Sewell Kirk 2002 TungChung

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Geology of
tung Chung
and Northshore
Lantau Island
1:5 000 Sheets 9-SE-A， 9-SE-B
Offshore Part Sheets 9-NE-D， 10-NW-A， 10-NW-B， 10-NW-C &
10-NW-D， & Study of Oround Conditions at Tung Chung New Town
出.J. Sewell & P.A. Mirk
Oeotechnical Engineering Office

Civil Engineering Department
EONO MONO July 2002
。 Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region
First published July 2002
ISSN xxxx-xxxx
Prepared by:
Geotechnical Engineering Office

Civil Engineering Building
101 Princess Margaret Road
Homantin， Kowloon
Hong Kong
Cover: Oblique aerial view of Tung Chung New Town from above Chek Lap Kok taken in June 1998.
This publication is available from:
Chief Geotechnical Engineer/Planning

Geotechnical Engineering Office
Civil Engineering Building
101 Princess Margaret Road
Homantin， Kowloon
Hong Kong
Foreword
This report and associated 1:5 000-scale maps specifically relate to development areas in the vicinity of
Tung Chung New Town and parts of proposed development areas for Northshore Lantau Island.
The report forms part of the published results of a programme of systematic geological mapping of Hong
Kong that began in 1982. It complements geological information contained in the Hong Kong Geological
Survey Memoir No. 6 - Geology of Lantau District， and in two Hong Kong Geological Survey Sheet Reports
(No. 2 - Geology of Chek Lap Kok， and No. 4 - Geology of North Lantau Island and Ma Wan). These
reports have greatly enhanced our understanding of the stratigraphy， structure， and geological history of
Hong Kong's rocks. At the same time， they have allowed a geological database， necessary for the continuing
economic development of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region， to be established and developed.
The mapping programme was undertaken by the Hong Kong Geological Survey， which is a section of the
Planning Division of the Geotechnical Engineering Office， Civil Engineering Department. The section was
led by Dr C.J.N. Fletcher and the Division was under the direction of Dr R.P. Martin during the mapping
project reported here. The report was subsequently written and compiled by Dr R.J. Sewell and Mr P.A.
Kirk， at which time the section was led by Dr S.D.G. Campbell and the Division was under the direction of
Mr H.N. Wong.
The 1:5 000-scale onshore geological survey of Tung Chung was conducted by Mr P.A. Kirk， who also
managed a consultancy， on behalf of the Territory Development Department， and undertaken by members of
the British Geological Survey， to study complex ground conditions at Tung Chung New Town. Some of the
information from the consultant's study is incorporated in this report. Much helpful advice and review comments
were also given by GEO colleagues， including Mr K.W. Lai and Dr X.C. Li.
The Survey benefitted from the co-operation of many organizations and individuals. In particular， the co-
operation of Mott Macdonald (Hong Kong) Ltd， Scott Wilson (Hong Kong) Ltd， the Airport Authority，
Electronic and Geophysical Services Ltd， and Cosine Ltd.， is gratefully acknowledged.
This report and the accompanying map sheets will be of interest and value to earth scientists， engineers，
planners， developers and educators.
R. K. S. Chan
Head of the Geotechnical Engineering Office
July 2002
CONTENTS
Page
Title Page 1
Foreword 3
Contents 5
Map and Report Series Notes 9
Chapter 1 Introduction 11
Location and Physiography 11
Previous Work 12
Complex Ground Conditions at Tung Chung 12
The Northshore Lantau Development Feasibility Study 12
Offshore Geophysical and Marine Ground Investigations 14
Purpose and Scope of Study 14
Data Sources 14
Chapter 2 Outline of Geology 1勻
Chapter 3 Palaeozoic Sedimentary Rocks 23
San Tin Group (Carboniferous) 23
Classification and Distribution 23
Lok Ma Chau Formation 23
Yuen Long Formation 23
Tolo Harbour Formation (Permian) 24
Chapter 4 Mesozoic Sedimentary and Volcanic Rocks 25
Tai O Formation 25
Tsuen Wan Volcanic Group 25
Yim Tin Tsai Formation 25
Lantau Volcanic Group 26
Chapter 5 Intrusive Igneous Rocks 28
Major Intrusions 28
Granite 28
Lantau Granite 29
Chek Lap Kok Granite 29
Quartz Monzonite 30
Tong Fuk Quartz Monzonite 30
Minor Intrusions 31
Feldsparphyric Rhyolite 31
Porphyritic Microgranite 32
Quartzphyric Rhyolite 32
Aplite 32
Quartz Veins 33
Mafic Dykes 33
Chapter 6 Structure 34
Folds 34
Faults 34
Photolineaments 36
Joints 36
Chapter 勻 Metamorphism and Alteration 39
Thermal Metamorphism 39
Hydrothermal Metamorphism 39
Chapter 8 Superficial Deposits and Weathering 40
Onshore Superficial Deposits 41
Slope Debris 41
Alluvial Sediments 41
Beach Deposits 42
Intertidal Deposits 42
Offshore Superficial Deposits 42
Tung Chung Formation 42
Chek Lap Kok Formation 43
Sham Wat Formation 45
Hang Hau Formation 45
Weathering 4勻
Chapter 9 Complex Ground Beneath the Tung Chung Reclamation 48
Introduction 48
Tung Chung Study 48
Data Sources 50
Developing the Geological Model 50
Xenoliths 50
Weathering 50
Karst 51
Complex Ground Conditions at Site 3

52
Laminated Deposits 52
Diamict 52
Sand and Gravel 52
Model for Formation of Karst Deposits at Site 3

52
Ground Investigation Techniques 53
Implications of the Revised Geological Model 55
Complex Ground Conditions in Areas Adjacent to Tung Chung 55
Chapter 10 Economic Geology 5勻
Non-metalliferous Minerals 5勻
Metalliferous Minerals 5勻
Construction Materials 58
References 59
Index 62
Appendix
Lexicon of Terms Used for Drillcore Logging and Surface 64
Mapping at Tung Chung， Lantau Island， Hong Kong by M.R.
Gillespie， A.J. Humpage， and R.A. Ellison
List of Tables
Table
1 Grain-size Description and Classification of Rocks and Superficial 10
Deposits in Hong Kong
2 Summary of the Onshore and Offshore Stratigraphy of the District 18
3 Whole-rock Major- and Trace-element Geochemistry for Representative 20

Rock Types in the Tung Chung District. Major Oxides in wt%， Trace
Elements in ppm
List of Figures
Figure
1 Location Map of Major Infrastructure Developments Related to Tung Chung 11

New Town and Northshore Lantau Island
2 Traverses Undertaken During 1968， 1988-89 and 1991-92 Field Surveys 13
3 Locations of Boreholes Drilled for Tung Chung New Town and Northshore 15
Lantau Island Infrastructure Developments
4 Locations of Seismic Lines around Northshore Lantau Island 16
5 Simplified Onshore Geology of the District 19
6 Simplified Seabed Sediment Map of the District 22
勻 Generalized Classification and Nomenclature of Selected Major and Minor 28

Intrusive Rocks (after Le Maitre， 1989)
8 Principal Structural Features of Tung Chung and Northshore Lantau Island 35
9 Contoured Pole Plots of Joints Measured for All Rock Types on Tung Chung 3勻
and Northshore Lantau Island (after Woods， 1993). a) Sha Lo Wan to Hau
Hok Wan， b) Hau Hok Wan to Tin Sam， c) Tung Chung to Lau Fau Sha，
d) Lau Fau Sha to Kei Tau Kok， and e) Kei Tau Kok to Pak Mong
10 Schematic Section Showing the Relationship between Superficial Deposits 40

and the Different Environments of Deposition
勻
11 Location Map Showing the Distribution of the Tung Chung Formation 44
Determined from Interpretation of Gravity and Borehole Data (Modified after
Kirk et al.， 2000)
12 Distribution and Isopachs (in Metres) of the Hang Hau Formation 46
13 Location Map of Part of the Tung Chung East Reclamation Potentially 49

Underlain by Complex Geological Conditions
14 Examples of Different Interpretations of Problematic Materials Encountered in 51

Boreholes Drilled at various locations at Site 3 of the Tung Chung East
Reclamation
15 Schematic Representation of the Development of Karst Deposits Beneath 53

Tower 5， Site 3， Tung Chung East Reclamation (after Figure 6 in Fletcher et
al.， 2000)
16 Simplified Averaged Rockhead Models (Top of Grade III or Lower) for 54

Offshore Parts of the District Based on 3-D Modelling of the Terrain
Corrected Bouguer Anomaly (after EGS 1999a， 1999b)
1勻 Volcanotectonic Map of Hong Kong (c.146 Ma) Showing the Distribution of 56

the Tung Chung and Ma On Shan Marble Subcrops and Major Faults that
Were Active During Emplacement of Rocks Belonging to the Lantau Volcanic
Group and Kwai Chung Suite (Modified after Kirk， 2000).
List of Plates
Plate
1 Steeply-dipping and Deformed， Fine-grained Metasandstone and 24

Carbonaceous Metasiltstone of the Lok Ma Chau Formation Exposed on Tsz
Kan Chau (1588 2085)
2 Altered， Silicified， Banded Coarse Ash Crystal Tuff Exposed on Pok To Yan 26
(1350 158勻)
3 Fine- to Medium-grained Lantau Granite from a Borehole South of Ha Law 29

Wan (1131 1勻16)
4 Thin Section of Fine- to Medium-grained Lantau Granite from Pak Sha Tsui， 30
Tung Chung (HK 9236， 1131 1698); XPL
5 Fine-grained Chek Lap Kok Granite from Tin Sam (HK 9252， 0945 1勻09) 30
6 Fine-grained， Porphyritic Tong Fuk Quartz Monzonite from Sha Lo Wan (HK 31
1006勻， 0812 1633)
勻 Thin Section of a Mafic Dyke from Hau Hok Wan (HK 923勻， 1156 1勻2勻) 33
8 Tung Chung Wan from the Northwest Showing Quaternary Superficial Deposits 43
Composed of Intertidal Deposits in the Foreground， and Beach Deposits and
Alluvial Deposits in the Background. (Photo taken on 5.12.1989)
Map and Report Series Notes

This report describes the geology of central Lantau Island in the vicinity of Tung Chung New Town and
the offshore parts of the North Lantau coast between Chek Lap Kok and Yam O. The report should be read
in conjunction with the 1:5 000-scale Geological Maps 9-SE-A and 9-SE-B (revised 2002). The 1:20 000-
scale Geological Map Sheet 9 (Chek Lap Kok)， and Memoir 6， Geology of Lantau Island， also include
relevant information on the geology of the area.
This report forms one of a series that records findings of the Hong Kong Geological Survey. An index of
the 1:5 000-scale Geological Maps to which this report relates is shown below.
The symbols for major rock units on the maps have been revised from the first edition maps in order to be
consistent， where possible， with the symbols used in the recently published 1:100，000-scale geological map
(Sewell et al.， 2000). A prefix is used to indicate the age of the rocks， followed by lower-case letters to
indicate: (i) the group， where appropriate， and/or (ii) the formation name. Prominent stratigraphic beds within
the Mesozoic volcanic succession are indicated by a lower-case letter (or letters) denoting the dominant
lithology.
The symbols for superficial deposits on the maps comprise a prefix to indicate the age of the sediments，
followed by superscripted lower-case letters to indicate environment of deposition and upper-case letters to
indicate material. Ages of the sediments are interpreted as Pleistocene (Qp)， Holocene (Qh) and Quaternary
undivided (Q). The environments of deposition seen in the district are interpreted to be colluvial (Df)， alluvial
(a)， beach (b)， intertidal (i)， and marine (m). The materials of colluvium (Df， slope debris) include boulders，
cobbles， gravel， sand， and silt. The materials of alluvial， beach， intertidal， and marine environments， are
dominantly sand (S) and mud (M).
Onshore superficial deposits are not generally considered mappable if less than 2 m thick. This minimum
thickness is also used as a mapping criterion for offshore sediment.
Most place names referred to in the text are shown on Figure 2. Grid references cited for specific localities
are based on the Hong Kong 1980 Metric Grid as shown on the 1:5 000-scale Geological Maps. Eight-figure
references indicate positions to the nearest 10 m， with Eastings followed by Northings， eg 2200 2230.
All onshore and offshore levels and depths are reduced to Hong Kong Principal Datum (PD)， which is
1.2 m below Mean Sea Level and 0.15 m above Admiralty Chart Datum.
Samples in the SAR-wide rock collection archived by the Hong Kong Geological Survey are prefixed HK
followed by the serial number， eg HK 98勻2.
Boreholes are generally referred to by the drilling contractor's number followed by the Geotechnical
Information Unit (GIU) accession number， or Works Order number (WO)， for the relevant ground investigation
report， eg 5SW32/13464. The GIU is located in the Civil Engineering Library of the Civil Engineering
Department and is maintained by the Geotechnical Engineering Office， Civil Engineering Department.
The system used in this report for grain-size description and classification is summarized in Table 1.
Table � � Grain Size Description and Classification of Rocks and Superficial Deposits in 0ong Kong
Solid Rocks
Grain
Superficial
Size
Deposits Sedimentary Pyroclastic Igneous Rocks Metamorphic Rocks
mm
Rocks Rocks Acid Acid-Intermediate Intermediate Basic Other Foliated Other
Boulders Pyroclastic
Brecia,
200 Sedimentary Agglomerate
Cobbles Pegmatite
60 Breccia, Very
10
Coarse Conglomerate Coarse

20 Quartz Quartz Gabbro Quartzite,
Gravel Medium Lapilli- Tuff Coarse Syenite Schist Marble,
6 Syenite Monzonite
Fine Medium Granite Granodiorite Hornfels,
2 Fault
Coarse gouge,
0.6 Coarse Ash
Sand Medium Sandstone Fine Lamprophyre Fault
0.2 Tuff
Microgabbro breccia
Fine Aplite, Micro-
0.06
Microgranite granodiorite
Silt Siltstone Very
Fine
Mud Mudstone Fine, Rhyolite Dacite Quartz Trachyte Quartz Andesite Basalt Mylonite,
Ash Tuff
Aphanitic Trachyte Latite Phyllite
Clay 0.002 Claystone Rhyodacite
Chapter 1
Introduction
Location and Physiography

This report is the third in a series of geological reports and associated 1:5 OOO-scale geological map sheets
covering the development areas of Lantau Island. It describes the geology of northern central Lantau Island，
with special reference to complex ground conditions at Tung Chung New Town， and offshore areas along the
North Lantau coast earmarked for reclamation and future infrastructure development. The report should be
read in conjunction with two revised 1:5 OOO-scale map sheets 9-SE-A and 9-SE-B (revised 2OO2)， and parts
of three 1:5 OOO-scale geological map sheets previously described within the scope of Sheet Report No. 4
(Geology of North Lantau Island and Ma Wan). The study area also covers offshore parts of 1:5 OOO-scale
map sheet 9-NE-D， previously described by Sheet Report No. 2 (Geology of Chek Lap Kok)， and part of 1:
5 OOO-scale map sheet 1O-NW-A， which remains unpublished. The main purpose for including offshore
areas within the scope of this study is to incorporate the improved understanding of the offshore solid and
superficial geology， which has resulted from new geophysical and borehole evidence. Much background
detail is also contained in Hong Kong Geological Survey Map Sheets 9 (Tung Chung) and 1O (Silver Mine
Bay)， and Memoir No. 6 (Geology of Lantau District). Woods (1993) also provides useful information on the
engineering geological characteristics of rocks within the study area.
The area covered by this report is approximately 4 194 ha (Figure 1). In this report， the mapped area， along
with the offshore study area stretching from Chek Lap Kok in the southwest through to Tsing Chau Tsai in the
northeast， is referred to as 'the district'.
815 000E
830 000E
Black Point Ho Pui
50
800
0
Reservoir
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300 0 70
60 0 0
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(Shing Mun)
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0 0
LUNG KWU 200

20 30
Tai Lam Chung

TAN Reservoir
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50 200
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Ur
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Lower
ms
100 Shing Mun

50 TSUEN WAN Reservoir
ton
ung Kwu TAI LAM

Chau CHUNG
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200 TSENG
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50
824 000N TSING
LUNG TAU Kowloon
100
20
Reservoirs 300
10-NW-A 10-NW-B
The Brothers CHEUNG
200 SHA WAN
100
LAI CHI KOK
200
YAM O 50
TSING YI
MO
20
0 KO
CHEK LAP KOK

9-NE-D 10-NW-C 10-NW-D
200
50
Hong Kong 50
International Airport 200 KOWLOON
0
Discovery Bay
30
0
40
TSIM SHA
TSUI
50
Peng
9-SE-A 9-SE-B 300
Reservoir Chau
300
TUNG 400
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CENTRAL
CHUNG Kau Yi Chau DISTRICT
500 WA
200 60
300 0 0
40 0
0
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MUI WO
LANTAU ISLAND Sunshine
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Island
HONG KONG
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ISLAND
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600700
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300 30
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Hei Ling
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20
PEAK 40
100 300
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Ea
100
Shek Pik 100 st

La
20 0
0
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0
Reservoir 20
el
m
ann
CHI MA WAN m
a
SHEK PIK PENINSULA Ch
Ch
an
ne
ma
50
l
Lam
Cheung
100
50
Chau
LAMMA
ISLAND
100
st
We
Shek Kwu
Offshore Study Area Chau
1 0 1 2 3 km
Proposed Reclamation 200
100
50
Figure 1 - Location Map of Major lnfrastructure Developments Related to Tung Chung New Town and
Northshore Lantau lsland
11
The onshore part of the district occupies a region of rugged topography dominated by a central range of hills
forming the backbone of Lantau Island. The highest peak in the district is Pok To Yan (529 m， 136O 1591) in
the southeast. The Tung Chung valley is the dominant valley system， draining towards Tung Chung Wan in
the north. In the east， a major northwest-trending valley forms Wong Lung Hang. Embayments along the
North Lantau coast in the west of the district are occupied by the village settlements of Sha Lo Wan and Tin
Sam.
Much of the district was formerly agricultural with subsistence farming and fishing being the dominant
occupation. These areas are now largely abandoned and major tracts of land are now included within the
Lantau Country Park. The low-lying area at Tung Chung， formerly a fishing village， is now being redeveloped，
with high rise and other buildings and new roads being planned or under construction as part of the expansion
of Tung Chung New Town.
Previous Work
The first geological investigations in Hong Kong were undertaken by Brock， Uglow， Schofield & Williams
between 1923 and 1927 under an agreement between the Colonial Office and the University of British
Columbia. A geological map of Hong Kong was published at a scale of 1:84 48O by Brock et al. (1936)， and
several papers relating to this work were published by Brock & Schofield (1926)， Uglow (1926)， Williams
(1943) and Williams et al. (1945). The first memoir， based largely on this work， was produced by Davis
(1952)， followed later by a detailed description of the geology of Hong Kong by Ruxton (196O).
Allen & Stephens (1971) published the first comprehensive geological map at a 1:5O OOO scale together with
a descriptive report. This survey remained the definitive work on the geology of Hong Kong until 1982 when
the Hong Kong Geological Survey commenced the 1:2O OOO-scale mapping programme (Figure 2). Bennett
(1984a; 1984b; 1984c) reviewed the stratigraphy and tectonics of Hong Kong， and 1:2O OOO-scale geological
maps covering the central Lantau Island district were published by GEO (1994) (Sheet 9) and GEO (1991)
(Sheet 1O). The geological memoir covering this map sheet was published by Langford et al. (1995). The
terrain characteristics， superficial deposits and engineering geology aspects were described in the Geotechnical
Areas Studies Programme Report No. IV， North West New Territories (GCO， 1988). Two new memoirs on
the geology of Hong Kong， synthesising much of the information gathered during the 1:2O OOO and 1:5 OOO-
scale mapping programmes， have recently been published (Fyfe et al.， 2OOO; Sewell et al.， 2OOO).
Complex Ground Conditions at Tung Chung

Complex ground conditions at Tung Chung were first encountered during preliminary ground investigations
for the Tung Chung reclamation in 1991. These conditions， including pockets of marble with cavities and
deeply-weathered fault zones， have subsequently posed local problems for the design and construction of
some deep foundations (e.g. under high-rise buildings). In 1996， the construction of one proposed residential
tower block had to be abandoned due to adverse ground conditions. This prompted a detailed geological
study on the ground conditions at the Tung Chung reclamation and its adjacent area， funded by the Territory
Development Department.
British Geological Survey consultants were engaged through the Geotechnical Engineering Office to undertake
the geological study which culminated in production of a report (Gillespie et al.， 1998) entitled “Geology of
Tung Chung New Town" in September， 1998. This report confirmed the existence of complex ground in
various development sites and established a geological model for Tung Chung New Town. The study concluded
that complex ground might be identified in other nearby development areas and recommended the use of a
combination of geophysical techniques to identify discrete occurrences and regional structural interpretations.
The Northshore Lantau Development Feasibility Study

As a result of the Territorial Development Strategy Review (TDSR) announced in 1998， and the subsequent
Northshore Lantau Development Feasibility Study (NLDFS)， it was recommended that the theme of Northeast
Lantau be reoriented from port to tourism and recreational development. In addition to several major new
tourism and recreation development initiatives in the Penny's Bay and Yam O areas， the NLDFS identified
potential areas for residential development at Siu Ho Wan， linking with the planned residential development
of Tai Ho New Town to the west.
Almost all of the urban， and tourism and recreation developments proposed for the north coast of Lantau are
12
810 000E
814 000E
818 000E
LEGEND
1991-92
SIU MO TO 822 000N
1988-89
HA KOK TSUI CHEUNG
THE BROTHERS SOK
1968 TAI MO TO
YAM O
WAN
Scale 1:60 000

TSZ KAN CHAU
0 1 2 Km
YAM O 291
0
10
Sham Shui 10
0 20
0 0
Kok 20
0
20
way TAI CHE
Run TUNG
10
200 0
it
L im
ati on 200
c la m 100
Re
d
CHEK LAP KOK
se
13
100
o po
YI PAK AU
Pr
Hong Kong
International Airport
200
Discovery Bay
way
Run
0
818 000N
30
TAI HO 465
PAK MONG 0
0
WAN 40
40
300
KEI TAU KOK LO FU TAU

0
0
10
0
20
20
100
77
SHA LO HAU HOK
200 TAI HO
WAN WAN NI
M
TUNG CHUNG
0
SH
U
10
TIN SAM NEW TOWN E
0 W
AN
30 Reservoir
TAI PO 100 300
POR KAI SHAN
Figure 2 - Traverses Undertaken During 1968， 1988-89 and 1991-92 Field Surveys
482
10
200 100 Golf Course
TUNG CHUNG
BAY
0
0
30 POK TO YAN 200
0
10
200 529 20
0 300
10 HUNG FA 275
0
300 40 NGAN 0
300 400 10
200 TAI SHUI HANG
0
TUNG
500
0
200 30 CHUNG
0 200
10
VALLEY
20 500 60
0 100 400 721 0
40
300 300 0
20 100 20 200
400 0 LANTAU ISLAND
500 200
500
300 10
324 WONG LUNG HANG 0
MUI WO
to be associated with areas of new reclamation. In the past， some of the problems encountered in such major
infrastructure developments in Hong Kong have been attributed to insufficient geotechnical and geological
knowledge. The NLDFS included an initiative to examine all available site investigation data to confirm
offshore ground conditions. Five additional ground investigations， including boreholes and cone penetration
tests (CPTs) and two geophysical surveys， were carried out to study the geological conditions and sediment
quality in the area of proposed reclamation(s). An overview of the results of these investigations are reported
here. They confirm the complexity of the geology in offshore areas along the North Lantau coast.
Offshore Geophysical and Marine Ground Investigations

