due to the absence of sharp

distinctive lithological units, inferences were made from observed

features. Outcrop studies were carried out along road cuts,

erosional exposures and excavation sites. These studies

concentrated on colour, matrix, degree of weathering, texture of

grains and sedimentary structures present. Attitudes

measurements were made on each of the outcrops. Photographs

of the exposures and important features were also taken.

Distances, thicknesses of cross sections of outcrops were

measured. At the end of the fieldwork, fresh samples of rocks,

soils and waters were collected from each outcrop, erosional

exposures and rivers and were then taken to the laboratory for

the analysis of the constituents.

Instruments and materials used in the field for the above

purposes include:

 Silver compass
 27

 Topographic map of the area

 Geologic Hammers

 Grain size comparator

 Sample bags

 Sample bottles

 Measuring tape

 Field notes

 Writing materials

 Digital camera

 Marker

 Cello tape

 Dilute HCl and HNO₃ acids.

2.4.2 Sample Collection

Soil samples were collected from different stations for analysis.

Hammers were used to collect sample of indurated sandstone,

shales, clays and ironstones. These samples were put in sample

bags and properly labelled to avoid mistakes.

For water samples, we used the water to be collected to rinse the

bottle 2 to 3 times before samples were collected. The water

samples collected were from rivers, streams and boreholes as

 28

these are the major source of water for domestic uses by the

occupant.

GEOMORPHOLOGY

Generally this refers to the shape and structure of the Earth

surface, mainly the topography, drainage and the process that

shaped them such as weathering which controls the

geomorphology of the study area.

1.8.1 DRAINAGE PATTERN

The drainage pattern is dendritic, which structurally indicates

the loose and consolidated nature of the formations within which

the area lies and thus showing a total lack of structural control.

The flow rates of the streams are generally slow and the direction

of the rivers and their tributaries are determined by the slopes.

Fig 1.2 Drainage map of the study area (Source: Present study)

1.8.2 CLIMATE

The study area enjoys an equatorial climate consisting mainly of

two major seasons: Rainy season, (March-October) and Dry

season (November-February) each year. It lies within the tropical

 29

rainforest belt of Nigeria bounded by the savannah grassland in

the north and mangrove swamp forest in the south. The north

east trade wind from Sahara Desert and the southerly humid

marine air mass from the Atlantic Ocean cause the seasonal

variation in the climate of area. The rainy season is associated

with prevalence of moisture laden Maritime southwest trade wind

from the Atlantic Ocean. The rainy season lasts between April

and October while the dry season lasts from November till March.

The average annual rainfall of the area is 2000mm (Egboka

1993). The intensity of the rainfall is generally high during the

rainy season except sometime in the month of August, when

there is noticeable drop in rainfall. This is often referred to as

“august break”. Rainfall usually results in flooding, leaching,

erosion, percolation and infiltration.

The temperature and humidity of the area vary in magnitude

depending on the period of the year. The rainy season is

characterized by relatively low temperature and high relative

humidity.

The hottest period is between February and April and this falls

within the dry season. In fact, the temperature is usually high

 30

throughout the year with an average minimum and maximum

temperature of about 32°c and 25°c respectively. The dry season

is characterized by chilly dry harmattan wind. This lowers the

temperature appreciably especially in the months of December to

January with associated features like excessive evaporation, low

humidity (20%), low rainfall and general dryness (Egboka 1993).

Nsukka

Abakaliki

Onitsha

Study Area

Umuahia
Owerre

Study area
Less than 1750 mm
1750 mm - 2000 mm
0 20 40 60 80 km Port Harcourt
2000 mm - 2250 mm

More than 2250 mm

Scale

Fig 1.3 Map of Southeastern Nigeria showing

1.8.3 VEGETATION

The zonation of climate is directly the zonation of vegetation. The

study area belongs to the rainforest region characterized by

closed or semi-closed forests.The present day vegetation types in

Nigeria are all anthropogenic derivatives of original climate

commands; he noted that the then floristic composition, zonal

 31

and local variations especially in relation to climate, edaphic and

topographic factor are operative. Dense vegetation covers with

high tree occur along stream and interfluves while species of

grasses/shrubs occupy mostly the hilltop of the study area

(Figure 4).

Fig1.

4: Map of Nigeria showing natural vegetation (2001) (Ogbukagu, 1982)

1.8.4 WEATHERING

Weathering is the physical breakdown (disintegration) and

chemical alteration (decomposition) of rocks and minerals at or

near the earth’s surface. It is the process whereby rocks and

 32

minerals are physically and chemically altered such that they are

more nearly in equilibrium conditions at or near the surface.

However, the rocks are exposed to low temperatures and

pressures and are attacked by atmospheric gases, water, acids

and organisms.

Geologists are interested in the phenomenon of weathering

because it is an important part of rock cycle. In the study area,

the sandstone bodies are relatively resistant to weathering and

stand as ridges and hills. Rain prints and rough surface which

are due to leaching of the calcareous cement material are

numerous on the sandstone ridge.

1.8 GEOMORPHOLOGY

Generally this refers to the shape and structure of the Earth

surface, mainly the topography, drainage and the process that

shaped them such as weathering which controls the

geomorphology of the study area.

1.8.1 DRAINAGE PATTERN

The drainage pattern is dendritic, which structurally indicates

the loose and consolidated nature of the formations within which

the area lies and thus showing a total lack of structural control.
 33

The flow rates of the streams are generally slow and the direction

of the rivers and their tributaries are determined by the slopes.

Fig 1.2 Drainage map of the study area (Source: Present study)

1.8.2 CLIMATE

The study area enjoys an equatorial climate consisting mainly of

two major seasons: Rainy season, (March-October) and Dry

season (November-February) each year. It lies within the tropical

rainforest belt of Nigeria bounded by the savannah grassland in

the north and mangrove swamp forest in the south. The north

east trade wind from Sahara Desert and the southerly humid

marine air mass from the Atlantic Ocean cause the seasonal

variation in the climate of area. The rainy season is associated

with prevalence of moisture laden Maritime southwest trade wind

from the Atlantic Ocean. The rainy season lasts between April

and October while the dry season lasts from November till March.

