LEADERSHIP THEORY

Introduction
The health care industry is immersed in a period of scrutiny and rapid change. There is an
urgent need for empowered visionary leaders to direct the health care industry into the twenty
–first century. Because the work force of nurses is estimated to be 2 million, the largest of the
health care discipline, nurses have inherent power to influence the direction health care will
take. Therefore, the profession has been challenged to change its education and practice.
Nurses must be prepared as leaders who are competent, flexible, and able to realization that
leadership involves a process that encourages each individual in the work setting to
contribute to effectively meeting organizational goals. In addition, it will become evident that
the usefulness of a leadership position is in relation to broad situational factors. The objective
of this chapter is to describe leadership theory as it progresses from a simple concept to a
complex process.

KEY CONCEPTS
Leadership Style refers to the underlying motivation of a leader who directs goal-oriented
behavior. These styles are commonly referred to as autocratic, democratic, laissez-faire,
or eclectic.
Leadership Behavior refers to the actual choice of the decision-making style the leader uses
toward meeting a specific goal. These behaviors are commonly thought to be telling,
selling, testing, consulting, and joining.
Great Man Theory defines leader as those who are born with abilities to lead others.
Trait Approach is a way of explaining leadership in light of a set of traits an individual
possesses. These traits include instrumental and interactional characteristics.
Behavioral School is a way of explaining leadership by virtue of decision-making style used
by the individual, ranging from autocratic to laissez-faire.
Autocratic is a decision-making style used by a leader in which the leader does not consider
the group’s input.
Democratic is a decision-making style used by a leader that equally considers the group’s
input as well as leader’s.
Laissez-Faire is a decision-making style used by the leader that is group centered.
Situational Theory is a way of explaining leadership through taking into account forces that
occur in the situation, the leader, and the followers. Leaders are determined by the
situation.
Contingency Model is a way of explaining leadership on the basis of specific contingencies
or variables. They include leader-member relationships, the structure of the task, and the
position, or role, of power.
Life-cycle Theory of leadership is a way of explaining leadership based on the following
assumptions: (1) the follower’s readiness for task completion is based on his or her
motivation and competence (2) leadership behavior is adaptable based on the follower’s
task maturity.
New Theory of Leadership is a way of explaining leadership, as offered by Warren Bennis
and Burt Manus, through four human handling skills that suggest that leaders are those
who have vision, can communicate, are steadfast, and demonstrate a positive self-regard.
Process Model of Leaderships is a conceptualization of the essential factors and activities
that comprise appropriate leadership decisions and behaviors.
Transformational Leadership is a process of influencing followers through creating
relationships that focus on vision and values. This method relies on a climate of trust and
mutuality.
Transactional Leadership is the traditional leadership process that emphasizes the leaders
influencing process over followers.
Connective Leadership is a process that connects individuals with their tasks and visions to
one another, to the group, and to the larger network.

 DEFINITION OF LEADERSHIP
Leadership has been studied by many disciplines and has been given many definitions with
various insights, dimensions, and meanings. Most definitions reflect the discipline’s
perspective. Thus, the following comprehensive definition, compatible with nursing’s values,
is offered.
Leadership may be considered as:
A collective function in the sense that it is the integrated synergized expression of a group’s
efforts; it is not the sum of individual dominance and contributions, it is their interrelationships.
Ultimate authority and true sanction for leadership, where it is exercised, resides not in the
individual, however dominant, but in the total situation and in the demands of the situation. It is
the situation that creates the imperative, whereas the leader is able to make others aware of it, is
able to make them willing to serve it, and is able to release collective capacities and emotional
attitudes that may be related fruitfully to the solution of the group’s problems; to that extent one
is exercising leadership.
Leadership is a complex and multidimensional concept. It includes intrapersonal,
interpersonal, intergroup, and situational variables. As a result, it is not easily defined or
measured. However, leadership may be analyzed as a process that includes social, ethical,
and theoretical components. The social nature of leadership entails the interpersonal skills
necessary to be effective in a variety of situations. The ethical nature of leadership involves
the inherent power of a leadership position that when exercised should benefit the common
good. All components of the leadership process will be discussed throughout the text. The
following discussion focuses on the theoretical nature of leadership. This review includes
tradition, theory, and research.
Progressive Study o Leadership
The oldest view of leadership considered it a birthright. Kings and queens ascended to
thrones because of custom. Kings begot kings and became the leader. Individuals in formal
leadership roles were accepted without question. This is similar to the great man theory,
which states that great leaders are born with the ability to lead, influence, and direct oothers.
As such, only leaders may not be developed. Fortunately, the study of leadership was
pursued.
Trait Approach
The serious study of leadership began when the following question was asked: who is leader?
Early theorists recognized that leadership was by nature elusive, but might be explained by
virtue of a leader’s traits. The trait approach states that leadership exists as an attribute of a
personality. If certain traits are exhibited, an individual is a leader. However, because the
traits necessary for successful leadership varied fro situation to situation, no exhaustive list of
traits was offered.
Even thought no one leader type was describe, certain personality traits have been identified
through early psychologic studies to correspond to effective leadership behavior. Among
these are intelligence, social sensitivity, social participation, and communication skills. This
particular group of traits identifies the leader as the one who has capability to influence a
group through innate intelligence.
Nurse researchers have also conducted studies to determine the characteristics of nursing
leaders. Two different studies were conducted independently by Dunham & Fisher and
Murphy & DeBack, who sought the characteristics and behaviors of hospital nurse
executives. Both studies reached comparable conclusions. Nurse executives display similar
characteristics, such as being visionary, credible, enabling, willing to serve as role models,
and having the ability to master change. Interestingly, Meighan, another researcher,
conducted a similar study, only this time using staff nurses with the same leadership
characteristics identified. Findings from these studies reveal characteristics that facilitate
effective leadership behavior. However, common agreement about strength and priority of
the suggested traits, as well as conformity to a single personality profile is lacking.
Nonetheless, identified leadership traits serve as adjunct knowledge to explain what makes an
effective leader.
Behavioral School
Because traits were insufficient to explain leadership, the study of what leaders do was a
predictable next step. This change in perspective examined specific leadership behaviors inn
the work place. The early work of Lewin and colleagues explained leadership in terms of
decision-making behaviors. Their classic work and terminology is foundational to the study o
the study of leadership style.