Additional offshore geophysical and marine ground investigations， undertaken for the NLDFS and completed
in 1999， have proved depressions filled with siltstone or fine alluvial sediment to a depth of -162 mPD within
5OO m of the North Lantau shoreline (Scott Wilson (HK) Ltd.， 2OO1; Kirk et al.， 2OOO) These data indicate
the presence of deep zones of weathering and marble with cavities beneath areas of proposed reclamation.
The geological information to hand suggests that local areas of complex ground may be encountered beneath
areas of proposed and planned infrastructure development along the North Lantau coast.
Purpose and Scope of Study

The main purpose of the 1:5 OOO-scale mapping programme was to provide information on rock structure，
texture and composition for use by engineers involved with infrastructure development. An additional aim
was to supplement existing published geological data (Langford et al.， 1995; GEO， 1994， (Sheet 9)) with
more detailed information to help interpretation of broader aspects of the geology of Hong Kong.
In addition to a description of the geology covered by 1:5 OOO-scale geological map sheets 9-SE-A and 9-
SE-B， this report gives a detailed account of the complex ground conditions encountered at Tung Chung
New Town. It also covers the solid and superficial geology of the proposed infrastructure development area
at Siu Ho Wan and the offshore area immediately east of Chek Lap Kok.
Data Sources
A large volume of borehole data for North Lantau and Tung Chung exists from previous site investigations，
including those for the airport project (Figure 3). This large data set was compiled as part of a computerised
database.
Aerial photographs， particularly those taken in 1963， were invaluable in mapping of onshore superficial
deposits. A Landsat image of the Pearl River Estuary， although at a small scale， gave an excellent overview
of the district and supplied further evidence of structural trends determined from field mapping.
From a total of 216 rock samples collected， some 171 specimens were thin sectioned and 15 samples were
sent to the University of Nottingham for whole rock major and trace element geochemical analysis. Two
samples were collected from the district for Rb-Sr age determinations at the NERC Isotope Geosciences
Laboratory， Keyworth.
The nature and distribution of offshore superficial sediments have been mapped using shallow seismic profiles，
borehole logs， and CPT traces from several surveys (Figure 4). These surveys were originally carried out in
preparation for the Port and Airport Development Strategy (PADS)， offshore sand resource exploration and
site investigations for reclamations. Copies of seismic profiles used in this project are held by the Hong Kong
Geological Survey.
The 1:5 OOO-scale geological maps which accompany this report are based on the Hong Kong Geological
Survey field surveys， now published as a map at a scale of 1:2O OOO. The present report has extended this
work through a detailed interpretation of the sub-surface geology based mostly on recent borehole data and
offshore seismic traverses， obtained since the earlier survey. Each 1:5 OOO-scale sheet area is represented by
one geological map showing both the solid and superficial geology.
All the records from this project， including rock samples， thin sections， manuscript maps and analytical data，
are held in the archives of the Hong Kong Geological Survey， Geotechnical Engineering Office， Civil
Engineering Department. The powders used in geochemical analysis are also retained in the Hong Kong
Geological Survey archives， and a split is kept at the British Geological Survey， Keyworth.
14
LEGEND
810 000E
814 000E
818 000E
Borehole location
822 000N
Scale 1:60 000

0 1 2 Km
CHEK LAP KO
KOK
291
0
10
0 20
10 0 0
20
lnfrastructure Developments
0
20
10
200 0
it
ti o n L im
ma 200
100
c la
Re
ed
os
15
100
op
Hong Kong
Kong
Pr
International Airpor
International Airportt
200
0
818 000N
30
465
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40
40
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482
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10 275
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AU
ISLAND 300 400 10
200
500
0
0
200 30 0 200
10
20 500 60
0 100 721 0
40 400
300 300 0
20 100 20 200
0
400 200
500
500
300 10
324 0
Figure 3 - Locations of Boreholes Drilled for Tung Chung New Town and Northshore Lantau lsland
LEGEND
Seismic reflection line
Onshore area
822 000N
Scale 1:60 000
0 1 2 Km
16
CHEK LAP
KOK
818 000N
Figure 4 - Locations of Seismic Lines around Northshore Lantau lsland
LANT
LANTA
AU ISLAND
818 000E
810 000E
814 000E
Chapter 2
Outline of Geology
The main part of the district lies across the northern faulted boundary of the Lantau Caldera (Langford et 叫l.，
1995) which separates Mesozoic volcanic rocks in the south from Mesozoic sedimentary and intrusive rocks
in the north. The volcanic rocks are composed mostly of rhyolite lava and tuff with minor intercalated
volcaniclastic sandstone and siltstone， tuffite and tuff breccia. The intrusive rocks consist mostly of granite
and quartz monzonite plutons in the west and feldsparphyric and quartzphyric rhyolite dykes in the east
(Table 2， Figure 5). Representative whole-rock geochemical analyses of the rock types are given in Table 3.
Palaeozoic sedimentary rocks of the San Tin Group are the oldest rocks in the district. They are exposed only
on Tze Kan Chau (1585 2090) in the northeast， but are known to underlie parts of the offshore area to the
south and east of The Brothers islands. 0n Tze Kan Chau， the rocks comprise mainly quartz metasandstone
and graphitic metasiltstone of the Carboniferous Lok Ma Chau Formation， whereas offshore they consist of
marble belonging to the Yuen Long Formation. Limestone of Permian age， together with sandstone and
siltstone， has been identified in boreholes at Tung Chung. These rocks have also been encountered in boreholes
farther north offshore and have been tentatively assigned to the Tolo Harbour Formation (Sewell et 叫l.，
2000).
Metasiltstone and sandstone are exposed in the far west of the district against the fault marking the boundary
of the Lantau Caldera. Previously， these rocks were considered to be of Carboniferous age and assigned to
the Lok Ma Chau Formation (GE0， 1994; Langford et 叫l.， 1995). However， following the discovery of
Jurassic fossils in these rocks near Tai 0 (Ng et 叫l.， 1997)， they have been reassigned to the Lower Jurassic
Tai 0 Formation (Sewell et 叫l.， 2000). The Tai 0 Formation forms a northeast-trending outcrop along the
coast of Lantau Island from Tai 0 to San Shek Wan.
Lapilli-bearing coarse ash crystal tuff of the Yim Tin Tsai Formation (Tsuen Wan Volcanic Group) is
stratigraphically the oldest Mesozoic volcanic rock in the district and is confined to offshore boreholes along
the North Lantau coast from Sham Shui Kok to Kwai Shek. These rocks have been dated elsewhere (Sewell
et 叫l.， 2000) at 164.5 Ma and they conformably overlie lapilli-bearing coarse to fine ash crystal tuff of the
Shing Mun Formation. They are intruded by porphyritic fine- to medium- and medium-grained granite
belonging to the Tai Lam Granite and Lantau Granite plutons of the Lamma Suite (Sewell et 叫l.， op. cit.). In
the western part of the district， the fine-grained Chek Lap Kok Granite (Lamma Suite) intrudes porphyritic
fine- to medium-grained Lantau Granite.
Eastnortheast-trending feldsparphyric and quartzphyric rhyolite dykes of the Lantau Dyke Swarm intrude
granites of the Lamma Suite in the northeastern and northwestern parts of the district. The dykes have been
dated at approximately 146 Ma and are truncated by the fault marking the boundary of the Lantau Caldera.
The dykes were emplaced in at least two phases (Li et 叫l.， 2000) and may vary internally from feldsparphyric
rhyolite to porphyritic microgranite. Quartzphyric rhyolite dykes are considered to have been emplaced
mostly during the younger phase.
Welded lapilli- to block-bearing crystal tuff， tuff breccia， tuffite and flow-banded rhyolite lava， with intercalated
volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks infill the Lantau Caldera. Previously， these rocks were named as the Lantau
Formation (Langford et 叫l.， 1995)， but they have now been reassigned to the Lantau Volcanic Group
(undifferentiated) (Sewell et 叫l.， 2000). These rocks have been dated at approximately 146 Ma and represent
the products of a number of discrete eruptions.
The volcanic and granitic rocks of the district are intruded along the caldera-bounding fault by quartz monzonite
belonging to the Lion Rock Suite. Minor basalt， microdiorite and aplite dykes occur sporadically in the
northern part of the district intruding the granitic rocks and rhyolite dykes. These mafic and felsic dykes are
considered to be of Cretaceous age.
The geological structure of the district is complex， owing to the close proximity of intersecting regional fault
trends and faults related to the caldera boundary. The dominant regional fault trend is to the northeast. These
17
Table 2 - Summary of the Onshore and Offshore Stratigraphy of the District
Stratigraphic Divisions Lithostratigraphy and Principal Map

Genetic Classification Materials Sym
Superficial Deposits
Fill Natural earth and waste QhF

Alluvium Silt， sand and gravel with boulders Qa
Holocene Intertidal deposits Mud and sand Qi
Estuarine deposits Mud and sand with peat Qhie
Beach deposits Sand QhbS
Hang Hau Marine mud Soft to very soft mud; some sand QhmM
Formation Marine sand Sand， some gravel and mud QhmS
Holocene
QUATERNARY
and
Pleistocene Slope debris and Sand， gravel， cobbles QsD
Debris flow deposits Cobbles in fine matrix QDcp
(Colluvium)
Sham Wat Estuarine to
Clay， silt and some sand
Formation marine deposits
Chek Lap Alluvium， Qpa
Pleistocene Clay， silt， sand， and gravel Qpat
Kok terraced alluvium，
Formation slope deposits Sand， gravel， cobbles QpsD
Tung Chung Karst-related
Silt， sand and gravel with boulders QpkD
Formation deposits
Volcanic and Sedimentary Rocks
Lantau
Tuff and lava， siltstone， sandstone， Jlu， sl， s，
Volcanic Undifferentiated
tuff and tuffite， crystal tuff， mudstone tt， t， m
Group
Jurassic Tsuen Wan
Volcanic Yim Tin Tsai Fm. Coarse ash crystal tuff Jty
Group
MES0Z0IC
Tai 0 Formation Metasiltstone with metasandstone Jo
Permian Tolo Harbour Fm. Marble Pt

Carbon- San Tin Lok Ma Chau Fm. Metasiltstone with metasandstone Csl
iferous Group Yuen Long Fm. Marble Csy
Major Intrusive Rocks
Fine-grained quartz monzonite， mqf
Jurassic-
MES0Z0IC Fine-grained granite and fine- to medium-grained granite gf， gfm
Cretaceous
Medium-grained granite gm
Minor Intrusive Rocks
CRETACE0US Basalt， lamprophyre， microdiorite and andesite b， l， µD， a
Jurassic- Feldsparphyric and quartzphyric rhyolite， rf， rq，

MES0Z0IC
Cretaceous aplite， porphyritic microgranite ap， µg
18
LEGEND
Fine-, Fine- to medium-, and
814 000E
818 000E
Reclamation Medium-grained Granite Major intrusive rocks
Fine-grained Quartz Monzonite
Mount Davis Formation
Lantau Volcanic Group Feldsparphyric Rhyolite
Yim Tin Tsai Formation Porphyritic Microgranite Minor intrusive
rocks (dykes) SIU MO TO 822 000N
Tai O Formation Quartzphyric Rhyolite
CHEUNG
Geological Boundary THE BROTHERS
BROTHERS SOK
Lok Ma Chau Formation
Fault TAI MO TO
TO
Scale 1:60 000
0 1 2 Km
TSZ KAN CHAU
it
m
ion Li
la mat
R ec
CHEK LAP KOK
ed
�i��e � � �i�pli�ie� ��o�e �eolo�� o� t�e �i�t�ict

os
19
op
Pr
Hong Kong
818 000N
LANTAU ISLAND
Table 3 - Whole-rock Major- and Trace-element Geochemistry for Representative Rock Types in the
Tung Chung District. Major Oxides in wt%， Trace Elements in ppm
Sample HK10067 HK11052 HK9213 HK9249 HK9250 HK8342 HK9598 HK10005 HK10007 HK10286
Unit mq Jlu gm gfm gfm Jlu Jlu Jlu Jlu Jlu
Si02 65.88 77.10 74.84 76.11 67.78 74.91 75.90 70.36 70.52 70.07
Ti02 0.47 0.12 0.18 0.79 0.57 0.21 0.21 0.41 0.40 0.55
Al203 16.08 12.20 13.27 12.82 14.96 12.70 12.34 14.30 14.43 13.91
Fe203的 3.89 1.66 1.57 4.26 4.00 1.88 1.66 3.22 3.83 4.40
Mn0 0.10 0.04 0.04 0.01 0.13 0.05 0.02 0.05 0.04 0.14
Mg0 0.98 0.12 0.25 0.72 1.24 0.36 0.21 0.33 0.39 1.73
Ca0 2.57 1.12 1.37 0.05 4.20 1.20 0.86 1.77 1.40 2.17
Na20 3.42 0.35 2.63 0.05 2.14 2.54 2.35 2.79 2.03 0.79
K20 5.84 5.84 5.07 4.22 3.88 4.97 5.58 5.72 5.95 4.16
P205 0.16 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.14 0.05 0.04 0.11 0.11 0.09
Total 99.39 98.57 99.25 99.07 99.04 98.87 99.17 99.06 99.10 98.01
L0I的的 0.45 1.06 0.50 0.83 0.66 0.78 0.55 1.74 0.83 1.81
Cr 25 34 27 24 28 22 26 25 22 68
Ni 3 8 8 8 14 11 12 9 11 33
Co 5 2 - 4 - 4 5 4 5 11
Cu 2 1 - - - 1 1 1 1 1
Pb 22 24 46 39 47 19 23 20 25 11
Zn 37 20 27 22 22 28 32 23 28 50
W 3 4 30 8 11 2 3 1 1 14
Rb 173 362 346 367 423 222 274 235 265 474
Ba 875 101 232 219 40 412 325 767 605 317
Sr 288 36 100 82 28 143 75 141 125 87
Ga 17 15 17 17 20 14 15 15 16 16
Nb 14 19 18 15 20 20 20 20 21 14
Zr 283 148 95 97 89 149 203 285 275 190
Y 33 47 40 47 63 62 79 42 41 31
Th 18 41 35 35 41 33 40 30 32 18
U 2 6 11 21 12 4 5 3 5 4
La 46 39 30 18 11 58 118 55 61 30
Ce 87 84 70 51 27 110 171 141 130 82
F 967 664 1871 2631 2553 1109 940 1041 1539 7688
的
total iron as Fe203
loss on ignition (L0I) at 1000oC
的的
Mg# is 100Mg / Mg + Fe2+
1. HK10067 Porphyritic quartz monzonite 808120E 816330N Sha Lo Wan

2. HK11052 Porphyritic rhyolite lava 812005E 815460N Tung Chung
3. HK9213 Fine- to medium-grained granite 808145E 817110N Sha Lo Wan
4. HK9249 Fine- to medium-grained granite 808455E 817100N Sha Lo Wan
5. HK9250 Fine- to medium-grained granite 808615E 817030N Hau Hok Wan
6. HK8342 Rhyolite lava 813725E 816495N Por Kai Shan
7. HK9598 Porphyritic rhyolite lava 807620E 815080N Sha Lo Wan
8. HK10005 Porphyritic rhyolite lava 809424E 815097N Nei Lak Shan
9. HK10007 Porphyritic rhyolite lava 809764E 815018N Nei Lak Shan
10. HK10286 Lapilli tuff 809025E 815435N Nei Lak Shan
20
faults offset the caldera boundary faults and an earlier set of north- to northnorthwest-trending faults. However，
the northeast-trending faults have themselves been offset by reactivation of northnorthwest-trending faults.
Northeast- to northwest-trending quartz veins are present in the northwestern part of the district， mainly close
to granite intrusions. However， they are also found in close proximity to the caldera margin fault， intruding
volcanic rocks， and commonly contain traces of mineralization including arsenopyrite， chalcopyrite， galena，
magnetite， molybdenite， pyrite and wolframite.
Superficial deposits within the district cover most of the low-lying ground and large tracts offshore (Figure
6). The onshore deposits comprise dominantly debris flow deposits on the higher ground and alluvial sediments
on the valley floors. In the larger valleys， these have been disturbed by cultivation. Close to the coast， the
superficial deposits comprise beach deposits of sand. Areas of deep weathering have been detected in boreholes
beneath the Tung Chung reclamation and in a northeast-trending zone subparallel to the North Lantau coast
extending from Tai Ho Wan to Ha Kok Tsui. These areas are associated with unusually thick superficial
deposits (Tung Chung Formation) comprising an assortment of debris flow deposits， laminated sediments，
and block breccias. These deposits are thought to be associated with collapse of karst-related cavities (Kirk，
2000; Fletcher et 叫l.， 2000) formed from blocks of marble encased within granite and dyke intrusions.
The offshore superficial deposits on the seabed in the district consist mostly of intertidal and estuarine
deposits of sand and mud， and marine mud and sand of the Hang Hau Formation. A small area of marine sand
belonging to the Chek Lap Kok Formation has been identified in the extreme northeastern part of the district
north of Yam 0 Wan. Extensive subcrop of the Chek Lap Kok Formation， and of estuarine to marine deposits
of the Sham Wat Formation， have also been identified.
21
LEGEND
814 000E
818 000E
Fill
Marine mud
SIU MO TO 822 000N
Marine sand
HA KOK TSUI CHEUNG
THE BROTHERS SOK
Pleistocene Alluvium
TAI MO TO
YAM O
Rock at seabed WAN
Scale 1:60 000 TSZ KAN CHAU

0 1 2 Km
YAM O 291
0
Sham Shui 10
0 20
10 0 0
Kok 20
0
20
way TAI CHE
Run TUNG
10
200 0
it
ti o n L im
ma 200
100
c la
Re
CHEK LAP KOK
ed
22
os
100
op
YI PAK AU
Pr
Hong Kong
�i��e � � �i�pli�ie� �e叫�e� �e�i�e�t �叫p o� t�e �i�t�ict

200
Discovery Bay
way
Run
0
818 000N
30
TAI HO 465
PAK MONG 0
0
WAN 40
40
300

0
0
10
0
20
20
100
77
SHA LO HAU HOK
200 TAI HO
WAN WAN NI
M
TUNG CHUNG
0
SH
10
NEW TOWN UE
TIN SAM W
0 AN
30 Reservoir
TAI PO 100 300
POR KAI SHAN
0
482
10
200 100 Golf Course
TUNG CHUNG
0
BAY
30 POK TO YAN 200
10
200 529 2 00
0 300
10 0
HUNG FA 275
300 40 NGAN 0
300 400 10
200 TAI SHUI HANG
0
TUNG
500
0
200 30 CHUNG
0 200
10
VALLEY
20 500 60
0 100 721 0
40 400
300 300 0
20 100 20 200
400
0 LANTAU ISLAND
500 200
500
300 10
324 0
WONG LUNG HANG MUI WO
Chapter 3
Palaeozoic Sedimentary Rocks
San Tin Group (Carboniferous)
Classification and Distribution
Metasedimentary rocks are exposed in one small area of the district (Sheet 10-NW-C); Tsz Kan Chau (Reef
Island) to the north of Lantau Island. They form part of a steeply northeast-plunging syncline with western
and eastern limbs defined by The Brothers islands (Tai Mo To and Siu Mo To respectively) to the north of the
Tsz Kan Chau.
The metasedimentary rocks have lithological and palaeontological similarities with the main outcrop of
Carboniferous rocks in the northwest New Territories (Langford et al.， 1989) and have been assigned to the
San Tin Group (Langford et al.， 1995). The San Tin Group comprises two formations; the older Yuen Long
Formation (Lee， 1985) and younger Lok Ma Chau Formation (Williams， 1943). 0nly the Lok Ma Chau
Formation is exposed in the district although an extensive subcrop of marble， correlated with the Yuen Long
Formation， has been proved by boreholes to the south and east of this island (NS1/14460， NS3/14460，
T8/3/13951， M7/29998， M11/29998， DH4/30023， DH6/30023).
Lok Ma Chau Formation

Mai PO Member
The Lok Ma Chau Formation comprises two members; the older Mai Po Member consisting of metamorphosed
siltstone， fine-grained sandstone and carbonaceous siltstone， and the younger Tai Shek Mo Member consisting
of metamorphosed sandstone and conglomerate. The rocks exposed at Tsz Kan Chau have been assigned to
the Mai Po Member. Langford et al. (1995) previously assigned metasedimentary rocks outcropping on the
coast between Tai 0 and San Shek Wan to the Mai Po Member of the Lok Ma Chau Formation. However，
these rocks have since been reclassified as the Middle Jurassic Tai 0 Formation (Sewell et al.， 2000) on the
basis of new fossil discoveries (Ng et al.， 1997).
At the southeastern end of Tze Kan Chau (1588， 2085)， the sediments are composed of buff to brown， cross-
bedded (units 10s of mm)， pebbly coarse sandstone and laminated fine quartz sandstone with sparse intercalated
beds (0.5 - 1 m) of dark grey to black， massive to poorly laminated graphitic siltstone (Plate 1). Andalusite
crystals are well-formed in the sandstone beds indicating that the succession has been contact metamorphosed.
To the northwest， the sediments grade upward into buff to reddish brown， massive fine-grained quartz sandstone
which dips steeply (65 - 70°) to the northwest. The succession is considered to overlie stratigraphically
marble of the Yuen Long Formation found in offshore boreholes to the east， and to have a minimum thickness
of 300 m (Langford et al.， 1995).
Yuen Long Formation

Ma Tin Member
The Yuen Long Formation consists of dark grey and white marble， and has been described principally from
the Yuen Long area in the northwest New Territories. Frost (1992) divided the formation into two members:
the lower Long Ping Member is a dark grey marble with complex internal structure， whereas the Ma Tin
Member is a massively-bedded white marble. The marble encountered in offshore boreholes is predominantly
white and is assigned to the Ma Tin Member. Solution features have been encountered in three of the
boreholes: NS1/14460 at -54mPD; DH4/30023 at -59mPD and -62mPD; and DH6/30023 at -65 mPD. These
features are karst-related cavities， up to 6 m across， and are commonly infilled with brown sandy silt.
Sediments of the Lok Ma Chau Formation are considered (Lai et al.， 1996) to have been deposited in a tidal
swamp or fluvial-deltaic environment. The presence of small-scale cross-bedding in the fine-grained
sandstones suggests shallow water conditions whereas intercalated carbonaceous material may indicate neritic
conditions. Marble of the Yuen Long Formation is considered (Frost， 1992; Sewell et al.， 2000) to have been
originally a pure to slightly impure limestone.
23
Plate 1 - Steeply-dipping and Deformed， Fine-grained Metasandstone and Carbonaceous Metasiltstone of

the Lok Ma Chau Formation Exposed on Tsz Kan Chau (1588 2085)
Tolo Harbour Formation (Permian)