The average annual rainfall of the area is 2000mm (Egboka

1993). The intensity of the rainfall is generally high during the

rainy season except sometime in the month of August, when

 34

there is noticeable drop in rainfall. This is often referred to as

“august break”. Rainfall usually results in flooding, leaching,

erosion, percolation and infiltration.

The temperature and humidity of the area vary in magnitude

depending on the period of the year. The rainy season is

characterized by relatively low temperature and high relative

humidity.

The hottest period is between February and April and this falls

within the dry season. In fact, the temperature is usually high

throughout the year with an average minimum and maximum

temperature of about 32°c and 25°c respectively. The dry season

is characterized by chilly dry harmattan wind. This lowers the

temperature appreciably especially in the months of December to

January with associated features like excessive evaporation, low

humidity (20%), low rainfall and general dryness (Egboka 1993).

Nsukka

Abakaliki

Onitsha

Study Area

Umuahia
Owerre
 Less than 1750 mm
1750 mm - 2000 mm
0 20 40 60 80 km Port Harcourt
2000 mm - 2250 mm

Scale 35 More than 2250 mm

Fig 1.3 Map of Southeastern Nigeria showing rainfall pattern

1.8.3 VEGETATION

The zonation of climate is directly the zonation of vegetation. The study area

belongs to the rainforest region characterized by closed or semi-closed

forests.The present day vegetation types in Nigeria are all anthropogenic

derivatives of original climate commands; he noted that the then floristic

composition, zonal and local variations especially in relation to climate, edaphic

and topographic factor are operative. Dense vegetation covers with high tree

occur along stream and interfluves while species of grasses/shrubs occupy

mostly the hilltop of the study area (Figure 4).

 36

Fig1.4: Map of Nigeria showing natural vegetation (2001) (Ogbukagu,

1982)

1.8.4 WEATHERING

Weathering is the physical breakdown (disintegration) and chemical alteration

(decomposition) of rocks and minerals at or near the earth’s surface. It is the

process whereby rocks and minerals are physically and chemically altered such

that they are more nearly in equilibrium conditions at or near the surface.

However, the rocks are exposed to low temperatures and pressures and are

attacked by atmospheric gases, water, acids and organisms.

 37

Geologists are interested in the phenomenon of weathering because it is an

important part of rock cycle. In the study area, the sandstone bodies are

relatively resistant to weathering and stand as ridges and hills. Rain prints and

rough surface which are due to leaching of the calcareous cement material are

numerous on the sandstone ridge.

2.1 REGIONAL GEOLOGIC HISTORY AND TECTONISM

The formation of the Southern Nigerian sedimentary basin followed the break-

up of the South American and African continents in the Early Cretaceous

(Murat,1972). Various lines of geomorphologic, structural, stratigraphic and

palaeontologic evidence have been presented to support a rift model (Reyment,

1965; Benkhelil, 1989).The stratigraphic history of the region is characterized

by three sedimentary phases (Short and Stauble,1967), during which the axis of

the sedimentary basin shifted. These three phases were:

(a) The Abakaliki-Benue Phase (Aptian-Santonian),

(b) The Anambra-Benin phase (Campanian-MidEocene), and

(c) The Niger Delta phase (late Eocene-Pliocene).

The more than 3000 meters of rocks comprisingthe Asu River Group and the

Ezeaku and Awgu Formations, were deposited during the first phase inthe

Abakaliki-Benue Basin, the Benue Valley and theCalabar Flank.

 38

The second sedimentary phaseresulted from the Santonian folding and uplift of

theAbakaliki region and dislocation of the depocenter intothe Anambra

Platform and Afikpo region. The resultingsuccession comprises the Nkporo

Group, Mamu Formation,Ajali Sandstone, Nsukka Formation, Imo Formation

and Ameki Group.

The third sedimentaryphase credited for the formation of the petroliferous Niger

Delta, commenced in the Late Eocene as a result of a major earth movement

that structurallyinverted the Abakaliki region and displaced the depositional

axis further to the south of the Anambra Basin.

Palaeogene time is represented bya sedimentary succession that is thicker than

3500mand consists of the Nsukka Formation (_350m),Imo Formation (_1000

m), Ameki Group (_1900m), and Ogwashi-Asaba Formation (_250 m)

(Reyment, 1965; Nwajide,1979).

 39

Correlation Chart for Early Cretaceous-Tertiary Strata in southeastern Nigeria

(Nwajide, 1993)

2.2 THE GEOLOGY OF THE STUDY AREA

Nigeria consisted of uplifted continental landmark during the pre-cretaceous

times, which was made up of pre-cambrian basement troughs which are

unconformable and are overlain by cretaceous sediments which are in turn

 40

overlain by Paleocene sediments. ). The study area is located in the southeastern

Nigeria and the major lithologic units in the area are;

 Sandstone

 Shale

2.2.1 SANDSTONE

The Sandstone in the area is Ebenebe sandstone which is sand member of Imo

shale. They consist of medium to coarse grained sandstone poorly consolidated

with clayey bands.

2.2.2 SHALE

The Shale in the area is Imo shale because they are white to brownish grey

sandy shale, carbonaceous shale with coarse to medium-grained sentence.

3.3 DESCRIPTION OF LITHOLOGIC UNIT

Outcrop 1

Coordinate: Latitude 060 141 47.311

Longitude 0070 031 24.611
Elevation: 72m
Altitude: Strike Direction: 2940
Dip Direction: 280
Dip Amount: 70
Total thickness: 4.3m
Locality: Excavationsite at Isuaniocha close to Obibiariver
Log section of the outcrop
41
 42

Plate 2: Isuaniocha Excavation Site

REFERENCE:
LIMESTONE TEXTURE

Mud &
bound
Grain size and other

Grain
track
sPack
mud
LITHOLOGY

notes
SCALE

MUD SAND GRAVEL

bound
Vf mvc

grain
clay

peb
silt

cob
c
f
1

2
Ferroginise
fine
sandstone

Fine coarse yellow grained

sandstone

Fig 6: Logging of outcrop 1

 43

Description of log in station 1

This outcrop is exposed with thickness of about 4.3m with

ferroginized sand at the top, the outcrop is cross bedded and

colour binded the outcrop is fining upward sequence, the shape

of the grain size is angular to subangular. The bed at the top is

more indurated than the one at the below which is friable skilator

burrows was observed.