Leadership Style Leaders have been described in terms of their decision-making styles in
one more of the following ways. Autocratic, or dictatorial, means that the leader makes all
decisions and allows subordinates no influence in the decision-making process. Such
supervisors are often indifferent to subordinates’ personal needs. The second system of
decision-making is entitled participative, or democratic. In this case the supervisor consults
with the subordinates on appropiate matters, giving them some influence in the decision-
making process. This type of supervisor is not punitive and treats subordinates with fairness
and dignity. The third system is called laissez-faire, free rein, which means that supervisors
allow their group to have complete autonomy. Because they rarely supervise the group
directly, the group makes its own decisions. These decision-making styles have become
synonymous with the concept of Leadership style, which by definition refers to the
underlying needs of the leader that motivate behavior. There exists more agreement among
authorities on the classification of leadership styles than on a definition of leadership. The
behavioral school (because of its emphasis on style) has led other authors to expand on its
usefulness. For example, styles of leadership can be depicted on a continuum developed by
Schmitt and Tannenbaun, ranging from autocratic, or leader-centered, to abdicate, or group-
centered, supervision. This continuum is depicted in Figure 2-1.
 To make a decision regarding a leader’s placement on the continuum, it is necessary to
analyze what constitutes a leadership style. This examination includes consideration of one’s
personality and intelligence, the characteristics of the task to be performed, the roles of the
leader and group members who will complete the task, and the characteristics of the group. In
essence, this comprehensive analysis will help the leader to understand what is necessary to
complete the task and will ultimately lead to the appropriate leadership behavior in a given a
situation. For a comparison of leadership style and its relationship with the leader, followers,
and situation, see Table 2-1.

Leader Centered Group Centered

Use of Authority by Leader
Freedom of the group
Autocrat.......... ............................ Democrat Laissez-Faire
.............Tells Sells Tests Consults Joins

Figure 2-1. The relationship between leadership style and leadership behavior. Leadership
styles exist on a continuum and are characterized by particular behaviors. (Adapted from
Schmitt, W and Tannenbaum, R.)

Leadership Behaviors Leadership behavior refers to a variety of behaviors a leader

may enact to meet a goal or to complete a task. These behaviors range from being highly
leader-centered to highly group-centered. The leadership behaviors are telling, selling,
testing, consulting, and joining (Fig. 2-1); these correspond with the different leadership
styles. When a leader identifies a problem, considers alternative solutions, decides on the best
course of action without consulting the group, and then informs the group of what is to be
done, the leader is using telling as a mode of behavior. The group members clearly do not
participate in the decision-making process. This is a most appropriate behavior in an
emergency or crisis situation, such as a cardiac arrest. Certainly it would be an inappropriate
leadership behavior for decision affecting professional responsibilities.

TABLE 2-1. COMPARISON OF LEADERSHIP STYLE AND LIMITING CONDITIONS

Autocratic Democratic Laissez-Faire
Leader
Holds: Absolute power Limited power No power
Knowledge: Unique Shared Same or less
Behavior: Dominates Participates Joins
Position: Inflexible Flexible Neutral
Followers
Relates: Dependent Expects involvement Independent
Knowledge: Less Different More
Behavior: Submissive Involved Independent
Situation
Appropriate: Crisis, emergency, General goals, controls, No clear purpose,
Or great skill and time pressure control, or time
Required of leader only understood pressure
 Inappropriate: Misuse of cannot influence need answer
Employees talents

Selling, or persuading, is another behavior the leader may use. It involves, as in telling, a
leader making a decision without consulting the group. For example, rather than just
informing the group members, the leader tries to appeal to the group’s sense of logic by
identifying the positive aspects of the decision. This might involve pointing out the decision’s
benefit because of its congruence with organizational goals or the fact that the group’s
interests have been considered in the decision. An appropriate use of this behavior will occur
if the leader only deals with the positive side of a new policy without sharing all relevant
reasons for its necessity. The group may resent the leader’s positive explanation of a policy or
decision that will be very difficult for the staff to follow.
Testing is a behavior available to the leader that begins to involve the group members. In
this case the leader identifies a problem and proposes a tentative solution, but before
finalizing the decision, the group is consulted for helpful information and input. For example,
the leader will discuss the proposal.” After hearing what the group has to say, the leader will
then-and only then-make a decision. It is possible that the leader may change what had been
proposed as a solution and follow the recommendations from the group. The proper use of
this behavior occurs when the group has the legitimate right to be involved in decision
making about policies that they will implement. There is no reason to involve the group if
they cannot influence the decision. Indeed, using testing might be harmful to leader-member
relationships if the position of the group is ignored.
Consulting is a leader behavior that allows the group to be involved with the decision
from the very beginning. The leader presents a problem to the group with its relevant
background and asks the group to propose a solution. In effect, the group increases the
number of alternative actions to be considered. The leader then selects the decision that best
meets the needs of the problem and the group. This is an excellent behavior to use in an
interdisciplinary team conference. Another case may be the leader who has a very important
yet complicated problem to present to the staff, requiring