Metasedimentary rocks and their weathered products have recently been identified (Gillespie et al.， 1998;
Kirk， 2000; Fletcher et al.， 2000) in boreholes in the vicinity of Tung Chung New Town. The rocks were
provisionally named as the “Tung Chang Formation" (Lee et al.， 1998)， but have since been tentatively
correlated with the Tolo Harbour Formation (Sewell et al.， 2000). These rocks comprise metamudstone，
metasandstone， marble， skarn， calcsilicate rock and quartzite and occur as large (up to 350 m across)， isolated
blocks within the medium-grained Lantau Granite (Middle Jurassic). In some of the largest metasedimentary
blocks， fossiliferous limestone is preserved and has yielded an Early Permian fossil assemblage， including
the fusilinid foraminifers Schwagerina callosa and Schwagerina spp， and the rugose coral Rugosachusenella
hutiensis (Lee et al.， 1998).
The metasedimentary rocks are well-bedded with lithologically distinct bands of skarn， calc-silicate， and
rare magnetite-rich rock， usually no more than a few metres thick. Marble， up to 60 m thick， is known from
one of the largest metasedimentary blocks. In the weathered state， the metsedimentary rocks are variably
altered depending on the characteristics of the parent rock. Quartzite， metasandstone， calc-silicate and siliceous
skarn are largely resistant to weathering whereas marble， impure marble and carbonate-bearing siliceous
rocks are highly susceptible. Commonly， the carbonate-rich rocks have been dissolved by oxidizing waters
to leave an insoluble residue of silt and clay minerals. Cavities are often formed and many of these have
subsequently been infilled with superficial deposits.
24
Chapter 4
Mesozoic Sedimentary and Volcanic Rocks
Tai 0 Formation
Mesozoic sedimentary rocks are only exposed in the extreme western corner of the district. They form the
eastern limit of an outcrop of Mesozoic sedimentary rocks along the North Lantau coast extending from Tai
0 in the southwest to San Shek Wan in the northeast. These rocks were previously assigned to the Carboniferous
on the basis of lithological similarity (Langford et al.， 1995)， although the presence of a rhyolite lava flow
intercalated with the sedimentary rocks at San Chau raised the possibility that the upper part of the succession
may be of Jurassic age. The recent discovery of macrofossils in the rocks near Tai 0 have now confirmed a
Middle Jurassic age.
The Tai 0 Formation mostly comprises an interbedded succession of grey， fine-grained sandstone alternating
with siltstone and sandy siltstone. 0ccasional beds of dark grey graphitic siltstone are also present. The Tai
0 Formation is in fault contact with volcanic rocks belonging to the Lantau Volcanic Group， and the sedimentary
rocks are thermally metamorphosed within a 100 m zone near the contact. Little structural data is available
from outcrops of Tai 0 Formation within the district. However， to the west at San Shek Wan， the formation
is considered to dip moderately to the south. Farther west at Sham Wat Wan， the formation is tightly folded
into a series of anticlines and synclines. The Tai 0 Formation has an estimated thickness of c. 400 m (Langford
et al.， 1995).
Jones (1996) considers that the Tai 0 Formation was deposited on an alluvial plain， crossed by small- to
moderately-sized rivers. Fossils recovered from the Tai 0 Formation at Tai 0 include several late Early to
early Middle Jurassic plants including Ptilophyllum contiguum， Otozamites hsiangchiensis， Tyrmia cf.
nathortsi， and Eretmophyllum? sp.
Tsuen Wan Volcanic Group

Volcanic rocks of the Tsuen Wan Volcanic Group are not exposed in the district but have been encountered
in marine boreholes along the North Lantau Coast from Sham Shui Kok to Kwai Shek. Although two volcanic
formations were previously identified in onshore areas of North Lantau Island (Langford et al.， 1995)， the
volcanic rocks are now all considered to belong to one formation: the Yim Tin Tsai Formation， comprising
lapilli-bearing coarse ash crystal tuff with minor intercalated fine ash crystal tuff. A sample of the fine ash
crystal tuff from Yam 0 Wan (HK11821) has yielded a U-Pb age of 164.5 士 0.2 Ma (Davis et al.， 1997).
Yim Tin Tsai Formation

The dominant lithology is lapilli-bearing coarse ash crystal tuff. The tuff is generally rhyodacitic in composition
and is typically massive， although it may occasionally exhibit foliation. Minor intercalated fine ash tuff
horizons are present in isolated boreholes (DH10/30023， DH11/30023). The lapilli lithic volcaniclasts consist
of dark aphanitic and strongly porphyritic lava. The clasts vary in size from less than 10 mm to 150 mm. The
aphanitic volcaniclasts commonly have sharp edges suggesting that they were fragmented during chilling，
whereas the porphyritic volcaniclasts have diffuse edges suggesting that ‘lava fragments' were still partly
molten at the time of deposition.
Petrographically， the Yim Tin Tsai tuff has relatively equal proportions of quartz and alkali feldspar but
plagioclase content may vary. The chief mafic minerals are biotite and amphibole， and accessory minerals
comprise zircon， apatite， monazite， and magnetite. In a typical thin section from north Lantau， the proportions
of these minerals are quartz 35%， alkali feldspar 25%， plagioclase 30%， biotite 7%， amphibole 3%， and trace
accessory minerals. Total crystal content (>0.06 mm) varies from 40 to 60%. The overall thickness of the
Yim Tin Tsai Formation in the district is estimated to be 500m.
The internally massive and structureless character of the Yim Tin Tsai Formation suggests that it represents
the product of large， relatively homogenous， ash flow eruption. Welded fabrics have not been observed，
suggesting that the ash had cooled considerably by the time the flow came to rest. The crystal-rich nature of
25
the deposit indicates that cooling and crystallisation of the magma started well before eruption and this is
likely to have been from a relatively shallow level magma chamber (e.g. Clemens & Wall， 1984).
Lantau Volcanic Group

The Lantau Volcanic Group largely occupies the Lantau Caldera (Langford et al.， 1995) in central Lantau
Island， although correlatives of the group (Lai Chi Chong Formation) are known from the eastern New
Territories (Sewell et al.， 2000). Formations have been not yet been formally identified on Lantau although
one member， the Pak Kok Member， has been mapped (Langford et al.， 1995). Within the district， the volcanic
rocks remain largely undifferentiated except for locally prominent siltstone， sandstone， tuffite， crystal tuff
and mudstone beds. Two U-Pb ages have been obtained from volcanic rocks on Lantau Island， but outside
the district these have returned ages of 147.5 士 0.2 Ma to 146.7 士 0.2 Ma respectively (Davis et al.， 1997;
Sewell et al.， 2000).
月ain Lithologies
Undifferentiated. Most of the volcanic rocks mapped within the district remain undifferentiated. Included
within this grouping are large areas dominated by vitric tuff and porphyritic rhyolite lava. The porphyritic
rhyolite lavas generally contain euhedral phenocrysts of quartz and feldspar， but some of these crystals have
been mechanically broken as a result of fragmentation during eruption. Banded porphyritic rhyolite lava is
exposed on the summit of Por Kai Shan (1398 1633) and on the south side of the hill (1394 1626)， the lava
grades into rhyolite breccia. The volcanic lithologies in this part of the district， and to the northwest， are
weakly metamorphosed. Metamorphosed tuff is commonly pale red to reddish white but may also vary to
brownish white. Metamorphism is considered to be dominated by hydrothermal alteration associated with
intrusion of silicic magmas and channelling of silica-rich fluids along the northern boundary fault system of
the Lantau Caldera (Langford et al.， 1995). Minor fine ash crystal rhyolitic tuff and tuffite are intercalated
sporadically within the main succession， generally separating thick successions of rhyolite lava and banded
rhyolite lava.
Crystal Tuff. A feature-forming outcrop of crystal tuff has been mapped to the northwest of Por Kai Shan
(1375 1650)， where it conformably overlies a thick band of tuffite. The crystal tuff varies locally to crystal-
bearing vitric tuff and is weakly bedded. In places， a weak foliation has developed and the tuff also shows
evidence of thermal metamorphism (Plate 2). The crystal tuff is estimated to be approximately 110 m thick.
Plate 2 - Altered， Silicified， Banded Coarse Ash Crystal Tuff Exposed on Pok To Yan (1350 1587)
26
Tuffite. A prominent outcrop of banded tuffite， comprising pale grey tuffaceous sandstone， dark grey tuffaceous
mudstone， and grey crystal-bearing vitric tuff has been mapped on the northwestern flanks of Por Kai Shan
(1360 1650). The tuffite dips at 350 to the east and is estimated to be approximately 140 m thick. Large
corestones of vitric tuff occur within the tuffite， which has been weakly thermally metamorphosed. A small
(0.002 km2) outcrop of tuffite has been mapped within the main Lantau volcanic succession in the far
southeastern corner of the district. The tuffite consists mostly of cherty tuffaceous siltstone and sandstone.
Siltstone. Grey， finely laminated tuffaceous siltstone is exposed to the east of Pok To Yan (1385 1570) in the
southeastern part of the district. The siltstone is weakly thermally metamorphosed and forms a prominent
feature-forming bed up to 60 m thick， dipping to the east at up to 360. The siltstone bed is exposed for
approximately 750 m in a north-south orientation， and thins out rapidly to both north and south.
Mudstone. Grey to light or reddish-grey， laminated mudstone with minor intercalated tuffaceous sandstone is
exposed as a feature-forming unit 300 m to the southeast of Por Kai Shan (1420 1608) in the southeastern
part of the district. The mudstone unit can be traced southeastward for approximately 500 m and is possibly
up to 80 m thick. Load structures displayed by the mudstone unit indicate that it is the right way up and dips
approximately 170 to the southeast. A second， less prominent， feature-forming mudstone unit is exposed
approximately 300 m upslope of the main mudstone outcrop. This upper mudstone unit is similar lithologically
to the lower mudstone unit and displays a similar bedding attitude. The upper mudstone unit is exposed in an
east-west orientation and can be traced laterally for approximately 200 m. The unit is up to 50 m thick.
Sandstone. A very minor outcrop of tuffaceous sandstone has been mapped between the upper and lower
mudstone units southeast of Por Kai Shan (1455 1573). The unit is approximately 6 m thick， and can only be
traced for approximately 25 m in an east-west orientation. The tuffaceous sandstone is typically light-grey，
and either massive or poorly bedded.
27
Chapter 5
Intrusive Igneous Rocks
Cl吋ssific吋tion 吋nd Distribution

The intrusive igneous rocks of the district comprise major intrusions of granite and quartz monzonite， and
minor intrusions of porphyritic microgranite， feldsparphyric rhyolite， quartzphyric rhyolite， aplite， quartz
veins and mafic dykes. Compositional classification is based on Le Maitre (1989) (Figure 7). The major
intrusions are divided into medium-grained， fine- to medium-grained， and fine-grained lithologies. On the
basis of geochemical and mineralogical studies， the granites may be further divided into separate plutons or
intrusive units. These plutons form the host rock to a swarm of rhyolite dykes (Lantau Dyke Swarm) that
dominates the geology in northeastern Lantau Island. Abundant textural variation is present within both
major and minor intrusions.
M吋 or Intrusions
Granite
Two main varieties of granite are present in the district: megacrystic fine- to medium-grained and medium-
grained granite belonging to the Lantau Granite， and fine-grained granite belonging to the Chek Lap Kok
Granite (Sewell et al.， 2000). The Lantau Granite crops out intermittently across the northern part of the
district between Pak Mong and Sha Lo Wan， whereas the Chek Lap Kok Granite crops out principally along
the coast west of Tin Sam. U-Pb dating of zircon crystals has returned ages of 161.5 士 0.2 Ma for the Lantau
Granite， and 160.4 士 0.3 Ma for the Chek Lap Kok Granite (Davis et al.， 1997). Both granites predate
emplacement of the Lantau Dyke Swarm.
Q = quartz
A = alkali feldspar,
including albite
(An0 - An5)
P = plagioclase feldspar,
(An5 - An100)
ALKALI FELDSPAR
GRANITE
alkali feldspar
rhyolite GRANITE GRANO-
rhyolite DIORITE
dacite
rhyodacite
(SYENO- (MONZO-
GRANITE) GRANITE)
QUARTZ QUARTZ
DIORITE, GABBRO
SYENITE MONZONITE
quartz trachyte quartz latite andesite, basalt
SYENITE trachyte MONZONITE latite
Figure 7 - Generalized Classification and Nomenclature of Selected Major and Minor Intrusive Rocks (after
Le Maitre， 1989)
28
L吋nt吋u Gr吋nite
The Lantau Granite is typically megacrystic medium-grained with large megacrysts of pink alkali feldspar
set in a granular matrix of quartz， plagioclase， alkali feldspar， amphibole and aggregates of biotite. Non-
porphyritic fine- to medium-grained lithologies are also present (Plates 3 and 4). Accessory minerals include
concentrically zoned allanite， apatite， titanite， zircon， rare fluorite， and Fe-Ti oxide.
Euhedral to subhedral K-feldspar megacrysts (5 - 15 mm) are dominantly composed of perthitic orthoclase
with subordinate microcline. Two generations of plagioclase crystals (25 - 30%) are commonly present:
strongly concentrically zoned species and relatively unzoned species. The strongly zoned plagioclase grains
are euhedral (2 - 5 mm) to subhedral with andesine-rich cores and oligoclase- to albite-rich rims. The cores
of these crystals are commonly altered to sericite and sharp boundaries often exist between successive growth
phases. In some rocks， residual cores of extensively altered anhedral alkali feldspar are mantled by
concentrically-zoned plagioclase. Unzoned to weakly zoned plagioclase is generally euhedral and composed
mostly of oligoclase and albite. The cores are often weakly sericitized. Anhedral quartz (30 - 35%) shows
undulose extinction showing that it is typically strained. Yellowish brown to green biotite usually comprises
between 2 - 10% of the mode and is sometimes accompanied by subordinate greenish brown amphibole
(3 - 5%).
Plate 3 - Fine- to Medium-grained Lantau Granite from a Borehole South of Ha Law Wan (1131 1716)
Chek L吋p Kok Gr吋nite

The Chek Lap Kok Granite (Sewell et al.， 2000) forms a subcircular pluton centred on the airport at Chek
Lap Kok. Prior to construction of the airport， the unit was exposed on the western half of the island Chek Lap
Kok and on Lam Chau (Langford et al.， 1995). Exposures are now confined to the area between Tin Sam and
Hau Hok Wan on the northern coast of Lantau Island. The type locality is designated as Hau Hok Wan.
On the former island of Chek Lap Kok， the Chek Lap Kok Granite was seen (Langford et al.， 1995) to intrude
porphyritic fine- to medium-grained Lantau Granite. This relationship is still exposed on the northern coast
of Lantau Island at Hau Hok Wan indicating that the Chek Lap Kok Granite post-dates emplacement of the
Lantau Granite. The U-Pb age-dating results are consistent with the observed field relationships.
The Chek Lap Kok Granite consists of an equigranular， fine-grained， leucocratic monzogranite (Plate 5).
Euhedral to anhedral alkali feldspar is composed principally of mesoperthite. Subordinate euhedral to subhedral
albite is unzoned and anhedral quartz is weakly strained. Interstitial late stage muscovite is commonly present
along with trace amounts of euhedral fluorite. Biotite， zircon， and Fe-Ti oxide may be present in trace amounts.
29
Plate 4 - Thin Section of Fine- to Medium-grained Lantau Granite from Pak Sha Tsui， Tung Chung (HK9236，
1131 1698); XPL
Quartz Monzonite
Small intrusions of quartz monzonite crop out at the faulted contact between the Lantau Volcanic Group and
other rocks south of Sha Lo Wan and Hau Hok Wan.
Tong Fuk Qu吋rtz Monzonite

The Tong Fuk Quartz Monzonite crops out in a series of discontinuous stocks along the faulted contact
between the Lantau Volcanic Group and other rocks. Major outcrops occur at Sha Lo Wan on the western
side of Lantau Island and at Tong Fuk on the eastern side of Lantau Island (Plate 6). Smaller outcrops are
found at Fan Lau and Pui O.
Plate 5 - Fine-grained Chek Lap Kok Granite from Tin Sam (HK9252， 0945 1709)
30
Plate 6 - Fine-grained， Porphyritic Tong Fuk Quartz Monzonite from Sha Lo Wan (HK10067， 0812 1633)
The Tong Fuk Quartz Monzonite is typically fine-grained and porphyritic， with roughly equal abundances of
alkali feldspar and plagioclase phenocrysts， although alkali feldspar usually predominates. Rounded mafic
enclaves composed mostly of quartz microdiorite， are common. In the Sha Lo Wan area， the quartz monzonite
locally may vary to porphyritic fine-grained granite， but it is distinguished by the presence of scattered alkali
feldspar phenocrysts with prominent twinning. In places， the quartz monzonite has been highly weathered to
a reddish brown soil.
In thin section， euhedral to subhedral alkali feldspar phenocrysts (1 - 7 mm) display well-developed Carlsbad
twins and are weakly zoned. Plagioclase phenocrysts are strongly zoned with sericitized andesine cores and
albite rims. The matrix is generally granular and fine- to very fine-grained and comprises quartz and alkali
feldspar， with subordinate plagioclase. The mafic minerals consist of greenish brown biotite and rare brown
amphibole. Biotite is commonly altered to chlorite. Accessory minerals include zircon， fluorite， titanite，
apatite， allanite， epidote， and Fe-Ti oxide.
A sample of quartz monzonite from Tong Fuk has yielded a U-Pb single zircon age of 140.4 士 0.3 Ma.
Minor Intrusions
With the exception of mafic dykes， the minor intrusions of the district are divided on the basis of texture into
feldsparphyric rhyolite， porphyritic microgranite， and quartzphyric rhyolite. The felsic dykes are present as
a dense swarm of strongly eastnortheast-westsouthwest-oriented multiple intrusions cutting granitic and
volcanic rocks. The dykes were intruded in at least three pulses and show evidence for compositional zoning
(Li et al.， 2000). Composite intrusions， featuring a felsic phase injected into a more mafic one， are sometimes
observed. None of the dykes in the district have been dated. However， rhyolite dykes to the northeast of the
district have returned ages of 146 Ma which suggests that the age of emplacement is synchronous with that of
the Lantau Volcanic Group.
Feldsparphyric Rhyolite
Feldsparphyric rhyolite is the general term given to dykes ranging in composition from rhyodacite to high-
silica rhyolite which contain abundant feldspar (士quartz) phenocrysts (<1 mm - 10 mm) or megacrysts (10 -
25 mm) (Li et al.， 2000). Within a single dyke， textures may vary from coarsely feldsparphyric on the margins
to finely feldsparphyric in the cores (Li et al.， op. cit.). In compositionally zoned dykes， the margins are
31
usually composed of aphyric basaltic andesite to andesite. These compositions grade rapidly through
feldsparphyric rhyolite to aphyric rhyolite in the cores of the dykes. Sometimes there is evidence for abrupt
changes in composition which reflect separate pulses of magma intrusion within a single dyke (Li et al.， op. cit.).
Fresh， feldsparphyric rhyolite has a distinctive dark grey appearance with white and grey phenocrysts. The
phenocrysts are made up of slightly pinkish grey euhedral alkali feldspar， with subordinate euhedral to subhedral
white plagioclase， dark grey bipyramidal quartz， aggregates of biotite， and rare crystals of hornblende. With
a slight degree of weathering， the groundmass turns to greyish green， or greyish purple， and ultimately to
orangish brown in intensely weathered rocks.
In thin section， the groundmass is dark grey， very fine-grained to cryptocrystalline and aphanitic， with
occasional granophyric intergrowths of quartz and feldspar， and biotite. Accessory minerals include zoned
allanite， zircon and Fe-Ti oxide.
Along with the granite， these blocks have been intruded by composite feldsparphyric rhyolite to porphyritic
microgranite dykes of the Lantau Dyke Swarm.
Porphyritic Microgranite
Porphyritic microgranite is the term given to a textural variant of feldsparphyric rhyolite in which individual
crystals in the groundmass are less than 2 mm diameter on average， but are still visible to the unaided eye.
The rock is compositionally similar to feldsparphyric rhyolite and contains phenocrysts of feldspar (士quartz)
up to about 25 mm in size. Porphyritic microgranite dykes are characterised by the presence of granophyric
texture in the groundmass. The cores of these dykes may be either finely feldsparphyric or aphyric and
indistinguishable from normal fine-grained granite.
Porphyritic microgranite dykes trend eastnortheast and have mainly been mapped to the east of Tung Chung
Wan between Tin Sam and Tung Hing. They vary from 2 to 30 m wide and intrude fine-grained granite (Chek
Lap Kok Granite). The porphyritic microgranite dykes were probably intruded broadly at the same time as
the feldsparphyric rhyolite (c.146 Ma) although slight differences in the age of emplacement are displayed
by signs of chilling along some dyke to dyke contacts.
Quartzphyric Rhyolite
Quartzphyric rhyolite is the name given to rhyolite dykes in which large (up to 3 mm) bipyramidal quartz
phenocrysts are more abundant than feldspar phenocrysts. Crystals in the groundmass are too fine-grained to
be distinguished by the unaided eye， and flow banding may be discernible. The cores of quartzphyric rhyolite
dykes may be almost aphyric. Very fresh examples of quartzphyric rhyolite may be dark grey to black，
whereas with slight alteration， the colour is grey， purple or pink.
Quartzphyric rhyolite dykes within the district trend northeast and eastnortheast and are confined almost
entirely to the former island of Chek Lap Kok where they intrude granite. A few quartzphyric rhyolite
dykes have been mapped along the coast northeast of Tung Chung. The dykes are typically 3 to 5 m
wide， but can be up to 30 m wide. The margins of the quartzphyric rhyolite dykes are commonly flow
banded.
In thin section， the quartz phenocrysts are euhedral to subhedral with well-developed bipyramidal shapes，
although occasionally they may be slightly embayed. Alkali feldspar is commonly microperthitic and
plagioclase feldspar is mostly oligoclase. The fine- to very fine-grained groundmass contains accessory
minerals of muscovite， biotite and Fe-Ti oxide. Granophyric texture is sometimes present.
Aplite
Sporadic northeast- and eastnortheast-trending dykes of aplite have been mapped along the coast between
Sha Lo Wan and Hau Hok Wan. These dykes vary from 25 to 50 mm wide and intrude fine- to medium-
grained Lantau Granite and Chek Lap Kok Granite. The aplite dykes are typically leucocratic and equigranular，
and are thought to represent granitic fluid expelled along fractures at a late stage in the cooling history of the
granitic magma.
32
Quartz Veins
Quartz veins are ubquitous in the northern part of the district where they are commonly seen intruding
granitic rocks， rhyolite dykes， and volcanic rocks. The quartz veins vary from stringers a few millimetres
wide to dykes up to 30 m wide. Ruxton (1958) divided the quartz veins into two types: 1) high temperature
(pneumatolytic) type， typically of grey colour and medium-grained granular texture， found between granite
and country rock， and in its immediate vicinity， interlacing in all directions at the contact zone， and 2)
moderate to low temperature (hydrothermal) type composed dominantly of glassy or milky quartz， with
minor feldspar， and found in more regular linear zones which cross cut the type 1 veins. The pneumatolytic
veins (type 1) are composed of quartz and bleached biotite with minor quantities of feldspar， topaz， fluorite，
molybdenite， chalcopyrite， arsenopyrite， wolframite， pyrite， and beryl. The concentrations of the metallic
ores are sporadic. The hydrothermal veins have sharp boundaries with the country rock and appear to have
exploited structural planes of weakness， such as shearing， jointing and fracturing. These veins often carry
pegmatitic patches composed of pink orthoclase. The type 2 quartz veins strike eastsoutheast-westnorthwest
and dip about 600 to the southsouthwest. Chalcopyrite is the dominant ore mineral in these veins， with minor
amounts of pyrite， arsenopyrite， galena， and wolframite. Veins of magnetite ore also occur on the coast
between Sha Lo Wan and Hok Hau Wan.
Numerous quartz veins have been mapped adjacent to the faulted contact between the Lantau Volcanic
Group and other rocks in the western part of the district. These quartz veins contain zones of tungsten
mineralisation. The thickest quartz vein is exposed on the western side of Hau Hok Wan.
Mafic Dykes
Mafic dykes， ranging from 50 mm up to 7 m wide and with variable orientations， are present mainly in the
northern part of the district. They intrude granitic rocks and rhyolite dykes. They are mostly of basaltic
andesite composition， but range from basalt to andesite. Several high-K varieties can be classified as
lamprophyres. The mafic dykes are all strongly altered. Although none of these dykes has been radiometrically
dated， they have similar composition to mafic dykes that occur in northeastern Lantau Island and which have
returned Late Cretaceous ages (GEO， unpublished data).
In thin section， the rocks are typically very fine-grained and microporphyritic. The basaltic andesite dykes have
sericitized plagioclase and pyroxene phenocrysts， sometimes showing the development of sub-ophitic texture.
The groundmass of the basaltic andesite dykes contains abundant hornblende， with plagioclase， epidote， and Fe-
Ti oxide (Plate 7). Lamprophyric dykes generally have abundant augite and/or hornblende in the groundmass，
and are distinguished from the basaltic andesite dykes by the absence of plagioclase phenocrysts.
Plate 7 - Thin Section of a Mafic Dyke from Hau Hok Wan (HK9237， 1156 1727)
33
Chapter 6
Structure
The major structural features of the district include folds in Carboniferous strata surrounding The Brothers
islands， regional scale Post-Yanshanian basement faults， Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous faults related to
volcanic and plutonic activity， photolineaments and joints. The eastnortheast-striking Lantau Dyke Swarm
also exerts a strong geomorphological influence， especially in the eastern part of the district where the rhyolite
dykes are interspersed with less resistant granitic material. Many of the larger valleys within the district are
interpreted as being underlain by major faults. As found elsewhere in Hong Kong， these faults are commonly
associated with zones of weaker material which is more susceptible to weathering. However， some lineaments
seen on aerial photographs may be joint related rather than fault related. Sometimes there is no field evidence
of fault or joint control of the photolineaments， and， in the case of volcanic and sedimentary rocks， many of
the lineaments are more closely related to the strike of bedding.
Folds
The metasedimentary rocks forming The Brothers islands are considered to belong to the southern continuation
of an outcrop of Carboniferous strata extending from Man Kam To in the northern New Territories to Tuen
Mun in the western New Territories. This zone has been intruded by the Middle Jurassic Tai Lam Granite.
The variations in bedding attitude of the metasedimentary rocks on The Brothers islands， together with their
outcrop pattern， indicate that the strata are tightly folded into an asymmetric plunging syncline with the fold
axial plane striking toward the northeast.
Marble encountered in offshore boreholes to the south and east of East Brother island is correlated with the
Yuen Long Formation in the western New Territories and stratigraphically underlies the graphitic siltstones
and sandstones of the Lok Ma Chau Formation. The tightness of the folding and proximity to the granitic
intrusion suggests that the fold might be an annular structure， formed as a result of diapiric emplacement of
a granite pluton.
Faults
The major faults of the district can be broadly divided into those which are associated with Late Jurassic to
Early Cretaceous volcanism and those which are related to post-Yanshanian movement (Yanshanian Orogeny:
190 - 80 Ma， Jahn et al.， 1976). Faults associated with the former generally reflect extension on easterly， and
eastnortheast-trending structures， whereas those related to the latter mainly reflect transtension on major
northeast-， and northwest-trending structures (Campbell & Sewell， 1997).
The most prominent volcanic-related structure of the district is a major fault marking the boundary of the
Lantau Caldera (Langford et al.， 1995; Campbell & Sewell， 1997; Sewell et al.， 2000) (Figure 8). This fault
extends for approximately 5.7 km in a northwesterly direction from Tai Ho in the east to Sha Lo Wan in the
west， and is offset by both the Shek Pik Fault and the Por Kai Shan Fault. In the east， the northern boundary
of the caldera intersects the eastern boundary marked by a north-trending fault. In the west， the caldera
boundary is partly intruded by the Tong Fuk Quartz Monzonite. Details of the caldera collapse are uncertain，
but the collapse is thought to have occurred during the main episode of eruption of the Lantau Volcanic
Group (c. 146 Ma). In the east， the bounding fault is sometimes marked by the presence of a thick (up to 5 m
wide) quartz vein， and is easily distinguished in the field and on aerial photographs by a prominent break in
slope， the volcanic rocks being more resistant to erosion. Minor syndepositional faulting associated with soft
sediment deformation within the volcanic succession is marked by variably oriented faults on Por Kai Shan
(1398 1633). Some of these have been inferred from rapid pinching out of intercalated sedimentary units.
Post-Yanshanian faults dominate the structure of the district forming prominent northeast- and northnorthwest-
trending features. The most pronounced feature is the northeast-trending Shek Pik Fault. The Shek Pik Fault，
which is inferred to be a segment of the Sha Tau Kok Fault farther north， transects the district in a southeastward
direction from offshore northern Lantau Island to Shek Pik， passing onshore just to the south and east of
Tung Chung. The Shek Pik Fault offsets the northern boundary of the Lantau Caldera by c. 3.1 km in the
vicinity of Tung Chung and provides an excellent example of sinistral displacement (Sewell et al.， 2000).
34
LEGEND
814 000E
818 000E
Photolineament
Fault
Concealed or Inferred Fault
Caldera Boundary SIU MO TO 822 000N
Volcanic Layering
HA KOK TSUI CHEUNG
Palaeodrainage Network THE BROTHERS SOK
Rockhead Contours (mPD) TAI MO TO