Outcrop 2

Coordinate: Latitude 060 131 09.711

Longitude 0070 051 40.911
Elevation: 113m
Locality: Excavation site at cosconeAgu-Awka
Altitude: Strike Direction: 2480
Dip Direction: 3340
Dip Amount: 80
Total thickness: 6.51m
Log section of the outcrop
 44

Plate 3: Logging at Coscone

 45

REFERENCE:
LIMESTONE TEXTURE

Mud &
bound
Grain size and other

Grain
track
sPack
mud
LITHOLOGY notes
SCALE

MUD SAND GRAVEL

bound
Vf mvc

grain
clay

peb
silt

cob
c
f Red earth with
conglomerate bed

Very fine yellow sand stone

Fine grain grey sandstone
Clay stone with purple colour
Sandstone with thin sand of clay
Very fine yellow graded sandstone
Grey fine grain well sorted
Yellow fine grained sandstone characterized by cross bed
Colour banded fine grained sandstone
Dark fine grained sandstone characterized with skolithos
burrows

Fig 7: Logging of Outcrop 2

Description of log in station 2

This outcrop is exposed with thickness of 6.51m. Ebenebe

sandstone was observed in this station the outcrop has more

than one bed and it is colour binded, trough cross bedding and

larminars was observed and the mineral composition are; Quartz,

clay, silica-oxide.

Outcrop 3
Coordinate: Latitude 060 181 38.011
 46

Longitude 0070 09107.711

Elevation: 70m
Locality: Excavation site at Umugbuefi in Ebenebe
Total thickness: about 102m

REFERENCE:
LIMESTONE TEXTURE

Mud &
bound
Grain size and other

Grain
track
sPack
mud
LITHOLOGY

notes
SCALE

MUD SAND GRAVEL

bound
Vf mvc

grain
clay

peb
silt

cob
c
f

STATION

1 Ferroginise
fine
sandstone

Fine grained sand with

3 pebbly sandstone
characterized with cross
bed and skolithos burrows
4

Fig 8:Logging of outcrop 3

Description of log in station 3

 47

This outcrop is exposed with thickness of about 102m. the top

most part of this massive sand is red earth with thickness of

about 2m which result from prolonged weathering and

ferrogenisation of the formation also this massive sand is

colourbinded. The presence of burrows (skolithos) was observed

and the sand is friable and highly cross bedded. Artificial lake

which was formed as a result of the altering of the topography of

the area during the mining process was observed.

 48
REFERENCE:
LIMESTONE TEXTURE

Mud &
bound
Grain size and other

Grain
track
sPack
mud
LITHOLOGY
notes
SCALE

MUD SAND GRAVEL

bound
Vf mvc

grain
clay

peb
silt

cob
c
f Fine
ferroginise
sandstone

Fine –medium whitish

sandstone characterized
with planer bed

Fig 9: Logging of outcrop 4

Outcrop 4

Coordinate: Latitude 060 151 24.411

 49

Longitude 0070 101 07.311

Elevation: 96m
Locality: Excavation site at Ugwuoba along Onitsha Enugu Road
Altitude: Strike Direction: 3400
Dip Direction: 2520
Dip Amount: 40
Total thickness: 57m

Description of log in station 4

This outcrop is exposed with thickness of about 57m the top is

red earth which result from prolonged weathering and

ferrogenisation of the formation it is poorly sorted and fining

upward. The outcrop is colourbinded and the base is white sand

in colour also iron stone which serve as bedding plane was

observed
 50

Plate 4: At Ugwuoba

REFERENCE:
LIMESTONE TEXTURE

Mud &
bound
Grain size and other

Grain
track
sPack
mud
LITHOLOGY

notes
SCALE

MUD SAND GRAVEL

bound
Vf mvc

grain
clay

peb
silt

cob
c
f

Fine
ferroginise
sandstone

Fine –medium whitish

sandstone characterized
with planer bed

Fig. 10: Logging of outcrop 4

3.4 STRUCTUTRAL GEOLOGY

Structural geology is a branch of geology that deals with the

arrangement and shape of bed rock units and forces that caused

them. The sedimentary structures observed in the studied area

 51

are primary sedimentary structures. The primary structures are

syndepositional structures formed during the formation of the

sedimentary rocks. The primary structures observed in the study

are include,

3.5 BEDDING

A bed is the smallest lithostratigraphic unit of sedimentary rock

that is distinguishable from other beds beneath and above it. It is

usually greater than 1cm in thickness. The bedding planes

represents planes of non-deposition

3.6 CROSS BEDDING

Cross bedding form where sediment grains are by water or wind

produce moving mounds, or dunes with inclined laminations

within the individual bed.

3.7 LAMINATION

Lamination is a characteristic of fine grain sedimentary rock

such as clays and shales. Lamination is a sedimentary layer that

less than 0.01m thick.

3.8 BIOGENIC STRUCTURE

 52

These are structures produced by the activity of organism. The

Biogenic structures that were observed in the study area are

burrows of skolathos.
 53

CHAPTER FOUR

GEOPHYSICAL SURVEY, ECONOMIC, GEOLOGY

4.0 GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION

This was carried out to investigate the depth of the water table in

the study area. The instrument used is a Geo probe model 500

Earth Resistivity. This method makes use of

conductivity/resistivity of the earth material, and it is popular for

groundwater survey. The apparent resistivities obtained are

plotted against AB /2 or L for Schlumberger configuration.