YAM O
0 WAN
-8
Scale 1:60 000
-60
0 1 2 Km 0 -20
TSZ KAN CHAU -4
-20
40 20 0
0 0
20
-4 0 40
-6 YAM O 291
60
0 0
-8 80
Sham Shui 10
-1
0 20
10 0
40
0
-1 00
0 20
-1 20
16
Kok 0
- 20
way TAI CHE
Run TUNG
10
200 0
it
L im
ati on -40
200
c la m 100
Re 0
-8
d
CHEK LAP KOK
se
0
35
-6 100
o po
YI PAK AU
0
Pr
-2 -40
Hong Kong
200
Discovery Bay
way
Run -40
0
818 000N
-40
30
TAI HO 465
-20
-40
-80
PAK MONG 0
0
-600 WAN 40
40
300
-10 -20
LO FU TAU
KEI TAU KOK
0
-60 0
10
0
20
40
20
20
100
-40
-100
0
-80
-140
-60
-120
77 -2 0
SHA LO HAU HOK
-40
200 TAI HO
WAN WAN -40 NI
M
0
0 SH
-40 U
-2
10
TIN SAM -20 E
TUNG CHUNG 0 W
0
AN
BAY 30 Reservoir
TAI PO 100 300
POR KAI SHAN
0
482
10
TUNG CHUNG 200 100 Golf Course
Figure 8 - Principal Structural Features of Tung Chung and Northshore Lantau Island
NEW TOWN 0
0
30 POK TO YAN 200
0
10
200 529 20
0 300
10 HUNG FA 275
0
300 40 NGAN 0
300 400 10
200 TAI SHUI HANG
0
TUNG
500
0
200 30 CHUNG
0 200
10
VALLEY
20 500 60
0 100 721 0
40 400
300 300 0
20 100 20 200
400
LANTAU
CALDERA
0 LANTAU ISLAND
500 200
500
300 10
MUI WO
Restoration of this sinistral displacement， along with a 250 m sinistral displacement on a subparallel northeast-
trending fault extending from Wong Lung Hang to Pak Mong (see Fletcher et al.， 2000)， realigns the northern
caldera boundary， and also reveals a northward extension of the eastern caldera boundary fault at Kei Tau
Kok， east of Tung Chung. Rockhead contours for the offshore area north and east of Tung Chung have
revealed a prominent ridge extending north from the small promontory at Kei Tau Kok. Gravity profiles for
the offshore area have also revealed a sharp east-west change in gradient across this ridge， separating
metasedimentary rocks， including marble， in the Tung Chung area from granite farther east. Therefore， it is
likely that the western margin of the ridge marks the offshore extension of the eastern caldera boundary fault，
which currently forms the axis of Tai Ho Wan valley.
Restoration of the sinistral displacements also suggests the presence of some Post-Yanshanian faulting. For
example， the northnorthwest to northwest-trending faults forming Tung Chung valley and Wong Lung Hang
valley have not been displaced by the Shek Pik Fault and， therefore， must represent a period of younger fault
movement.
Rockhead contours， together with gravity (Kirk et al.， 2000) and boomer surveys， for the offshore area along
the north Lantau coast have revealed areas of deep weathering which appear to coincide， in part， with the
offshore extension of the Shek Pik Fault. The rockhead contours and data on superficial deposits also suggest
a series of westnorthwest- and northwest-trending buried drainage lines which have been captured by a
buried northeast-trending valley. The northwest-trending drainage lines appear to be partly controlled by
northwest-trending faults described above， whereas the westnorthwest-trending drainage lines are subparallel
to the feldsparphyric rhyolite dyke orientations. The buried valley which marks the offshore extension of the
Shek Pik Fault along the north Lantau coast， diverges to the north adjacent to Ha Kok Tsui before intersecting
a major buried drainage channel trending westward north of The Brothers islands. Gravity and boomer
surveys， together with borehole data， suggest that to the north of Ha Kok Tsui， the buried valley follows the
boundary between the Carboniferous metasedimentary rocks and Middle Jurassic to Early Cretaceous igneous
rocks. The buried drainage channels are marked by deposits of marine sand which have been partly dredged
for reclamation projects.
Photolineaments
Laterally continuous photolineaments within the district have mostly been mapped in the volcanic area around
Pok To Yan (1360 1591). A northeast-trending photolineament in the southeastern corner of the district
follows a small valley， but there is no field evidence that this valley is fault controlled. Farther west， on the
flanks of Pok To Yan， two relatively short (200 m) photolineaments have been mapped which coincide with
narrow (<20 m) zones of hydrothermal alteration. On the southwestern and western flanks of Pok To Yan，
several northeast-trending photolineaments have been mapped and these generally appear to be subparallel
bedding contacts within the volcanic succession.
Joints
A large number of joint orientations have been measured within the district. Many were obtained during an
engineering geological study of the Tung Chung area undertaken by Woods (1993). The available joint data
are summarized in Figure 9.
The dominant subvertical joint orientation in granitic rocks of the district is northnortheast to northeast， with
a conjugate eastsoutheast-trending set. A subordinate northnorthwest-trending subvertical joint set is also
present along with a flat-lying to low angle joint set. In the water supply tunnel from Ngong Ping to Shek Pik
Au， close to the Tung Chung valley， the dominant subvertical joint orientation in the volcanic rocks is northwest
trending， whereas between the Tung Chung and Wong Lung Hang valleys， eastnortheast- and northeast-
trending joints predominate.
In the granitic areas of the district， joint spacings are typically widely spaced (between 100 mm and 600 mm)，
whereas in the volcanic rocks， the joint spacing on surface outcrops， and from underground tunnels ranges
between very closely spaced and widely spaced (50 mm and 400 mm). Zones of very closely spaced joints
have been noted in rock outcrops in areas which coincide with major fault zones (e.g. the upper Tung Chung
valley and the coastal area between Tung Chung and Tin Sam). In certain locations (e.g. Kau Kei Tuk)，
exceptionally wide joint spacings (up to 2000 mm) have been recorded (Woods， 1993).
36
N N
a b
2%
4%
10% 6%
8% 8%
6%
4%
2%
No. of Joints measured=82 No. of Joints measured=68
N N
4% 6%
c d 2%
2%
4%
6%
No. of Joints measured=86 No. of Joints measured=95
6%
e 2%
4%
No. of Joints measured=87
Figure 9 - Contoured Pole Plots of Joints Measured for All Rock TTpes on Tung Chung and Northshore
Lantau Island (after Woods， 1993). a) Sha Lo Wan to Hau Hok Wan，的) Hau Hok Wan to Tin Sam，
c) Tung Chung to Lau Fau Sha， d) Lau Fau Sha to Kei Tau Kok， and e) Kei Tau Kok to Pak Mong
37
Rock Quality Designation (RQD) values for slightly weathered granite， feldsparphyric rhyolite and volcanic
rock are 55%， 47% and 56% respectively， and these values generally reduce with increasing weathering
grade. Average RQD values of 48%， 28% and 30% respectively are found in moderately weathered granite，
feldsparphyric rhyolite and volcanic rock. Fracture index values range from 5 to 15 in all rocks， and there is
no significant increase in fracture index with increasing weathering grade， or measurable variation among
the different rock types (Woods， 1993).
Joint persistence in granitic rocks observed from coastal exposures indicates that the dominant joint sets
(e.g. northeast- and eastnortheast-trending joints) may range up to to 30 m. Similar persistence has been
observed in shallowly-dipping sheeting joints， whereas minor random joints have a persistence of only a few
10s of mm. Joint persistence in volcanic rocks observed in the water tunnel from Ngong Ping to Shek Pik Au
averages 10 m (Woods， 1993).
Minor variations in joint regularity have been recorded among different rock types. For example， smooth and
planar joints are generally a feature of volcanic rocks， whereas joints in the granites and feldsparphyric
rhyolites are often irregular， and for gently dipping joints， often wavy.
38
Chapter 7
Metamorphism and Alteration
Metamorphism is generally defined as a structural/textural modification and/or mineralogical modification
of a pre-existing rock involving crystallisation of new phases， recrystallisation of existing phases， and/or
strain.
Thermal Metamorphism
Metamorphic rocks in the district include thermally metamorphosed sedimentary and volcanic rocks close to
igneous contacts and incipiently metamorphosed rocks in zones of hydrothermal alteration. Examples of
thermal metamorphism include: graphitic siltstones and metasandstones of the Lok Ma Chau Formation，
marble of the Yuen Long Formation， and metamudstone， metasandstone， marble， skarn， calcsilicate rock and
quartzite of the Tolo Harbour Formation. These metasedimentary rocks are mostly encountered in boreholes
in the vicinity of The Brothers islands and at the Tung Chung reclamation. The rocks have been metamorphosed
by the intrusion of granite.
A narrow (100 m wide) zone of contact metamorphism within the Lantau Volcanic Group is present along
the caldera boundary in the western part of the district between Tung Chung valley and Sha Lo Wan. In this
area， the intrusion of quartz monzonite along the caldera boundary has not only metamorphosed the adjacent
volcanic rocks， but also has given rise to local pockets of mineralization.
Hydrothermal Metamorphism
Hydrothermal metamorphism (or alteration)， involving the addition of hot water and crystallisation of new
minerals， has locally affected volcanic and granitic rocks close to fault zones. In granites， this process is
characterised by chloritization of biotite and hornblende， and sericitization and clay mineral alteration of
feldspars. A broad zone of hydrothermal alteration is present within the Lantau Volcanic Group in the
northeastern part of the district. The rocks are typically altered to a reddish grey colour， which weathers to
pinkish white.
39
Chapter 8
Superficial Deposits and Weathering
Classification and Distribution
Superficial deposits， comprising accumulations of sediment derived from the weathering and erosion of
older rocks， are widespread in both onshore and offshore parts of the district. They mantle an often deeply
weathered rock surface and vary from discontinuous veneers of slope debris and alluvium in onshore areas，
to laterally extensive mud and sand sheets up to several tens of metres thick in offshore areas. The environments
of deposition are shown in Figure 10.
In onshore areas， the superficial deposits on the higher ground consist mostly of colluvium (slope
debris， etc) much of which is derived from processes of mass movement. Downslope， the colluvium
grades into， and interdigitates with， alluvium which infills the major valleys. The boundary between
the two deposits is often difficult to define as many of the superficial deposits in the larger valleys
have been disturbed by cultivation.
The offshore superficial deposits of the district comprise four formations; the Tung Chung Formation， the
Chek Lap Kok Formation， the Sham Wat Formation and the Hang Hau Formation. They have been identified
on lithological， palaeontological and geotechnical evidence from borehole cores and on the basis of seismic
character as displayed on shallow seismic reflection records (Fyfe et al.， 2000).
Correlation between onshore and offshore superficial deposits is problematic. The onshore Pleistocene alluvial
deposits can generally be matched with Pleistocene alluvial deposits now offshore (Chek Lap Kok Formation).
However， there is no such straight-forward correlation between onshore Pleistocene mass wasting deposits
(slope debris， debris flow deposits， etc) and potential lateral equivalents now lying offshore. Fyfe et al.，
(2000)， have tentatively linked these onshore mass wasting deposits with occasional thin colluvial interbeds
in the offshore Pleistocene alluvial deposits. Holocene colluvial deposits， described variously as debris flow
deposits， slope debris， slide deposits， and talus deposits on 1:20 000-scale geological maps， have recently
been assigned to the Fan Ling Formation (Fyfe et al.， op. cit.) and are considered to be contemporaneous
with the Hang Hau Formation. However， on the 1:5 000-scale map series， the lithostratigraphic units are the
same as those in the 1:20 000-scale map series.
Q�a�
Figure 10 - Schematic Section Showing the Relationship between Superficial Deposits and the Different
Environments of Deposition
Qp 三 Pleistocene; Qh 三 Holocene; Q 三 Quaternar (undivided);
a 三 alluvial; b 三 beach; e 三 estuarine; i 三 intertidal; m 三 marine;
D 三 debris; S 三 sand; M 三 mud; HW 三 high-water level
40
Offshore superficial deposits within the district are dominated by mud and sand of the Hang Hau Formation.
These marine deposits form a thick blanket overlying estuarine deposits of the Sham Wat Formation and
alluvial sediments of the Chek Lap Kok Formation. The Chek Lap Kok Formation comprises sand banks and
sand sheets to the north of Lantau Island. The sand banks have been extensively dredged and the sand used
as fill material for reclamations. Beneath the Chek Lap Kok Formation， the deposits of the Tung Chung
Formation infill local depressions in the weathered rock surface. The thickest accumulation of these coarse-
and fine-grained sediments lies in the vicinity of the type locality at the Tung Chung reclamation， and
immediately to the north of Lantau Island between Tung Chung and Yam O. At the type locality， the sediments
infill three separate sub-circular basins with diameters of c. 200 m， 300 m and 600 m， and reach up to
96.5 m in thickness (Fyfe et al.， 2000). Subparallel with the coastline to the north of Lantau Island， the
sediments locally infill a series of discontinuous deep basins which follow a northeast-trending fault-controlled
depression (Kirk et al.， 2000). Contours on rockhead (Grade III or better) suggest that a palaeovalley once
formed the axis of the depression and this feature is thought to have captured water draining from northwest-
trending and west-trending valleys during a low sea level stand.
Onshore Superficial Deposits

Slope Debris
Slope debris consisting of locally derived material (debris flow deposits， talus deposits， etc，) is considered to
be the product of mass movement processes. This material， also referred to collectively as colluvium， is
commonly generated during periods of high rainfall. The mass movements， such as debris flows and debris
slides， may be initiated on slopes inclined at only a few degrees. Slope debris deposits commonly form
aprons on the middle to lower slopes of high ground and may grade downslope into alluvium. They comprise
a structureless mixture of silt， sand， gravel， cobbles and boulders， often embedded in a gravelly， sandy silt to
silty clay matrix. The colour of the matrix varies from yellowish brown， through brownish grey to pink;
white kaolin streaks and spots are common. The rock fragments generally show a weathered rind consistent
with significant post-depositional weathering. The slope debris in the middle to lower slopes is generally up
to 10 m thick， but a maximum thickness of 17.5 m has been recorded in a borehole (TRL103/3608， 1256
1662) near Tai Po.
Distinction between Pleistocene (Chek Lap Kok Formation) and Holocene (Fan Ling Formation) slope debris
is based on the general criteria used by Lai & Taylor (1984) and Lai (1997， 1998) for the subdivision of
colluvium. These criteria include superposition， colour， and the degree of decomposition of the clasts. In
general， Pleistocene slope debris are poorly sorted， with a reddish brown or dark yellowish brown to orangish
red， slightly mottled slightly clayey sandy silty matrix containing subangular， slightly to moderately
decomposed boulders and cobbles. In contrast， the Holocene colluvial deposits have a fresher appearance，
without the distinctive mottling of the matrix. They are described as poorly sorted， with a light yellowish
brown， slightly clayey sandy silt to gravelly silty sand matrix containing subangular to angular slightly
decomposed boulders with weathering rinds only a few millimetres thick.
The distribution of slope deposits within the district has been determined by surface morphology. Pleistocene
slope debris deposits have been mapped in the middle to lower reaches of the major valleys (e.g. Tin Sam，
Tung Chung， and Wong Lung Hang)， and as thick fan aprons on the northwest-facing slopes above Tai Po，
east of Tung Chung. In the lower parts of the main valleys， the slope deposits are commonly gradational into，
or overlain by， Pleistocene alluvium. In places (e.g. Tin Sam valley)， the Pleistocene slope debris deposits
extend almost to the coastline.
Holocene slope debris within the district is mostly confined to the upland areas and heads of stream courses.
In the upland areas， the Holocene debris forms discontinuous veneers on the weathered bedrock. In the heads
of stream courses， the slope debris forms minor dendritic networks. Deposits of slope debris which almost
reach sea level are thought to be the products of large debris flows.
Alluvial Sediments
Alluvial deposits of the district are generally thicker and more widespread than the slope debris deposits.
The alluvium infills the floors of many of the larger valleys and has， in many cases， been significantly modified
by cultivation.
41
Both the Pleistocene and Holocene alluvial deposits have been mapped in the district mainly by aerial
photograph interpretation. In general， the Pleistocene alluvial deposits form elevated terraces which
have been incised by recent streams， whereas Holocene alluvial deposits are largely confined to the
beds of recent stream courses. The alluvial deposits consist mostly of well-sorted to semi-sorted clay，
silt， gravel and sand.
Pleistocene alluvial deposits have been mapped in several of the major valleys in the district， and are commonly
associated with Pleistocene slope debris deposits. Extensive deposits of Pleistocene alluvium， now modified
by cultivation， form the floors of valleys at Sha Lo Wan， Tin Sam， Tung Chung， Wong Lung Hang， and Pak
Mong. In the Tung Chung area， the Pleistocene alluvium consists of cobbles and boulders surrounded by a
mottled red and yellow sandy silt with some lenses and layers of sand. Thicknesses of alluvium recorded in
boreholes vary from 5 to 20 m. The Pleistocene alluvial deposits were laid down under various conditions of
deposition， but mostly formed as fans and deltas at the bases of extensive debris deposits. During periods of
active erosion of nearby hills， coarse sandy material was deposited near to the source area. At other times， a
quieter environment existed， allowing far-travelled silts and muds to be laid down.
Holocene alluvial deposits within the district mainly occupy the beds of recent streams and form small fan
deltas where these streams enter the sea. The largest deposits are found at Sha Lo Wan， Tung Chung， Wong
Lung Hang and Pak Mong. The Holocene alluvium consists mostly of gravelly sand with subrounded cobbles
and boulders in the stream courses， or yellowish-brown， well sorted clayey sand or silt in the deltas. In the
Tung Chung valley， Holocene alluvium forms a series of narrow strips along the present stream courses.
These are incised into the Pleistocene alluvial terraces.
Beach Deposits
Beach deposits are exposed in many of the areas of remaining natural coastline， particularly the sheltered
bays to the west of Tung Chung. These deposits consist of unconsolidated， mainly sand-sized material and
occupy the narrow strip of land extending from the low-water mark to the upper limit of wave action， usually
delineated by either a cliff line， or storm beach. Prior to reclamation， beach deposits occurred along a large
portion of the natural coastline between Pak Mong and Lau Fau Sha.
At Sha Lo Wan and Hau Hok Wan， broad (100 m wide) sand beaches have developed consisting of clean，
yellowish brown， fine- to medium-grained sand. Small pockets of beach sand have also accumulated in gaps
along the rocky coastline between these two beaches. At Tin Sam， a narrow (25 m wide) sand beach has
developed on the edge of the small delta.
Intertidal Deposits
Intertidal deposits of mixed alluvial and marine origin have been mapped between Tin Sam and Tung Chung
Wan (Plate 8). They consist of soft dark grey to yellowish brown clayey silty sands with plant remains， and
dark grey， organic silt with shell fragments， and are generally confined between the low and high water
marks. At Tung Chung Wan， the intertidal deposits are characterised by mangrove-lined channels and sandy
splays.
Offshore Superficial Deposits

Tung Chung Formation
The Tung Chung Formation (Kirk， 2000; Fyfe et al.， 2000) is the name given for coarse- and fine-grained
sediments which infill local depressions offshore in the weathered rock surface near Tung Chung and along
the north coast of Lantau Island. These sediments were first identified on the basis of their seismic character
and were previously termed “Pre-Chek Lap Kok Formation Deposits" (Langford et al.， 1995).
The Tung Chung Formation has been formally defined from boreholes at the Tung Chung reclamation (Fyfe
et al.， 2000). At the type borehole (CC10/WO2893， 1215 1704)， the formation comprises boulders of
completely decomposed fine-grained granite and feldsparphyric rhyolite， intercalated with yellowish brown
silty sand， reddish brown sandy silt， matrix-supported gravel conglomerate， and brown， fine-grained micaceous
sand with minor clay laminae. The formation unconformably overlies Mesozoic or older rocks， and is
conformably overlain by the Chek Lap Kok Formation.
42
Plate 8 - Tung Chung Wan from the Northwest Showing Quaternar Superficial Deposits Composed of
Intertidal Deposits in the Foreground， and Beach Deposits and Alluvial Deposits in the
Background. (Photo taken on 5.12.1989)
Northwest of Yam O Wan， the sediments of the Tung Chung Formation partly infill a north-trending depression
or channel about 1100 m by 800 m in area (1954 2251). The deposits， which have been confirmed by boreholes，
were originally identified on the basis of their seismic character (Sewell & James， 1995) and comprise
relatively strong reflectors which tend to be parallel to the base of the unit， are synclinal in form in the
depression， and are more horizontal at the margins. Several marine boreholes， drilled as part of the Tai Lam
Chung to Siu Ho Wan water mains project (GII No. 16271)， penetrated these sediments below the base of
the Chek Lap Kok Formation alluvium (c. -38 mPD). They are interpreted here as fine alluvial sediment.
The maximum thickness of the Tung Chung Formation in this area has been proved to be 50 m.
Gravity and marine borehole data acquired during the Northshore Lantau Development Feasibility Study
(Scott Wilson (HK) Ltd.， 2001) have revealed that the Tung Chung Formation locally infills a fault-controlled
depression that trends northeastward from Tung Chung along the northern Lantau coast. The depression
coincides with the boundary between Palaeozoic metamorphic rocks (marble of the Yuen Long Formation)
and Mesozoic volcanic and granitic rocks. Between Tai Ho Wan and Ha Kok Tsui， the formation has so far
been detected in three S-shaped basins (Figure 11). The largest of these lies in the north， and is in probable
continuity with the north-trending depression described above. The thickness of the formation， proven by
boreholes， varies from 40 m to over 110 m. The Tung Chung Formation has been interpreted to be sediment
that was deposited in a Late Tertiary to Middle Pleistocene karst environment (Kirk， 2000; Fyfe et al.， 2000).
Solution of the marble/limestone (karst formation) is likely to have been facilitated by water flowing along
the faulted boundary between marble， and volcanic and granitic rocks.
Chek Lap Kok Formation

The Chek Lap Kok Formation (Strange & Shaw， 1986) is widespread in the offshore parts of the district. It
comprises a diverse assemblage of Pleistocene gravel， sand， silt and clay of dominantly alluvial origin， but
also includes intercalations of colluvium (e.g. debris flow deposits， etc.) that can be related to the onshore
Pleistocene succession. The formation mostly rests on bedrock， except for isolated areas at the Tung Chung
reclamation and along the North Lantau coast， where it rests on the Tung Chung Formation.
43
813 E� 818 E�
B6� DH7�
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Occurrence of Tung Chung Fo

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Formation
in isolated borehole�
Tung Chung Reclamation� Negativ
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Figure 11 - Location Map Showing the Distribution of the Tung Chung Formation Determined from
Interpretation of Gravit and Borehole Data (Modified after Kirk et al.， 2000)
North of Lantau Island， the formation is generally between 15 and 20 m thick， but may vary from 7 m to more
than 40 m thick according to the form of the underlying rock surface. The formation is variable in terms of its
seismic character， which is often chaotic and complex， with indistinct channel forms， well-developed erosional
channels and strong parallel reflections. The sediments are generally light bluish grey to yellowish brown
and comprise fine to medium gravel， coarse to fine quartz sand， sandy silt and silty clay.
The type section of the formation has been designated as Borehole B13/B13A (Strange & Shaw， 1986， 1870
1029)， drilled on the test embankment at Chek Lap Kok prior to the development of the airport. The lithologies
described from this borehole show a wide range of grain sizes from gravel to clay. Inlike the overlying Hang
Hau Formation (see below)， the clay in the Chek Lap Kok Formation tends to be firmer with uncompressive
strengths between 30 and 90 kPa. Overall， the succession fines upward from a basal sequence of gravels，
through silts， to clay-dominated layers with abundant organic material. However， there are also interbedded
coarsening-upward layers， as well as sporadic massive， moderately sorted sands.
Several large channels within the Chek Lap Kok Formation have been determined from seismic records and
from boreholes. North of The Brothers islands and Yam O Wan， a large east-west trending channel above the
formation has restricted its thickness from less than 5 m to 10 m. Around The Brothers islands its thickness
is governed by higher areas within the rock surface， as well as north-south trending channels incised into its
upper surface.
Although the Chek Lap Kok Formation is considered to be dominantly fluvial， there is evidence of a marine
influence suggesting that the sediments were deposited under variably estuarine， intertidal， and fluvial
conditions. A floodplain environment is generally envisaged， with fluvial and alluvial deposits intercalating
with colluvium on steeper slopes and the heads of valleys. Ising both radiocarbon and luminescence techniques，
a number of absolute ages have been obtained for the formation from offshore boreholes. The ages range
from 16 420 years BP at Chek Lap Kok to 80 000 士 9000 years BP (Borehole A5/2) east of the Soko Islands
(Fyfe et al.， 2000).
44
Sham Wat Formation

The formation， known only in subcrop， was first described in the district by James (1993) and Langford et al.
(1995) during mapping of the area north of Lantau Island.
The type section of the formation， designated as borehole ESC 17， lies two kilometres west of the district，
where the sequence is 17 m thick. However， the formation thins rapidly towards the east， and occurs only in
the extreme western part of the district， where it is a few metres thick. The formation was proved in many of
the boreholes in the western part of site now reclaimed for Chek Lap Kok airport and is interpreted to
underlie the area surrounding this part of the reclamation (Fyfe et al.， 2000).
The formation comprises soft to firm silty clay with some sand， and is medium grey in colour with pale
yellowish grey oxidized patches， some laminations， nodules and sparse mottles. Shell fragments and sparse
plant fragments are consistent with a marginal marine， probably estuarine environment varying to fully marine
conditions.
The formation has a distinctive seismic character but intra-formational reflections may be confused with
those of the Pok Liu Member of the Hang Hau Formation， which also usually has an irregular channelled
base. Resolution of this problem depends on close examination of the stratigraphical relationships along
seismic reflection profiles.
The base of the formation is represented by a strong reflection with a distinctive undulating form that in part
defines the seismic character. This basal surface is commonly deeply incised into the underlying Chek Lap
Kok Formation as a series of channels. The interfluves between the channels exhibit a distinctly planated
crest， representing the remnants of an older erosion surface. Intra-formational reflections are of low to moderate
amplitude and their geometry is controlled by the morphology of the channels. The reflections are continuous，
sub-parallel to the planated crest of the interfluves and drape down into the deeper channels. At the top of the
sequence， the internal reflections are truncated by the reflection marking the erosional base of the overlying
Hang Hau Formation.
The age of the formation has not been confidently established but available evidence is consistent with a Late
Pleistocene age.
Hang Hau Formation

The Hang Hau Formation (Strange & Shaw， 1986) forms a blanket of marine mud and sand over large parts
of the offshore area (Figure 12). The formation is mostly Holocene in age and is the youngest offshore
Quaternary stratigraphic unit in the district. Fyfe et al. (2000) described four member units within the Hang
Hau Formation， although none of these members is distinguished in the district.
The Hang Hau Formation comprises mostly very soft to soft， olive grey clayey silt and is relatively
homogeneous throughout the district. Shear strengths in the undrained state vary from less than 3 to 20 kPa.
Minor silt and sand lenses are locally present throughout the sequence. Disarticulated and articulated bivalves
are common， as is comminuted shell debris ranging in size from less than 0.1 to 20 mm.
West of Chek Lap Kok， the formation is mostly between 5 and 10 m thick， but it reaches 15 m thick in the
area between Chek Lap Kok and The Brothers islands to the east. A zone of acoustic turbidity (or gas
blanking) is present to the east of Chek Lap Kok and this has obscured the seismic reflectors. The gas
blanking is thought to originate from the release into the sediment of biogenic gas produced by anaerobic
bacteria feeding on decaying organic matter at depth.
In Tung Chung Wan， the formation is generally 5 m thick and consists of very soft， dark grey clay and silt
with occasional shells. On the small delta at Tin Sam， a layer of firm， brown fine sandy clay interpreted as a
marine deposit was found intercalated with alluvium in two boreholes. The marine deposit is approximately
5 m thick and is encountered at a depth of c. -5.0 mPD.
The seismic signature of the Hang Hau Formation is distinctive， with very extensive， laterally continuous，
horizontal to subhorizontal， moderate to low amplitude reflectors. The base of the formation is marked by a
high amplitude reflector. Long， low amplitude reflectors predominate at the margins of the main tidal current
channels， and an extensive intra-formational reflector is present in many of the channels. The reflectors tend
45
15
LEGEND 5
10 10 10
814 000E
818 000E
Rockk at seabed
Roc 5
15
15 10
20
Acoustic Turbidity
Turbidity 20 5
20
20 20
15 SIU MO TO 822 000N
5 20
Isopach line ( mPD )
15 HA5KOK TSUI CHEUNG
15 15 SOK
20 THE BROTHERS
20
Onshore area TAI MO TO 15 10 5 15

20 YAM O
15
WAN
Scale 1:60 000
0 1 2 Km
15
5
10 TSZ KAN CHAU
10
10
15
YAM O 291
15
10
0
Sham Shui 10
0 20
10 0 0
10 Kok 20
10 0
20
15
15
10
y TAI CHE
Ru nwa
TUNG
10
200 0
200
20 100
1
15
CHEK LAP KOK
46
15 0
5
100
20 YI PAK AU
Hong Kong
200
Discovery Bay
way 10
Run
5
0
818 000N
30
20
TAI HO 465
PAK MONG 0
0
WAN 40
40
300

0
0
10
0
20
20
100
77
SHA LO HAU HOK
200 TAI HO
WAN WAN NI
M
5
TUNG CHUNG
0
SH
5
10
NEW TOWN
UE
TIN SAM W
0 AN
30 Reservoir
5 TAI PO 100 300
POR KAI SHAN
0
482
10
200 100 Golf Course
TUNG CHUNG
0
BAY
30 POK TO YAN 200
10
200 529 2 00
0 300
10 HUNG FA 275
0
300 40 LANT
LANTA
AU ISLAND
ISLAND
NGAN 0
300 400 10
200 TAI SHUI HANG
0
TUNG
500
0
200 30 CHUNG
0 200
10
VALLEY
20 500 60
0 100 721 0
40 400
300 300 0
20 100 20 200
400 0 LANTAU ISLAND
500 200
500
300 10
Figure 12 - Distribution and Isopachs (in Metres) of the Hang Hau Formation. Prior to Reclamation at the International
Airport, up to 10m of Hang Hau Formation was Dredged to form a New Seabed at -15mPD (Pinches et al., 2000)
MUI WO
to infill depressions and channels with little or no indication of truncation and overlap.
North of Lantau Island the thicker sequences of the formation infill a deep channel within Yam O Wan (2070
2130) to a maximum depth of over -22 mPD， and also infill a number of channels south of The Brothers
islands to depths of -25 mPD. The formation also forms a number of bar-like features， over 20 m thick， on the
margins of the east-west trending tidal channel running from The Brothers islands to Kap Shui Mun. Sand
banks， up to 15 m thick， formed of silty sand， occur sporadically within the formation. To the north of Yam O
Wan， these have been dredged for reclamation works (Choot， 1988).
Most of the sediment of the Hang Hau Formation is thought to have been derived from the Pearl River. The
formation is generally considered to be an estuarine to marine sequence with at least some sediment， at the
base of the formation， related to the marine transgression which occurred during the rise in sea level following
the last glaciation. Most of the muddy sediments forming the bulk of the formation， appear， however， to have
been deposited in water depths similar to the present day.
A radiocarbon age of 7960 士 85 years BP was obtained for the base of the formation from a borehole near
Chek Lap Kok (James， 1993). This is considered to be the maximum age of the formation in the district and
is similar to that obtained from another borehole at Junk Bay (8080 士 130 years BP， Strange & Shaw， 1986).
Weathering
Differential weathering among the different rock types exerts an important geomorphological control within
the district. As described above， faults commonly host zones of weak rock which are more susceptible to
weathering. Granite generally weathers more rapidly than volcanic rocks， which explains why the highest
peaks of the district are capped by volcanic rocks. Zones of hydrothermal alteration within the volcanic rocks
are also more susceptible to weathering than unaltered zones. This might help to explain the large valley
system developed in the Wong Lung Hang area in the eastern part of the district， which hosts a broad zone of
hydrothermally altered rock (see above). Localised deeep weathering in the vicinity of Tung Chung and
along the north coast of Lantau Island is discussed in detail in chapter 9.
47
Chapter 9
Complex Ground Beneath the Tung
Chung Reclamation
Introduction
This chapter describes the geology associated with complex ground conditions at the Tung Chung reclamation.
These complex ground conditions were first encountered during preliminary ground investigations for the
Tung Chung reclamation in 1991 and have had a significant impact there on the design and construction of
deep foundations for infrastructure development.
Much of the information presented here is taken from a report entitled “Geology of Tung Chung New Town"
produced by the British Geological Survey (Gillespie et al.， 1998) under a Consultancy Agreement managed
by the Geotechnical Engineering Office for the Territory Development Department. This detailed study was
prompted by the need to establish a reliable geological model to assist further development in the area.
The geological model developed for Tung Chung has emphasised how the combination of several distinct
geological processes， of widely differing age， has led to the development of the complex ground conditions.
Useful related information is included in papers by Kirk (2000)， Kirk et al. (2000)， and Fletcher et al. (2000).
Background
Prior to its recent development， marble was unknown in the Tung Chung area. The nearest sedimentary rocks
had been mapped at The Brothers islands， and marble was proved in offshore boreholes nearby and at Tai O.
These marble occurrences had both been correlated with the marble-bearing Carboniferous sequence in the
Yuen Long area. Skarn had also been reported from San Shek Wan and Sha Lo Wan (Langford et al.， 1995).
The solid geology in the vicinity of Tung Chung was known to be dominated by granitoid dykes (feldsparphyric
rhyolite， quartzphyric rhyolite， and microgranite)， with some small intervening slivers of medium-grained
granite (GEO， 1994).
According to GEO records， marble was first reported at Tung Chung reclamation in late 1992 during drilling
at Housing Development Phase 1 ('Area 10'). Consequent geophysical surveys， undertaken by GEO during
1993， suggested that sedimentary rocks occurred offshore to the north of Lantau Island. However， the results
for the existing reclaimed area remained inconclusive. In 1994， fragments of marble and small voids were
noted from several boreholes at the Pedestrian Bridge site in Tung Chung Phase 1. In 1996， drilling for Tung
Chung Town Lot 3 ('Site 3'， Figure 13) encountered a range of problematic geological conditions including
marble with cavities， steep weathering profiles reaching to depths of more than 170 m， and unconsolidated
sediment to depths of at least 80 m. The complex geological conditions at Site 3， eventually led to the
abandonment of a planned residential tower block in late 1996.
The preliminary geological model suggested that the marble and associated metasedimentary rocks occurred
as small slivers within a fault zone (GEO， unpublished correspondence) although the scale and extent of the
problematic ground conditions were unclear. Attempts to understand the geological controls on the distribution
of the unusual materials were hindered at the time by inconsistent description and interpretation in borehole
logs undertaken by different contractors. This made correlation or comparison between adjacent sites very
difficult.
Tung Chung Study

The Geotechnical Engineering Office， on behalf of the Territory Development Department (TDD)， and assisted
by British Geological Survey consultants， carried out a geological study of the entire Tung Chung New Town
area between 1997 and 1999. The objectives of the study were to collate all available ground investigation
(GI) data; develop a geological model for the occurrence of complex geological conditions; provide guidance
on the most appropriate GI techniques to enable early recognition and effective delineation of affected areas;
and to evaluate the possibility of other areas being similarly affected. Follow-up studies， based on
48
812 500E
813 500E
-60
817 500N
-100
20
-80
40
-60
�e�l��al ��t��
0 Y
-4
A
-100
ry
Pier
0
-40
W
-120
-60
-8
-14
0 H
-2
I G
0
H
A U
Scale
T
49
-40 0 100 200 m
A N
L
817 000N
Legend
-40 HMarble, limestone or other marble and limestone-bearing
RT sedimentary rocks, and their weathering products
(particularly cavity-fill deposits and residual soil)
AI
NO Boreholes proving marble, limestone or marble-and
limestone-bearing sedimentary rocks
RPO
RT Boreholes proving anomalously deep (below -50mPD)
rockhead in igneous rocks
0
T
C
-2
C
RA ILW AY
T
Subcropping soft to stiff silt or fine alluvial sediment which

may lie above areas affected by marble-related rocks or
anomalously deep rockhead in igneous rocks ( based on
borehole, gravity and shallow seismic data )
TUNG Boreholes proving soft to stiff silt or fine alluvial sediment
Chek Lap Kok CHUNG below -50mPD
0
Proposed Reclamation
-20
-20
Contour of rockhead (20m intervals) (mPD)
Lantau Island
ung Chung Site 3
��e �� at�� a� �� a�t �� t�e �� a�t �e�la�at�� te�t�all� ��e�la�� le�
Crescent
recommendations contained in the report (Gillespie et al.， 1998) included: further onshore and marine ground
investigation to test models and investigation techniques， onshore and marine geophysical surveys， and
development of a database for all archival and new information.
Data Sources
Some 2，500 boreholes have been drilled in the Tung Chung New Town area over the last 20 years. Most have
been carried out within the last few years as the tempo of development has increased. Despite the volume of
information available， there were problems in developing a geological model for the site. Problems arose
mainly from the inaccurate or inadequate descriptions of geological materials， and widely differing
interpretations of some of the less common lithologies. For example， the various logging geologists preparing
the numerous GI reports from areas of the reclamation adopted a wide range of interpretations of the highly
varied lithologies present. In some instances， several versions of logs existed for the same hole， probably
reflecting the difficulties that contractors and consultants were experiencing while attempting to interpret the
unusual materials (e.g. Figure 14). Logging problems were further compounded by sampling strategies. In
most cases the very thick soils at the site were only logged from Standard Penetration Test (SPT) and Mazier
cutting shoe samples. Numerous Mazier samples were reserved for future laboratory testing， but very few
were used to help resolve the difficulties encountered in lithological description. Thus， it was not possible to
build up a consistent geological model from the widely differing information， ranging across many sites.
As part of the GEO study， logs (and particularly core photographs， where available) of about 2000 boreholes
were reviewed. Consistent terminology and classification were applied to a revised set of descriptions. About
400 boreholes were completely re-logged by re-examination of some or all of the samples from each hole.
However， it should be noted that not all the borehole logs have been reviewed by GEO.
The re-logging undertaken in the GEO study is now stored digitally in Planning Division's Geological
Modelling System. The original paper records， most of which are stored in the CEL GIU， have not been
updated. Future workers accessing “factual data" for the Tung Chung reclamation from the GIU should
therefore be aware of the difficulties of using the original paper records as outlined above.
Developing the Geological Model

The geological model developed from the reassessment of borehole logs during the Tung Chung study is
described below in terms of three stages:
a) a description of the metasedimentary xenoliths， and their inclusion into the local granitic rocks;
b) a description of the deep weathering of the granitic rocks in the vicinity of some of the xenoliths;
and
c) a description of the development of karstic features in and above those xenoliths that contain
carbonate rocks.
Xenoliths
The area is underlain by granite， intruded by numerous granitoid dykes (mainly feldsparphyric rhyolite). The
intrusive rocks enclose blocks (xenoliths) of metasedimentary rocks， predominantly of marble， sandstone
and siltstone. The blocks range in size from a metre across to more than 300 m across. It is inferred that the
blocks were incorporated during (Jurassic) intrusion， as they commonly exhibit effects of contact
metamorphism. For example， skarn is well developed where carbonate rock (such as marble) has been in
contact with the magma. The structural geology of the area is complex， and faulting further complicates the
original distribution of xenoliths.
Weathering
Extreme depths of weathering are evident where the sedimentary rock xenoliths occur. In the Tung Chung
area， continuous Grade III material and better， typically occurs at depths of 40 to 50 m. However， in the
immediate vicinity of some xenoliths， many boreholes have been drilled to 150 m or more without reaching
continuous Grade III or better material granite， and at least one borehole exceeds 200 m. These unusual
weathering profiles are characterised by abrupt weathering fronts with transitions from Completely
Decomposed Granite (Grade V) to Slightly or Moderately Decomposed Granite (grades II， and III) over only a
few metres. The gradient on these transitions， also referred to as 'rockhead'， is also locally very steep (up to 70°).
50
m4 CC 10 CC 8 CB 49D
mPD Fletcher et al. (2000) Gillespie et al. (1998) Kirk (2000) Vibro (1996)
0
Fill Fill Not logged