The method is based on the following assumption.

i. The boundaries of the layers are horizontal and plain-

parallel.

ii. The surface of the geological formation in a horizontal

plane.

iii. The layers are horizontally of infinite extension.

iv. Every layer is homogenous and Isotropic itself.

There are many electrodes arrangement in use. Each contains

two pairs of electrode. The outer pair for including current into

the earth thus called the current electrode (C 1, C2) and the inner

pair called the potential electrode (P 1 P2) for measuring the

oncoming potential developed with the current. However the

 54

one employed in the course of this survey is the Schlumberger

arrangement show below

Fig. 11: Schlumberger Array Configuration (Dobrin and Savit 1988).

Fig showing Schlumberger electrode configuration.

Change in potential in the earth is due to differences in

structure.

Lithology and fluid content and fluid conductivity. The analysis of

the potential generated gives the apparent resistivity (P a) using

the formular below

(L2-12) ∆v
Pa=⊼ Where;
21 1

∆v = Potential difference between two surface of constant

potential

I = Current in the conduction medium

L= ∆B/2 half distance of current electrode spread.

 55

MN/2 = half distance of potential electrode spread.

Also pa can be written as pa = KR

( L2−I 2 )
Where K= ⊼ called geoelectric factor
21

R = ∆v/1 know as resistances.

The Schlumberger array is the use of vertical sounding (VES)

employed for survey meant for variation off entirely vertical

resistivity. The instrument is a digital system and record the

earth natural voltage (pd) when current is not flowing. This

recorded value can be subtracted from the main reading when

current is flowing. This advantageous over the popular

AbemTerrameter

Precautions taken in the field to ensure higher accuracy in data

acquisition the following precautions were taken.

i. The Electric power lines were avoided and measurements

were taken during dry day.

ii. The electrodes were fixed deep into the ground to ensure

good electrical contact.

iii. The transverse lines were as much as possible kept in a very

straight line.

iv. Rust was removed from electrode.

 56

v. The current electrodes were kept at a distance equal or than

ten times the potential electrodes spacing

(AB/2 5MN12).

4.1 DATA COLLECTION

The (VES) was sounded at Unizik Science village and

following data was obtained.

Table 1: Geo-electric Data at UNIZIK Science Village

K R OHM Apparent
AB/2 MN/2 Resistivity
(m) (m) (Ohm-m)
1.5 3.535 63.013 222.750

2.0 6.284 26.563 166.920

3.0 14.139 8.131 114.960
4.0 0.5 25.136 3.452 86.780
6.0 56.556 0.889 50.300
8.0 100.544 0.328 32.940
10.0 157.100 0.129 20.240
15.0 353.475 0.037 13.210
15.0 2474.325 0.0036 8.922
20.0 4398.8 0.0018 8.030
25.0 3.5 6873.125 0.0011 7.410
30.0 9897.3 0.0007 6.560
40.0 17595.2 0.0005 8.960
50.0 27492.5 0.0002 4.870
50.0 109,970 0.0000457 5.030
75.0 24743205 0.0000243 6.010
100.0 439,880 0.0000137 6.040
125.0 6873,312.5 0.0000005 3.160
150.0 14.0 989730 0.0000047 4.680
175.0 1347132.5 0.0000031 4.210
 57

200.0 1759520 0.0000018 3.190

225.0 2226892.5 0.0000028 6.220
250.0 2749250 0.000003 8.310
275.0 3326592.5 0.0000014 4.760
300.0 3958920 0.000001 3.870
 58

Fig. 12: Geoelectric Section for UNIZIK Science Village

 59

VES curve for Unizik Science Village

1000
Apparent resistivity (Ohm-m)

100

10

1
1 10 100 1000

AB/2 (m)

Fig.13: VES curve for UNIZIK Science Village

4.2 RESULTS AND INTERPRETATIONS

Water held in void spaces within rock or soil is referred to as

groundwater or subsurface water. Mgbakwu and its

environs are mostly underlain by the Ebenebe Sandstone

member of the Imo shale. From the time resistivity values,

the hydrogeophysical and geological properties of the layers

are interpreted, that is the lithology and the degree of

saturation as controlled by known geology. Fig 13 shows the

portion of the water saturated zone of the formation. Six

 60

horizons are delineated as shown in fig 3. The uppermost

layer is interpreted as top soil with thickness of about 2

meters and true resistivity value of (252 ohm-m) it is

underlain by shale with thickness of 34 meters. And

resistivity value of 7.16 Ohm-m. The third layer is

sandstone with thickness of 4m and resistivity value of

(101.3 ohm-m). Layer four is another shale layer 180m thick

with a true resistivity of 1.29 Ohm-m layer five has a

thickness of 40 meters with resistivity of 26.00 Ohm-m. It is

interpreted as water bearing, saturated shale sandstone.

The depth to water table from the geoelectric section is 220

meters as shown in fig 13. The basal layer is shale with a

resistivity of 1.02 Ohm-m. The base of this last layer cannot

be determined

4.3 HYDROGEOLOGY

The hydrogeology of the study area is simply known as the

surface water bodies and groundwater bodies found in the study

area.

4.3.1 SURFACE WATER HYDROLOGY

The area of study has abundant surface water resources ths may

be attributed to the fact that it lies within the drainage basin of

 61

the Anambra River .As a result, a lot of rivers and streams are .

Groundwater can be said to be all subsurface water especially the

part that is in the Zone of saturation. The boreholes in the study

area are located in Ifite (Unizik) within Unizik which lie in Imo

shale formation tributaries to the river.These stream drain into

the Anambra River through the River Mamu and Ezu Amansea in

a dendtritic manner. Other stream include,Obibia ,Okefia

amende and Ori,Abaowere.Nevertheless a good number of them

dry up during the dry season.

4.3.2 2 Groundwater Hydrology

Groundwater development is quite extensive in the study area.