10
Marine sediment Marine mud

20 Sand, silt alluvium
Alluvium & colluvium
Clay, silt and sand in Granitoid Coarse, sandy alluvium

30
alluvium & colluvium
Unconsolidated
40 sediment
Mainly muddy, boulder
and cobble-bearing silt
and sand (Tung
50 Chung Formation)
Granitoid
60 Not logged Tung Chung Formation

Fine alluvial sediment Granitoid Completely decomposed
granite (sand)
70
Tung Chung Formation

80
90 Metasedimentary rock
Feldsparphyric rhyolite
100 Diamict Granitoid
Laminated deposit Feldsparphyric
Diamict rhyolite
110 Laminated deposit
Diamict Highly to completely
Laminated deposit decomposed altered
granite (sand)
Diamict Metasedimentary rock
120 Metasedimentary rock (skarn)
Diamict Metasiltstone Highly decomposed
Laminated deposit Feldsparphyric rhyolite altered granite (sand)
130 Cavity-fill Diamict Completely decomposed
facies Metasedimentary rock altered granite (sand)
Laminated deposit Moderately decomposed
Metasedimentary rock Metasedimentary rock altered granite
140
Diamict Completely decomposed
altered granite (sand)
Metasedimentary rock
Completely decomposed
Diamict Cavity infill altered granite (gravel)
150
Sand and gravel Cavity Highly decomposed
Altered granite skarn altered granite (sand)
Metasedimentary rock Metasedimentary rock
(skarn) Moderately to slightly
160 decomposed altered
granite
Feldsparphyric Granitoid
170 rhyolite
Feldsparphyric rhyolite
180
190
��e �� a��le� �� D��e�e�t I�te��etat�� le�at�� ate��al� ��te�e� �� B��e��le� D��lle�

at va�� l��at�� at ��te � �� t�e � � �� a�t �e�la�at��
The reason for the unusually extreme extent of decomposition is uncertain. It may be due to increased
groundwater movement through cavitous marble， or alternatively， to increased susceptibility to weathering
related to contact metamorphism (the granite may have been altered by circulating fluids) (Kirk， 2000).
Karst
Where meta-sedimentary rock was exposed at the middle Pleistocene palaeo-surface， thick residual soil has
developed (Gillespie et al.， 1998; Kirk， 2000). Dissolution has occurred in many of the marble blocks，
leading to the development of a range of karstic features. Cavities and fissures are common， and these range
from less than 1 m up to 20 m. Most cavities are infilled with sediment， but voids up to 8 m in height have
been recorded. Some boreholes have multiple intersections through cavity-infill deposits， and in these areas
networks of large caverns are inferred to have existed.
In at least two localities， advanced dissolution has led to the formation of large sinkholes (or dolines) (Gillespie
et al.， 1998; Kirk， 2000). One feature has been interpreted as an infilled solution doline， while the second is
51
most likely a collapse doline. These features exceed 100 m and 60 m in width respectively， and are up to
130 m deep. Both are infilled with unconsolidated sediment， predominantly comprising boulders and cobble-
bearing silt and sand. A new formation， the Tung Chung Formation， has been proposed (Kirk， 2000; Fyfe et
al.， 2000) for these thick， though laterally restricted， deposits. Pollen dates， from serial samples， have suggested
a mid-Pleistocene age (Fyfe et al.， 2000). The Chek Lap Kok Formation unconformably overlies the Tung
Chung Formation.
Compleχ Ground Conditions at Site 3

Gillespie et al.， (1998)， Kirk (2000)， and Fletcher et al. (2000) have recently described the complex ground
conditions encountered at Site 3， Tung Chung reclamation， which led eventually to the abandonment of
Proposed Tower 5. Continuous mazier samples through karst deposits below 100 m from ground surface
revealed the presence of two sedimentary facies (Fletcher et al.， 2000): a 'cavity-fill facies' and a 'collapse
facies'. The 'cavity-fill' facies comprises laminated clay， silt and sand deposits， mixed debris-flow deposits，
sedimentary breccias and colluvium (termed 'diamict')， and gravel. The 'collapse-facies' comprises boulders
of completely decomposed granite and rhyolite in a matrix of diamict (see below)， clay， silt and sand.
Laminated Deposits
Exceptionally well-preserved thin beds of clay， silt and fine sand， some of which have been highly contorted，
are a feature of the laminated deposits in the cavity-fill facies. The laminations consist of orangish brown
clay layers up to 20 mm thick， alternating with brown， silty clay layers (possibly organic-rich) and medium to
fine sand layers from a few millimetres to 30 mm thick. The sand layers are commonly normally graded， with
coarser sand at the base and fine sand at the top. Normal faults and sand injection structures are also present
in the laminated deposits.
Diamict
Diamict deposits are present in both the cavity-fill and collapse facies， but are distinctive in terms of their
matrix composition， grain size and the lithology of rock fragments. In all cases， the diamict deposits are
chaotically arranged. In the cavity-fill facies， the diamict is characterised by completely decomposed granite，
rhyolite and metasedimentary rock fragments， ranging from a few tens of millimetres to several metres across，
set in a matrix of buff clay to silty clay with small angular fragments. Diamict in the collapse-facies consists
almost entirely of large blocks of completely decomposed granite and feldsparphyric rhyolite， (possibly up
to 10 m across)， intercalated with fine-grained diamict， clay， silt and sand. A notable feature of diamict
belonging to the collapse facies is that several of the decomposed granite boulders are cut by narrow， sub-
vertical soil pipes， between 10 and 20 mm in diameter. A few small sub-rounded clasts of volcanic rock have
been recorded among the intercalated fine-grained diamict layers.
Sand and Gravel

Thin， discontinuous layers of sand are present throughout most of the cavity-fill and collapse facies (Fletcher
et al.， 2000). The sand is generally massive in appearance， and predominantly medium grained. Near the
base of the cavity-fill facies， the sand layers appear to be thicker (some greater than 10 m) and more laterally
continuous. Fletcher et al. (2000) have reported the presence of some deeply iron-stained gravels containing
sub-angular rock fragments in a loose silty sand close to the bedrock surface.
Model for Formation of Iarst Deposits at Site 3

Fletcher et al. (2000) have proposed that the laminated clay， silt and sand， loose sand and gravel， and
diamict deposits accumulated in a cavity formed from dissolution of a marble block enclosed within the
granite. Sedimentary structures displayed by these cavity-fill deposits are interpreted as indicating deposition
in an underground lake or water-filled cavern. The diamict deposits are thought to consist mostly of detritus
derived from the roof and sides of the cavity. As the cavity was enlarged， the decomposed granite roof
became unstable and eventually collapsed onto the cavity-fill deposits， forming a chaotic mixture of large
granite blocks and cavity-fill deposits. Voids between the large decomposed granite blocks were subsequently
infilled with fine sand， laminated clay and silt. A network of sub-vertical pipes formed as water was expelled
under pressure during compaction. These dewatering structures were later filled by fine sediment. A schematic
representation of the evolution of karst deposits beneath Tower 5 is shown in Figure 15.
52
STA
STAGE 1
STA
STAGE 4
-40 mPD
COLLUVIUM
V
STA
STAGE 2 V
V V
CAVITY
CAVITY
COLLAPSE
FACIES
STA
STAGE 3
CAVITY
CAVITY
FILL F
FA
ACIES
CAVITY
CAVITY
Laminated deposits Metasiltstone Granite

Granite
Sand and gr
gravel Limestone/marble
Limestone/marble V Volcanic
Volcanic fragment
fragment
Diamict Skarn
Skarn
��e �5 � ��e�at�� e��e�e�tat�� t�e Devel��e�t �� Ka��t De��t� Be�eat� ��ee� 5， ��te �， ��
�� a�t �e�la�at�� a�te� ��e 6 �� let��e� et al.， ��
Ground Investigation Techniques

One of the key objectives of the Tung Chung study was to identify a GI technique， or combination of techniques，
that would enable early recognition of the occurrence of similar adverse ground conditions in other areas
nearby. The microgravity technique was used to detect the relatively large masses of weathered granite
associated with xenoliths. This utilised the density contrast between Completely Decomposed Granite and
fresh granite， and the favourable geometry (i.e.， steep rockhead gradients). It is important to note that the
technique was not attempting to identify voids in marble (very low density)， nor the marble itself (relatively
high density). The technique was， however， successful in correctly identifying previously established rockhead
levels on the basis of a 25 m -spaced grid. Negative gravity anomalies were also interpreted as further sites
with depressed rockhead levels. Subsequent drilling confirmed the model， and in one case identified further
marble and deep sediment.
A marine gravity survey was also carried out. Resolution of gravity anomalies is dependent on precise leveling，
but this is not possible for the marine gravimeter， which therefore operates at rather lower resolution. Much
wider grid spacing is therefore appropriate， and a 100 m grid was tried close to shore and a 250 m grid over
53
LEGEND
Contour of averaged reduced
814 000E
818 000E
-20 rockhead level (metres)
Contour intervals 20 metres
Survey boundary
SIU MO TO
822 000N
-60
-60
0 CHEUNG
-8 SOK
-80
-60
-40
-20
-220
-200
-180
-160
-140
-120
-100
THE BROTHERS -40
metres (PD) TAI MO TO -20
�999a， �999��.
YAM O
0
WAN
-20
-60
-4
Scale 1:60 000
0 1 2 Km
-60 TSZ KAN CHAU
0 0 YAM O
-6 0 29
-4 10
-40 Sham Shui 0 20
-20 10 0 0
Kok 20
0
-60 20
way -20
Run TAI CHE
-20 200
10
0
TUNG
it
L im
-6
ti on 200
0 ma 100
-6 c la
Re
d
CHEK LAP KOK
se
54
o
100
-40 YI PAK AU
op
Pr
-2
0
Hong Kong
Kong 200
-20
Airport -20
DISCOVERY BAY
-60 ( Tai Pak Wan )
way
Run
0
818 000N
30
465
0
0
TAI HO
40 LO FU TAU
40
300
0
WAN
-4
0
0
10
0
20
20
-40 100
77
200 TAI HO NI
M
SH
0
U E
10
W
0 AN
30
Raster Ref. file:
SHA LO WAN 100 300
-2
482
10
0
200 100
TUNG CHUNG
BAY 0 Golf Course
0
30 200
0
10
200 529 20
POK TO YAN 300
1 00 HUNG FA
FA 275
0
300 40 00 NGAN
NGAN 0
3 400 10
200 TUNG CHUNG
0
500 TAI SHUI HANG
0
200 30 0 200
10
20 500 60
100 721 0
4 00 400
300 300 0
100
00
LANTAU ISLAND 20 20 200
0
400 200
500
500
300 10
324 0
MUI WO
D��t��t Ba�e� �� D ��ell�� t�e �e��a�� e�te� B��e� A��al� �a�te� ��
��e �6 � ��l��e� Ave�a�e� ��ea� ��el� �� a�e III �� ee�� O��e �a�t� �� t�e
0
a wider area. The survey results correlated well with seismic reflection profiles， and drilling confirmed
interpretations of both lithological variation and rockhead levels. Further details and background to the
processing of the raw gravity data are given in Kirk et al. (2000).
The anomaly maps and modelled depths (contour maps on rockhead) accurately identified the distribution of
deep weathering， and correctly showed zones where the rockhead gradient was particularly steep (Figure 16).
3D-models of the superficial strata were created locally and densities of each lithology were measured in the
laboratory. Fill， Hang Hau， Chek Lap Kok， and Tung Chung formations， together with the largest xenoliths，
the shallower parts of the weathering profile and shallow man-made voids (MTR tubes) were all modelled.
The component of gravity due to these materials was subtracted from the Terrain Corrected Bouguer Anomaly
leaving a residual component due to deep weathering.
The refined model of rockhead generated by further processing of the data described above has provided
structural information and details of variation in rockhead that would have been difficult to get by other
means. In addition， detailed studies undertaken by Fletcher et al. (2000) have further refined the geological
model for complex ground conditions beneath a single tower block on the Tung Chung reclamation. In this
case， six new deep boreholes were drilled， and considerable care taken， to recover high quality samples.
Kirk (2000) proposed a revised geological model for the geology beneath the Tung Chung reclamation as
comprising predominantly granite but with xenolithic blocks of meta-sedimentary rock， including marble.
The igneous rocks adjacent to the xenoliths are unusually deeply weathered and characteristically have
abrupt weathering fronts and steep gradients on 'rockhead'. In places， carbonate dissolution has produced
karstic terrain (now buried) and cavities. Locally severe， dissolution has led to the development of sediment-
filled collapse basins.
Implications of the Revised Geological Model

The revised geological model proposed for the Tung Chung reclamation implies local associations of materials
that can pose geotechnical difficulties for some types of proposed development. A site investigation design
that places a heavy reliance on drilling may not encounter these materials at an early stage， and may only
intersect them during dense drilling for final design of foundations. However， if any one of these materials is
intersected in any borehole， this should raise awareness as to the possibility of the occurrence of complex
ground conditions in the locale， and further investigation should be undertaken.
Drilling and seismic reflection profiling have limitations as investigation methods in this geological
environment but gravity surveying has proved effective in identifying the main occurrences of the low-
density (e.g. marble) materials. The marble of Tung Chung is one of a series of local accumulations of meta-
sediment in the district along the northern coast of Lantau Island. Further accumulations are likely to occur
elsewhere in this region， and this should be taken into account in preliminary site investigations for future
projects.
Compleχ Ground Conditions in Areas Adjacent to Tung Chung

Preliminary investigations for the proposed Northshore Lantau reclamation (at the eastern end of the North
Lantau coast) have revealed the occurrence of deeply weathered structures associated with marble and a
karstic palaeo environment similar to those found at Tung Chung (Kirk et al.， 2000). The extent of the marble
farther north is difficult to evaluate and must be viewed in the context of Hong Kong's regional geology. It is
noted that the marble at Tung Chung is one of a series of small， localised occurrences of meta-sedimentary
rocks， including Ma On Shan， that lie along a northeast-trending structural zone extending from North Lantau
to Tolo Channel. The style of these occurrences of marble contrasts with the laterally extensive Palaeozoic
sequence of the Yuen Long area. The distribution of the marble at Tung Chung and Ma On Shan agrees well
with the volcanotectonic reconstruction for the Late Jurassic of Campbell and Sewell (1997) (Figure 17，
after Kirk， 2000). Campbell and Sewell (1997) have interpreted the volcanic and plutonic rocks of the �.
146 Ma volcanic event to represent magmatism during crustal extension or transtension. Incorporation of
country rock into intrusive rocks (as at Tung Chung) and within controlling structures (as at Ma On Shan)
also ties in well with this model. Therefore， it can be inferred that marble may occur， either within fault
structures or associated with magmatism， anywhere along the eastnortheast-trending zone shown in Figure
17.
55
820 E 840 E 860 E
Guangdong Province
K��， ��
UL
FA
840 N L
NNE
CHA
Yuen LO
Long New Territories TO
CHEK KENG FAULT
56
SHATIN &
NEEDLE HILL
820 N PLUTONS
Kowloon
Lantau LEGEND
Island
Marble/Skarn in North Lantau-Tolo Zone
Hong Kong
Island Carboniferous metasedimentary rocks
LANTAU in Yuen Long Area
LANTAU CALDERA DYKE SWARM
Inferred volcano-tectonic fault active
during the 146 Ma. magmatic event
Younger fault
LANTAU VOLCANIC GROUP
Outcrop
KWAI CHUNG SUITE

0 5 10 km SOUTH LAMMA Outcrop
PLUTON
Inferred subcrop
��e �� V�l�a��te�t�� a� �� H�� K�� .��6 �a� ��e�� t�e D��t��t�� t�e ��
a�� a O� ��a� �a��le �� a�� a�� a�lt� t�at We�e A�t�ve D�� la�e�e�t ��
� �� Bel�� t� t �e �a�ta� V�l�a�� a�� Kea� �� te ��e� a�te�
Chapter 10
Economic Geology
Economic deposits of the district include non-metalliferous minerals and construction aggregates. Metalliferous
mineral deposits are also known mainly from the Sha Lo Wan area and have been extensively prospected.
However， none of these metalliferous mineral deposits is of economic or potentially economic proportion.
Non-metalliferous Minerals
Fissure veins of quartz are common throughout the granitic rocks， particularly in those exposed between Sha
Lo Wan and Tung Chung. Many of these veins are weakly mineralized (see earlier)， although Ruxton (1958)
has also noted that some very wide quartz veins， often with open textures and cavities between the crystals，
are non-mineralized. The non-mineralized quartz veins are considered to belong to a separate， younger
emplacement event.
Quartz was mined from the Sha Lo Wan area between 6.8.55 and 6.3.59， and from 8.1.60 to 7.7.61. However，
no records exist on production volumes. Similarly， mining licences for quartz were granted for the Hau Hok
Wan area between 15.1.71 and 14.1.76 and again from 26.5.76 to 25.3.85， but there are no records on
production volumes. The quartz at Hau Hok Wan was mined from a large (up to 30 m wide)， non-mineralized
quartz vein on the western side of the bay (0857 1700). Prospecting licences for quartz were granted for the
Sha Lo Wan area between 17.10.67 to 16.4.68 and from 25.7.69 to 24.7.74， but no mining licences were
sought.
Feldspar was also prospected in the Sha Lo Wan area， mainly from sporadic pegmatites containing small
quantities of pink orthoclase. A prospecting licence for feldspar was granted， along with quartz， for the Sha Lo
Wan area between 17.10.67 to 16.4.68， and from 25.7.69 to 24.7.74. A mining licence was granted to extract
feldspar from the Sha Lo Wan area between 8.1.60 and 7.7.61， but not records on production volumes exist.
A prospecting licence granted for the Sha Lo Wan area between 25.7.69 and 24.7.74， included provision for
kaolin prospecting. However， apart from minor deposits associated with weathered granitic rocks， there are
no known major sources of kaolin within the district.
Minor quantities of apatite， garnet， topaz， fluorite， diopside， muscovite， biotite and beryl have been reported
by Ruxton (1958) and Peng (1978) from veins adjacent to granitic intrusions in the Sha Lo Wan area. These
occur sporadically as rich， local concentrations of minerals， sometimes associated with skarn deposits. Ruxton
(1958) has cautioned that such mineral occurrences should not be considered as representative of all quartz
veins in the area.
Metalliferous Minerals
A variety of metalliferous minerals occurs within the district， mainly in the Sha Lo Wan area. The mineralization
occurs as two main types: 1) High temperature (pneumatolityic) mineralization associated with interlacing
quartz veins at the contacts between granite intrusions and host rocks， and 2) Moderate to low temperature
mineralization associated with eastsoutheast-westnorthwest trending quartz veins. The metalliferous minerals
include arsenopyrite， chalcopyrite， galena， magnetite， molybdenite， pyrite and wolframite. Minor quantities
of pyrrhotite and scheelite have also been reported (Peng， 1978; On Yang， 1979). Ruxton (1958) described
similar minerals from both the high temperature and low temperature quartz veins， with the exception of
galena which was only described from the low temperature veins. However， according to a stream sediment
geochemical survey in the Sha Lo Wan area by Nau and Yim (1977)， the sources for arsenic， tungsten， and
copper， were thought to be the contact between granite and country rocks， whereas that for iron， manganese
and zinc was considered to be farther to the southwest. The presence of a skarn deposit at San Shek Wan
(Peng， 1978) immediately to the west of the district suggests a possible explanation for the source of these
metals as well as for the variety of non-metalliferous minerals present. Sewell (1999) has reported similar
anomalous concentrations of arsenic (3 - 35 ppm) and tungsten (9 - 80 ppm)， as well as moderate to high
levels of antimony (3 - 4 ppm)， bismuth (15 - 73 ppm)， and tin (7 - 57 ppm). By contrast， concentrations of
iron (Fe2O3<2 wt%)， manganese (MnO<0.10 wt%) and zinc (<40 ppm) are relatively low.
57
Prospecting licences were granted for tungsten and iron in the Sha Lo Wan area (0901 1584, 0896 1564,
0885 1570) from 17.10.67 to 16.4.68 and from 25.7.69 to 24.7.74. Mining licences for the same area were
granted for wolframite and associated minerals from 8.11.54 to 7.5.58, and from 19.3.55 to 18.9.57, but no
records of production exist.
Magnetite has been reported by Peng (1978) 1 km west of Tung Chung in a quartz vein in granite (0930
1710). A similar occurrence of magnetite has also been reported by Peng (1978) from Ngau Au (1010 1530)
near Tung Chung.
Construction Materials
Urban development at Tung Chung, combined with the creation of the international airport and Lantau
Expressway, has involved large areas of new reclamation. Although the bulk of the material for reclamation
has come from outside the district, small borrow areas have been developed. The history of reclamation for
the international airport and the nature of the fill materials used, are described in detail in Pinches et al.
(2000) and references therein.
A regional seismic survey for offshore sources of sand for use in reclamation fill (Seamat Study, Cheung &
Shaw, 1993) did not reveal any economic reserves of sand in the district.
58
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Cheung， P.C.T. & Shaw， R. (1993). Seamat study: final report. Geotechnical Engineering Office， Hong
Kong Government， 163 p.
Choot， G.E.B. (1988). Marine Sources of Fill. Geotechnical Control Office， Advisory Report No.
ADR. 30/88， Geotechnical Control Office， Hong Kong， 132 p.
Clemens， J.D. & Wall， V.J. (1984). Origin and Evolution of a Peraluminous Silicic Ignimbrite Suite: the
Violet Town Volcanics. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology， vol. 88， pp 354-71.
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3 maps.
Davis， D.W.， Sewell， R.J. & Campbell， S.D.G. (1997). U-Pb dating of Mesozoic igneous rocks from Hong
Kong. Journal of the Geological Society， vol. 154， pp 1067-1076.
E.G.S. (1999a). Tung Chung Offshore Gravity Additional Interpretation - Phase II. Final Report Job No.
HK136999 June 1999， 14 p.
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Job No. HK134199， 11 p.
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Fyfe， J.A.， Shaw， R.， Campbell， S.D.G.， Lai， K.W. & Kirk， P.A. (2000). The Quaternary Geology of Hong
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Lee， C.M.， Chan， K.W. & Ho， K.H. (1998). Palaeontology and Stratigraphy of Hong Kong， Vol.2. Science
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60
Li, X.C., Sewell, R.J. & Fletcher, C.J.N. (2000). The Dykes of Northeast Lantau Island. Geological Report
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Survey Memoir No. 2. Geotechnical Control Office, Hong Kong, 134 p.
Uglow, W.L. (1926). Geology and Mineral Resources of the Colony of Hong Kong. Legislative Council of
Hong Kong, Sessional Papers, No7/1926, pp 73–77.
Vibro (HK) Ltd. (1996). Tung Chung Station Development. Site Investigation Works. Site III, Section II.
Volume IB - Final Fieldwork Report.
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Williams, M.Y., Brock, R.W., Schofield, S.J. & Phemister, T.C. (1945). The Physiography and igneous
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Projects Report No. SPR 1/93, Geotechnical Engineering Office, 95 p.
61
Index fluorite 29 31 33 57
foliation 25 26
accessory minerals 25 32
geochemistry 20
acoustic turbidity 45
granite 17 21 28 31 32 33 34 36 38 39
aerial photographs 34
42 48 50 51 52 53 55 57 58
albite 29 31
granophyric texture 32
alkali feldspar 25 29 31 32
graphitic 17 23 25 34 39
allanite 29 31 32
gravity survey 53
alluvium 18 40 41 42 43 45
alteration 26 32 36 39 47
Hang Hau Formation 18 21 40 41 44 45 46
amphibole 25 29 31
47
andalusite 23
Holocene 9 18 40 41 42 45
apatite 25 29 31 57
hydrothermal alteration 26 36 39 47
aplite 17 28 32
intertidal deposits 18 42
basaltic andesite 32 33
intrusive igneous rocks 28
beach sand 42
isopachs 46
biotite 25 29 31 32 33 39 57
bipyramidal 32
joints 34 36 38
boreholes 14 17 21 23 24 25 34 39 42
43 44 45 48 50 51 55
kaolin 41 57
British Geological Survey 12 14 48 60
Lantau Dyke Swarm 17 28 32 34
caldera 17 21 34 36 39
Lantau Granite 17 24 28 29 30 32
Carboniferous 17 18 23 25 34 36 48
Lantau Island 9 11 12 15 16 17 23 25 26
channel 36 43 44 47
28 29 30 33 34 35 37 41 42 44
Chek Lap Kok Formation 21 40 41 42 43 44