Groundwater can be said to be all subsurface water especially the

part that is in the Zone of saturation. The boreholes in the study

area are located in Ifite (Unizik) which lie in Imo shale

formation.and this water is of economic quantity

 62

4.5 METHODS OF STUDY

Water samples were collected from the river (surface water) and

from the borehole (underground water) in the study area.

The recommendation of Bechman and Ryall (1976) and that of

Egboka and Uma (1984) were strictly adhered during the

sampling of the water samples.

4.6 DATA ANALYSIS

R-mode factor analysis was applied to the water analysis result

and all the computations were performed on the IBT computer at

the larfage Geological Laboratory by mean of the spss software of

Nieet al (1975).

Much attention was paid to the parameter chosen for the

analysis since careful data selection is a pre-requisite for the

successful factor analysis operation.

Data adjudged not to be self consistent and those believe to offer

no new information in the analysis were excluded from the matrix

used. The parameters selected as most reliable for the analysis

are Fe+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+, K+, Cl-, HCO3-, CO2, CO2, SO42, SiO2, NO3,

NO2, NH4+, PO4, Dissolved Oxygen, TDS, TSS, conductivity

 63

(ms/cm), Temperature, pH, Turbidity, Colour and Total Hardness

(mg/L)

TABLE 2: PHISIOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE WATER

SAMPLE FROM THE STUDY AREA.
Parameters Okeofia Ori River Boreh Who standard Remark
Amede ole
stream water
in Ifite
Water
component
Fe+ 1.5 3.2 2.9 1 mg/L S1, S2, S3,S4 Fail
Cl2+ 2.4 4.0 4.8 PASS
Mg2+ 2.6 22.8 3.4 150mg/L PASS
Na+ 17.0 20.4 22.8 PASS
K+ 1.0 15.2 1.4 10mg/L S2 FAIL
Cl- 12.2 24.4 22.5 600mg/L S1, S2, S3 PASS
HCO32- 18.3 15.6 20.6 500-5000mg/L S1, S2, S3 PASS
CO2- 11.7 1.3 11.7 400mg/L S1, S2, S3 PASS
SO42- 2.9 0.95 5.6 S1, S2, S3 PASS
SIO2 0.72 0.43 0.77 S1, S2, S3 PASS
NO3- 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.1mg/L S1, S2, S3 PASS
NH4+ 0.06 0.7 0.32 S1, S2, S3 PASS
PO4 0.0 0.0 0.0 1mg/L S1, S2, S3 PASS
Dissolved 5.4 5.1 3.6 N/A S1, S2, S3 PASS
Oxygen
TDS 92.8 86.0 56.8 500mg/L S1, S2, S3 PASS
TSS 4 6 6 S1, S2, S3 PASS
Conductivity( 74.6 55.1 36.0 125Omg/L S1, S2, S3 PASS
Ms/cm)
Temperature( 28.8 28.3 28.1 S1, S2, S3 PASS
0C)
Ph(Alkalinity- 5.28 5.14 5.8 6.5-8.5 S1, S2, S3 FAIL
Acidity)
Turbidity 5 12 9 25 units S1, S2, S3 PASS
Colour(FTU) 96.8 68.6 31 50 units S1, S2 FAIL
Total 32.5 17.9 25.2 500mg/L S1, S2, S3 PASS
Hardness(Mg
/L)
Plate count. 2.00 3.00 4.00 100mg/L S1, S2, S3 PASS
Total coliform Nil Nil Nil 3/100ml S1, S2, S3 PASS
E-coli Nil Nil Nil Nil S1, S2, S3 PASS
 64

4.7 RESULT AND INTERPRETATION

The high colour obtained in OkeofiaAmede stream and Ori River

are as a result of dissolved clay minerals, iron oxide and rock

particles. The high colour of the OkeofiaAmede stream and Ori

River resulted in high conductivity and high TDS.

The borehole water sample from Ifite has low mineralization with

TDS value less than 1000mg. The water samples in the study

area are generally dominated by Na+ and CHO3-, followed by

CO32-, Cl-

and Ca2+ while components such as SO 42-, Mg2+ and K+ are in

comparison in lower proportion. The minor components such as

NO3-, NH4+ and SiO2 are generally less than 1.0mg/L in the

water while measured values of temperature and dissolve oxygen

ranges from 28.1 to 28.80C and 3.6 to 5.4mg/L respectively. And

conductivity varies widely between 36.0 and 74.6µs/cm.

Meanwhile the water sample from borehole in Ifite is good for

human consumption because the chemical quality of the water

sample is within the world health organization standard. The

total dissolved solids (TDS) of thee borehole water sample is

within the U.S.E.P.A (1976) limit.

 65

The acidic natures of the water sample in the area are as result of

the presence of lateritic sediment in the study area.

The acidic nature of the water sample may be as a result of the

hydrolysis of laterite deposit abundant in the study area where

the water samples was collected.

No odour of hydrogen sulphide gas was reported during all the

water sample an analysis which indicated absence of the coal

seam in the study area. The biological test carried out in the

three water sample revealed no coliform bacteria. But the water

sample from OkeofiaAmede stream and Ori River has high TDS

and high colour Hazen such water is not good for human

consumption.

Coagulation methods chlorination and filtration can make such

water good for human consumption.

4.8 ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

Economic geology is the study of formation and materials

that are naturally deposited which can be useful or profitable

to man.The economic geology of the study area includes,

 66

4.8.1 4 Ironstone4 Ironstone

These usually occur with laterite in most places. Commercial

quantities of Iron cannot be derived from these ironstones;

therefore, they are of low quality. They are mined manually at

places where they outcrop. Their uses include the following:

 It is used as concrete materials in construction and

environmental protection.

 It is used as boulders and as ripraps for slope stabilization.

 It is used in land reclamation.

LATERITE

The laterites encountered are plastic and may be due to the

presence of cementing materials like aluminium oxide or iron

oxide. They can be used for the following:

 For grading of roads during road construction

 Used as fills in filling.

 Used in embankment constructions.

4.8.3SANDS

The Sand are being mined,for building aggregates as well as for

roads construction,foundation materials and other civil work.