45 47 48 55 60 61
45 52
Lantau Volcanic Group 17 18 25 26 30 31
Chek Lap Kok Granite 17 18 28 29 30 32

33 34 39 56
chemical analyses 17
lapilli 17 25
chlorite 31
lineaments 34
classification 9 28 50
Lok Ma Chau Formation 17 18 23 24 34 39
colluvium 9 18 40 41 43 44 52
conglomerate 23 42
mafic dykes 28 31 33
corestones 27
magma 26 32 50
crystallisation 26 39
magnetite 21 24 25 33 57 58
Mai Po Member 23
debris flow 21 40 41 43
marble 12 14 17 18 21 23 24 36 39 43
dykes 17 28 31 32 33 34 48 50
48 50 51 52 53 55
marine deposits 21 41
faults 17 21 34 36 47 52
marine mud 18 21 45
feldsparphyric rhyolite 17 28 31 32 36 38
marine sand 18 21 36
42 48 50 52
mass wasting 40
fine- to medium-grained (granite) 17 28 29 32 42

megacrystic 28 29
fine-grained granite 28 31 32 42
Mesozoic 9 18 17 25 42 43 59 60
flow banding 32
metalliferous 6 57
62
microgranite 17 28 31 32 48 Tung Chung 9 11 12 14 15 17 21 24 30

mineralisation 33 32 34 35 36 37 39 40 41 42 43
mining 57 44 45 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 55
mud 9 21 40 41 45 56 57 58 59 60 61
muscovite 29 32 57 Tung Chung Formation 18 40 41 42 43 44
52 55
Northshore Lantau Development Feasibility Study volcanic rocks 17 21 25 26 31 33 34 36
12 43 59 38 39 47
weathering 14 21 24 32 34 36 38 40 41
oligoclase 29 32 47 48 50 51 55
photolineaments 34 36 Yam 0 9 12 21 25 41 43 44 47
plagioclase 25 29 31 32 33 Yim Tin Tsai Formation 17 18 25
Pleistocene 9 18 40 41 42 43 45 51 52 60 Yuen Long Formation 17 23 34 39 43
pluton 29 34
zircon 25 28 29 31 32
quartz veins 21 28 33 57 zoned 29 31 32
quartzphyric rhyolite 17 28 31 32 48
Quaternary 9 18 40 43 45 59 60 61
reclamation 11 12 14 21 36 39 41 42 43
45 47 48 50 52 55 58
reflector 45
rhyodacite 31
rhyolite 17 25 26 28 31 32 33 34 36 38
42 48 50 52
San Tin Group 17 18 23

sandstone 17 18 23 25 26 27 50
sea level 41 47
seismic 14 40 42 43 44 45 55 58
Sham Wat Formation 18 21 40 41 45
shell fragments 42
siltstone 14 17 18 23 25 26 27 50
slope deposits 41
Tai 0 Formation 17 18 23 25
tectonic 59 60
The Brothers Islands 17 23 34 36 39 44 45
47 48
thin sections 14
Tolo Harbour Formation 17 18 24 39
Tong Fuk Quartz Monzonite 30 31 34
Tsuen Wan Volcanic Group 17 18 25
Tsz Kan Chau 23 24
tuff 17 18 25 26 27
tuffite 17 18 26 27
63
Appendix
LEXICON OF TERMS USED FOR DRILLCORE LOGGING AND SURFACE
MAPPING AT TUNG CHUNG， LANTAU ISLAND， HONG KONG
(Reproduced， with minor amendments， from a report prepared for the
GEO， CED， by M. R. Gillespie， A. J. Humpage and R. A. Ellison， November 1998)
Introduction
This document outlines the geological terms recommended for use during drillcore logging and surface
mapping of rocks and superficial deposits at Tung Chung New Town， Lantau Island， Hong Kong. The terms
and their definitions are based largely on those described in Hong Kong Geological Survey Memoir No. 6
(Geology of Lantau District; Langford et al. 1995) and in Geoguide 3， the 'Guide to Rock and Soil Descriptions'
produced by the Geotechnical Engineering Office， Civil Engineering Department， Hong Kong.
Descriptions of all the key lithologies and geological features encountered in the Tung Chung drillcores are
presented. These are based primarily on visual examination of drillcore in a wettened state， using a hand lens
where appropriate. Useful additional information is provided by the acid test (using 10% HC1 to detect
calcite)， and a hardness (scratch) test using a steel knife.
A list of key diagnostic features and， where appropriate， one or more photographs accompany the brief
description provided for each recommended term. Significant differences in the character of lithologies
between the main sites (Sites 3， 4 and 5) investigated within the Tung Chung New Town Area (Figure 1) are
noted. Grain size terms are defined in Table 5 of Geoguide 3.
One or more reference samples of most of the Tung Chung lithologies has been collected and is stored by the
Hong Kong Geological Survey， Geotechnical Engineering Office， Civil Engineering Department， Hong Kong.
These are mainly hand samples of drillcore， each of which has been assigned an identification number (e.g.
Reference sample no. 1). However， Mazier samples， whole drillcore boxes and several complete drillcores
also form part of the reference sample collection. The reference sample numbers， or the borehole name and
depth of the other types of reference samples， are referred to at appropriate points in the text.
In photographs showing drillcore in boxes， or parts of boxes， the shallowest part of the core is at top left， the
deepest part at bottom right.
Lexicon
Fill
Description
Man-made deposit composed mainly of sand， gravel and shell fragments， with occasional boulders， cobbles，
wood and synthetic materials. Table 18 in Geoguide 3 summarises some of the features associated with fill.
Key diagnostic features :
(i) Mainly sand， gravel and shell fragments. Occasional boulders， cobbles， wood and synthetic materials.
(ii) Unconsolidated.
(iii) No structure.
(iv) Usually light brown to grey.
Reference sample no. : Fill is represented in all the whole reference drillcores.
64
Marine sediment
Description
Unconsolidated mud, sand, silt, shell fragments. The marine sediments at Tung Chung belong to the Hang
Hau Formation, details of which are summarised in Section A.6.4 and Plate 11C of Geoguide 3.
(i) Composed dominantly of mid- to dark grey, clayey/silty mud, often with shell fragments.
(ii) The mud is soft and plastic, though it may dry out and become hard in storage.
Comments
Light brown to grey sand may form part of the marine sediment locally and can be difficult to distinguish
from fill, where the two are juxtaposed.
Reference sample no.: Reference drillcore B-19, 20.5 – 27.7 m

Photograph: See Geoguide 3: Plates 9A & 11C
Alluvium
Description
Unconsolidated boulders, cobbles, gravel, sand and silt. Features characteristic of alluvium in Hong Kong
are summarised in Section A.6.3 of Geoguide 3.
(i) Composed of unconsolidated boulders, cobbles, gravel, sand and silt.

(ii) Clast surfaces are typically rounded.
(iii) Clasts are generally not cemented.
(iv) There is usually a variety of clast lithologies.
Comments
Alluvium at Tung Chung belongs to the Chek Lap Kok (?and pre-Chek Lap Kok) Formation. Alluvium
sequences in Tung Chung drillcores are typically dominated by boulders and cobbles, any finer matrix having
been lost during drilling. Intervals up to several metres thick of dark grey to pale green mud and sand occur
locally in the alluvium of Site 3 and Site 4.
Reference sample no.: Reference drillcores B-5 (21 – 27 m) and CB-46A (21 – 42 m)
Plate A1 - Typical appearance of alluvium in Tung Chung drillcores.The five jar samples contain pale green
mud. Tung Chung, Site 3; Drillcore CB-49C; Box 1, 0.0 - 39.0 m
See also : Plate 2
65
Plate A2 30.30 to about 30.90 is typical alluvium; 30.90 to 33.50 is typical colluvium; the colluvium sits
directly on siltstone (see Section 2.6), which fills all the jar samples representing the cored interval 33.50
to 66.0 m. Tung Chung, Site 4; Drillcore B-19; Box 2, 30.30 – 66.0 m. See also: Geoguide 3, Plate 11E
Colluvium
Description
A deposit of boulders, cobbles, gravel, sand and silt. Features characteristic of colluvium in Hong Kong are
summarised in Section A.6.2, Table 18 and Plate 11E of Geoguide 3.
(i) Composed of boulders, cobbles, gravel, sand and silt.
(ii) Clast surfaces are typically angular.
(iii) Clasts are set in a silty sand matrix, at least part of which generally survives coring.
(iv) A variety of clast lithologies usually distinguishes colluvium from a fault breccia.
Comments
Most of the colluvium in Tung Chung drillcores belongs to the Chek Lap Kok (?and pre-Chek Lap Kok)
Formation and occurs immediately beneath, or wholly within, alluvium. Colluvium often forms the basal part
of the superficial deposits.
Reference sample no.: Reference drillcores C-42 (36 – 55 m) and B-19 (31 – 33.5 m)
Fine alluvial sediment

Description
Typically orangish to dark brown, unconsolidated, soft sediment of mainly sand-silt grade, with occasional
gravelly beds and little or no discernible structure.
(i) Orangish to dark brown colour.

(ii) Generally fine grain size.
(iii) Unconsolidated (though it may become hard and brittle after drying-out).
(iv) Typically found immediately beneath alluvium/colluvium.
(v) Contains very rare, small shell fragments.
(vi) Sand to gravel sized fragments of a range of rock types typically occur in the fine alluvial sediment
(see Plate 3), and serve to distinguish it from residual soil derived from igneous rock (see Section
2.24).
Comments
Principal occurrence of fine alluvial sediment at Tung Chung is in Site 3, where up to seventy metres has
been cored locally. Recovered material is almost entirely in jar and Mazier samples.
Reference sample no.: Reference drillcores CC9 (40.5 – 72.5; 83 – 111 m) and CB46A (42 – 97 m);
and all Mazier samples in these intervals.
66
Plate A3 - Typical appearance of fine alluvial sediment in jar samples. Tung Chung, Site 3; Drillcore CA
4A; Box 2, 43.4 – 46.95 m
Siltstone
Description
Moderately consolidated to semi-lithified sediment composed mainly of silt-grade particles (Plates 2 and
4a). Local intervals of intraformational conglomerate up to about 19 metres thick consist of siltstone fragments
set in a moderately consolidated silty matrix (Plate 4b).
(i) Generally uniform, moderately consolidated to semi-lithified, silty sediment.
(ii) Typically blue-grey to olive green and brown; fracture surfaces are stained orange-
brown to black.
(iii) Local intervals of colluvium.
(iv) No macroscopic shell, plant or fossil material.
(v) Little or no evidence of bedding or other sedimentary structures.
(vi) Found beneath the coarse alluvium/colluvium sequence and above ‘basement’ lithologies such as
granite, rhyolite and metasedimentary rocks.
Comments
Two apparently separate occurrences of siltstone have been identified at Tung Chung, both in Site 4, where
up to about 100 metres of siltstone has been cored locally.
Intervals of soft, pale green, very fine-grained material, sometimes with thin bands of grey silt, occur locally
in the siltstone (Plate 5). The green material is typically flecked with streaks and spots of black Mn-oxide.
A sequence of assorted boulders, cobbles, and occasionally marine sediments, is found at the base of the
deepest occurrences of siltstone.
Reference sample no.: 36 & 23. Also in Reference drillcores B5 (27 – 60 m) and B-19 (32.5 – 130 m)
67
Plate A3 - Typical appearance of fine alluvial sediment in jar samples. Tung Chung, Site 3; Drillcore CA
4A; Box 2, 43.4 – 46.95 m
Siltstone
Description
Moderately consolidated to semi-lithified sediment composed mainly of silt-grade particles (Plates 2 and
4a). Local intervals of intraformational conglomerate up to about 19 metres thick consist of siltstone fragments
set in a moderately consolidated silty matrix (Plate 4b).
(i) Generally uniform, moderately consolidated to semi-lithified, silty sediment.
(ii) Typically blue-grey to olive green and brown; fracture surfaces are stained orange-
brown to black.
(iii) Local intervals of colluvium.
(iv) No macroscopic shell, plant or fossil material.
(v) Little or no evidence of bedding or other sedimentary structures.
(vi) Found beneath the coarse alluvium/colluvium sequence and above ‘basement’ lithologies such as
granite, rhyolite and metasedimentary rocks.
Comments
Two apparently separate occurrences of siltstone have been identified at Tung Chung, both in Site 4, where
up to about 100 metres of siltstone has been cored locally.
Intervals of soft, pale green, very fine-grained material, sometimes with thin bands of grey silt, occur locally
in the siltstone (Plate 5). The green material is typically flecked with streaks and spots of black Mn-oxide.
A sequence of assorted boulders, cobbles, and occasionally marine sediments, is found at the base of the
deepest occurrences of siltstone.
Reference sample no.: 36 & 23. Also in Reference drillcores B5 (27 – 60 m) and B-19 (32.5 – 130 m)
67
Plate A4a - Siltstone in a Tung Chung Mazier sample. Way-up is to the right. The orange-brown and black
colouration is caused by precipitation of secondary Fe and Mn minerals on fracture surfaces. Tung Chung,
Site 4; Drillcore B-33; Mazier sample, 61.5 – 62.5 m
Plate A4b - Typical appearance of intraformational conglomerate in the siltstone. Tung Chung, Site 4;
Drillcore B-19; Box 4, 113.2 m
68
Plate A5 - Green ver iine-grained material and 泣ilt泣tone in a Tung Chung Mazier 泣ample. Tung Chung，
Site 4; Drillcore B-19; Mazier 泣ample， 98.0 - 99.0 m
69
lron-rich rock
Description
Low density rock rich in iron oxide minerals， with abundant fine porosity.
(i) Dark brown to orange-brown colour.

(ii) Low density (i.e. noticeably light) in hand specimen.
(iii) Typically has a mottled appearance.
(iv) Close inspection reveals a honeycomb of small pore spaces with a siliceous-looking skeletal framework.
Comments
To date， this material has been found only in Site 3 where it forms intervals up to 2 metres thick in several
drillcores.
Reference sample no. : 26， 27. Also in Reference drillcores CB46A (87.3 - 89.4 m) and CC9 (part of
the interval 90 - 100 m).
Plate A6 - T pical appearance oi iron-rich rock.Tung Chung， Site 3; Drillcore CB-46C; Box 2， 66.2 m
Marble
Description
Crystalline， fine- to coarse-grained， cream， blue-grey or dark grey rock consisting almost entirely of
recrystallised calcite.
(i) Calcite marble fizzes strongly on contact with dilute hydrochloric acid (HC1).
(ii) Can be scratched by a steel knife.
(iii) Usually associated with other metasedimentary rocks， and locally with cavities and/or cavity-fill
deposits.
(iv) Weathered surfaces have a characteristic ‘pitted' appearance.
Comments
Impure marble may contain enough siliceous material not to be scratched noticeably by a steel knife. The
scratch test combined with the acid test is generally sufficient to identify and distinguish different types and
purities of marble.
Care must be taken using the acid test， as siliceous metasedimentary rocks may contain a small proportion of
carbonate minerals as thin sedimentary layers， as a cement， as secondary minerals or as hairline veinlets. The
strong reaction of calcite with acid can lead to an overestimation of the proportion of carbonate in the rock.
In Tung Chung drillcores essentially all the marble is composed of calcite (i.e. there is little or no dolomite
marble)， however the appearance of the marble varies locally. Marble is very rare in Site 3 drillcores， but
where observed it is typically blue-grey. Marble is encountered in many Site 4 drillcores， where it is dark
blue-grey to cream coloured and can be massive， banded and/or intensely calcite-veined (Plates 7a， 7c and
11b). Marble in Site 5 drillcores is cream to pale blue-grey and usually banded (Plate 7b).
Reference sample no.: 4， 16， 22， 35. Also in Reference drillcores D-34 (99.5 -105 m)， E-75 (56 - 67.
5 m)， C-26 (88 - 136) and C-42 (95 - 153).
70
Plate A7a - Marble. The generally dark colour is typical of marble from this part of Site 4. See also Plate
11b. Tung Chung, Site 4; Drillcore C-42; Box 17, 145.9 m
Plate A7b - Marble from Site 5, showing the typical pale colour and banded appearance. Tung Chung,
Site 5; Drillcore E-74; Box 11, 61.65 m
Plate A7c - Marble from Site 4. Note the textural heterogeneity and blue-grey to cream colour. Localised
dissolution along calcite veinlets has developed into a small cavity at about 52.6 m. Tung Chung, Site 4;
Drillcore A-19A; Box 2, 53.08 m
Calc-silicate rock
Description
Usually pale-coloured, often texturally heterogeneous rocks characterised by the presence of calcium-silicate
minerals. The most diagnostic and most readily identifiable calcium-silicate minerals in Tung Chung drillcores
are grossular (Ca-rich garnet, which typically forms round pink or purple crystals) and diopside (Ca-Mg-Fe
pyroxene, which typically forms shapeless masses of dark green crystals).
(i) Presence of calcium-silicate minerals, in particular grossular and/or diopside; these
minerals typically appear as irregular masses of pink or green crystals, respectively.
(ii) Virtually always associated with other types of metasedimentary rocks.
Comments
Calc-silicate rocks are metamorphosed shaly or quartz-bearing carbonate rocks or relatively pure carbonate
rocks that have been metasomatized by siliceous solutions from contiguous granitic intrusions. They are a
common component in skarn sequences (see Section 2.14).
Reference sample no.: Box 3 (117.5 - 121.5 m) from borehole BB-24; Reference drillcore C-6 (105
110 m).
71
Plate A8 - Calc-silicate rock. The pink mineral forming irregular crystal agglomerations is grossular garnet.
The pale green mineral may be diopside. See also Plate 9. Tung Chung, Site 3; Drillcore BB-24; Box 3,
119 m
Quartzite
Description
Metamorphosed quartz sandstone. Variably coloured (but usually pale orange-brown, very pale purple, grey
or creamy-white), massive crystalline rock composed of essentially pure quartz.
(i) Massive, crystalline.

(ii) Composed almost wholly of quartz.
(iii) Does not scratch or respond to the acid test.
Comments
Quite common in drillcores from Site 4, where it can be up to 10 metres thick but is usually around 0.5 - 2
metres. Much less common in Site 3 and virtually absent in Site 5 drillcores.
Reference sample no.: 17
Photograph: See Geoguide 3, Plate A1[AI]
Metasandstone
Description
Metamorphosed, generally fine- to medium-grained sedimentary rock dominated by silicate minerals such as
quartz and feldspar, though it may have a small proportion of other (usually micaceous) material as dispersed
grains or thin bands.
(i) Mid- to dark grey, siliceous (will not scratch easily).
(ii) Often has discernible banding.
(iii) Often associated with other metasedimentary rocks.
Comments
Distinguished from quartzite by the presence of minerals (mainly feldspar) other than quartz. Relatively rare
in Tung Chung drillcores; occurs in relatively thin intervals.
Reference sample no.: No sample.
72
Metamudstone
Description
Metamorphosed sedimentary rock composed dominantly of micas， though some quartz and/or feldspar grains
may be present.
(i) Dark grey or dark green-grey， fine-grained rock.