 67

Plate 6: showing sand

4.8.4 SANDSTONES

The sandstones of the study area have high content of Quartz,

Silica and less oxides. The sandstone in the study area are of

commercial quality which could be used for making bricks, for

buildings and other construction works.

4.8.5 SHALE

The study area is underlain by shale of Imo formation.The

organic rich carbonaceous shale deposits of Imo formation are

favourable for hydrocarbon accumulation

 68

CLAY

The study area have large amount of clay deposit with high

proportion of kaolin,which could constitute an abundant

cheap source of raw material required for manufacture of

clay tiles,ceramic,such as flower vases and earth

ware,pottery work and painting of houses.

 69

CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 LABORATARY ANALYSIS (SEDIMENTOLOGY,

ENGINEERING) AND ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY

5.1LABORATORY ANALYSIS

The laboratory analysis carried out includes: grain size analysis,

Atterberg limit tests and water analysis. All these analysis were

carried out at the NnamdiAzikiwe University, Awka Geological

Sciences laboratory with the exception of water analysis.

5.2 INSTRUMENT FOR SIEVE ANALYSIS AND ATTERBERG

LIMIT TESTS

 Mechanical sieve set

 Digital weighing balance

 Casagrande equipment

 Sample cups

 Glazed glass

 Oven, for drying

 Distilled water
 70

Plate 5: Showing equipment for particle size distribution analysis (electrical weighing scale and sieve

sets)

Plate 6: Showing Equipment for Particle Size Distribution Analysis (Electrical

Weighing Scale and Sieve Sets)

5.3 GRAIN SIZE ANALYSIS

 71

This is used in determining the size frequency distribution of

sand size particles. The samples used were those collected from

outcrop locations. The grain size parameters calculated from

sieve data include mean grain size, median, sorting, skewness

and kurtosis. These parameters were used to infer the

depositional environment.

Laboratory Procedure

 Dry the sample in the sun or oven.

 Disaggregate or defoliate individual particle

 Remove non soil particles.

 Weigh each sieve and record.

 Arrange the sieve in descending order.

 Weigh out 500g of sample.

 Place the sample in the first/topmost sieve.

 Start shaking the sample (this lasted for about 20mins)

 Then weigh each sieve with the samples retained in it.

 Plot the graph.

 Finally, calculate your parameters and interpret the result.

5.4 CONSISTENCY OF CLAYS

 72

This refers to the texture and firmness of a soil and is often

related directly to the strength of the soil in question. In terms of

consistency, a soil can be described as soft, medium stiff or stiff.

The consistency of clay varies in proportion to the water content

when remolded. The water content indicating the division

between the liquid and plastic states is the liquid limit. That

between plastic and semi-solid states is called plastic limit while

that between semi-solid and plastic states is known as the

shrinkage limit.

5.4.1 LIQUID LIMIT (LL)

Liquid limit of a soil is the minimum moisture content at which

the soil will flow under its own weight.

Laboratory Procedure

 Sample preparation

 Set the casagrande equipment

 Make an 8mm thick paste of the sample inside the casagrande

equipment.

 Make a groove of 2mm through the middle of the cup.

 Subject to sharp blows until a section of the groove just closes.

 73

 A portion of the closed section is then scooped out and

weighed.

 Oven dry and weigh, then calculate the water content.

 A graph of water content versus no of blows is then plotted.
 From the graph, the water content at 25 blows is the liquid
limit.

5.4.2 PLASTIC LIMIT (PL)

The plastic limit of a soil is the minimum moisture content at

which the soil may be rolled into a thread of 3mm in diameter

without breaking up.

Laboratory Procedure of Plastic Limit

 Sample preparation

 Make a paste of the sample

 Begin the rolling and continue until the diameter of the thread

becomes 3mm thick.

 Re-knead the soil to reduce moisture and roll it out again.

 Continue the process of re-kneading and rolling until the

thread just crumbles at 3mm.

 Weigh the crumbled section.

 Oven dry and calculate the moisture content.

 74

 The average moisture content for the crumbled section is our

plastic limit value

Plate 5: Photograph Showing Equipments used for Atteberg Limit Test.

5.5 MATHEMATICAL AND STATISTICAL METHODS

5.5.1GRAIN SIZE STATISTICAL PARAMETERS OF FOLK AND

WARD (1957)

Mean is the overall average grain size in a given distribution. It is

the product of source of supply, depositional processes and

environment of deposition.

M₂ = (Ф16 + Ф50 + Ф84)

3
Median is the 50th percentile in phi value of the distribution. It is

the middle number in a given set of distribution. Mı = Ф50

 75

Sorting is the degree of spread or uniformity of the grain size

particles.

S = (Ф84 – Ф16) + (Ф 95 - Ф5)

4 6.6

Skewnessrepresents the asymmetry of the distribution. It is the

best of all the parameters to be used in studying the environment

of deposition.

Sk = (Ф16 + Ф84 - 2 Ф50) + (Ф5 + Ф95 - 2 Ф50)

           2(Ф84 – Ф16) 2(Ф 95
– Ф5)

Kurtosis measures the ratio of spread in the centre part of the

distribution to the ratio of spread at the ends of the distribution.