(ii) Often has discernible banding， although often poorly preserved.
(iii) Often associated with other metasedimentary rocks.
Comments
Care must be taken in distinguishing metamudstone from dark， fine-grained igneous rocks (see Sections 2.22
and 2.23). If the diagnostic features listed above are insufficient， the rock should be examined closely for
phenocrysts (which may be present in the igneous rocks)， and the hardness test should be applied
(metamudstone will generally scratch more easily than igneous rock).
Reference sample no.: No sample.
Photograph: See Plate 9 and Geoguide 3， Plate A1[W}
Magnetite-rich rock
Description
Rock rich in magnetite.
(i) Generally black and dense (heavy) relative to silicate and carbonate rocks.
(ii) Usually occurs as thin bands in skarn sequences 9see Section 2.14).
(iii) Likely to be magnetic.
Comments
Very rare in Tung Chung drillcores; possibly confined to parts of Site 5.
Skarn
Description
The term 'skarn' is generally used for rock composed of Ca-， Mg- and Fe-silicate minerals that has been
derived from nearly pure limestone or dolomite into which large amounts of Si， A1， Fe and Mg have been
introduced by the activity of fluids because of proximity to an igneous intrusion. At Tung Chung the term is
used in a broader context， to describe complex sequences of differing types of thermally metamorphosed
rocks (calc-silicate， metamudstone etc.) The term 'skarn' can also be used where the nature of the original
metasedimentary rock cannot be determined due， for example， to overprinting (see Plate 10a).
(i) Sequence of lithologically variable metasedimentary rocks with mineralogical
and/or textural features indicative of thermal metamorphism.
(ii) Usually banded and/or texturally heterogeneous. Banding can be highly convoluted.
(iii) Often associated with other metasedimentary rocks， such as quartzite and marble.
Comments
Irregular masses and veins of purple fluorite are associated occasionally with skarn.
Reference sample no.: 10， 24， 33， 34; also Reference drillcores D-34 (118 - 120.5 m) and BB-24
(117.5 - 121.5 m)
73
Plate A9 - Skarn from Site 3 showing typical textural and mineralogical heterogeneity. Note the purple
fluorite. The dark green rock at bottom left is Metamudstone with faint banding. Most of the remaining
skarn assemblage is calc-silicate rock. Tung Chung, Site 3; Drillcore CC-20; Box 7, 168 m
Plate A10a - Skarn. A pale green mineral or mineral assemblage (probably mainly epidote) has overprinted
dark green ?metamudstone during thermal metamorphism. The white mineral is quartz, filling a sub-vertical
vein. Tung Chung, Site 3; Drillcore BB-24; Box 4, 122 m
74
Plate A10b - Typical skarn from Site 3. Note the textural heterogeneity and banding. Tung Chung, Site 3;
Drillcore CC-15; Box 7, 138.20 - 143.96 m
Cavity
Description
A void in the rock mass.
(i) In drillcores, cavities may be recognised by intervals of no recovery, usually in association with
metasedimentary rock.
(ii) Cavities may be bounded by rock with a weathered or partly dissolved appearance.
(iii) Drillers logs may record a drop of the coring tool when a cavity is encountered.
Reference sample no. : No sample
Cavity fill deposit

Description
A sediment of rock fragments, sand, silt, Fe, Mn and clay minerals which partly or wholly fills a cavity.
Cavity-fill deposits range from unconsolidated to consolidated/lithified.
(i) A sediment of unsorted rock fragments, sand, silt, Fe and/or Mn minerals and clay.
(ii) May be several tens of centimetres to several tens of metres thick.
(iii) Bedding or lamination may be discernible.
Comments
The nature of cavity-fill deposits is highly variable. In Sites 3 and 5, cavity-fill deposits are up to 2-3 metres
thick and consist of sand to silt grade, orange to dark brown, unconsolidated sediment, with or without
pebbles. Cavity-fill deposits in Site 4 are commonly much thicker (up to about 40 metres) and consist of
semi-lithified ‘breccias’ of coarse to fine, angular rock fragments set in a dark grey, silty matrix, with local
replacement and veining by gypsum.
The considerable thickness of many cavity-fill deposits, the lack of polished surfaces or slickensides, and
occasional lamination in the matrix is generally sufficient to distinguish them from fault breccia.
Reference sample no. : 18; also in Reference drillcores D-28 (72 - 88 m), D-34 (105 -118 m),
C-6 (discontinuously in the interval 95 - 160 m) and C-26
(discontinuously in the interval 115 - 134 m)
75
Plate A11a - Cavity-fill deposit. This sample is typical of the thick intervals of consolidated cavity-fill
deposit encountered in parts of Site 4. Angular fragments of various lithologies are set in a silty matrix.
Following formation of the deposit, some of the calcareous rock fragments have partly dissolved, creating
pits and voids in the rock, and the deposit has been veined by white gypsum. Tung Chung, Site 4; Drillcore
C-13; Box 6, 139.65 m
Plate A11b - Cavity-fill deposit and marble. Dark blue-grey marble with white calcite veins separated by
intervals of weakly consolidated cavity-fill deposit. In this case the cavity-fill deposit is dark grey and
contains assorted angular rock fragments set in a grey, silty matrix. The marble may be in situ, or it may
represent large detached blocks in the cavity-fill. Tung Chung, Site 4; Drillcore C-20; Box 5, 89.3 - 94.0 m
76
Granite
Description
Light coloured, acid igneous rock composed principally of alkali-feldspar, quartz and biotite, with some
plagioclase. Individual crystals in the groundmass are greater than 2 mm diameter on average. May contain
phenocrysts of feldspar (and quartz) in various proportions and up to about 25 mm diameter.
(i) Individual crystals are generally greater than 2 mm diameter.
(ii) The mineral assemblage is dominated by quartz, alkali-feldspar and biotite, with some plagioclase.
(iii) Generally massive (though locally sheared).
Comments
The granite is locally texturally heterogeneous, with abrupt variations in grain size and mineralogy. Veins of
very coarse granite (pegmatite) and very fine granite (aplite) are observed occasionally. The freshest granite
in Tung Chung drillcores has grey quartz, white feldspar and black biotite (Plate 12a). However, the biotite
has commonly altered to chlorite, giving the rock a greenish appearance. Pervasively weathered granite is
stained brown (Plate 12b).
Mineral and textural modifications of the granite are commonly observed in areas where it occurs close to
metasedimentary rock. For example, in boreholes D-35, D-36 and D-37 in Site 5, the granite around thin
intervals of metasedimentary rock has an intensely altered, ‘bleached’ appearance, contains small voids lined
by euhedral crystals, and is mineralised by pyrite and galena. Much of the granite encountered in Site 3
drillcores has a similarly ‘modified’ appearance, again generally in close association with metasedimentary
rock. Because of the close association with metasedimentary rocks, the modified granite has been termed
‘contact facies’ granite (Plates 13a and 13b). It is generally pink, often contains small, primary cavities, and
is rich in quartz, which occurs in the groundmass and also as discrete ‘blobs’ and veins.
Reference sample no. : 5, 6, 25; also in Reference drillcore D-34 (120.5 - 139 m).
Plate A12a - Typical unweathered granite from Site 5.

Tung Chung, Site 5; Drillcore E-28; Box 3, 22.8 m
77
Plate A12b - Pervasively weathered granite from Site 5. Tung Chung, Site 5; Drillcore E-28; Box 2, 17.3 m
Plate A13a - Typical contact facies granite from Site 3. Tung Chung, Site 3; Drillcore CC-14; Box 11, 137.
81 - 141.63 m
78
Plate A13b - Contact facies granite and skarn. This is typical of granite-metasedimentary rock contacts in
Site 3 drillcores : the granite, whose textural and mineralogical characteristics are clearly modified with
respect to ‘normal’ granite encountered in Tung Chung drillcores, has a sharp, unfaulted contact (at the left
side of the fourth drillcore stick in this view) with skarn. Tung Chung, Site 3; Drillcore CC-20; Box 7, 163.
22 - 168.71 m
Feldsparphyric microgranite
Description
Light coloured, acid igneous rock which is compositionally identical to granite, but in which individual
crystals in the groundmass are less than 2 mm diameter on average, though still visible to the unaided eye; it
is essentially a finer-grained version of granite. Contains phenocrysts of feldspar (±quartz) in various
proportions and up to about 25 mm diameter.
(i) Individual crystals are less than 2 mm diameter on average, but still visible to the unaided eye.
(ii) The mineral assemblage is dominated by quartz, alkali-feldspar and biotite, with some plagioclase.
Comments
In some Tung Chung drillcores feldsparphyric microgranite grades into feldsparphyric rhyolite.
Reference sample no. : 3
Plate A14 - Typical feldsparphyric microgranite from Site 5.

Tung Chung, Site 5; Drillcore G-12; Box 3, 35.0 m
79
Rhyolite
Description
Acid igneous rock which is compositionally identical to granite but in which individual crystals in the
groundmass are too fine grained to be distinguished by the unaided eye.
(i) Crystals in the groundmass are too fine grained to be distinguished by the unaided eye.
(ii) No (or very few) phenocrysts.
(iii) siliceous， does not scratch with a steel knife.
(iv) Flow banding may be discernible.
(v) Fresh rock is dark grey to black. Alteration changes the colour to grey， purple or pink.
Comments
Rhyolite containing no phenocrysts is relatively rare in the Tung Chung drillcores. It is observed most
commonly along the ‘chilled' margins of feldsparphyric rhyolite bodies.
Reference sample no. : No sample.
Coarselyf eldsparphyricfrhyolite
Description
Rhyolite (see Section 2.19) with abundant phenocrysts of feldspar， mostly 5廿25 mm.
(i) As rhyolite， but with abundant phenocrysts of feldspar (士quartz)， mostly 5廿25 mm.
Comments
Fresh rock has a distinctive appearance : white and grey phenocrysts in a dark grey groundmass (Plate 15a).
With slight alteration， the phenocrysts become pinkish and the groundmass alters to greyish廿green， or greyish
purple (Plates 15b and 15c). Pervasive weathering turns the groundmass to orange廿brown (Plate 16a). Intensely
altered coarsely feldsparphyric rhyolite containing pyrite and galena (Plate 16b) occurs in and near to borehole
A廿18 in Site 4. A texturally modified variant of coarsely feldsparphyric rhyolite， in which ‘phenocrysts' of
feldspar and quartz have irregular， curved outlines， occurs rarely in Tung Chung drillcores.
Reference sample no. : 14， 7， 2， 1 ， 19
80
Plate A15a - Typical fresh coarsely feldsparphyric rhyolite. Tung Chung, Site 5; Drillcore D-23; Box 7,
57.3 m
Plate A15b - Typical altered coarsely feldsparphyric rhyolite. Tung Chung, Site 5; Drillcore E-84; Box 3,
48.05 m
Plate A15c - Typical altered coarsely feldsparphyric rhyolite. Tung Chung, Site 5; Drillcore E-44; Box 3,
33.55 m
81
Plate A16a - Pervasively weathered coarsely feldsparphyric rhyolite. Tung Chung, Site 5; Drillcore D-31;
Box 5, 66.5 m
Plate A16b - Strongly altered and mineralised coarsely feldsparphyric rhyolite. Tung Chung, Site 4; Drillcore
A-18; Box 3, 39.93 m
Plate A16c - Texturally modified coarsely feldsparphyric rhyolite. Tung Chung, Site 5; Drillcore G-23; Box
3, 58.7 m
82
Finely feldsparphyric rhyolite

Description
Rhyolite (see Section 2.19) with abundant small (mostly <5 mm) phenocrysts of feldspar.
(i) As rhyolite but with abundant small (mostly <5 mm) phenocrysts of feldspar (±quartz).
Comments
Less commonly encountered in Tung Chung drillcores than coarsely feldsparphyric rhyolite. Fresh rock has
small white and grey phenocrysts in a black groundmass (see Plate 17). When altered, the groundmass
becomes reddish or pink (Plates 18a, 18b and 19a). Pervasive weathering turns the groundmass to pinkish-
orange (Plate 19b). These variants of finely feldsparphyric rhyolite are encountered in drillcores from
throughout the Tung Chung area.
Reference sample no. : 8, 1, 15, 12
Plate A17 - Typical fresh finely feldsparphyric rhyolite. Tung Chung, Site 5; Drillcore E-67; Box 6, 62.6 m
Plate A18a - Altered finely feldsparphyric rhyolite. Tung Chung, Site 5; Drillcore E-84; Box 6, 557.5m
83
Plate A18b - Altered finely feldsparphyric rhyolite. Tung Chung, Site 5; Drillcore D-23; Box 9, 63.3 m
Plate A19a - Altered finely feldsparphyric rhyolite with epidotisation (green alteration) around fractures.
Tung Chung, Site 3; Drillcore CB-42; Box 2, 60.0 m
Plate A19b - Pervasively weathered finely feldsparphyric rhyolite. Tung Chung, Site 5; Drillcore D-8; Box
2, 29.6 m
84
Basaltic rock
Description
Dark grey, very fine grained, massive, intrusive igneous rock.
(i) Dark grey.

(ii) Very fine grained (individual crystals cannot be discerned with the unaided eye).
(iii) Massive (i.e. no banding).
(iv) Sharp, cross-cutting (i.e. intrusive) contacts.
(v) Typically fractures into many angular fragments.
Comments
Often occurs at the boundary between two other rock units (e.g. coarsely feldsparphyric rhyolite and
metasedimentary rock). Also found occasionally as rounded ‘blobs’ up to about 50 centimetres diameter in
feldsparphyric rhyolite.
Plate A20 - Basaltic rock. Tung Chung, Site 5; Drillcore D-16; Box 6,
29.6 m. See also: Geoguide 3, Plate A1[Q]
Lamprophyric rock
Description
Generally dark, very fine grained igneous rock characterised by a high proportion of mafic minerals which
often form phenocrysts and/or ‘clots’ of crystals.
(i) Generally dark grey.

(ii) Fine to very fine grained.
(iii) Massive (i.e. no banding).
(iv) Intrusive contacts.
(v) Small phenocrysts and/or ‘clots’ of mafic minerals are discernible occasionally.
85
Plate A21 - Lamprophyric rock. Tung Chung, Site 4; Drillcore A-44; Box 6, 90.88 m. See also : Geoguide 3,
Plate A1[R]
Residual soil derived from igneous rock

Description
Material derived from an igneous rock (principally granite and feldsparphyric rhyolite) which has undergone
chemical weathering to a point where the original rock texture cannot be discerned. Residual soil corresponds
to rock weathering grade VI (see Table 4, Table 10 and Plate 3 in Geogudie 3).
(i) Original rock texture cannot be discerned.
(ii) Consists of variable proportions of soft to firm clay and oxide minerals, usually with quartz crystals.
(iii) Generally red, pink or orange, and often characterised by a range of coloured bands (Plate 23).
(iv) Contains no ‘exotic’ clasts or fragments (which distinguishes it from fine alluvial sediment (see
Section 2.5).
Comments
Quartz is generally the only primary mineral to survive intensive chemical weathering in igneous rocks. The
nature of the parent rock may be deduced by examining quartz crystals in the residual soil. In residual soil
derived from granite, quartz crystals often have irregular form, whereas in residual soil derived from rhyolite
the quartz crystals are usually subhedral, typically with sub-spherical form. The size and abundance of quartz
crystals in residual soil may provide further clues as to the nature of the parent rock. For example, if the
quartz crystals are relatively coarse and sub-spherical the parent rock was probably coarsely feldsparphyric
rhyolite; if they are relatively fine and sub-spherical the parent rock was probably finely feldsparphyric
rhyolite.
Residual soil derived from igneous rock may contain discrete, boulder-like areas of relatively unweathered
rock, with weathered margins; these are ‘corestones’. In drillcores, corestones appear as intervals of relatively
fresh rock of the host lithology above and below which is residual soil and/or pervasively weathered rock.
Reference sample no.: Mazier samples: 64 - 65 m in borehole A-48; 76 -77 m in borehole A-8B; 41 -
42 m in borehole CC9. Most of the Reference drillcores contain intervals of
residual soil derived from igneous rock.
86
Plate A22a - Residual soil derived from finely feldsparphyric rhyolite. Relict feldspar and fresh quartz
phenocrysts can be discerned in the reddish clayey matric. The black and orange colouration is secondary
Mn and Fe oxide minerals which developed originally in and around hairline fractures. Way-up is to the
right. Tung Chung, Site 4; Drillcore A-48, Mazier sample, 64 - 65 m
Plate A22b - Residual soil derived from (?) coarsely feldsparphyric rhyolite. Relict feldspar (white areas)
and fresh quartz phenocrysts can be discerned in the orange-brown clayey matric. Way-up to the right.
Tung Chung, Site 4; Drillcore A-8B, Mazier sample, 76 - 77 m
87
Residual soil derived from metasedimentary rock

Description
Material derived from metasedimentary rock which has undergone chemical weathering to a point where the
original rock texture cannot be discerned. Residual soil corresponds to rock weathering grade VI (see Table
4, Table 10 and Plate 3 in Geoguide 3).
(i) Usually dominated by dark brown, grey, purple or green clayey and oxide-rich material.
(ii) The clayey material described in (i) often contains angular fragments of siliceous metasedimentary
rock, ranging from fine sand to cobble size. There are usually no discrete quartz crystals as in
residual soil derived from igneous rocks.
(iii) The characteristics, in particular the colour, of residual soil derived from metasedimentary rocks
usually vary considerably over short depth intervals, reflecting the variability in character of the
parent rocks as well as secondary chemical processes.
Comments
Residual soil derived from metasedimentary rock can have characteristics that are very similar to those of
unconsolidated cavity-fill deposits. Careful examination of Mazier samples may help to distinguish between
them.
Reference sample no.: Reference drillcores C-42 (55 - 94.5 m) and CC-9 (118 - 130 m).
Fault
Description
A discontinuity in the rock containing fault breccia. Definition and description of faults and related features
are given in Geoguide 3, Section A7.2.
(i) Presence of fault breccia.
(ii) Fault breccias are unlikely to be wider than 1 metre, and are usually considerably less.
Comments
Healed faults are those in which a (usually siliceous) cement has sealed the discontinuity and is contiguous
with the wallrock minerals. A healed fault is no longer a physical discontinuity, and therefore may not be
significantly weaker than the enclosing rock.
Reference sample no.: Reference drillcore E-96 (80 - 92 m)
Plate A23 - Healed fault and shearing (see Section 2.28) in contact facies granite. Tung Chung, Site 3;
Drillcore CC-23; Box 4, 66 m
88
Vein breccia
Description
A brecciated rock in which the fragments form a ‘jigsaw’ texture which is cemented by carbonate or silicate
minerals.
(i) Interval of rock with detached, angular wallrock fragments cemented by authigenic minerals.
(ii) Usually less than 5 centimetres wide.
(iii) The absence of fine or crushed wallrock fragments distinguishes vein breccia from fault breccia.
Comments
Some vein breccias (and fault breccias) in Tung Chung drillcores are cemented by calcite. Where these occur
below the weathered zone the breccia is intact. Where they occur above the base of the weathered zone the
calcite has dissolved partly or completely, leaving a ‘collapsed’ breccia characterised by an interval of
disaggregated drillcore. Such intervals may be indistinguishable from those created in highly fractured and/
or weakened rock by coring disturbance.
Plate A24 - Calcite-cemented vein-breccia in coarsely feldsparphyric rhyolite. Tung Chung, Site 5; Drillcore
E-72; Box 8, 123.3 m
Chlorite seams
Description
Generally thin (<2 mm wide), planar to curved or sinuous, occasionally bifurcating discontinuities mineralised
by chlorite with or without quartz and haematite (Plate 26).
(i) Generally thin, planar to curved or sinuous, occasionally bifurcating discontinuities.

(ii) Mineralised by chlorite with or without quartz and haematite.
(iii) Confined to igneous lithologies, mainly granite.
(iv) Usually dark green, sometimes with lighter yellow-green epidote.
Shearing
Description
Planar fabric superimposed on an interval of rock by tectonic activity, usually at elevated temperatures and
often in association with hydrothermal fluids. The intensity of shearing may be described as weak, moderate
or strong.
(i) A planar fabric superimposed on igneous rocks.
(ii) Often accompanied by minerals associated with moderate to intensive hydrothermal alteration,
such as chlorite (as chlorite seams) and haematite.
89
Plate A25 - Sheared and chloritised contact facies granite. Tung Chung, Site 3; Drillcore CC-20; Box 8,
172.9 m
ABBREVIATIONS
Man-made deposits
Fill F
Superficial deposits
Marine sediment Ms
Alluvium A
Colluvium Co
Fine alluvial sediment FAS
Siltstone Ss
Iron-rich rock IRd
Metasedimentary rocks
Marble M
Quartzite Q
Calc-silicate rock CS
Skarn S
Metasandstone Msa
Metamudstone Mm
Magnetite-rich rock Mrr
Features associated with solution

Cavity C
Cavity-fill deposit CF
Consolidated/lithified CFc
Unconsolidated Cfu
Igneous rocks
Granite G
Feldsparphyric microgranite Gmf
Rhyolite R
Feldsparphyric rhyolite Rf
Coarsely phyric rhyolite Rfc
Finely phyric rhyolite Rff
Basaltic rock B
Lamprophyric rock Lp
Residual soil
Residual soil derived from rock of unknown origin RSu
Residual soil derived from igneous rocks RSi
Residual soil derived from metasedimentary rocks RSm
90
ABBREVIATIONS
Man-made deposits
Fill F
Superficial deposits
Marine sediment Ms
Alluvium A
Colluvium Co
Fine alluvial sediment FAS
Siltstone Ss
Iron-rich rock IRd
Metasedimentary rocks
Marble M
Quartzite Q
Calc-silicate rock CS
Skarn S
Metasandstone Msa
Metamudstone Mm
Magnetite-rich rock Mrr
Features associated with solution

Cavity C
Cavity-fill deposit CF
Consolidated/lithified CFc
Unconsolidated Cfu
Igneous rocks
Granite G
Feldsparphyric microgranite Gmf
Rhyolite R
Feldsparphyric rhyolite Rf
Coarsely phyric rhyolite Rfc
Finely phyric rhyolite Rff
Basaltic rock B
Lamprophyric rock Lp
Residual soil
Residual soil derived from rock of unknown origin RSu
Residual soil derived from igneous rocks RSi
Residual soil derived from metasedimentary rocks RSm
91

Sewell Kirk 2002 TungChung

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Oeotechnical Engineering Office

First published July 2002

Geotechnical Engineering Office

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Chief Geotechnical Engineer/Planning

Chapter 勻 Metamorphism and Alteration 39

Chapter 8 Superficial Deposits and Weathering 40

Classification and Distribution 40

Onshore Superficial Deposits 41

Offshore Superficial Deposits 42

Tung Chung Formation 42

Chek Lap Kok Formation 43

Sham Wat Formation 45

Hang Hau Formation 45

Chapter 9 Complex Ground Beneath the Tung Chung Reclamation 48

Tung Chung Study 48

Developing the Geological Model 50

Complex Ground Conditions at Site 3

Sand and Gravel 52

Model for Formation of Karst Deposits at Site 3

Ground Investigation Techniques 53

Implications of the Revised Geological Model 55

Complex Ground Conditions in Areas Adjacent to Tung Chung 55

Chapter 10 Economic Geology 5勻

2 Summary of the Onshore and Offshore Stratigraphy of the District 18

3 Whole-rock Major- and Trace-element Geochemistry for Representative 20

1 Location Map of Major Infrastructure Developments Related to Tung Chung 11

2 Traverses Undertaken During 1968， 1988-89 and 1991-92 Field Surveys 13

4 Locations of Seismic Lines around Northshore Lantau Island 16

5 Simplified Onshore Geology of the District 19

6 Simplified Seabed Sediment Map of the District 22

勻 Generalized Classification and Nomenclature of Selected Major and Minor 28

8 Principal Structural Features of Tung Chung and Northshore Lantau Island 35

10 Schematic Section Showing the Relationship between Superficial Deposits 40

12 Distribution and Isopachs (in Metres) of the Hang Hau Formation 46

13 Location Map of Part of the Tung Chung East Reclamation Potentially 49

14 Examples of Different Interpretations of Problematic Materials Encountered in 51

15 Schematic Representation of the Development of Karst Deposits Beneath 53

16 Simplified Averaged Rockhead Models (Top of Grade III or Lower) for 54

1勻 Volcanotectonic Map of Hong Kong (c.146 Ma) Showing the Distribution of 56

1 Steeply-dipping and Deformed， Fine-grained Metasandstone and 24

3 Fine- to Medium-grained Lantau Granite from a Borehole South of Ha Law 29

Map and Report Series Notes

Coarse Conglomerate Coarse

Location and Physiography

LUNG KWU 200

Tai Lam Chung

100 Shing Mun

ung Kwu TAI LAM

CHEK LAP KOK

812 000N 400

Shek Pik 100 st

Complex Ground Conditions at Tung Chung

The Northshore Lantau Development Feasibility Study

Scale 1:60 000

way TAI CHE

KEI TAU KOK LO FU TAU

Offshore Geophysical and Marine Ground Investigations

Purpose and Scope of Study

Scale 1:60 000

Scale 1:60 000

Figure 4 - Locations of Seismic Lines around Northshore Lantau lsland

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