K = Ф95 – Ф5
2.44(Ф75 – Ф25)

Where, Æ95 = phi value at 95 percentile

Æ84 = phi value at 84 percentile
Æ75 = phi value at 75 percentile
Æ50 = phi value at 50 percentile
Æ16 = phi value at 16 percentile
Æ25 = phi value at 25 percentile
Æ05 = phi value at 05 percentile
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Table 3Summary of the Sieve Data and Analysis for Sample 1

Wt of sieve + sample
Wt of empty sieve

Cumulative wt of

% Cumulative of
sample retained
sample retained

sample retained

sample retained
Wt of weight of

% cumulative of
Corrected wt of

sample passing
Phi value ф
Sieve class

retained
S/N

1 2 . 3 6 -1 3 7 9 . 1 1 379.11 0 0.1125 0.1125 0.0225 99.775

2 1 . 1 8 0 3 8 4 . 4 4 386.36 1.92 2.0325 2.145 0 . 4 2 9 99.571

3 0 . 0 6 2 3 7 2 . 4 5 421.53 49.08 49.1925 51.3375 10.268 89.732

4 0 . 3 0 3 3 2 6 . 6 1 706.97 380.36 380.4725 431.81 86.3625 13.6375

5 0 . 1 5 3.5 3 1 3 . 2 2 373.94 60.72 60.8325 492.6425 98.529 1.471

6 0.07 5 4 3 2 5 . 3 1 325.90 0.59 0.7025 493.345 98.6695 1.3305

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7 0 . 0 6 3 >4 3 3 9 . 1 9 339.59 0.40 0.5125 493.8575 9 8 . 7 7 1 . 2 3

8 Catcher >5 2 8 8 . 2 3 294.26 6.03 6.1425 5 0 0 1 0 0 0

Sieve loss = 500 – 499.1 = 0.9

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Fig. 14: Probability graph of sample 1(% cumulative retained vs phi)

From sample 1 graph, Ф5 = 0.7, Ф16 = 1.1, Ф25 = 1.33, Ф50 =

1.85, Ф75 = 2.4, Ф84 = 2.6, Ф95 = 3.1.

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These values were used to calculate for grain size parameter

Mean = 1.85, Median (Md) = Ф50 = 1.85

Sorting (S) = 0.74, Skewness (Sk) = 0.0316, Kurtosis (k) =

0.92

Table 5: Summary of the Sieve Data and Analysis for Sample 2

Corrected wt of

Cumulative wt

% Cumulative
Wt of weight

% cumulative
Wt of sieve +
Wt of empty
Phi value ф
Sieve class

of sample

of sample

of sample

of sample
retained

retained

retained

passing
sample

sample
sieve
S/N

1 2.36 -1 379.11 619.86 222.44 222.564 222.564 44.5128 5 5 . 4 9

2 1.18 0 384.42 490.90 106.48 106.604 329.168 65.8336 3 4 . 1 7

3 0.06 2 372.42 377.99 5 . 5 7 5.694 334.862 66.9724 3 3 . 0 3

4 0.30 3 327.10 382.92 55.82 55.944 390.806 78.1612 2 1 . 8 4

5 0.15 3.5 312.75 402.13 89.38 89.504 480.31 96.062 3 . 9 3 8

6 0.075 4 325.29 338.11 12.82 12.944 493.254 98.6508 1 . 3 4 9 2

7 0.063 >4 339.04 340.097 1.057 1.181 494.435 98.887 1 . 1 1

8 Catcher >5 288.18 293.62 5 . 4 4 5.564 5 0 0 1 0 0 0

Sieve Loss = 500 – 499.007 = 0.993

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Fig. 15: Probability graph of sample 2 (% cumulative retained vs phi

From sample 2 graph, Ф5 = -1.2, Ф16 = -1.1, Ф25 = -1.5, Ф50 = -

0.4, Ф75 = 1.9, Ф84 = 2.3, Ф95 = 2.9
Table 4.3b: Probability graph of sample 1(% cumulative retained
vs phi)
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These values were used to calculate for grain size parameter

Mean (m) = 0.266, Median (Md) = -0.4, Sorting (S)= 1.47

Skewness (Sk) = 0.89, Kurtosis (k)= 0.49

Table 6:Summary of the Sieve Data and Analysis for Sample 3

Cumulative wt of

% Cumulative of
sample retained

sample retained

sample retained

sample retained

sample retained
Wt of weight of

% cumulative of
Corrected wt of

sample passing
Wt of sieve +
Wt of empty
Phi value ф
Sieve class

sieve
S/N

1 2.36 -1 397.22 400.64 3 . 4 2 3.44625 3.44625 0 . 6 8 9 9 . 3 2

2 1.18 0 384.51 441.13 56.62 56.67625 60.1225 1 2 . 0 0 8 8 . 0 0

3 0.06 2 372.37 474.31 101.94 101.96625 162.08875 3 2 . 3 9 6 7 . 6 1

4 0.30 3 327.00 604.33 277.33 277.35625 439.454 8 7 . 8 6 1 2 1 4

5 0.15 3.5 312.73 367.03 54.30 54.32625 493.78025 9 8 . 7 2 1 . 2 8

6 0.075 4 325.35 327.44 2 . 0 9 2.11625 495.8965 9 9 . 1 4 0 . 8 6

7 0.063 >4 339.16 341.68 2 . 5 2 2.54625 498.44275 9 9 . 6 5 0 . 3 5

8 Catcher >5 288.21 289.94 1 . 7 7 1.79625 5 0 0 1 0 0 0

Sieve Loss = 500 – 499.99 = 0.01

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Fig. 16: Probability graph of sample 3(% cumulative retained

 83

From sample 3 graph, Ф5 = -0.3, Ф16 = 0.2, Ф25 = 0.5, Ф50 =

1.4, Ф75 = 1.6, Ф84 = 1.9, Ф95 = 2.45

Table 4.3b: Probability graph of sample 1(% cumulative retained

vs phi)

These values were used to calculate for grain size parameter

Mean (m) =1.17, Median (Md) = 1.4, Sorting (S) = 0.84

Skewness (Sk) = 0.323, Kurtosis (k) = 1.024

HISTOGRAM
This shows the model distribution of the analysed samples in the
study area.

FIG 17: HISTOGRAM FOR SAMPLE 1

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FIG 18: HISTOGRAM FOR SAMPLE 2

FIG 19: HISTOGRAM FOR SAMPLE 3

Table 7: Summary of Results obtained from sieve Analysis

Sample number M e a n S o r t i n g Skewness K u r t o s i s

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1 1.85(medium) 0.74(moderately sorted) 0.0316(symmetrical) 0.92(mesokurtic)

2 0.266(coarse sand) 1.47(poorly sorted) 0.89(very positively skewed) 0.49(mesokurtic)

3 1.17(medium sand) 0.84(moderately sorted) -0.323(symmetrical) 1.024(leptokurtic)

5.6 ENGINEERING GEOLOGY

5.6.1 RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

Fig. 20: Results for Sample 1 (Atterberg Limit Test)

 86

Fig. 21: Results for Sample 2 (Atterberg Limit Test)

 87

Fig 22: Results for Sample 3 (Atterberg Limit Test)

Plasticity Index:
 88

This is defined as the numerical difference between liquid limit

and plastic limit of a given soil element. If the liquid limit is

greater than plastic limit, it indicates a positive plasticity index

and if the plastic limit is greater than the liquid limit, it indicates

a negative plasticity index.

5.7 INTERPRETATION

The result of the Atterberg limit test for sample 1, 2 and 3.shows

that sample1, the liquid limit is 75.37%, plastic limit is 71.90

and plasticity index is 3.47%. In sample 2, the liquid limit is

80%, plastic limit is 70.98 and plasticity index is 9.02% while

sample 3 the liquid limit is 34.00%, plastic limit is 26.45% and

plasticity index is 7.55.

If the plasticity index ranges from 0 to 3%, it indicates non

plastic soil. If the plasticity index ranges from 3 to 15, it indicates

slightly plastic soil. If the plasticity index ranges from 15 to 30%,

it indicates medium plastic soil. If the plasticity index is greater

than 30%, it indicates highly plastic soil. Plasticity index (PI %) =

Liquid limit- plastic limit;

5.8 ENGINEERING APPLICATION OF PLASTIC LIMIT AND

THE        LIQUID LIMIT TEST
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1) Plastic limit and liquid limit help in selection of clay soil for

earth embankment construction.

2) They help to determine the settlement of clay and its

behavioral pattern in consolidation.

3) Plastic limit and liquid limit of any soil is important in the

selection of suitable site for civil work.

4) They are very important in the determination of plasticity of a

clayey layer underlying a foundation.

5) They are essential for soil classification in industrial.

6) They help in the selection of soil suitable for use as compacted

fill in various types of earthworks. Clay soils / shale of high

plasticity are likely to have lower permeability. Hence tend to

be more compressible and they consolidate over a longer

period of time than those of lower plasticity. In order words

highly plasticity clay/shale are more difficult to compact when

used as fill materials.

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5.9 ENVIRONMENTAL GEOLOGY

The environmental geology aims at understanding the

relationship and effects geologic processes to the environment.

The processes may be natural or human induced. They usually

constitute hazards. Environmental hazards encountered in the

study area includes,

5.10 EROSION

Erosion is one of the major hazards observed in the study area.It

maily occur as gully erosion. The level of erosion depend on the

erodibility of the rocks. A major gully erosion was observed at

amanuke.

POSSIBLE CONTROL MEASURE

Channelization of the floods water by use of gutter channels.

Slope stability thought the planting of trees,orchards with roots

that helps to hold soil particles and reduce speed of run off.

Reclamation and stone pitching of erosion prone areas to stone

further damage.

Using appropriate farming practice and techniques such as

contour ploughing, strip planting and terains.

FLOODING

In the study area flooding occurs during the rainy season due to
high precipitation.The river in area overflow their banks and
cover some part of the place claiming some farmlands.
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Though,this flooding is seasonal,It aids in the fertility of the

farmland but it destroy crops and buildings.

CONTROL MEASURE

The possible control measure for flooding is engineering which

could be building of dams. Early planting of crops can also be
adopted,so that the crop could mature before flooding.

POLLUTION AND CONTERMINATION

This is one of the major environmental hazards observed in the

area. Agricultural activities have the potential to contaminate
surface water through the application of esticides, and
fertilizers,irrigation and disposal of animal wastes. Also
inhabitant do take bath and washing in the river and
streams,even directly disposal of refuse into the river/streams
also pollute and makes the water to be contaminated.;people in
the area also deficate in the bushes and these are carried into the
rivers by rainfall.

CONTROL MEASUIRE

Organization of an awareness campaign programme to educate

the people on proper sanitary measures. The increasing use of
fertilizers and pesticides for agriculture and other purposes
should be monitor especially when they are used closely to any
water supply system. Adequate toilet facilities should be provided
and people should stop defecating in bush and streams.
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CHAPTER SIX

6.0 CONCLUSION

Mgbakwu and its environment lies between longitude 6 0 131 and

60 201 latitude 70 01 and 70 101 it is located in Awka North Local

Government Area of Anambra State and allessible through

Onisha Enugu Expressway. The area has two formation Imo

Shale and it sandstone member Ebenebe and also Nanka sand

The major envinmental hardzard in the study area are flooding

and erosion.

The description of the outcrop, analysis of the sand samples,

Geophysical survey and analysis of water sample collected from

the study area was also discussed. From the analysis conducted,

the sand samples were moderately well sorted and well graded

because they contain all the size components of sand which are

very fine, fine, medium, coarse and very coarse particle. While the

Atterberg limit test for sample 1, 2 and 3 indicated that they are

slightly plastic soil.

The water analysis conducted on the water sample from the

study area shows the water sample from OkeofiaAmede stream

and Ori River has high TDS and colour Hazen which indicate that

such water is not good for humgulation methods, chlorination

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and filtration can make such water good for human

consumption.

6.7 Recommendations

The available waters shall be protected from contamination by

animal and human wastes; adequate treatment of water for

domestic uses by boiling and chlorination and protection of water

sources from pollution by human activities shall be encourage.

There should be Government intervention in the area to ensure

safe water practices and uses.

Early control involving proper stabilization of the slopes is

required by the relevant arms of government.

Rock netting should be used to checkmate the problem of gully

erosion.

Permanent structures should not be built in areas prone to

subsidence. In cases where this cannot be avoided, special

engineering techniques must be used.

Lastly, there should be further thorough investigation of the area.

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REFERENCES